SALC, for example, reading magazines and short stories, and watching English movies. ... class, activities outside class, and activities in the SALC. Then, the ...
AUTONOMOUS LANGUAGE LEARNING: THAI UNDERGRATUATE STUDENTS’ BEHAVIORS Phra Kanchit Meesong King Mongkut’s of University of Technology Thonburi Woravut Jaroongkhongdach King Mongkut’s of University of Technology Thonburi Abstract Autonomous language learning is important in language skill development. Investigating students’ behaviors in their autonomous language learning can provide insights into how they learn. This study has two main purposes: 1) to explore language learning activities that students do autonomously inside and outside the classroom and in a self-access learning center, and 2) to compare the different behaviors of two groups of high and low English proficiency students. The data source was 76 students (38 for each group) who were taking a basic English course at a technological university in Bangkok. The instruments used were a questionnaire and semistructured interviews. The data from the questionnaire were analyzed by using percentages. The semi-structured interviews with five randomly selected students from each group were analyzed to understand the potential influences that lead to the students’ engagement with certain activities. The findings reveal the high proficiency students and low proficiency students had some differences in doing activities in improving their English. Keywords: Autonomous language learning/ Learning behavior/ Thai students Introduction Darasawang, in her plenary session at Thai TESOL Conference 2016, talked about learner autonomy and presented her findings relating to the application of the autonomy concept to Thai students .Although the term ‘learner autonomy ’was coined by Holec in 1979, we can say that the idea of promoting learner autonomy is still considered a useful tool to improve students ’ English language skills .Different approaches such as incorporating autonomy as part of a course evaluation or encouraging students to attend language learning activities organized by self-access
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learning centers have been attempted. Students at the university level in Thailand have been encouraged to improve their English by themselves, apart from learning with English teachers in an English class. However, it is not clear what students actually do inside and outside the class, and what influences them to do so. This is the impetus for this study. Previous research related to autonomy seems to be most concerned with strategy training. This concern seems to be common in several countries. For example, in Thailand, Channuan and Wasanasomsithi (2012) explored extensive reading instructions within a framework of learner autonomy training strategies designed to suit Thai students’ characteristics. In Hong Kong, Chiu (2012) investigated strategies for supporting the development of autonomous learning skills in reading and writing within a framework incorporating a semi-structured scaffolding format with attention to individual differences and supported by technology in an Independent Language Learning Center. In Japan, Yamashita (2015) looked at autonomous learners’ motivations and metacognitive strategies through an advisor’s suggestions by using a socially mediated authentic dialogic interaction. These studies have provided insight into learner autonomy. Continuing this line of research, this current study aims to explore learner autonomy. However, it is different from previous studies that focused on strategy training. The main focus in this research is on students’ learning behaviors. Knowing students’ behaviors in autonomous language learning can provide us with better understanding on how students learn language autonomously. This understanding seems to be still limited in the Thai context, as most of the work on autonomy in Thailand seems to be related to strategy training and attitudes. This study then aims to shed light on students’ behaviors in learning English (that is, activities they do to improve their English). Hopefully, the findings may be useful for those who are involved in helping Thai students in improving their English skills. Literature Review The concept of “learner autonomy” coined by Holec( 1979) has been an issue of interest among language teachers and educators for almost forty years. Hole (1981) sees learner autonomy as the ability of students to take charge of one’s own learning. Since then, there have been attempts to refine his definition by replacing“ ability ’with “capacity”, and ‘take charge of’ with ‘take responsibility for’ or ‘take control of one’s own learning’( Benson, 2007). Despite such attempts, the main idea of Holec’s definition remains unchanged. That is, it emphasizes the
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characteristics of learners (in taking responsibility for or taking control of their learning) rather than the learning situation. These characteristics may refer to planning, selecting materials, monitoring progress and self-assessment (Holec, 1984). Dickinson (1987) later expanded the autonomy definition of Holec, and argued that learner autonomy is concerned not only with learners’ abilities in their learning but also with the learners ’decisions in the learning situation that they are engaged in .This situation, as Holec (1984) sees it, is “a situation in which the learner is totally responsible for all the decisions concerned with his [or her ]learning and the implementation of those decisions”( p. 11). Reflecting on Dickinson’s expanded definition and Holec’s idea, we may say that implementation of those decisions can be seen from the behaviors of students that are encouraged by motivation. There is a close connection between motivation and autonomy (Zhou, Ma, and Deci, 2009). Both are mainly concerned with learners’ active involvement in learning. Motivation explains why people decide to do a certain activity and how long they can sustain their effort in achieving their tasks. Motivation can be viewed from different dimensions. It can be seen as whether it is intrinsic or extrinsic, or integrative or instrumental. According to Ryan and Deci (2000a), motivation can be classified into two types: intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation. Intrinsically motivated learners perform or try to complete a certain task to obtain their own satisfaction. On the contrary, extrinsic motivation refers to acting for outside forces such as gaining a reward or avoiding punishment .Unlike Ryan and Deci (2000a), Dörnyei (2010) mentions two different of motivation: integrative and instrumental. Integrative motivation refers to the desire to learn a new language of the target community because the learner wants to be part of that new speaking community and to become like the speaker in such a community. Instrumental motivation refers to learners’ understanding of the concrete benefits of learning a language such as getting good career opportunities and job promotion. Furthermore, increased autonomy, according to Ryan and Deci (2000b), is related to more effective learning and higher learner motivation. They assert that one part of motivation concerns self-determination .Ryan and Deci (2000b) further explain that self-determination involves three basic psychological needs which are relatedness (the feeling of connectedness with others), perceived competence, and a sense of learner autonomy; these have to be satisfied in order to
