BATS AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT

BATS AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT Methodological guidelines for environmental impact assessment and strategic environmental impact assessment

A manual for environmental experts and consultancies, planning authorities and developers

BATS AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT Methodological guidelines for environmental impact assessment and strategic environmental impact assessment

A manual for environmental experts and consultancies, planning authorities and developers

Wildlife Conservation Society “MUSTELA”, Belgrade Belgrade, 2011

IMPRESSUM BATS AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT Methodological guidelines for environmental impact assessment and strategic environmental impact assessment Authors: Milan Paunović, MSc Wildlife Conservation Society “MUSTELA”, Belgrade, and Natural History Museum in Belgrade Branko Karapandža Wildlife Conservation Society “MUSTELA”, Belgrade Sabina Ivanović, MSc Ministry of Environment, Mining and Spatial Planning of Republic of Serbia Consultants: Herman Limpens and Eric Jansen Dutch Mammal Society (Zoogdiervereniging) Editor: Aleksandar Vesić, Assistant Minister Ministry of Environment, Mining and Spatial Planning of Republic of Serbia Photos: Branko Karapandža, Milan Paunović, Ines Švenda, Boyan Petrov (pp. 72-73, p. 86 bottom left, p. 87 top two), Primož Presetnik (p. 87 3rd from top, p. 91), Robert Brinkmann (p. 101 top two), Monika Podgorelec (p. 87 bottom), Ana Jančar (p. 96), Peter Twisk (p. 101 bottom), Luka Rubinjoni (p. 66), Đorđe Đoković (p. 68) The drawings on pp. 98 and 100 were taken from the Dutch brochure “Bats and road construction” (Rijkswaterstaat – Dienst Weg- en Waterkunde, 2005), with the consent of its author – Peter Twisk English translation: Željko Stanimirović English text proofreading: Vesna Stamenković English text reviewing: Jasna Rajić Design and layout: Branko Karapandža Printing: LithoArt Studio, Belgrade Number of copies: 500 primeraka Suggested citation: Paunović, M., Karapandža, B., Ivanović, S. (2011). Bats and Environmental Impact Assessment – Methodological guidelines for environmental impact assessment and strategic environmental impact assessment. Wildlife Conservation Society “MUSTELA”, 1-142, Belgrade. ISBN: 978-86-914719-1-0 All rights reserved. Wildlife Conservation Society “MUSTELA”, Belgrade

This manual is prepared within the project Bats and environmental impact assessment: tools for implementation of the European habitats directive and the EUROBATS agreement in Serbia, realized by Wildlife Conservation Society “Mustela” from Belgrade and the Dutch Mammal Society (Zoogdiervereniging), with the help of the Natural History Museum, Belgrade, and the support of the Ministry of Environment, Mining and Spatial Planning of the Republic of Serbia. The project was financed by the Dutch Ministry of Economic Affairs, Agriculture and Innovation, under the BBI-Matra Action Plan Subsidy Scheme 2005-2008.

Ministry of Environment, Mining and Spatial Planning

CONTENTS INTRODUCTION ...............................................................................................................................................................................7 PRACTICAL SECTION....................................................................................................................................................................11 Good practices in assessing the impact of projects/plans on bats ..........................................................12 Practical guideliness for competent government authorities ...................................................................24 Decision on need for environmental impact assessment ................................................................24 Decision on the scope and content of environmental impact assessment study...................24 Decision on the environmental impact assessment study approval ...........................................25 Decision on the strategic assessment elaboration .............................................................................32 Decision making on approval of the strategic assessment report ................................................32 LEGISLATION OVERVIEW............................................................................................................................................................33 International legislation relevant for conservation of bats ........................................................................34 Convention on conservation of migratory wild species – The Bonn convention ....................34 The agreement on the conservation of populations of European bats – EUROBATS ............35 Convention on biological diversity – The Rio convention................................................................36 Convention on the conservation of European wildlife and natural habitats – The Bern convention ......36 European Union Directive [92/43/EEC] on the conservation of natural habitats and wild flora and fauna – Habitats Directive ................................................37 National legislation relevant for conservation of bats ..................................................................................38 Law on environment protection................................................................................................................38 Law on nature protection ............................................................................................................................39 National legislation on environmental impact assessment relevant for bats ....................................42 Law on environmental impact assessment ...........................................................................................42 Law on strategic environmental impact assessment .........................................................................45 EXPERT SECTION ...........................................................................................................................................................................47 Bats of Serbia – basic information..........................................................................................................................48 What are bats? ..................................................................................................................................................48 Morphological, anatomical and physiological characteristics........................................................49 Echolocation .....................................................................................................................................................51 Diet .......................................................................................................................................................................52 Habitats...............................................................................................................................................................52 Roosts ..................................................................................................................................................................54 Circadian and annual life cycle...................................................................................................................55 All Serbian bats ................................................................................................................................................58 Position in the nature ....................................................................................................................................59 Threat status, protection and conservation ..........................................................................................60 Methods and techniques of bat research ...........................................................................................................62 Analysis of the existing information - bibliography ...........................................................................63 Roost inspection ..............................................................................................................................................64 Analysis of the dead bat remains ..............................................................................................................65

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CONTENTS Capture ...............................................................................................................................................................66 Artificial roosts – bat houses .......................................................................................................................69 Marking ...............................................................................................................................................................70 Ultrasound audio-detection .......................................................................................................................74 Molecular-genetic methods ........................................................................................................................79 Projects and plans for which (strategic) environmental impact assessment is needed .................80 Management of underground habitats ..................................................................................................80 Opening and expanding of quarries ........................................................................................................90 Wind farms ........................................................................................................................................................91 Road construction...........................................................................................................................................98 Construction of reservoir facilities .........................................................................................................102 Forest management ....................................................................................................................................104 Urban development ....................................................................................................................................107 Restoration of protected cultural heritage buildings .....................................................................110 ANNEXES........................................................................................................................................................................................113 ANNEX I Species preference of habitat types (probability of the presence of species in habitat types) ...... 114 ANNEX II Significance of habitat types for life functions of bats in Serbia ...........................................................115 ANNEX III Possibility of adverse effects of certain activities on bats ........................................................................116 ANNEX IV Usefulness of methods in identification of functions of habitats for bats, and identification of bat presence (regardless of the species identification ...................................117 ANNEX V Usefulness of methods of identification of bat species .............................................................................118 ANNEX VI Usefulness of methods in various habitat types ...........................................................................................120 ANNEX VII Usefulness of methods in different months of the year ............................................................................121 ANNEX VIII Ecological characteristics of bat species in Serbia .......................................................................................122 ANNEX IX Ecological characteristics of bat species in Serbia and recommended research methods ........123 ANNEX X List of bat species in Serbia with their status in international and national legislation and global and national IUCN status ...................................129 ANNEX XI Glossary of bat expert terms and expressions...............................................................................................130 ANNEX XII Institutions and authorities responsible for nature and bat conservation and environmental impact assessment in Serbia ........................................................................................132 ANNEX XIII Selected bibliography ..............................................................................................................................................138

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ACKNOWLEDGMENT

Authors wish to express their gratitude to: t Ministry of Economic Affairs, Agriculture and Innovation of the Kingdom of the Netherlands for the financial support; t Our colleagues from the Dutch Mammal Society (Zoogdiervereniging) for the ideas, advice and patience; t Ministry of Environment, Mining and Spatial Planning of Republic of Serbia and the Natural History Museum in Belgrade for their support and expert help; t Ines Švenda, Boyan Petrov, Primož Presetnik, Robert Brinkmann, Monika Podgorelec, Ana Jančar and Peter Twisk for the kind approval to use their original photographs.

6

INTRODUCTION

What is the purpose of the manual? • To provide comprehensive synthesis of up-to-date knowledge on bats in Serbia and present an adequate methodology for their study in relation to EIA • To help the conservation of bat populations in an intensively changing environment, particularly in zones with direct conflicts of interest between bat conservation and planning/development • To help the experts involved in environmental impact assessment and strategic environmental assessment, in order for their studies/reports to include applicable measures for avoidance, mitigation and compensation of negative impacts of projects/plans • To help Ministry of Environment, Mining and Spatial Planning, as well as other responsible authorities, during evaluation of submitted studies/reports as they relate to bats • To introduce the investors and developers to the needs and proper way of identifying and applying of solutions for reducing negative impact on bats in the conflict zones; • To facilitate the implementation of numerous legal acts related to conservation of protected species.

Who are the intended users of this manual? • The experts of the Ministry of Environment, Mining and Spatial Planning, Institutes for Nature Conservation and other responsible governmental and public institutions; • Investors, planners and developers, as well as the experts involved in environmental impact assessment and strategic environmental assessment; • Experts from the nongovernmental sector, general public and other parties interested / which might be stakeholders in this topic.

7

INTRODUCTION

How to use this manual? • Practical section provides the procedural list of steps necessary for impact assessment proposed by projects, as well as the strategic environmental assessment regarding these plans and the bats living in the area of their realization. It presents a list of steps that should be undertaken in order to form an appropriate impact assessment of each plan/project on the bat population. They include reference charts, appropriate methods and periods of study and possible means of avoidance, mitigation and compensation of the harmful effects in the most problematic zones. This chapter also includes practical tools for assessing these studies/reports, and sums up the relevant legal remedies. • Legislation overview includes all relevant international and national legislative acts that pertain to protection and conservation of bats. There is a special unit on natural legal ordinances on environmental impact assessment that pertain to bats. • Expert section elaborates on all the important aspects of life cycle, specific biological characteristics and behavior of bats, as well as the principal methods of studying them. It presents the most common problem situations concerning the bat fauna in Serbia, as well as the recommended measures for avoidance, mitigation and compensation of these situations. Although they are not a direct subject of impact assessments, the additional data on forest-dwelling and anthropophilic bats are also included, as they might be useful for planners, environmental experts and legislative institutions as a way of introducing them to the best ways of evading any conflicts with bats. • Annexes (Reference charts) provide the he most important data on bats, organized according to the type of habitat, function, research methods, research periods and appropriate measures.

8

INTRODUCTION

DISCLAIMER Although all necessary measures and special care were taken during the preparation of this manual in order to make the content as precise and useful as possible, the authors and all third parties participating in its preparation do not take upon themselves any legal responsibility for eventual losses or damage that might happen if these manual are used and studies and assessments performed by any persons and institutions lacking the appropriate qualifications, experience and permits for working with bats. All the presented case studies, regulations and rules match the national and international laws. The main goal of this manual is to present the practical and legally founded advice in the most common conflict situations faced in the field of bat conservation. In most cases, the scientific data has been simplified in order to make the text easier to comprehend. This manual should never be used as a guidebook for performing scientific studies on bats without the additional knowledge, expertise, permits and opinions of institutions working in these fields. This manual also include presently known measures that may be used for avoidance, mitigation and compensation of impact of planning, construction and functioning of infrastructure on bats and nature in general, but the authors strongly advise that these measures are constantly developing and that it is necessary to constantly look for and implement new knowledge. The measures should be based on functionality of bat habitats at the studied site and directed toward solution of particular defined problems. The measures presented in this manual are based on international experience, but they have been modified through discussion, cooperation and thematic workshops with international consultants and experts and all interested stakeholders in Serbia, so this international knowledge would be better adapted to specific situations and conditions in Serbia.

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10

PRACTICAL SECTION GOOD PRACTICES IN ASSESSING THE IMPACT OF PROJECTS/PLANS ON BATS

PRACTICAL GUIDELINESS FOR RESPONSIBLE AUTHORITIES

PRACTICAL SECTION

GOOD PRACTICES IN ASSESSING THE IMPACT OF PROJECTS/PLANS ON BATS Environmental impact assessment studies and Strategic environmental assessment reports should include a section pertaining to the bats, explaining the possible impact of particular development project/plan on bat populations and species inhabiting or using the project/planning area. In order to prepare a successful impact assessment of a project/plan on bats, it should inevitably fulfill certain conditions outlined in the Law on environmental impact assessment / Law on strategic environmental assessment and other legislations under these laws. In the further text, these conditions are presented as a list of questions that should be answered in a impact assessment in order for the potential impacts of certain project/plan on bats to be adequately assessed. At the same time, these questions also represent the steps that must be taken while planning a good impact assessment on bats, and may be used by environmental exerts or agencies performing studies on impact assessment as guidelines for preparing the offers for bat surveys, as they are an integral part of assessment studies on impact by particular projects, in the section pertaining to bats. These questions may also help the investors/ developers to determine if a certain offer for bat survey (which is an integral part of the impact assessment study) and the finnished study/report are satisfactory. In other words, on one hand it is possible to determine if a certain proposal of bat survey is well planned and able to provide answers to these questions, while on the other hand it is possible to estimate if the finished study/report provides answers to these questions. The questions may also be useful to an investor when submitting an application for a decision on the need for an impact assessment and an application for a decision on the scope and content of the EIA study.

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PRACTICAL SECTION

In the same way these questions may be useful for competent government authorities in deciding on the need for an impact assessment, on the scope and content of the EIA study and on EIA study approval (and Technical Commissions during the procedure of EIA Study evaluation), as well as when deciding on need for strategic environmental assessment, reviewing the reports on strategic environmental assessment and deciding on Strategic environmental assessment reports approval.

1

IS THE PRESENCE OF BATS PROVEN OR POSSIBLE AT THE SITE OR IN THE VICINITY OF THE SITE OF THIS PROJECT/PLAN? If precise data on bats at a certain site is missing (which is most often the case in Serbia), see ANNEX I. It includes the details on species that may be expected in various habitats, so if only the habitat data is known it is possible to form some picture of what may be expected at the site. The basic data on the site, including the habitats, should be included in the documentation submitted by the project developer (in an application for a decision on the need for an impact assessment or in an application on the scope and content of the EIA study). It is also possible to consult topographic and vegetation maps, as well as the relevant satellite pictures available to public (for example Google Earth).

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ANNEX I

p. 114

IS THERE A POSSIBILITY THAT BAT HABITATS AND ACTIVITIES AT THE SITE OR IN VICINITY OF THE SITE OF THIS PROJECT/PLAN MIGHT BE INFLUENCED BY THIS PROJECT/PLAN, CAUSING POSSIBLE CONFLICTS? Compare the basic data on characteristics of the project/plan and activities planned for all stages of realization of this project/plan (research and planning, construction, operation and decommission of the infrastructure in question), which should be included in the documentation submitted by the project deveoler (in an application for a decision on the need for an impact assessment or in an application on the scope and content of the EIA study), with the ANNEX III.

ANNEX III

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p. 116

PRACTICAL SECTION

WHAT FUNCTION MAY THE HABITATS AT THE SITE OR IN VICINITY OF THE SITE OF THE PROJECT/PLAN HAVE FOR (POTENTIALLY) PRESENT BATS?

ANNEX II

p. 115

When there is a lack of exact information on bats at a certain site (which is most often the case in Serbia) see ANNEX II. Special attention should be paid to the most important functions of the habitats for the (potentially) present bats: roosts (presence of nursery, mating, hibernation, and transitory roosts), flight paths (local, migration), and hunting areas. The exact information on function of a habitat for bats at a certain site is as a rule lacking in Serbia, except for those sites that include some of the important colonies/roosts. Therefore, the function of a habitat may be indirectly determined according to the existing information on habitats and their already known functions for bats. For example, areas with potentially high insect concentration may be important hunting areas (forest glades, fragments of forest and shrub vegetation in open areas, water surfaces); linear elements of landscape may be important local flight paths (alleys, hedges, waterways, roads) while the valleys of larger rivers and canals may be important migration routes. IN WHAT WAYS MAY THE HABITATS AND ACTIVITIES OF BATS (POTENTIALLY) PRESENT AT THE SITE OR VICINITY OF THE SITE OF THE PROJECT/PLAN BE INFLUENCED BY THE PROJECT/PLAN? In this step it is necessary to determine and assess all potential impact of the project/plan on bat species and populations, their activities and functionality of the habitat, as well as the possible conflicts. Therefore, this analysis is usually called the preliminary conflict analysis, and it is performed based on information gathered in the previous phases (questions and steps 1-3).

ANNEX II

p. 116

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3

In the preliminary analysis of conflict between certain activities and life functions of bats the ANNEX III might be useful.

4

PRACTICAL SECTION

The potential impacts/conflicts depend on one hand on the activities proposed by the project/plan, and on the other hand on specific ecological characteristics of present species and populations of bats at the particular site. The conflict analysis should include all phases of the project – research and planning, construction, operation and decommission, as well as all the aspects and activities within these phases. This analysis should also include all the possible functions of certain habitats for specimens of all (potentially) present bat species, during all phases of their life cycle, particularly: roosts, hunting areas, flight paths and migration routes. The following table might be helpful in this analysis:

Roosts

Hibernation Nursery Mating

Connectivity

Migration routes

Flight paths

Hunting

Transitory Hunting areas Most important food production areas Roosts – hunting areas (daily) Hunting areas – hunting areas (daily) Roosts – roosts (regular + seasonal) Summer roosts – winter roosts (local populations) Summer roosts/habitats winter roosts/habitats (migratory populations) Population – population (seasonal) Area of occurrence – area of occurrence

15

...

Activity N

Activity 1

...

Activity N

...

Operation Decommission Activity 1

Activity 1

...

Activity N

Construction

Activity N

Network of functional habitat units

Research and planning Activity 1

Project phases and activities

PRACTICAL SECTION

IS THE EXISTING INFORMATION SUFFICIENT FOR THE FINAL CONFLICT ANALYSIS AND COMPLETE ASSESSMENT OF THE IMPACT THE PROJECT/PLAN MAY HAVE ON BATS?

5

The information collected in steps 1-3 and the analysis in Step 4 enable the researcher to determine if the existing knowledge is sufficient for the final analysis of the conflicts and assessment of the impact that the particular project/plan may have on bats. In order to perform a satisfactory conflict analysis it is necessary to know the identity of bat species (potentially) present at the site and the ecological function of the habitats and landscapes at the site for these bats. The most important information considers the presence or absence of important roosts, hunting areas, flight paths and migration routes. If there is no data on bats for a certain site or if it is not satisfactory, as it is most often the case in Serbia, further assessment procedure on the impact of a particular project/plan should include collecting necessary information through field research. WHAT INFORMATION MUST BE COLLECTED THROUGH FIELD RESEARCH? Information collected in steps 1-3 and the preliminary conflict analysis (Step 4) are necessary in order to determine not only if the existing knowledge is sufficient for the final analysis of conflicts and assessment of the impact of a certain project/plan on bats, but also of the nature of the data on bats necessary for the assessment of the impacts in a reliable and well-justified manner. The field research of bats at the actual site, within the process of impact assessment, should be designed in a way that would provide this very information. As the potential impacts depend on the activities proposed in the project/plan, the field research should be focused on those ecological functions of habitats

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6

PRACTICAL SECTION

and landscape at the site and its immediate vicinity that are important to bats (particularly the roosts, hunting areas, flight paths and migration routes) and may be influenced by proposed activities where conflict is expected. For example if the project/plan proposes the removal of a fragment of forest vegetation from a certain part of the site (or a specified individual tree), the study should determine the function of that exact fragment or individual tree for present bats (all present species and populations) – are there any roosts and what is their character and importance, is the microlocation a significant hunting area etc. Some activities may even lead to direct death of individuals, in scope and importance level depending on characteristics and intensity of bat activity at the site and its immediate vicinity. Depending on the activities proposed by the plan/ project and possible conflicts on one hand, and existing information on other hand, the necessary outcome of field research must include: • Which species of bats are present and which are absent at the particular site; • Presence and positions of roosts, numbers and composition of colonies in the roosts; • Presence and positions of hunting areas, relative numbers and intensity of hunting activity of present species; • Presence and positions of flight paths, relative numbers and intensity of activity of present species at certain flight paths; • Presence and positions of migration routes, relative numbers and intensity of activity of present species at certain routes; • Seasonal dynamics of all these aspects of presence and activities of bats.

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PRACTICAL SECTION

WHAT IS THE PROPER WAY TO PERFORM APPROPRIATE FIELD RESEARCH?