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facilitate intrinsic motivation .Zhou, Ma, and Deci (2009) support that autonomy enable learners to gain a feeling of being self-determined rather than being controlled. Similarly, Chan, Spratt and Humphreys (2002) see that more motivated language learners are likely to become engaged in autonomous learning practices, especially outside of class. These studies have provided us much understanding about motivation. However, there seems to be a limited understanding about the different proficiency levels of learners having significant factors distinguish their autonomous learning behaviors. In this study, then, we ask the following two questions: 1. Do autonomous language activities differ according to students’ proficiency level? 2. What are the reasons behind students’ behaviors? Methodology To provide an overview, in this study, we divided the participants into two groups, low proficiency and high proficiency learners, who were studying in the same context and situation. We looked at the types of activities that students do and why they do such activities. We also tried to find out students’ reasons of doing activities that they do to improve their English. In addition, to understand students’ autonomous learning behaviors, we looked for reasons behind those behaviors by investigating students’ active involvement in learning by focusing on highly motivated students, various uses of effective learning strategies and how independent they have been as learners. We used a questionnaire to explore the students’ behaviors involving autonomous learning activities and used interviews to investigate more deeply about the reasons behind those behaviors. Participants The participants in this study were students who studied in a basic English course (LNG 101) in the first semester of the 2014 academic year at a technology university in Bangkok. This course focused on basic everyday conversation .In addition, the students who learned in the LNG 101 course were asked to do independent study in the Self-Access Learning Center (SALC) by handing in three generic work sheets that were written reports of their learning with material in the SALC, for example, reading magazines and short stories, and watching English movies. Moreover,
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they had to join one English club and report what they had learned from that activity. From most of those activities the students gained 5 %of the total score from the LNG 101 course. The students selected for this study were 38 students who received a grade of A or B+, considered ‘high proficiency students’, and 38 students who received an F, considered ‘low proficiency students .’The subjects were randomly chosen from the pool of A, B+ and F grade students. Instruments There were two main instruments :a questionnaire and an interview .The questionnaire was the main instrument. The purpose of the questionnaire was to explore the students’ autonomous learning behaviors. The questionnaire was adjusted from the questionnaires of Chan, Spratt and Humphreys (2002) and Darasawang and Reinders (2010). The questionnaire consisted of three parts. Part 1 consisting of 11 items queried autonomous learning activities inside classroom. Part 2 consisting of 18 items asked about autonomous learning activities outside classroom. Part 3 consisting of 5 items enquired about autonomous learning activities in the SelfAccess Learning Center (SALC). The questionnaire was completed by the two student groups of different proficiency levels. To increase validity, the questionnaire was piloted with a small group of 10 students, and commented on by an expert in learning counseling who has been a learning counselor in a self-access learning centre for over 20 years. Note that based on the models above, the questionnaire was formulated in Thai to avoid potential comprehension difficulties that may cause misunderstanding of the questions. The translation was checked by a native Thai teacher who teaches English . (See Appendices A and B.) The second instrument was the semi-structured interview, which aimed at finding out reasons why students do or do not participate in certain activities. The interview was conducted individually with 10 students .Five students were taken randomly from each group, totaling 10 students. Each interview lasted about 20-30 minutes. The interviews were recorded by an MP3 recorder. Then, the data from the interview were transcribed and later grouped based on the topics relevant to the items in the questionnaire. (See Appendices C and D.)
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Data Analysis To analyze the questionnaire, the data were counted, categorized and calculated as percentages to find frequencies and percentages. The data of each group were compared to see if there was any difference. To ensure that the difference was sufficiently large enough, the difference of the means of the two groups needed to be more than 0.3. This number was based on our judgment of the results since there was no suggested guideline on indicating a real difference. To analyze the interview data, the first researcher read the script several times to find out the reasons for doing activities. Then, the reasons were checked independently by the second researcher to see if there could be any misinterpretation of reasons, and if the reasons matched with the activities. This was aimed to increase reliability of the analysis. Findings The purpose of this study is to find out students’ behaviors in doing activities to improve their English. The questionnaire data are presented in Tables 1, 2 and 3 which indicate activities inside class, activities outside class, and activities in the SALC. Then, the data from the interviews are presented below in order to explain more reasons why both groups of learners participated or did not participate in those actual activities.
Table 1. Comparison of engagement in autonomous learning activities inside the classroom between High Proficiency Learners and Low Proficiency Learners
1
10.
26.
28.
23.
50
30
90
70
%
%
%
%
7.9 0%
2.6 0%
3.58
0.34
Standard
9
deviation
11
Mean
10
difference
Always
4
Comparing
Often
3
Mean
Sometimes
while studying?
H
Rarely
Did classifications
Seldom
language activities
Never
Autonomous
Proficiency
In-class
1.266
AUTONOMOUS LANGUAGE LEARNING: THAI UNDERGRATUATE STUDENTS’ BEHAVIORS Phra Kanchit Meesong & Woravut Jaroongkhongdach
L
H Took notes while studying? L
4
4
11
15
3
1
10.
10.
28.
39.
50 L
50
90
50
7.9
2.6
%
%
%
%
0%
0%
1
1
8
17
6
5
2.6
2.6
21.
44.
15.
13.
10
70
80
20
0%
0%
%
%
%
%
2
4
12
10
6
4
10.
31.
26.
15.
10.
50
60
30
80
50
%
%
%
%
%
0
0
7
22
4
5
0.0
0.0
18.
57.
10.
13.
0%
0%
40
90
50
20
%
%
%
%
0
4
12
17
3
2
10.
31.
44.
50
60
70
7.9
5.3
%
%
%
0%
0%
22
5
4
6
1
0
57.
13.
10.
15.
90
20
50
80
2.6
0.0
%
%
%
%
0%
0%
13
2
11
9
3
0
28.
23.
90
70
7.9
0.0
%
%
0%
0%
5.3 0%
H Worked cooperatively with your friends? L
0.0 0%
H Made suggestions related to the course to the teacher? L
162
34. 20 %
5.3 0%
3.24
1.101
4.08
1.124 0.42
3.66
1.3
4.18
0.896 0.52
3.66
0.966
1.92
1.26 0.69
2.61
1.405
Table 1 compares autonomous learning activities inside the classroom that are engaged in by high and low proficiency students .High proficiency learners worked more cooperatively with peers (0.52), took better notes while studying (0.42) and did more classification while studying (0.34). In contrast, low proficiency learners made more suggestions related to the course (0.69).
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Data from the interview show that high proficiency learners realized the benefits they got from working cooperatively with peers which included the opportunity to adjust their attitude when working with other people. people”.