ANNEX V

p. 118

ANNEX IV

p. 117

ANNEX VI

p. 120

ANNEX VII

p. 121

There are various methods of field research on bats. Each of them has its own specific characteristics and may provide different information in a qualitative and quantitative sense, and they also vary in efficiency. Each method may have advantages and disadvantages regarding the possibility and precision of identification of species (ANNEX V) and functions of habitats (ANNEX IV), as well as the possibilities of use in different habitat types (ANNEX VI) and/or different seasons (ANNEX VII). In order to form as complete a picture as possible on the presence of bat species at a given site and their use of habitats and landscape, during the field research it is necessary to use appropriate combinations of methods, with proper dynamics and intensity of study. Which combination of methods will be chosen and implemented depends on the information necessary for impact assessment (Step 6), as well as on the ecological characteristics of each site – present habitat types, potentially present species and ecological functions of site for these species. Keeping all these factors in mind, it is necessary to prepare a proper plan of field studies, including definition of: • proper combination of methods • proper intensity of study (number of work days/ nights per week or month, number of researchers employed) • proper (seasonal) dynamics of research • proper spatial distribution of research (the area and elements of space that should be surveyed)

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7

PRACTICAL SECTION

In the preparation of a proper plan of field research, ANNEXES IV-VII might be useful. General recommendations on research methodology in EIA studies of certain types of projects/plans are presented in more detail in this manual, within special chapters for each particular type of project.

ANNEX IV ANNEX V ANNEX VI ANNEX VII

p. 117 p. 118 p. 120 p. 121

The research plan should fulfill at least minimal quality standards: • The combination of methods used should reliably prove or disprove the presence of any and all potentially present species (ANNEXES V and IX); • The necessary methods must be applied with certain intensity in order to achieve high reliability in proving or disproving the presence of all potentially present species and ecological functions of the site as applied to them (ANNEX IV) which may be influenced by the project/plan; • It is necessary to apply appropriate methods in appropriate seasons, in order to reliably prove or disprove the presence of all potentially present species and ecological functions of the site as applied to them (ANNEX VII) that may be affected by the impact of project/plan; • It is necessary to apply appropriate methods in appropriate habitat types, in order to reliably prove or disprove the existence of all potentially present species and ecological functions of the site as applied to them (ANNEX VI) that may be affected by the impact of project/plan;

ANNEX V

p. 118

ANNEX IX

p. 123

ANNEX IV

p. 117

ANNEX VII

ANNEX VI

• It is necessary for the research to include a period long enough, all seasonal aspects and the whole area where impact of project/plan on all potentially present bat species and ecological functions of the site as applied to them may be expected.

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p. 121

p. 120

PRACTICAL SECTION

If a certain research plan does not fulfill the cited standards (for example, it does not use standard methods, does not include all seasonal aspects or all habitat types at the site etc.), it is necessary to provide a clear explanation why it is still believed that such a plan of research may provide sufficient assessment of impact of that particular project/plan. Field studies are performed according to a research plan and should fulfill the same criteria and quality standards. All details on methodology (methods, intensity, dynamics, scope) used during the research must be elaborated in the report/study on impact assessment in a clear manner and sufficient detail. It is particularly important to provide a clear explanation why a research plan that does not fulfill the cited standards would be able to provide a satisfactory impact assessment for the particular project/plan. WHAT IS THE FUNCTION AND IMPORTANCE OF THE SITE POTENTIALLY INFLUENCED BY THE PROJECT/PLAN FOR BATS? In this step it is necessary to perform an analysis and evaluation of the presence of bats in the area potentially influenced by the project/plan. These analyses and evaluation are performed according to the information collected in steps 1-3, data collected through field research, relevant literature and the specialist knowledge of the bat expert who is performing the environmental impact assessment or strategic environmental assessment. It is necessary to perform the following in a clear manner with a good data foundation:

ANNEX I

p. 114

ANNEX VIII

p. 122

ANNEX IX

p. 123

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• The general analysis and evaluation of present state of bat fauna and each of the species present in the area potentially influenced by the project/plan, compared to the situation on the regional and national (it may be aided by ANNEXES I, VIII and IX), and in certain cases even on the international level;

8

PRACTICAL SECTION

• The general ecological analysis and evaluation of proven and potential ecological functions of habitats for each of the present bat species, (particularly) at the site potentially influenced by the project/plan; • Detailed analysis and evaluation of determined ecological functions of habitats for bats (particularly the roosts, hunting areas, flight paths and migration routes) in the area potentially influenced by the project/plan, separately for each present species (with the help of the data from ANNEXES I, VIII and IX).

ANNEX I ANNEX VIII ANNEX IX

9

WHAT ARE THE EXPECTED IMPACTS OF PROJECT/PLAN ON BATS AND THEIR HABITATS, AND WHAT IS THEIR SIGNIFICANCE? According to all the collected data (steps 1-3, field research), the preliminary conflict analysis (step 4), analysis and evaluation in step 8, relevant literature and knowledge and experience of a bat expert, it is possible to make a reliable identification of possible impacts of project/plan on bats (the particular activities proposed by project/plan) and to assess their significance. This is actually the final conflict analysis, representing both the evaluation of the preliminary conflict analysis (step 4) and its addition, so the table used for the preliminary analysis may be used here as well, and ANNEX III can also be helpful. It is necessary to make an argument-based assessment of impacts of the activities proposed by the project/plan and to judge their significance for: • roosts, hunting areas, flight paths and migration routes present in the project/plan area; • functionality of certain parts and elements of habitats and landscape where it was proven or where there are strong indications that bats are using them; • species and local and migratory populations (particularly the possibility of fatalities).

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p. 114 p. 122 p. 123

PRACTICAL SECTION

WHAT ARE THE APPROPRIATE MEASURES FOR AVOIDANCE, MITIGATION AND COMPENSATION OF ADVERSE EFFECTS OF PROJECT/PLAN ON BATS AND THEIR HABITATS? According to all previously collected data and performed analyses, the relevant literature and e knowledge and experience of a bat expert, it is necessary to develop and proposed concrete measures for avoidance, mitigation and compensation of adverse effects of the project/plan on bats and their habitats. In order to develop appropriate measures for avoidance, mitigation and compensation of adverse effects of the project/planfor bats and their habitats it is necessary to have immense expert knowledge that includes: • excellent knowledge and understanding of ecological specific features of all present bat species; • excellent knowledge and understanding of habitat and landscape functions to bats; • understanding the possible effects on bats by changes and activities/interventions in habitats and landscapes; • understanding and good knowledge of latest information on ways of avoidance, mitigation and compensation of harmful impacts. It is also necessary to have a very good knowledge of: • specific features of the situation in the particular area potentially affected by the project/plan, and particularly its function and importance for bats; • specific features of possible impacts of all aspects and activities of the particular project/plan during all phases (research and planning, construction, operation and decommission).

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PRACTICAL SECTION

It should also be noted that the specific features of the present bat community and the specific features of certain activities proposed by project/plan might cause the need for developing different measures for different species or species groups. It is preferable to have the measures for avoidance, mitigation and compensation of adverse effects (needed to complete the report/study) already developed during the planning/development stage of the project/plan, as they will be ready to be included in the project/plan and implement more efficiently (in coordination with the investor/planner), and consequently yield better results and have a better effect. The guidelines for developing adequate avoidance, mitigation and compensation measures for certain types of projects/plans are presented in more detail in this manual, within special chapters for each particular type of project.

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PRACTICAL SECTION

PRACTICAL GUIDELINESS FOR COMPETENT GOVERNMENT AUTHORITIES In this section, legal procedures regarding the actions of the competent government authorities in certain phases of the environmental impact assessment and the environmental impact assessment, have been put to practice in such a way as to include bats, adequately and as simple as possible. Legal foundation Law on environmental impact assessment Articles 4, 8, 9, 10 and 12. Ordinance on determining the List of projects for which an impact assessment is mandatory and the List of projects for which an impact assessment may be required. Rulebook on content of application for a decision on the need for an impact assessment and content of application for a decision on the scope and content of the environmental impact assessment study

DECISION ON NEED FOR ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT DECISION ON THE SCOPE AND CONTENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT STUDY (including Impact assessment of the current status) KEY QUESTION: Is it possible to expect/estimate that this project may have significant or possible impact on bats? This question consists of two sub-questions: 1. Are bats present or is it possible that they are present at the project site or in its vicinity? See: GOOD PRACTICES IN ASSESSING IMPACT ANNEX I p. 114

1

p. 13

2. Is it possible that bat habitats and activities at the project site or its vicinity may be affected by this project – is there a possibility of conflicts? See: GOOD PRACTICES IN ASSESSING IMPACT ANNEX III p. 116

2

p. 13

If the answer on both these sub-questions is YES, it should be officially determined that the project may have a significant or possible impact on bats and that environmental impact assessment SHOULD BE REQUIRED, and that bats SHOULD BE INCLUDED in the environmental impact assessment.

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I II

PRACTICAL SECTION

III

DECISION ON THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT STUDY APPROVAL (including the EIA Study evaluation procedure)

1

Legal foundation Law on environmental impact assessment, Articles 17, 23 and 24

In order for the environmental impact assessment study, which according to the Decision on scope and content of EIA study has to include bats, to get a positive evaluation in part pertaining to bats and therefore get an approval of competent authorities, it must fulfill the relevant criteria prescribed by Law on environmental impact assessment, Rulebook on content of environmental impact assessment study and Decision on content and scope of study. These criteria have been implemented for bats here in form of questions that must be answered in unambiguous manner by the EIA study, and steps that should be taken during the procedure of evaluation of EIA study, in order for the study to be approved in the part concerning bats.

Rulebook on content of environmental impact assessment study

WERE PRESENCE OF BATS AND FUNCTIONS OF HABITATS AND LANDSCAPE FOR BATS AT THE PROJECT SITE RELIABLY PROVEN OR EXCLUDED IN APPROPRIATE WAY?

Legal foundation

This question consists of three sub-questions: 1. Was research on bats performed by using adequate methodology? See: GOOD PRACTICES IN ASSESSING IMPACT

7 METHODS AND TECHNIQUES OF BAT RESEARCH

Law on environmental impact assessment, Article 17, Line 1, point 5) Rulebook on content of environmental impact assessment study Article 3, Line 1, point 5) Article 6, Line 1, point 2)

p. 18 p. 62

Only with use of adequate methodology it is possible to RELIABLY determine or exclude presence of bats and function of habitats and landscape for bats. If in the EIA study there are any aspects of methodology NOT CLEARLY STATED, it is necessary to demand MODIFICATIONS AND AMENDMENTS to the EIA Study.

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PRACTICAL SECTION

The adequate methodology includes: ANNEX V

p. 118

ANNEX IX

p. 123

ANNEX I

p. 114

• Use of methods that can reliably prove or exclude (ANNEXES V and IX) presence of expected species (ANNEX I);

p. 117

• Use of methods that may reliably prove or exclude presence of life functions of habitats and landscape for bats (ANNEX IV);

ANNEX VI

p. 120

• Use of methods matching the habitat conditions at the particular site (ANNEX VI);

ANNEX VII

p. 121

• Appropriate dynamics (ANNEX VII);

ANNEX IV

• Appropriate spatial coverage and intensity of research. If the methodology is NOT ADEQUATE for any of the cited reasons, it is necessary to demand MODIFICATIONS AND AMENDMENTS to the EIA Study, which will include ADDITIONAL RESEARCH with use of adequate methodology. In case of any dilemma regarding the methodology, it is necessary to consult a bat expert. If all aspects of research methodology are CLEARLY PRESENTED AND ADEQUATE, The EIA Study EVALUATION PROCEDURE may be CONTINUED. 2. Was presence of any bats recorded at the project site? If the PRESENCE of bats at the site (and close vicinity of site) was RELIABLY EXCLUDED (if it was not proven by using adequate methodology), the study should be POSITIVELY EVAULATED and the decision GRANTING THE APPROVAL of the EIA study adopted. In case of dilemma that might appear when presence of bats was expected (ANNEX I) but not proven, it is necessary to consult a bat expert. If PRESENCE of bats at the site (and closer vicinity) was PROVEN, an integral part of EIA study must be the SPECIES LIST of bats. If the list of determined species (with application of adequate methodology) shows significant differences from the expected conditions (ANNEXES I, VIII and IX), the study must include a proof-based comment/explanation of recorded condition.

26

PRACTICAL SECTION

If the study DOES NOT INCLUDE THE SPECIES LIST AND APPROPRIATE DISCUSSION of comparison between expected and determined conditions, it is necessary to demand MODIFICATIONS AND AMENDMENTS to the EIA Study. In case of any dilemma, a bat expert should be consulted. If the study DOES INCLUDE THE SPECIES LIST AND APPROPRIATE DISCUSSION of comparison between expected and determined conditions, The EIA Study EVALUATION PROCEDURE may be CONTINUED. 3. Were functions of habitats and landscapes as pertaining to bats positively proven at the project site? See: GOOD PRACTICES IN ASSESSING IMPACT

8

p. 20

Without the reliably determined functions that habitats and landscapes of project site (and close vicinity) have for present bat species, it is impossible to perform a well-founded assessment of this project’s impact on bats. Therefore, it is necessary for the study to state in a clear, well-explained manner the positions and importance of determined and potential ecological functions of habitats at the site (and closer vicinity) for bats, and especially: roosts, hunting areas, flight paths and migration routes. If the study DOES NOT CONTAIN THE REPRESENTATION OF FUNCTIONS OF HABITATS at this site for bats, it is necessary to demand MODIFICATIONS AND AMENDMENTS to the EIA Study. In case of any dilemma that may appear if the determined ecological functions are significantly different from usual (ANNEX IX), a bat expert should be consulted. If the study DOES CONTAIN THE REPRESENTATION OF ECOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS OF HABITATS at this site for bats, The EIA Study EVALUATION PROCEDURE may be CONTINUED.

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PRACTICAL SECTION Legal foundation Law on environmental impact assessment Article 17, Line 1, point 6) Rulebook on content of environmental impact assessment study. Article 7, Line 1, points 4) and 8) .

IS IT POSSIBLE TO MAKE A WELL-FOUNDED ASSESSMENT THAT THE PROJECT MAY HAVE A SIGNIFICANT ADVERSE EFFECT ON BATS? This question consists of three sub-questions: 1. Was the performed analysis of possible impacts of this project on bats complete? A complete analysis of possible impacts of the project on bats and evaluation of their significance must include: • all phases of the project (research and planning, construction, operation and decommission); • all activities proposed by the project; • all project alternatives; regarding: • all species and populations of bats determined at the site (and in the close vicinity); • all determined and possible functions of habitats and landscape at the site (and close vicinity) for bats (particularly: roosts, hunting areas, flight paths and migration routes). Impact analysis not addressing all these aspects of project and presence of bats cannot be considered complete. See: GOOD PRACTICES IN ASSESSING IMPACT GOOD PRACTICES IN ASSESSING IMPACT

4 9

p. 14 p. 21

If IMPACT ANALYSIS WAS NOT COMPLETE, it is necessary to demand MODIFICATIONS AND AMENDMENTS to the EIA Study. In case of any dilemma, a bat expert should be consulted. If the study INCLUDES A COMPLETE IMPACT ANALYSIS, The EIA Study EVALUATION PROCEDURE may be CONTINUED.

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2

PRACTICAL SECTION

2. Was the significance of all possible impacts of the project on bats adequately evaluated with proper proofs? Significance of all possible impacts of the project on all determined aspects of presence and life of all recorded bat species should be clearly evaluated with proper proofs. If ADEQUATE PROOF-BASED IMPACT EVALUATION WAS NOT PERFORMED, it is necessary to demand MODIFICATIONS AND AMENDMENTS to the EIA Study. In case of any dilemma that may appear if evaluations of impact of certain activities are significantly different from the usual values (ANNEX III), a bat expert should be consulted.

ANNEX III

If ADEQUATE PROOF-BASED IMPACT EVALUATION WAS PERFORMED in the study, The EIA Study EVALUATION PROCEDURE may be, CONTINUED.

3. Was it estimated that the project may have a significant adverse effect on bats and determined functions of habitats and landscapes for them? If it was assessed (by using well-proven facts) that the project DOES NOT HAVE A SIGNIFICANT ADVERSE EFFECT on bats at the site (and close vicinity), the study should be POSITIVELY EVAULATED and the decision GRANTING THE APPROVAL of the EIA study adopted. If it was assessed (by using well-proven facts) that the project MAY HAVE A SIGNIFICANT ADVERSE EFFECT on bats at the site (and close vicinity), The EIA Study EVALUATION PROCEDURE may be CONTINUED.

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p. 116

PRACTICAL SECTION Legal foundation Law on environmental impact assessment, Article 17, Line 1, point 8) Article 23, Line 1 Rulebook on content of environmental impact assessment study. Article 9, Line 1

DOES THE STUDY CONTAIN A COMPLETE AND ADEQUATE PROPOSAL OF AVOIDANCE, MITIGATION AND COMPENSATION MEASURES OF ADVERSE EFFECTS OF THE PROJECT ON BATS? This question consists of two sub-questions: 1. Is the study containing the full description of measures for avoidance, mitigation and compensation? In order for the proposal of measures for avoidance, mitigation and compensation of any significant adverse effects of the project on bats to be complete, it must include the measures pertaining to all identified more important impacts of this project on bats and functions of habitats and landscape for bats. If the DESCRIPTION OF MEASURES for avoidance, mitigation and compensation of adverse effects of this project on bats is INCOMPLETE, it is necessary to demand MODIFICATIONS AND AMENDMENTS to the EIA Study. If the DESCRIPTION OF MEASURES for avoidance, mitigation and compensation of negative impacts of this project on bats is COMPLETE, The EIA Study EVALUATION PROCEDURE may be CONTINUED. 2. Are the avoidance, mitigation and compensation measures suggested in the study adequate? See: GOOD PRACTICES IN ASSESSING IMPACT 10

p. 22

Adequate measures are those that are efficient and appropriate to identified impacts, particularly regarding: • the ecological features of bat species; • determined specific features of presence and activity of bat species and populations at the site (and in the close vicinity); • specific characteristics of the project. The guidelines for developing adequate avoidance, mitigation and compensation measures for certain types of projects are presented in detail in this manual, within special chapters for each particular type of project.

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3

PRACTICAL SECTION

If the suggested MEASURES of avoidance, mitigation and compensation of adverse effects of particular project on bats ARE NOT ADEQUATE (i.e. do not match the recommendations for particular type of project outlined in these manual), it is necessary to demand MODIFICATIONS AND AMENDMENTS to the EIA Study. In case of any dilemma, a bat expert should be consulted. If the study is indeed suggesting ADEQUATE MEASURES of avoidance, mitigation and compensation of adverse effects of particular project on bats, The EIA Study EVALUATION PROCEDURE may be CONTINUED.

4

WAS THERE ANY NEW IMPORTANT AND VALID INFORMATION PROVIDED DURING THE PUBLIC HEARING? Information collected during the public hearing should be compared with the EIA study and their validity checked according to criteria/questions 1-3 in this questionnaire, while in case of any dilemma a bat expert should be consulted.

Legal foundation Law on environmental impact assessment, Article 20 Article 23, Line 1

If the PUBLIC HEARING HAS PROVIDED NEW IMPORTANT AND VALID INFORMATION, it is necessary to demand MODIFICATIONS AND AMENDMENTS to the EIA Study. If the PUBLIC HEARING DID NOT PROVIDE NEW IMPORTANT AND VALID INFORMATION, the study should be POSITIVELY EVAULATED and the decision GRANTING THE APPROVAL of the EIA study adopted, setting out specifically the conditions and measures, which should be undertaken to avoid, mitigate and compensate adverse effects of the project on bats.

***

After the study on impact assessment is approved, it is necessary to consistently implement CHECKING THE FULFILLMENT and SUPERVISION OVER THE FULFILLMENT OF CONDITIONS set out in approval, and particularly measures of avoidance, mitigation and compensation of adverse effects of particular project on bats.

Legal foundation Law on environmental impact assessment, Article 24, Line 2, Article 31, Article 35, Article 36, Line 1, point 5) Article 37, Line 1, points 4)-7)

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PRACTICAL SECTION

DECISION ON THE STRATEGIC ASSESSMENT E L A B O R AT I O N

I

Competent environmental protection authority provides a recommendation/opinion upon which the competent planning authority, shall make the decision on the strategic assessment elaboration. Legal foundation Law on strategic environmental impact assessment Article 9, Line 1 Article 6 Annex I

KEY QUESTION: Is it possible to expect/estimate that this plan/program may have a significant impact on bats? This question consists of two sub-questions: 1. Are bats present or probably present within the planning area? See: GOOD PRACTICES IN ASSESSING IMPACT ANNEX I p. 114

1

p. 13

2. Is it possible that this plan/program will significantly affect bat habitats and activities? See: GOOD PRACTICES IN ASSESSING IMPACT ANNEX III p. 116

2

p. 13

If the answer is YES to both questions, it should be officially stated that this plan/program may have a significant impact on bats, so the recommendation/opinion should state that strategic environment impact assessment is NECESSARY and SHOULD INCLUDE bats. Legal foundation Law on strategic environmental impact assessment Articles 21 and 22 Annex II

DECISION MAKING ON APPROVAL OF THE STRATEGIC ASSESSMENT REPORT (including the evaluation of the strategic assessment report) The competent environmental protection authority evaluate the strategic assessment report and decides on approval of the strategic assessment report, The list of questions developed for environmental impact assessment may be also used for evaluation of the strategic assessment report. See: DECISION ON THE EIA ASSESSMENT APPROVAL III p. 25.