“I have learned to adjust my attitudes of working when I was working with other High Proficiency Student C
Another high proficiency student saw working cooperatively as an opportunity to exchange opinions and learn to convince other students when exchanging opinions . “I have a chance to exchange opinion with friends .I have learned that when I proposed some ideas and it was rejected, it was because I did not have strong reasons to support my ideas .So I failed to convince them ”. High Proficiency Student E However, a low proficiency student did not enjoy working in groups because she did not get support, so she opted for working alone. “The members of my group do not help me with work, and I have to work hard… .I think working alone is better ”… Low Proficiency Student B As for taking notes, a high proficiency student had employed an independent tactic in note taking. “I wrote synonyms of the words the teacher explained which did not appear in the book which are very useful ”. High Proficiency Student E Whereas, a low proficiency learner did not even understand the notes she wrote, as revealed below. “I always take notes in class even I don’t understand it ”. Low Proficiency Student D Conversely, low proficiency learners made more suggestions related to the course content than high proficiency learners.
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“I told my teacher that the content in the material was too difficult to me .So I asked the teachers to teach it again next week and she did ”. Low Proficiency Student E
Table 2. Comparison of engagement in autonomous learning activities outside the classroom between High Proficiency Learners and Low Proficiency Learners
always
5
7
15.8
13.2
28.9
10.5
13.20
18.4
0%
0%
0%
0%
%
0%
9
6
12
5
2
4
23.7
15.8
31.6
13.2
5.30
10.5
0%
0%
0%
0%
%
0%
0
1
4
10
9
14
0.00
2.60
10.5
26.3
23.70
36.8
songs, and tried to
%
%
0%
0%
%
0%
understand the
2
1
13
9
6
7
5.30
2.60
34.2
23.7
15.80
18.4
%
%
0%
%6
%
0%
4
9
7
5
7
6
10.5
23.7
18.4
13.2
18.40
15.8
0%
0%
0%
0%
%
0%
9
8
10
4
4
3
23.7
21.1
26.3
10.5
10.50
7.90
0%
0%
0%
0%
%
%
0
6
7
8
11
6
0.00
15.8
18.4
21.1
28.90
15.8
movies and tried to
%
0%
0%
0%
%
0%
guess from the
5
8
8
8
4
5
13.2
21.1
21.1
21.1
10.50
13.2
0%
0%
0%
0%
%
0%
Read
H
news/information in the Internet?
Listened to English
lyrics?
Watched English TV
L
H
L
H
programs? L
Watched English
story?
H
L
Standard
often
4
deviation
sometimes
11
Mean
rarely
5
language activities
difference
seldom
6
Autonomous
mean
never
proficiency
Outside-class
1.704
3.47 0.52 2.95
1.593
4.82
1.136 0.96
3.87
1.298
3.53
1.656 0.69
2.84
1.516
4.11
1.331 0.79
3.32
1.544
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0
4
5
8
11
10
0.00
10.5
13.2
21.1
28.90
26.3
movies with Thai
%
0%
0%
0%
%
0%
subtitles and read the
2
7
10
5
9
5
L 5.30
18.4
26.3
13.2
23.70
13.2
%
0%
0%
0%
%
0%
2
5
4
14
1
12
5.30
13.2
10.5
36.8
2.60
31.6
%
0%
0%
0%
%
0%
1
9
5
11
5
7
2.60
23.7
13.2
28.9
13.20
18.4
%
0%
0%
%5
%
0%
6
13
9
7
2
1
15.8
24.2
23.7
18.4
5.30
2.60
Talked to foreigners
0%
0%
0%
0%
%
%
in English?
9
13
11
3
2
0
23.7
34.2
28.9
7.90
5.30
0.00
0%
0%
0%
%
%
%
8
10
7
8
4
1
21.1
26.3
18.4
21.1
10.50
2.60
Visited your teacher
0%
0%
0%
0%
%
%
about your work?
3
3
17
12
3
0
L 7.90
7.90
44.7
31.6
7.90
0.00
%
%
0%
0%
%
%
Watched English
subtitles?
Sang English songs
H
L
H
and tried to imitate the sound/accent?
L
H
L
H
1.31
4.47 0.76 3.71
1.487
4.13
1.563 0.39
3.74
1.446
2.71
1.25 0.34
2.37
1.101
2.82
1.411 0.36
3.18
0.955
Table 2 compares autonomous learning activities outside the classroom that were engaged in by high and low proficiency students. High proficiency learners did more listening to English songs and tried to understand the lyrics (0.96), watched more English movies and tried to guess the meaning from the story (0.79), watched more English movies with subtitles and read the subtitles (0.76), watched more English TV programs (0.69), read news/information from the internet (0.52), sang English songs and tried to imitate the sound (0.39), and talked more to foreigners in English (0.34).
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Data from the interviews show that high proficiency learners did more listening to English songs and used the lyrics to help them learn and understand English sounds and sentences. “I love to listen to English songs, popular songs .If I like any of the songs, I usually print out the lyric of that song to practice singing…I learned how to create the English sentences from listening and singing the songs ”. High Proficiency Student A “I listen to English songs every day .I understand English sounds more through listening to the songs .They help me understand when teachers talk in English and also in the listening tests ”. High Proficiency Student D Some learners sang along and imitated the sounds. “I always love to sing English songs .Every weekday when my mother drives my brother and me to the university, we listen to the music and the radio and we normally sing along. In my free time, I like to print out the lyrics of my favorite songs and practice singing those songs ”. High Proficiency Student A High proficiency learners watched more English movies with Thai subtitles and they learned vocabulary and idioms from the movies. “I have watched English movies with Thai subtitle (soundtrack )at the cinema since I was young .I don’t like to watch English movies dubbed into Thai because it’s not natural ”. High Proficiency Student E “ I watch English movies quite often… .I have learned vocabulary and some short idioms from the movies ”. High Proficiency Student D They also watched more English TV programs, especially documentaries .One student thought that documentaries helped him understand English accents in a conversation. “I love to watch documentaries three times a week .I learn vocabulary from watching English documentaries .I also learn English accent when they dubbed the scenes or having conversations ”. High Proficiency Student C
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High proficiency learners read more news and information on the internet. One of the participants used a translation tool on the internet to help her understand the information. “ I like to search information about new trend of cosmetic…when I don’t know some words I usually use Google Translate .I can understand the passage better by using this tool ”. High Proficiency Student E High proficiency learners talked to foreigners with more confidence than their counterparts. “I speak English when I travel abroad .I visited Laos, Malaysia and Singapore .I used much English in Malaysia and Singapore ”. High Proficiency Student A Table 2 also reveals that low proficiency learners consulted the teachers about their problems in learning English (0.36). Low proficiency students visited the teachers more for consultation. One student consulted her teacher about her problems in completing an English assignment. “I often consult my teacher about my assignment .I am afraid to do something wrong with my individual work because I am not confident to continue...I feel better after consulting with the teacher and grow more confident to continue doing my assignment ”. Low Proficiency Student B
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Table 3. Comparison of engagement in autonomous learning activities in the Self-Access Learning Center between High Proficiency Learners and Low Proficiency Learners
L
learners etc. Met
SALC
counselor for 34
setting and
H
goal learning
plan etc.