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II

LEGISLATION OVERVIEW INTERNATIONAL LEGISLATION RELEVANT FOR CONSERVATION OF BATS

NATIONAL LEGISLATION RELEVANT FOR CONSERVATION OF BATS

NATIONAL LEGISLATION ON ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT RELEVANT FOR BATS

LEGISLATION OVERVIEW

INTERNATIONAL LEGISLATION RELEVANT FOR CONSERVATION OF BATS Many international agreements and contracts pertain to conservation of fauna and flora, certain elements or environment as a whole. Some of them have a direct or indirect goal of protection and conservation of bats or their habitats and roosts. The European Bat Night The European Bat Night (EBN) is organized simultaneously in almost all European countries each year, for 14 years running. The initiative came from within theEUROBATS Agreement. The goal of The EBN is popularization of these flying mammals, introducing the public to the specific details of their way of life, as well as eliminating the beliefs regarded these animals, which are often thought to possess some unnatural and magical qualities. On the EBN, educational events are organized in many European countries. In Serbia, Wildlife Conservation Society “Mustela” and Natural History Museum organized the first European Bat Night on August 25 2001 at Mali Kalemegdan in Belgrade, and since then it has been traditionally celebrated every year.

CONVENTION ON CONSERVATION OF MIGRATORY WILD SPECIES (THE BONN CONVENTION) This convention pertains to migratory species and those that regularly cross the political boundaries of countries. It prescribes joint activities of all countries where the migratory species spend at least one part of their life cycle within their borders, as it is recognized that the threatened migratory species may be successfully protected and safeguarded only if the protection measures are implemented along the whole migration route of these species. Serbia has ratified the Bonn Convention in 2007 (Službeni glasnik RS, No. 102/07). Appendix I of this convention includes species in danger of extinction, where capturing and use of this species is completely forbidden except in special and exceptional cases. Species listed in Appendix II are migratory species with unfavorable conservation status or ones that would benefit significantly from international cooperation that may be achieved with international agreements. All European bat species are included in Appendix II.

Detail from the European Bat Night in Belgrade

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The Convention allows for development of special agreements or memoranda of understanding in order to protect certain species. One of such instruments that include all European bat species is The Agreement on the Conservation of Populations of European Bats (EUROBATS).


THE AGREEMENT ON THE CONSERVATION OF POPULATIONS OF EUROPEAN BATS (EUROBATS) This agreement is a special implementation document of the Bonn Convention. It was prepared in 1991 and became legally binding in 1994. Through legislation, education, measures of conservation and international cooperation of Parties to the Agreement and prospective future Parties, the goal of this Agreement is protection and conservation of European populations of all 52 species of bats that have been recorded in Europe recently. Serbia has not yet joined this Agreement, but since 2000 is an active observer in the Advisory Committee. Inclusion in the Agreement is expected to take place in near future, as the European integrations include integration in the international system of nature conservation and protection. The international action plan was formed in 1995 at the First Session of the Meeting of Parties to the Agreement. The Advisory Committee was established in order to monitor the implementation of action plans between the annual meetings of Parties. The most important activities of Advisory Committee are monitoring and international activities. The goal of Pan-European monitoring is to identify population trends and to facilitate the timely introduction of measures to address any problems that may be noticed during the monitoring. The study was based on representative species. The international protection measures should primarily be directed at the species with the longest distance migrations over Europe, in order to identify and address possible dangers caused by certain phenomena or events during the migration. Therefore, the task of the Advisory Committee is to examine the available data on migration behavior of representative bat species. The results of these studies should lead to a comprehensive international program of conservation for the most threatened bat species in Europe.

On the EUROBATS Secretariat The EUROBATS Secretariat was formed in 1995, at the First Session of the Meeting of Parties. Its activities have started in 1996 and its headquarters are located with the Secretariat of the Bonn Convention and other institutions of the United Nations in the field of environmental protection and development in Bonn, Germany. Its particular functions are to: • serve as a point for exchanging information, and to co-ordinate international research and monitoring initiatives; • organize Meetings of the Parties and the Advisory Committee; • stimulate proposals for improving the effectiveness of the Agreement, and attract more countries to participate in and join the Agreement; • increase public awareness, through all available media, of the threats to bat populations in Europe, and to indicate the possible activities towards their conservation.

35


CONVENTION ON BIOLOGICAL DIVERSIT Y ( THE RIO CONVENTION) The countries signing this Convention are obliged to take measures of rehabilitation and renewal of degraded ecosystems and promotion of recovery of threatened species, through development and implementation of plans and other management strategies, with the goal of conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity. The signing Parties must also develop the necessary laws and/or other regulatory legislatives for conservation of the threatened species and populations. The Parties must also adopt measures of recovery and rehabilitation of threatened species and their reintroduction into the natural habitats under appropriate conditions. Serbia is a Party of this Convention since 1992. The Convention was ratified in 2001 and became legally valid in May 2002.

CONVENTION ON THE CONSERVATION OF EUROPEAN WILDLIFE AND NATURAL HABITATS ( THE BERN CONVENTION) This convention pertains to conservation and protection of plant and animal species in nature and their natural habitats, particularly when said protection demands international cooperation. Serbia has ratified this convention in 2007 (Službeni glasnik RS, No. 102/07). Appendix I includes strictly protected species of flora under special legal and management conservation measures, including the ban on deliberate picking, collecting, cutting, uprooting, possession and sale. Appendix II includes strictly protected species of fauna under special legal and management conservation measures, including the ban on capturing, keeping, disturbance, deliberate killing, possession and sale. Appendix III includes a list of protected species of fauna under special conservation measures, including closed season and other measures of limited and regulated exploitation.

36


All bats are included in Appendix II, with the exception of species Pipistrellus pipistrellus, which was placed in Appendix III.

EUROPEAN UNION DIRECTIVE [92/43/EEC] ON THE CONSERVATION OF NATURAL HABITATS AND WILD FLORA AND FAUNA (HABITATS DIRECTIVE) This directive is an implementation instrument of the Bern Convention for countries that are member states of European Union. The directive obliges the member states of EU to provide adequate protection and conservation of wild flora and fauna and of natural habitats. As a potential candidate for membership in EU, Serbia is still not obliged to implement the European Directive on Habitats and Species, but its parts are mostly either already included within the national regulations or their inclusion is presently being prepared. This Directive prescribes determination of a network of special protected areas (NATURA 2000), necessary for conservation and protection of certain species of fauna and flora. This Directive includes two categories of protected species: • Annex II – Animal and plant species of community interest whose conservation requires the designation of special areas of conservation. This annex includes 13 species of European bats: Rhinolophus blasii, Rh. euryale, Rh. ferrumequinum, Rh. hipposideros, Rh. mehelyi, Barbastella barbastellus, Myotis bechsteinii, M. blythii, M. capaccinii, M. dasycneme, M. emarginatus, M. myotis i Miniopterus schreibersii. • Annex IV – Animal and plant species of community interest in need of strict protection. All bat species were included in Annex IV.

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NATIONAL LEGISLATION RELEVANT FOR CONSERVATION OF BATS According to the goal of Serbia to achieve the status of candidate for joining the European Union, followed by the full membership, as soon as possible, the national legislative in the field on environmental conservation was mostly harmonized with regulations of European Union over the last several years.

LAW ON ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION (Službeni glasnik RS, No. 135/04, 36/09) This is an umbrella law “determining the integral system of environmental conservation that will provide fulfillment of human right to life and development in healthy environment and a balanced relationship between the industrial development and natural environment” (Article 1, line 1). The key points for conservation of biodiversity and of flora and fauna are paragraphs 26 and 27. Article 26, Line 1 and 2

Conservation of biosphere includes conservation of organisms, their associations and habitats, including the conservation of natural processes and natural balance within the ecosystems, with maintenance of their sustainability. Biodiversity and the biological resources should be preserved and used in a way that enables their survival, diversity, renewal and enhancement in case of disruption. Article 27, Line 2

It is forbidden to create disturbance, abuse, harm or destroy wild fauna and destroy its habitats. In case when this regulation is broken, the Law implies misdemeanor responsibility with fine or imprisonment sentence (Article 118, Line 1, point 1) as well as right and duty of inspector to “prohibit destruction and damage on wild flora and fauna and on their habitats” (Article 111, Line 1, point 4).

38


LAW ON NATURE PROTECTION (Službeni glasnik RS, No. 36/09, 88/10) “This law specifies conservation and protection of nature and biological, geological and landscape diversity as parts of natural environment.” (Article 1, Line 1). The object of conservation as specified in this law includes biological diversity, species, habitats, ecosystems (particularly forest, wetland and water ecosystems and habitats within the agroecosystems), landscapes and speleological objects. Protection and conservation of wild species, Article 71

Protection and conservation of wild species includes prevention of all activities influencing the suitable conditions of populations of wild species, destruction or damage of their habitats, litters, nests or disruption of their life cycle or suitable conditions. Suitable conditions for wild species are provided by protection of their habitats and preventive measures for certain species, in agreement with this law. Protection of habitats of wild species; Article 72, Line 1

During the implementation of tasks and activities in nature and use of natural assets in habitats of wild species, it is necessary to use measures, methods and technical means that contribute to conservation of suitable conditions for these species, and do not pose a threat to wild species and/or disturb habitats of their populations; or these tasks and activities may be limited in the period matching important phases of their life cycle. Articles 36, 48, 73 and 74 Regulation on proclamation and protection of strictly protected and protected wild species of plants, animals and fungi (Službeni glasnik RS, No. 5/10)

Out of 29 species identified in Serbia, 28 species (all except Myotis alcathoe) have a status of strictly protected wild species throughout the territory of Serbia. “It is forbidden to use, destroy or perform any other activities that may endanger the strictly protected species of plants, animals and fungi or their habitats” (Article 74).

39

LEGISLATION OVERVIEW Measures of protection for migratory species, Article 80

Public roads and other types of traffic lines, telecommunication and electric energy systems, hydroconstruction and other objects where construction cuts through the usual corridors of circadian and seasonal migrations of wild animals, causes fragmentation of habitats or otherwise disrupts their normal life cycle, have to be constructed in such a way to diminish the negative effects, with use of special construction and technicaltechnological solutions in objects and their vicinity, during both the construction and exploitation activities. Special technical-technological solutions that enable uninterrupted and safe communication of wild animal populations (ecological bridges, overpasses and underpasses, tunnels, underground tubes, ditches, safeguarding and directing objects, fish paths and elevators etc.) as well as the protection measures and way of maintenance of technical-technological solutions are prescribed by the Minister, with the agreement of Ministry in charge of traffic, mining and energy, agriculture, forestry and water industry. Regulation on special technical-technological solutions that enable uninterrupted and safe communication by wild animals (Službeni glasnik RS, No. 72/10), Article 3

The ecological corridors are determined according to the analysis of ecological conditions and threats to the area, composition of natural vegetation and movements of wild animals, particularly in the reproductive period, which is determined within the procedure of assessing the conditions of nature conservation, or environmental impact assessment, and is an integral part of the document of environmental impact assessment, as regulated in special legislations. Conservation measures for birds and bats, Article 81

Pillars and technical components of medium-voltage and high-voltage power lines must be connected in a way that will prevent birds and bats from electricity shock and mechanical injuries. The first line of this Article does not include top pillars of railway.

40


Locations of electricity generators powered by wind (wind farms) are determined in a way that will avoid their important habitats and migration routes. During the construction of high objects (wind generators, pillars, towers, bridges etc.) in the vicinity of ecologically important areas, it is necessary to implement technical-technological measures, primarily concerning the lighting of the objects, in order to avoid the negative impacts caused by such objects. It is forbidden to use strong sources of light (rotating billboard reflectors, lasers etc.) directed toward sky, unless they are used for needs of safety and control of air traffic.

Ordinance on ecological network (Službeni glasnik RS, No. 102/10) This ordinance determines the scope of ecological network, as well as the detailed forms of management and financing of the ecological network, in order to preserve biological and landscape diversity and habitat types particularly important for conservation, renewal and/or enhancement of disrupted habitats and for conservation of certain species, so it represents the process of Serbia preparing for full implementation of NATURA 2000. Article 11, Line 1

In the area of ecological network, it is necessary to monitor conditions of: 1) Habitats for populations of wild species; 2) Habitat types of particular importance for conservation; 3) Efficiency of implemented measures of conservation and enhancement, as well as the degree of fulfillment of certain goals and enhancement of functionality and integrity of ecological network. Article 14

The ecologically important areas for EU NATURA 2000 will be identified and they become a part of European ecological network NATURA 2000, on the day when Republic of Serbia joins the European Union.

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NATIONAL LEGISLATION ON ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT RELEVANT FOR BATS National legislatives in field of environmental impact assessment were completely harmonized with the regulations of European Union several years ago.

LAW ON ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT (Službeni glasnik RS, No. 135/04, 36/09) Directive of EU on Environmental impact assessment was introduced in 1985 [85/337/EEC], augmented in 1997 [97/11/EC] and implemented in the Serbian law system in 2004 with this law. “This law determines the procedure of impact assessment for projects that may significantly impact the environment, content of study on environmental impact assessment, participation of interested bodies and organizations and public, transborder flow of information on projects that may have significant environmental impact on another country, monitoring and other questions relevant for environmental impact assessment.” (Article 1, Line 1). The main purpose of this law is to provide that the consequences of projects on environment should be identified and assessed before the approval is granted. Subject of impact assessment, Article 3, Lines 1 and 3

The subjects of the impact assessment are planned projects and projects being implemented, changes in technology, reconstruction, the extension of capacity, the termination of operations, and the removal of projects that may have significant impact on the environment. Impact assessments shall be elaborated for projects in the fields of industry, mining, energy production, transport, tourism, agriculture, forestry, water management, waste management and utility services, as well as for all the projects that are planned in areas with protected natural resources of special value and within the protected zones of immobile cultural resources.

42

LEGISLATION OVERVIEW Article 6

The impact assessment procedure is composed for the following phases: 1) The decision on the need for an impact assessment of projects (...); 2) The definition of the content and scope of an impact assessment; 3) The decision on the approval for an EIA Study. Article 12

Regulates the appeal for determining the scope and content of study, and defines the criteria used to define scope and content, including: • description of environmental factors that may be affected; • description on possible significant negative impacts of this project; • description of measures prescribed with the goal of avoidance, mitigation and compensation of significant negative impacts Article 17, Line 1, Points 1)-8)

The EIA Study shall contain the following mandatory data, information and documents: 1) The data on project developer; 2) The description of the planned project site; 3) The description of the project; 4) The outline of the main alternatives studied by the project developer; 5) The outline of the environmental status at the site and its close vicinity (micro-location and macro-location); 6) The description of likely significant effects of the project on the environment; 7) The environmental impact assessment in cases of accidents; 8) The description of measures envisaged to prevent, reduce and, if possible, eliminate any significant adverse effects on the environment;

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Regulation on content of study on environmental impact assessment (Službeni glasnik RS, No. 69/05) It includes precise description of certain content elements in the study on impact assessment, as defined in the Article 17 of Law. Article 3, Line 1, Point 6)

Description of site where project is planned to be implemented includes particularly: 6) description of flora and fauna, natural assets of particular value, (protected) rare and threatened plant and animal species and their habitats, and vegetation; Article 6, Line 1, Point 2)

Description of environmental factors that are possibly under significant risk if the suggested project is implemented includes particularly: 2) fauna and flora; Article 7, Line 1, Points 4) and 8)

Description of possible significant impact of this project on natural environment includes a qualitative and a quantitative representation of possible changes in natural environment during the implementation of project, the regular activity and the case of disaster, as well as the assessment if the changes are of temporary or permanent form, particularly regarding: 4) ecosystems; 8) natural assets with special values and immobile cultural assets and their vicinity etc. Article 9, Line 1

Description of measures for avoidance, mitigation and compensation of any more significant negative impact on natural environment includes the measures for organizing the space, technical-technological, sanitaryhygienic, biological, organizational, legal, economic, and other measures.

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Ordinance on determining the List of projects for which an impact assessment is mandatory and the List of projects for which an impact assessment may be required (Službeni glasnik RS, br.114/08) This ordinance gives a precise description of projects where the impact assessment is mandatory and the projects where it may be required. It also defines the criteria of important and possible impact of projects on environment, which are used to determine the need for impact assessment.

LAW ON STRATEGIC ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT (Službeni glasnik RS, No. 135/04, 88 /10) The EU Directive on strategic environmental impact assessment [2001/42/EEC] from 2001 was implemented into the Serbian legislation system in 2004 with this law, which “regulates the conditions, methods and procedure according to which the assessment of impact of certain plans and programmes on the environment (...) shall be carried out in order to provide for the environmental protection and improvement of sustainable development through integration of basic principles of environmental protection into the procedure of preparation and adoption of plans and programmes” (Article 1). The goal of this law is to identify and assess the environmental consequences of certain plans and programs during their implementation and before acceptance. Subject of the strategic assessment, Article 5

The strategic assessment shall be carried out for all plans, programmes and sectoral master-plans (...) in the fields of spatial and town planning or land use planning, planning in the fields of agriculture, forestry, fishing industry, hunting, energy, industry, transport, waste management, water management, telecommunications, tourism, preservation of natural habitats and wildlife (flora and fauna), that set the frameworks for granting the approval for future development projects defined by the environmental impact assessment related legislations.

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LEGISLATION OVERVIEW ANNEX I Criteria for determining the possible characteristics of significant impacts: 1. Characteristics of plans and programs, and particularly:

2) problems of environmental protection with this plan and program and possibility of impact on: (5) plant and animal life; (6) habitats and biodiversity; 2. Characteristics of impacts, and particularly: 7) impact on threatened areas: (5) particularly sensitive and rare areas; (6) ecosystems; (7) plant and animal species. ANNEX II Criteria for assessing the report on strategic assessment

Elements of strategic assessment 5. Assessment on environmental impact 2) the impact assessment includes the following factors: (5) plant and animal life; (6) habitats; (7) biodiversity; 6. Measures and program of environmental monitoring 1) measures for avoidance and limiting the negative and enhancement of positive environmental impacts are planned for each assessed type of impact;

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EXPERT SECTION BATS OF SERBIA  BASIC INFORMATION

METHODS AND TECHNIQUES OF BAT RESEARCH

PROJECTS AND PLANS FOR WHICH STRATEGIC ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT IS NEEDED

EXPERT SECTION

BATS OF SERBIA  BASIC INFORMATION WHAT ARE BATS? What is it that flies with its hands, spends most time upside down and gets along in the dark as if it was daylight? Of course – a bat!

Geoffroy’s bat

Brandt’s bat

In the ancient times, people wondered – are these flying mice or hairy birds? They are neither, as bats are – bats. In the Serbian language, the term “slepi miš” (“blind mouse”) is the most common, but not the only one. Even though bats are not blind, their tiny eyes and life in the dark helped this attribute to be an integral part of their name. At the very beginning of biology as a science in our region, the first scientific and scientific-popular books included various names for bats, such as “prstokrilci” (“finger-wings”), “šakokrilci” (“hand-wings” – the literal translation of their scientific name Chiroptera), and even “životinje nogokrilate” (“animals of winged legs”)! However, the term “slepi miš” is known as an old, deeply rooted folk name for the bat. Bats are the only mammals with the ability of active flight which enabled them to conquer new areas and ecological niches, and this ability appeared very early in their evolution. Besides the flight, many bats have also developed the ability of echolocation, which enabled them to get around in space and to hunt in complete darkness. Most bats are relatively small-sized animals. They have hair and fur like other mammals. Females give birth to live young that feed on milk until they are ready to find their own food.

Palaeochiropteryx tupaiodon, a very well preserved 50 million years old bat fossil, discovered in Germany

48

The first bats are known from the Eocene period, about 50 million years ago. The fossils from that period indicate their origin from the insectivore stock, almost fully evolved wings and an already developed ability of echolocation.