L
8
1
0
47.4
18.4
10.5
21.1
2.60
0.00
2.13
0%
0%
0%
0%
%
%
9
8
13
5
1
2
23.7
21.1
34.2
13.2
2.60
5.30
0%
0%
0%
0%
%
%
20
6
7
4
1
0
5
1
1
1
2
2.60
5.80
8.40
0.50
.60
.00
%
%
%
%
%
%
7
11
11
6
0
3
18.4
28.9
28.9
15.8
0.00
7.90
0%
0%
0%
0%
%
%
Standard
independent
4
deviation
to be a good
7
Mean
how
18
different
training
Mean
33
H
Always
counselor for
Often
SALC
Sometimes
Met
Rarely
activities
Seldom
language
Never
No
roficiency
Autonomous
1.298 0.5
2.63
1.364
0 1.95
1.184 0.76
2.71
1.393
Table 3 compares the engagement of high proficiency and low proficiency learners about their engagement in autonomous activities in the self-access learning center. Table 3 reveals more engagement (0.76) of low proficiency learners in the self-access center in the aspect of meeting with a counselor for discussing self-access learning plans. One of the participants reported the following: “Met the teachers at SALC two times a week when I studied LNG 101 .I consulted my learning problems such as writing sentences..…The benefits that I got from the teacher at SALC is that she helped me to do my work and she guided me how to deal with my study” Low Proficiency Student B
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Discussion and implication This study aimed to find out if there were differences in doing autonomous activities according to students’ proficiency level, and the reasons behind learners’ behaviors. The findings showed that the autonomous activities scores differed greatly according to learners’ proficiency differences. The high proficiency learners had more frequency in participating in autonomous language learning activities that required the use of higher levels of proficiency in the four language skills. The results showed that the high proficiency learners had higher motivation to do activities which required active involvement to learn such as reading and searching for information on the internet, listening to and singing English songs, watching English movies and talking to foreigners in English. In this section we will discuss in depth the three parts of the findings – autonomy and motivation, autonomy and learning strategies, and autonomy and promoting independent learning – in relation to different levels of proficiency. Autonomy and motivation The data from the interviews revealed that the students who have differences in proficiency have a diversity of background knowledge and experience of learning English; some came from the countryside and some from metropolitan areas. It might be possible that some of the students who came from the countryside had a lack of experience in learning English or perhaps they had never learned with an efficient English teacher; also, their environment might not have enhanced their motivation to learn English. On the contrary, the students who lived in big cities like Bangkok might have learned English with highly effective teachers in big famous schools. In addition, most of them had learning experiences with foreign teachers who used only English to communicate in class. From this reason, we would argue that different students’ learning experiences lead to the differences in the level of students’ motivation in learning English. This argument can be supported by Kormos and Kiddle (2013) who studied sociological factors in motivation to learn English as a foreign language in Chile. They reported that the most important divide with regard to language learning motivation was between the higher and lower social classes; there was a large gap between the motivational characteristics of the two groups. Moreover, the findings from their study reveal that the higher proficiency learners who had a higher motivation in learning English received extrinsic motivation from their families who lived
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in the middle social class strata in cities and wanted their children to obtain good jobs and high salaries; this extrinsic motivation may make the learners intrinsically self-motivated to learn. For them, English language ability was the key to make a difference and go further. Similarly, Lamb (2013) reports that the many Indonesian learners were heavily infused with social motives, such as making their family proud of them, serving their local communities, and advancing the interests of their country; their motivation to learn English was therefore not purely due to personal ambition. Therefore, creating positive learning experiences and providing extrinsic motivation can lead to intrinsic motivation which can subsequently lead to a higher level of autonomy in learning English. Autonomy, learning strategies, and learner engagement Another interesting finding worth discussing is the high proficiency learners who had developed learner autonomy; they could take responsibility for their learning which involved, at least in part, deciding upon and using learning strategies and tactics that were relevant to their tasks and goals. In this study we can see that both groups of learners, high and low proficiency learners, demonstrated high frequency using new technology in learning but there were differences in the various uses of L2 learning strategies. In addition, the higher proficiency learners who had high motivation tended to use several learning strategies. Learning strategies which were used often were affective strategies and socio-interactive strategies. Oxford (2008) suggests that affective strategies involve managing volition and emotions, such as developing positive attitudes and dealing with negative emotions, and sociointeractive strategies aid learners within a specific sociocultural setting, such as collaborating and noticing sociocultural factors. The findings from the interviews in this study indicated that the higher proficiency learners could deal with their negative emotions as they suffered along the learning process, for example, challenges of working cooperatively with friends and having trouble with learning activities inside and outside the classroom. This finding seems to be comparable with other previous studies which concerned the relationship between language learning strategies and motivation. For example, Mizumoto (2013) found that the participants of a project used a wide range of strategies without having received training in the effective use of these strategies. Mizumoto (2013) further explains that learner motivation plays an important role in the use of strategies, and that the higher proficiency learners tended to seek more language use opportunities by using new technology for monitoring their learning activities.