EXPERT SECTION

The taxonomic order of bats is second among mammals in number of species, just after the rodents (Rodentia). It includes two suborders – flying foxes (Megachiroptera) and insectivorous bats (Microchiroptera). It is believed that both suborders have a common (monophyletic) origin. Bats are distributed all over the planet Earth, except Arctic, Antarctica and open water areas of the world oceans. The diversity is smallest in areas near the Poles, growing toward the Equator and culminating in the tropical rainforests. Even though they have been mostly considered evil spirits and devil embodiments from the dawn of civilization to this very day, recently there is more attention focused on recognizing their characteristics, way of life and their role in the nature, as well as their protection and conservation.

Rousettus aegyptiacus, the only European representative of Megachiroptera

MORPHOLOGICAL, ANATOMICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS Bats are the only mammals capable of active flight, absolutely conquering the airspace. Their body shape and structure were completely morphed by this main characteristic. The flying and echolocation enabled them to conquer nocturnal ecological niches that were not available to other mammals or any other Vertebrate group.

Western barbastelle bat

Schreiber’s bent-winged bat

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Grey long-eared bat

Parti-coloured bat

Among the bat species, 80% have the body weight under 27 g. The largest bats in the world belong to suborder of flying foxes (Megachiroptera). The bats recorded in Serbia may reach wingspan of up to 45 cm and weight of 4-45 grams. Thick, soft, medium-length fur covers their head and body, while the flying membrane is covered only with sparse hairs. Bats are generally unicolored, in dark tones. Many bats have specific skin glands on their throats, foreheads and flying membranes, secreting a substance with a strong musky smell. The females have one pair of functional teats on the sides of the chest region. The hind legs have a special structure, as the head of the femur is pressing against the surface of acetabulum not with its central part (as in other mammals), but with its lateral side. The hind leg therefore looks inverted by 180 degrees. The short toes bear sharp claws, enabling the bats to be firmly attached to the substrate while hanging upside down, even on almost smooth surfaces. The front extremities are transformed into wings. The elastic flying membrane patagium is made of skin stretched between the elongated fingers, shoulders, wrists, sides of the body, hind legs and tail. It is impregnated with a network of thin, elongated muscles giving it its strength and shape. The first finger is much less developed than the others and it is separated from the flying membrane. calcar foot

lower leg

flight membrane

upper leg uropatagium plagiopatagium

tail

propatagium dactylopatagium

tragus I finger (thumb) ear upper arm II finger forearm III finger IV finger

V finger

Greater horseshoe bat

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The whole skeleton of bats is fine and light, all the larger bones are hollow, and the muscles are extremely strong, just like in birds. The heat, which is generated in great amount during the flight and which could damage their fragile bodies, is released through the rich systems of blood vessels in the flying membrane and earlobes. The Microchiroptera are heterothermic animals – outside of their period of activity, the temperature of their bodies depends on the temperature of the environment. The unsuitable temperatures are those below 0oC as well as the very high ones as they cause the body to overheat. In the tropical areas Microchiroptera are active throughout the year, while in the temperate areas they hibernate during the colder period of the year.

Serotine bat

ECHOLOCATION Besides the flight, echolocation is the principal adaptation that enabled bats for a special way of life, specific orienteering in space, use of special types of habitat and shelter, as well as a special way of hunting and feeding. Bats are superbly adapted to night conditions and they maneuver without mistakes, evading even the smallest obstacles and catching even the tiniest insects. Their sense of sight plays almost no role in orientation in dark, but the sense of hearing is crucial. Bats emit high-frequency sound waves and later register their echo. The ultrasound is produced in bats’ throats and emitted through their mouths or nostrils. It bounces off all solid objects and through ears and skin folds that concentrate the impulses reaches the bat’s brain. Within parts of a second the sound is analyzed, giving a very precise picture on space, objects, prey, enemies and obstacles, enabling the bat to react almost immediately. All the representatives of Microchiroptera have an exceptionally well-developed ability of echolocation, while in Megachiroptera this ability was recorded only in those representatives of genus Rousettus that live in caves.

Noctule bat

Soprano pipistrelle bat

Greater mouse-eared bat

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DIET

Mosquitoes are common prey of bats

European bats feed exclusively on insects. The composition of insect fauna recorded in bat diet depends both on species of bat and availability of insect species. In any case, bats have a great impact on regulation of numbers of many species of flying insects, including mosquitoes, and they are their only significant predators. A single bat may eat up to 3,000 insects in a single night and up to 600 mosquitoes within an hour. Bat prey includes some dangerous pests of forests and agricultural crops as well as vectors of many diseases of humans and domestic animals. The great importance of bats is therefore recognized in agriculture, forestry, human and veterinary medicine.

HABITATS Bats live in the most diverse habitats, from the seacoast and banks of still and flowing fresh water bodies, forest complexes, shrub, bush and meadows, to the high-mountain pastures. They are also present in towns and villages as the closest neighbors of humans. The habitats are areas where bats fulfill their needs of shelter and diet.

Inner forest edges, including streams, forest paths and glades, are particularly important for bats.

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Forest habitats are most important for the bat conservation in Serbia

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For bats in Serbia, the forest habitats are of key importance for survival. Additionally, for the insectivorous species the most important feeding areas are the wetland and waterside habitats, including rivers, streams, lakes and irrigation channels, as they present the optimal conditions for development of a large amount of insect prey. The studies in the habitats drastically altered by human intervention in the temperate climatic zone have shown that the so-called linear elements of landscape, primarily hedgerows, forest edges, tree alleys, channels and other natural objects that are vital connections between the feeding and roosting areas have a high importance for bat survival. If the natural objects are lacking, the artificial ones may assume their important role, for example the roads, electric and telephone lines etc.

Linear landscape elements are very important for bats

Some species have adapted well to the urban environment, where they may fulfill their whole life cycle, finding enough food and shelter. The inner city centers are mostly characterized by intensive traffic and the greatest density of human populations. There are areas both with and without green surfaces, as well as spacious parks. These are the oldest parts of towns and cities, with a large number of old buildings that are very suitable for roosts. The outskirts of cities, due to the presence of larger surfaces covered with water and green vegetation and less pollution leading to higher density of insect populations, represents an important feeding area for bats. Water and wetland habitats are important hunting territories for bats

Many bat species have adapted to urban environment

Parks are extremely important for city-dwelling bats

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ROOSTS Bats are generally colonial animals, although single individuals have been recorded regularly in many species. They are not only forming groups in their daytime and winter roosts, but also when they fly out in flocks to feed. A colony of bats is a group of individuals living together in close contact. They may be very diverse regarding the number, sex and age of individuals, composition of species and function within the annual life cycle (the season when they are formed). Bats feel the need to spend most of the daytime hours in their roosts. The reasons for this behavior are their diet of crepuscular and nocturnal insects and the fact that during the day their living environment is occupied by birds. The high day temperature and low air humidity may also damage their tender wings and completely prevent the cooling process in their bodies that release a high amount of heat energy during the flight. According to the function in the life cycle of bats of the temperate climatic zone, the roosts may be generally divided into summer, nursery, mating, transitory and winter roosts. According to the roost types, all bats may be divided into three large ecological groups: lithophilous – cave-dwelling, dendrophilous – forest-dwelling and antropophilous – human-loving species.

Bats may use roosts inside the most diverse variety of human-made objects and structures

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Caves are the most important and best-known bat roost sites in Serbia

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Some bat species find suitable roosts inside human-made objects

The protection of roosts is the key for survival and conservation of bats, together with habitat conservation.

Dendrophilous bats use roosts in tree hollows or crevices, or under the bark

CIRCADIAN AND ANNUAL LIFE CYCLE With the onset of cooler weather in autumn, the quantity of insect prey decreases. Bats have answered this challenge with two strategies: hibernation and migration. Certain species move to winter roosts in the first days of autumn. There they huddle together in colonies, spending the cold period of the year in hibernation or winter sleep. All the activities and flight cease completely, and the life functions slow down and include only the occasional

Presence of bats in certain roosts is apparent only thanks to their guano – this Kuhl’s Pipistrelle’s guano on a windowsill reveals presence of a small nursery colony in the narrow crevices above the window

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disposal of metabolism by-products. The heartbeat rate drops to only about a dozen beats per minute, while the body temperature drops to just a few degrees above zero. The hibernation sites are winter roosts with constantly high humidity and temperature of 0-12oC. This does not sound very exciting, as many other mammals, such as bears, squirrels and dormice also hibernate. However, while all these other hibernating species need certain amount of time to start their life activities after hibernation, bats are able to do it in just about minute! Some other species, however, undertake migration from tens to thousand kilometers, just like birds. Several species of bats from our region migrate to the Mediterranean coastline for the colder period of the year, as prey is available throughout the year in those areas. With the first spring days of March, flights of bats already return to their more northern homelands.

Some bats hibernate as solitary individuals, while other form large colonies

Mating greater mouse-eared bats

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Our bats have a single reproduction cycle each year. Mating usually takes place in autumn and birth in spring or early summer. The spermatozoids mature in late summer, while the onset of maturation of egg cell, fertilization and implantation happen in early spring, at the awakening from hibernation. In females that have mated in autumn, the spermatozoids remain alive in the sexual ducts until the egg cells are mature. This phenomenon of prolonged preservation of living spermatozoids within the sexual ducts of males and females throughout hibernation is unique in mammals. Therefore, it may take 150-240 days from mating to birth. There is generally only one young in the litter, while in certain species there might be 2-3. Young animals develop very fast. They are born without any hair and with closed eyelids, but with feet as large as in the adult! For the first several days, young animals hang on their mothers’ bodies, attached to the nipple. They are carried by their mother while she goes hunting until they become too large. In certain species, the young start flying independently at 20-40 days, while in others it takes them three months. They generally reach sexual maturity in their second year. In many species some females may mate even in the same year they were born.

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The low production of bats is compensated by their long lifespan. Individuals of small species can live up to 20 years or longer. Megachiroptera may live 15-17 years in captivity, while the data on bat longevity in the wild has been collected by banding. Bats die at the same sites where they live and spend most of their lives. The greatest mortality was recorded in young specimens before their first flight, so dead young animals may be observed on guano piles for a short time after death. This is particularly visible in cave-dwelling species, as the acid reaction of fermented guano soon destroys calcium carbonate as well as the tissues and bones of dead animals. Therefore, it is almost impossible to find solid remains of bats under their colony roosts, so study of fossil remains is very complicated. However, the guano layer under the colony is the source of life for cave-dwelling organisms – fungi, insects, worms and other invertebrates, of which many are unique to a single cave (endemic). As these tiny creatures are so well adapted to darkness and the microclimate of the cave, they are unable to leave it. Their almost complete isolation turns almost every larger cave into a habitat for a large number of endemic species.