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Similarly in this study, we found that the higher proficiency learners tended to use new technology to seek out opportunities in learning such as learning English from listening and singing English songs, watching English movies and documentaries, reading and searching for information on the Internet and playing online games to communicate with other users in English. In other words, they are engaged with their own learning by the use of technology. This finding is in line with two earlier studies by Lai and Gu (2011) and Kormos (2014). Lai and Gu (2011) report, based on a study conducted with university students in Hong Kong, that a strong belief in seeking opportunities to use language beyond the classroom was positively related to participants’ likelihood of using technology to manage their learning. Kormos (2014) reports a similar finding in a study conducted with Hungarian learners which suggested that having a positive attitude to finding learning opportunities is an important prerequisite for the capacity of language learners to apply modern technological devices independently and autonomously. From this perspective, we can say that learners using new technology in learning were related to self-regulation and learning strategies used, and other factors might be of concern such as level of proficiency (Lai and Gu 2011; Kormos 2014). Another finding of this study was that the highly autonomous learners usually explore learning opportunities and using new technology for learning without the involvement of a teacher or pedagogical context as previously discussed. They can learn alone or with other learners, and in formal and informal contexts .The highly autonomous learners can use technologies such as print publications, internet, television, radio, smart phone applications, and social media such as Facebook, Line or a combination of technologies. Thus, teachers can make use of new technology as tools to offer opportunities for engaging learners with their own learning. For instance, students may be asked to work on a project that requires new technological tools. However, one caveat needs to be mentioned. Learners may need to possess a certain degree of autonomy in order to use new technologies in their learning effectively. For example, in a study into the use of a technological program, Darasawang and Reinders (2010) found that fewer students used the program (My English of KMUTT SALC) than had been expected and that those students, who did use it, used it in limited ways. Thus, while we know that students can use technology in learning autonomously, it is still not clear how technology can be used effectively by learners to develop their autonomy. This is an issue that may be worth exploring in the further. One limitation of this study is that the use of 0.3 in differentiating the gap between the High and the Low proficient learners, and thus future research may use a stronger foundation in identifying an appropriate number in differentiating the gap.
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Conclusion This study has shown that students with differing proficiency levels demonstrated different behaviors to engage in autonomous language activities .High proficiency learners had more frequently participated in autonomous language learning activities, which are activities that require higher ability such as watching English movies or talking to foreign friends. These activities influence students’ motivation to participate .Moreover, the high proficiency learners had higher motivation to do activities which required active involvement to learn. Furthermore, the highly autonomous learners engaged in more independent L2 learning; they usually explored learning opportunities and using new technology for learning. It is hoped that the understanding of students’ behaviors in autonomous language learning will shed light for teachers who intend to help students to be effective autonomous language learners in their own ways.
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References Benson, P. (2007) .Autonomy in language teaching and learning .Language Teaching, 40(1), 21-40. Chan, V., Spratt, M. and Humphreys, G. (2002). Autonomous language learning: Hong Kong tertiary students' attitudes and behaviors. Evaluation & Research in Education, 16(1), 1-18. Channuan, P .and Wasanasomsithi, P. (2012) .Promoting Learner Autonomy through an Extensive Reading Program among Second Year Undergraduate Students of Naresuan University, [Online], Available: http//:www.culi.chula.ac.th/Research/eJournal/2012/Promoting%20LA%20through%20a n%20ER_%20EDITED_13_Nov_13.pdf[ Accessed :June 22, 2016 ] Chiu, H.L. (2012) .Supporting the development of autonomous learning skills in reading and writing in an independent language learning centre .Studies in Self-Access Learning, 3(3), 266-290. Darasawang, P .and Reinders, H. (2010) .Encouraging autonomy with an online language support system . CALL-EJ Online, 11(2) . Deci, E.L .and Ryan, R.M. (2000) .The "what "and "why "of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior .Psychological Inquiry, 11(4), 227-268. Dickinson, L. (1987) .Self-instruction in language learning .Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Dörnyei, Z. (2010) .Researching motivation :From integrativeness to the ideal L2 self .Introducing applied linguistics :Concepts and skills. New York: Routledge. Holec, H. (1979) .Autonomy and foreign language learning. Singapore: Education Resources Information Center (ERIC )Publishing . Holec, H. (1981) .Autonomy and foreign learning .Oxford :Pergamon Press.
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Holec, H. (1984) .Declaration of independence, autonomy and self-direction in language learning. In Self-directed learning and Self-acce in Australia :from Practice to Theory .Proceedings of the National Conference of the Adult Migrant Education Programme, Melbourne, pp . 1-19. Kormos, J .and Kiddle, T. (2013). The role of socio-economic factors in motivation to learn English as a foreign language :The case of Chile .System, 41(2), 399-412 . Lai, C .and Gu, M. (2011) .Self-regulated out-of-class language learning with technology . Computer Assisted Language Learning, 24(4), 317-335 . Lamb, M., 2013‘ .Your mum and dad can't teach you :’!constraints on agency among rural learners of English in the developing world. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 34(1), 1429. Mizumoto, A., 2013 .Effects of self-regulated vocabulary learning process on self-efficacy . Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching, 7(3), 253-265. Oxford, R. L. (2008). Hero with a thousand faces: Learner autonomy, learning strategies, and learning tactics in independent language learning. In S. Hurd & T. Lewis (Eds.), Language learning strategies in independent settings (pp. 41-67). Toronto: Multilingual Matters. Ryan, R.M .and Deci, E.L. (2000a). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations :Classic definitions and new directions .Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 54-67. Ryan, R.M .and Deci, E.L. (2000b). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being .American Psychologist, 55(1), 68-78. Yamashita, H. (2015) .Affect and the development of learner autonomy through advising .Studies in Self-Access Learning Journal, 6(1), 62-85. Zhou, M., Ma, W.J .and Deci, E.L. (2009) .The importance of autonomy for rural Chinese children's motivation for learning .Learning and Individual Differences, 19(4), 492-498 .
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Appendix A. Questionnaire
Please Read This questionnaire was devised to determine whether you have a tendency towards autonomous learning . Please do not write your name and put a √where appropriate. Personal Information 1. 2.
Sex
Male
Female
Grade
A
B
C
D
F
Inside the class Autonomous activities 1
Done group studies in English lessons?
2
Asked the teacher questions when you didn’t understand?
3
Made suggestions related to the course to the teacher?
4
Planned your lesson/study?
5
Activated your prior knowledge while studying?
6
Made inferences about your lesson?
7
Done classifications while studying?
8
Summarized your studies while studying?
9
Taken notes while studying?
10
Used resources while studying?
Never
Seldom
Rarely
sometimes
Autonomous language activities
Often
No.
Always
Last year and in this academic year, how often have you
AUTONOMOUS LANGUAGE LEARNING: THAI UNDERGRATUATE STUDENTS’ BEHAVIORS Phra Kanchit Meesong & Woravut Jaroongkhongdach
11
176
Worked cooperatively with your friends?
Outside the class Autonomous activities 12
Done assignments which are not compulsory?
13
Noted down new vocabulary and their meanings?
14
Visited your teacher about your work?
15
Read English newspapers?
16
Read news/information in the Internet?
17
Read English novels?
18
Listened to English songs, and try to understand the lyrics?
19
Watched English TV programs?
20
Watched English movies and tried to guess from the story?
21
Watched English movies with Thai subtitles and read along the subtitles?
22
Sang English song and tried to imitate the sound/accent .
23
Talked to foreigners in English?
24
Practiced using English with friends?
25
Emailed/written letters /chatted with friends in other countries?
26
Done grammar exercises?
27
Practiced
from English
language
teaching
websites. 28
Written a diary in English
29
Taken English courses, e.g .speaking in the work place?
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KMUTT’S Language Learning Support System 30
Attended the Self-Access Learning Center (SALC)?
31
Attended SALC Activities e.g .Workshop, Invited Talk, Let's Talk, Learning Pathway.
32
Used Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL )
33
Met SALC counselors for training how to be a good independent learner
34
Met SALC counselors for training how to be a good independent learner or setting goal and learning plan etc.
Please indicate if you want to add more items. .............................................................................................................................................................. .................................................................................................... .......................................................... .............................................................................................................................................................. .............................................................................................................................................................. .............................................................................................................................................................. .............................................................................................................................................................. ..................................................................................................................... ......................................... Many thanks for giving your time to complete this questionnaire .Your co-operation is much appreciated.
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Appendix B. Questionnaire instrument -Thai version
เครื่องมือ แบบสอบถาม อ่ านก่ อน แบบสอบถามนี้เป็ นเครื่ องมือที่ใช้สารวจกิจกรรมการเรี ยนภาษาอังกฤษด้วยตนเองของนักศึกษา ไม่ตอ้ งเขียนชื่อลงบนแบบสอบถาม และให้ทาเครื่ องหมาย )√(ตรงช่องที่ตรงกับกิจกรรมที่ท่านเคยทาหรื อเข้าร่ วม เพศ
: ชาย
หญิง
เกรดที่ได้ ในรายวิชา LNG 101
A
B
C
D
F
กิจกรรมการเรียนภาษาอังกฤษด้ วยตนเองในห้ องเรียน 1
ทางานเป็ นกลุ่มในการเรี ยนวิชาภาษาอังกฤษ
2
ถามคาถามกับครู ผสู ้ อนเมื่อไม่เข้าใจ วิชาภาษาอังกฤษ
3
แนะนาเพิ่มเติมเกี่ยวกับหัวข้อที่เรี ยนแก่ครู ผสู ้ อนวิชาภาษาอังกฤษ
4
วางแผนการเรี ยนของตนเอง วิชาภาษาอังกฤษ
5
ทบทวนบทเรี ยนและความรู ้ระหว่างการเรี ยนวิชาภาษาอังกฤษ
6
ทาการเก็บรวบรวมที่มาของบทเรี ยนที่ได้เรี ยนวิชาภาษาอังกฤษ
7
แยกแยะเนื้อหาในบทเรี ยนระหว่างการเรี ยนวิชาภาษาอังกฤษ
8
สรุ ปบทเรี ยนระหว่างการเรี ยนวิชาภาษาอังกฤษ
9
ทาการจดบันทึกระหว่างการเรี ยนวิชาภาษาอังกฤษ
10
ศึกษาค้นคว้าข้อมูลระหว่างการเรี ยนวิชาภาษาอังกฤษ
11
ทางานร่ วมกับเพื่อนในการเรี ยนวิชาภาษาอังกฤษ
กิจกรรมการเรียนภาษาอังกฤษด้ วยตนเองนอกห้ องเรียน 12
ทาแบบฝึ กหัดภาษาอังกฤษที่ไม่จาเป็ น
ไม่ เคย
น้ อยมาก ๆ
บางครั้ง
บ่ อย
กิจกรรมการเรียนภาษาอังกฤษด้ วยตนเอง ประจา
ที่
น้ อยมาก
ในปี การศึกษาที่ผ่านมาและในปี การศึกษานี้คุณได้ ทาหรือเข้ าร่ วมกิจกรรมเหล่ านี้บ่อยแค่ ไหน
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13
จดบันทึกคาศัพท์ใหม่ๆพร้อมกับความหมาย
14
เข้าพบครู ผสู ้ อนภาษาอังกฤษเกี่ยวกับเรื่ องงานที่ได้รับมอบหมาย
15
อ่านหนังสื อพิมพ์ภาษาอังกฤษ
16
อ่านข่าว ข้อมูลทัว่ ไป ในอินเตอร์เน็ตเป็ นภาษาอังกฤษ
17
อ่านนิยายเป็ นภาษาอังกฤษ
18
ฟังเพลงภาษาอังกฤษ และพยายามเข้าใจตามเนื้ อเพลง
19
ดูรายการทีวีภาษาอังกฤษ
20
ดูหนังภาษาอังกฤษ และพยายามทาความเข้าใจโดยการเดาเอาจากเนื้อ เรื่ อง
21
ดูหนังเป็ นภาษาอังกฤษพร้อมกับมีซับไตเติ้ลไทยและอ่านตามซับไต เติ้ลนั้น
22
ร้องเพลงภาษาอังกฤษและพยายามเลียนแบบตามเสี ยงและสาเนียง
23
พูดกับชาวต่างชาติเป็ นภาษาอังกฤษ
24
ฝึ กการใช้ภาษาอังกฤษกับเพื่อน
25
เขียน
อีเมล์
จดหมาย
แชท
กับเพื่อนที่อยูต่ ่างประเทศเป็ น
ภาษาอังกฤษ 26
ทาแบบฝึ กหัดไวยากรณ์ภาษาอังกฤษ(grammar exercises)
27
ฝึ กฝนการเรี ยนภาษาอังกฤษจากเว็บไซต์ การสอนภาษาอังกฤษ
28
เขียนบันทึกส่ วนตัว หรื อ ไดอารี่ ( diary )เป็ นภาษาอังกฤษ
29
เข้าเรี ยนคอร์สภาษาอังกฤษ อย่างเช่น
การพูดภาษาอังกฤษในที่
ทางาน ระบบปฏิบัติการที่สนับสนุนการเรียนภาษาอังกฤษ 30
เข้าใช้งานห้อง
Self -Access Learning Center
(SALC )ของคณะศิลปศาสตร์ 31
เข้าร่ วมกิจกรรมส่ งเสริ มการเรี ยนภาษาอังกฤษของห้อง
ห้อง
Self -Access Learning Center (SALC )เช่น , Invited Talk, Let's Talk, Learning Pathway.
AUTONOMOUS LANGUAGE LEARNING: THAI UNDERGRATUATE STUDENTS’ BEHAVIORS Phra Kanchit Meesong & Woravut Jaroongkhongdach
32
180
ใช้บทเรี ยนคอมพิวเตอร์ช่วยการเรี ยนภาษา Used ComputerAssisted Language Learning (CALL )
33
เข้าพบอาจารย์ที่ปรึ กษาเพื่อที่จะปรึ กษาเรื่ องการเรี ยนด้วยตนเอง
34
เข้าพบอาจารย์ที่ปรึ กษาที่ให้คาแนะนาในการเรี ยนภาษาอังกฤษด้วย ตนเอง เพื่อปรึ กษาปั ญหาและวางแผนการเรี ยนภาษาอังกฤษ
แนะนาเพิ่มเติม .............................................................................................................................................................. .............................................................................................................................................................. .............................................................................................................................................................. .............................................................................................................................................................. .............................................................................................................................................................. ขอขอบพระคุณท่าน ที่สละเวลาให้กบั การเก็บข้อมูลวิจยั นี้ ข้อมูลของท่านจะเป็ นประโยชน์แก่การศึกษาและพัฒนาการเรี ยนการสอน ภาษาอังกฤษต่อไป
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Appendix C. The list of questions for the semi-structured interview
Inside the classroom 1.
2.
3.
4.
Done classification -
What kinds of autonomous activities did you do in the classroom?
-
How often did you do those activities and how?
-
Why did you do those kinds of activities?
Take notes -
How often did you take notes in the classroom?
-
What did you note and how did you note them?
-
Why did you take notes?
-
What benefit did you get from note taking?
Work cooperatively with friends -
How often did you work with your friends?
-
What kinds of work did you do with your friends?
-
Why did you work with your friends?
-
What did you think about working with friends?
-
Did you get any benefits from working with friends?
Made suggestion related to the course to the teacher -
How often did you made suggestions related to the course to the teacher?
-
What did you suggest to the teacher, and why?
-
What did the teacher do to respond to your suggestions?
Outside of the classroom 1.
2.
Read and search for information in the Internet -
How often did you read and search for information in the Internet?
-
What did you search for and read about, and why?
-
What did you get from this activity?
Listened to English songs -
How often did you listen to English songs?
-
What ways did you listen to English songs, and why?
-
What benefit did you get from this activity?
-
AUTONOMOUS LANGUAGE LEARNING: THAI UNDERGRATUATE STUDENTS’ BEHAVIORS Phra Kanchit Meesong & Woravut Jaroongkhongdach
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
182
Watched English TV programs -
How often do you watch English TV programs?
-
What kind of programs did you prefer, and why?
-
Did you get benefits from this activity?
Watched English Movies -
How often did you watch English movies?
-
How did you watch English movies, and why?
-
Did you get benefits from this activity?
Sang English songs -
How often did you sing English songs?
-
Did you have techniques to sing English songs?
-
Did you get benefits from singing English songs?
Talked to foreigners in English -
How often did you talk to foreigners in English?
-
What did you talk about to them?
-
How did you talk to them and why did you do that?
-
Did you get benefits from the activity?
Met the teacher outside the class -
How often did you go to visit the teacher outside the class?
-
What did you talk about with your teacher, and why?
-
Did you get benefits of meeting with the teacher?
Done grammar exercises -
How often did you do grammar exercises?
-
How did you do grammar exercises, what kinds of exercise did you do, and why?
-
Did you get benefits from this activity?
Written daily in English -
How often did you write in English?
-
What did you write about?
-
Did you get benefits from writing daily?
10. Taken English courses -
Did you ever take any English courses?
-
What kind of English course were you involved in, and why?
-
Did you get benefits from that activity?
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In SALC at KMUTT 1.
2.
Attended SALC and activities -
How often did you visit the SALC?
-
What activities did you participate in the SALC, and why?
-
Did you get benefits of participating in SALC activities?
Met SALC counselor -
How often did you come to visit a SALC counselor?
-
What did you consult about, and why?
-
Did you get benefits of consulting with SALC counselors?
Note -
The number in parentheses is the number of questions in the questionnaire.
-
H means an item of high proficiency, which has a mean score significantly more than that of low proficiency and the opposite is true for L .
AUTONOMOUS LANGUAGE LEARNING: THAI UNDERGRATUATE STUDENTS’ BEHAVIORS Phra Kanchit Meesong & Woravut Jaroongkhongdach
Appendix D. The list of questions for the semi-structured interview - Thai version Inside the classroom 1.
2.
3.
4.
Done classification -
ตอนเรี ยนในห้องเรี ยน นักเรี ยนได้ทากิจกรรมอะไรที่ เป็ นการเรี ยนด้วยตัวเองอะไรบ้าง
-
นักเรี ยนทาบ่อยไหม / ทาอย่างไรบ้าง
-
ทาไมถึงทา
-
ได้ประโยชน์อะไรจากการทาแบบนั้น
Taken notes -
นักเรี ยนได้ทาการจดบันทึกระหว่างการเรี ยนในห้องบ่อยมากแค่ไหน
-
นักเรี ยนจดอะไรบ้าง และมีวธิ ีการจดอย่างไร
-
ทาไมนักเรี ยนถึงต้องจดบันทึก
-
ได้ประโยชน์อะไรจากการจัดบันทึกในห้องเรี ยนบ้าง
Worked cooperatively with friends -
ทางานกับเพื่อนบ่อยไหม
-
ส่ วนใหญ่เป็ นงานอะไร
-
ทาไมถึงทางานกับเพื่อน
-
คิดยังไงกับการทางานร่ วมกันกับเพื่อน
-
ได้ประโยชน์อะไรจากการทางานร่ วมกันกับเพื่อน
Made suggestions related to the course to the teacher -
นักเรี ยนเคยแนะนาครู ผสู ้ อน ในเรื่ องการเรี ยนการสอนให้ห้องเรี ยนหรื อไม่ และแนะนาบ่อยแค่ไหน
-
ส่ วนใหญ่แล้วนักเรี ยนแนะนาเรื่ องอะไร และทาไม
-
แล้วครู ผสู ้ อนมีการตอบสนองอย่างไรต่อการแนะนาของเรา
-
นักเรี ยนได้ประโยชน์ไหมจากการแนะนาแบบนั้น
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Outside the classroom 1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Read and searched for information in the internet -
นักเรี ยนได้อ่านและหาข้อมูลทางอินเตอร์เน็ตบ่อยแค่ไหน
-
ส่ วนใหญ่นกั เรี ยนอ่านและหาข้อมูลทางอินเตอร์เน็ตเรื่ องอะไร และทาไม
-
นักเรี ยนได้ประโยชน์จากการเรี ยนรู ้อะไรบ้างจากการหาอ่านและหาข้อมูลแบบนี้
Listened to English songs -
นักเรี ยนได้ฟังเพลงเป็ นภาษาอังกฤษบ่อยแค่ไหน
-
ส่ วนใหญ่นกั เรี ยนมีวธิ ีการฟังเพลงอย่างไร และทาไม
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นักเรี ยนได้ประโยชน์อะไรจากการฟังเพลงภาษาอังกฤษ
Watched English TV programs -
นักเรี ยนได้ดูรายการทีวเี ป็ นภาษาอังกฤษบ่อยแค่ไหน
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นักเรี ยนชอบดูรายการอะไร และทาไม
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นักเรี ยนได้ประโยชน์อะไรจากการดูรายการทีวเี ป็ นภาษาอังกฤษ
Watched English Movies -
นักเรี ยนดูหนังเป็ นภาษาอังกฤษบ่อยแค่ไหน
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นักเรี ยนมีวธิ ีการดูหนังอย่างไร และทาไม( ดูซาวแทรก และมีซับไทย)?
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นักเรี ยนได้ประโยชน์อะไรจากการดูหนังเป็ นภาษาอังกฤษ
Sang English songs -
นักเรี ยนร้องเพลงภาษาอังกฤษบ่อยแค่ไหน
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นักเรี ยนมีวธิ ีการร้องเพลงอย่างไร และทาไมถึงร้องแบบนั้น
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นักเรี ยนได้ประโยชน์อะไรจากการร้องเพลงเป็ นภาษาอังกฤษ
Talked to foreigners in English -
นักเรี ยนได้พูดภาษาอังกฤษกับชาวต่างชาติบ่อยแค่ไหน
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นักเรี ยนได้พูดคุยเรื่ องอะไรบ้าง
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นักเรี ยนมีวธิ ีการอย่างไรในพูด และทาไมใช้วิธีการนั้น
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นักเรี ยนได้ประโยชน์อะไรจากการพูดคุยกับชาวต่างชาติเป็ นภาษาอังกฤษ
Met the teacher outside the class -
นักเรียนได้ เข้ าพบครู ผ้สู อนนอกห้ องเรียนบ่ อยไหม
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นักเรี ยนได้พูดคุยเรื่ องอะไรกับครู ผสู ้ อนบ้างและทาไม
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นักเรี ยนได้รับประโยชน์อะไรบ้างจากการเข้าพบครู ผสู ้ อนนอกห้องเรี ยน
AUTONOMOUS LANGUAGE LEARNING: THAI UNDERGRATUATE STUDENTS’ BEHAVIORS Phra Kanchit Meesong & Woravut Jaroongkhongdach
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9.
Done grammar exercises -
นักเรี ยนได้ทาแบบฝึ กหัด แกรมมานอกเวลาเรี ยนบ่อยแค่ไหน
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นักเรี ยนได้ทาแบบฝึ กหัดแกรมมา ประเภทไหน ทาอย่างไร และทาไม
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นักเรี ยนได้ประโยชน์จากการทากิจกรรมนี้อย่างไร
Written daily in English -
นักเรี ยนได้เขียนไดอารี่ เป็ นภาษาอังกฤษบ่อยแค่ไหน
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นักเรี ยนเขียนเรื่ องอะไรบ้าง ทาไม
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นักเรี ยนได้ประโยชน์ไหมจากการเขียนไดอารี่
10. Taken English courses -
นักเรี ยนได้เคยเรี ยนคอร์ส เรี ยนภาษาอังกฤษนอกห้องเรี ยนไหม
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คอร์สเรี ยนประเภทไหนที่นกั เรี ยนไปเรี ยน เพราะอะไร
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นักเรี ยนได้ประโยชน์อะไรบ้างจากการเรี ยนแบบนั้น
In SALC at KMUTT 1.
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Visited the SALC and done activities -
นักเรี ยนได้เข้าห้อง SALC บ่อยแค่ไหน
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นักเรี ยนเข้ามาทากิจกรรมอะไรบ้างในห้อง SALC ทาไม
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นักเรี ยนได้ประโยชน์อะไรบ้างจากการเข้าห้อง SALC
Met SALC counselors -
นักเรี ยนได้เข้าพบอาจารย์ที่ให้คาปรึ กษาประจาห้อง SALC บ่อยแค่ไหน
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นักเรี ยนปรึ กษาพูดคุยเรื่ องอะไรบ้าง ทาไม
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นักเรี ยนได้ประโยชน์อะไรบ้างจากการเข้าพบอาจารย์ อย่างไร
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