Nursery colony of greater horseshoe bats – the young differ from their mothers by their smaller size and muted grayish color

Large piles of guano often form under the roosts of large colonies, increasing year after year

This young Geoffroy’s bat has just been born and is still connected to its mother with the umbilical cord

Remains of dead bats are rarely found, as they rapidly decompose

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ALL SERBIAN BATS Bats are distributed throughout Serbia. There are proven records of representatives of 29 species, within 10 genera and 2 families: horseshoe bats (Rhinolophidae) – all 5 European species, and Vespertilionid bats (Vespertilionidae) – 24 recorded species. This number is considered temporary as geographic position and climatic and ecological characteristics of Serbia offer hope for finding evidence of the presence of at least five more species. Table. List of 29 bat species recorded in Serbia up to now. Scientific name Rhinolophidae Rhinolophus blasii Peters, 1866 Rhinolophus euryale Blasius, 1853 Rhinolophus ferrumeqinum (Schreber, 1774) Rhinolophus hipposideros (Bechstein, 1800) Rhinolophus mehelyi Matschie, 1901 Vespertilionidae Barbastella barbastellus (Schreber, 1774) Eptesicus serotinus (Schreber, 1774) Hypsugo savii (Bonaparte, 1837) Myotis alcathoe von Helversen & Heller, 2001 Myotis bechsteinii (Kuhl, 1817) Myotis blythii (Tomes, 1857) Myotis brandtii (Eversmann, 1845) Myotis capaccinii (Bonaparte, 1837) Myotis dasycneme (Boie, 1825) Myotis daubentonii (Kukl, 1817) Myotis emarginatus (Geoffroy, 1806) Myotis myotis (Borkhausen, 1797) Myotis mystacinus (Kuhl, 1817) Myotis nattereri (Kuhl, 1817) Nyctalus leisleri (Kuhl, 1817) Nyctalus noctula (SchreberR, 1774) Pipistrellus kuhlii (Kuhl, 1817) Pipistrellus nathusii (Keyserling & Blasius, 1839) Pipistrellus pipistrellus (Schreber, 1774) Pipistrellus pygmaeus (Leach, 1825) Plecotus auritus (Linnaeus, 1758) Plecotus austriacus (Fischer, 1829) Vespertilio murinus Linnaeus, 1758 Miniopterus schreibersii (Kuhl, 1817)

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Common english name Horseshoe bats Blasius' horseshoe bat Mediterranean horseshoe bat Greater horseshoe bat Lesser horseshoe bat Mehely's horseshoe bat Vespertilionid bats Western barbastelle bat Serotine bat Savi's pipistrelle bat Alcathoe whiskered bat Bechstein's bat Lesser mouse-eared bat Brandt's bat Long-fingered bat Pond bat Daubenton's bat Geoffroy's bat Greater mouse-eared bat Whiskered bat Natterer's bat Leisler's bat Noctule bat Kuhl's pipistrelle bat Nathusius' pipistrelle bat Common pipistrelle bat Soprano pipistrelle bat Brown long-eared bat Grey long-eared bat Parti-coloured bat Schreiber's bent-winged bat

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Table. List of 4 bat species potentially present in Serbia. Scientific name

Common english name

Vespertilionidae Eptesicus nilssonii (Keyserling & Blasius, 1839) Nyctalus lasiopterus (Schreber, 1780) Plecotus macrobullaris Kuzyakin, 1965 Molossidae Tadarida teniotis (Rafinesque, 1814)

Vespertilionid bats Northern bat Greater noctule bat Mountain long-eared Bat Vespertilionid bats European free-tailed bat

POSITION IN THE NATURE Bats are important members of every terrestrial ecosystem. They are particularly reliable indicators of current state and preservation of the ecosystems they inhabit, as well as of the balance of ecological conditions. In the temperate climate belt, they are primarily important as regulators of population numbers of flying crepuscular and nocturnal insects. Regulation of population numbers of insects to the optimal values contributes to ecological stability. In the absence of primary organic production, the troglodyte wildlife greatly depends on intake of organic matter from the outside environment. The most important vectors are cave-dwelling bats, as they leave excrements daily and often die underground as well. The organic materials brought by bats are a source of life for diverse fauna as well as flora and fungia. The intake of organic matter by bats may be considered the key for survival of fragile, partially or completely isolated underground ecosystems and their specific members.

Organic matter brought in by bats is the key survival factor for wildlife in underground ecosystems (diplopod Apfelbeckia sp. and an endemic Balkan cave cricket Troglophilus sp.)

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In many parts of Europe, it is believed that a bat nailed above the door prevents evil from entering

Beliefs on bats There are many mystical beliefs, superstitions and fears associated with the bats. Whole bats or their body parts are still used as obligatory ingredients of magic potions and objects in secret rites and magic. While the angels have always been represented with white, oval bird wings, the devils, demons and other evil beasts always had black, pointy, leathery bat wings. In Europe, the bats were associated with the evil, the devil and the witches from the time of Ancient Romans to the end of Middle Ages. However, the advance of science has gradually revealed the truth on bats. Their demystification is still one of the main tasks of conservationists and nature protectors.

The natural enemies of bats are small carnivores such as cats, weasels, martens, as well as the owls. However, their impact on bat populations is a far lower threat than the one posed by human activity. Due to superstitions and mystic elements, people have always been killing bats at their roosts. Whole bodies or body parts of bats are still being used for magic rituals, preparation of various magical potions and even “folk medicine”. On the other hand, the uncontrolled overuse of chemical materials in agriculture leads to mass deaths of these mammals – natural insecticides.

THREAT STATUS, PROTECTION AND CONSERVATION The human activities that pose a threat to bats are numerous and diverse. Therefore, we are now facing the fact that European bats are involved in accelerated, almost frantic, protection and conservation measures. Activities aiming at the survival and recovery of certain species have already shown significant results in certain European countries. They are observable as a slow but steady return of representatives of certain species to the boundaries of their former ranges. In the countries of Western and Middle Europe, where industry, agriculture and forestry are characterized as highly developed and where general human pressure on environment is extremely high, the level of threat is alarming. These phenomena were first recorded a long time ago and there is a whole system of measures aiming to suppress such a high pressure on environment, through legal measures of conservation and protection, strict realization of practical measures and constant popularization and education. The protection of species, habitats and roosts is the key factor of bat conservation.

Bat as an architectonic detail of the Triumphal Arch in Barcelonai

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The main threatening factors for bats in Serbia have been determined during the field studies (see the Table).

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Anthropogenous Natural and artificial underground roosts roosts

Roosts

Tabela. Overview of threat factors in the most important habitats and roosts in Serbia

Habitats

Chemical pollution

Changes in habitats

Fire Noise Disturbance Research Use of guano Out of meanness Direct killing For magic rituals and attacking For collections Being built over (walls erected) Inadequate Bars protection of Illuminating roosts “Adaptation” for tourist purposes Closing of the entrances Change of use New use Buildings being torn down Accidental poisoning Disturbance Exterminating Limiting the trophic resources Industry Insecticides Cutting down forests Clear-cuttings Intensive agriculture and monocultures Management of channels and rivers

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METHODS AND TECHNIQUES OF BAT RESEARCH

For more details on methodology of studying bats and standards of best practice, please see: Battersby, J. (comp.) (2010): Guidelines for Surveillance and Monitoring of European Bats. EUROBATS Publication Series No. 5. UNEP / EUROBATS Secretariat, Bonn, Germany, 95 pp. Mitchell-Jones, A.J., McLeish, A. P. (eds). 2004. 3rd Edition Bat Workers’ Manual. Joint Nature Conservation Committee, Peterborough, UK, 178 pp.

Methods and techniques for studying bats are specific and mostly different from those applied for studying other taxonomic groups of mammals. This specific feature is a reflection of special biological characteristics of bats that set them clearly apart from other mammals. In order to perform any scientific and/ or expert research on bats and prepare the studies on the presence and present state of populations and impact of infrastructure projects on them, it is necessary to use one or more proven methods and techniques. The methods and techniques that will be used are ascertained by an expert on bats within the impact assessment team for each individual infrastructure project. That person has the appropriate responsibility to make a choice. In order to obtain the most complete and useful results necessary for performing impact assessments of all types of projects/ plans, it is necessary to combine several methods. According to the Law on Nature Protection (Službeni glasnik 36/09) and Guidelines on declaration and preservation of strictly protected wild species of plants, animals and fungi (Službeni glasnik 5/10), in order to perform any studies that require direct contact with bats it is compulsory to obtain a permit from the Ministry of Environment. It is also necessary to take precautions when using any of the chosen methods and techniques in order to have a minimal impact on bats, and they must be applied according to best practice standards. Short overview of methods and techniques of studying bats: 1. Analysis of the existing information - bibliography 2. Roost inspection 3. Analysis of the dead bat remains 4. Capture 5. Artificial roosts – bat houses 6. Marking 7. Ultrasound audio-detection 8. Molecular-genetic methods

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A N A LY S I S O F E X I S T I N G I N F O R M AT I O N – BIBLIOGRAPHY Systematic and thorough study of bats in Serbia started at the Natural History Museum in 1954, although the collections of mammals include proof specimens collected even in the late 19th century. The first written study with concrete data on bats and other mammal species dates from the second half of the 19th century. It was a part of the scientific work performed by Josif Pančić, the first Serbian biologist and botanist (Pančić 1869). The most intensive studies were performed in mid 1990s, yielding a very high amount of data; however, most of them remain unpublished to the present day. At the Natural History Museum in Belgrade, a project of collecting, systematization, combining and forming an electronic database on the bats of Serbia was started recently. The collected research data indicates that forest species of bats are the least studied in Serbia, while cave species are the ones most studies have been written about. The smallest number of data was collected in urban, central and southern parts of Serbia and the greatest number in limestone areas of Eastern and Western Serbia. The main bibliographic sources of the data on bats in Serbia are presented in a special annex at the end of this study. Advantages

It does not require special investment, as the employed experts should already be in possession of the national bibliography available for the analysis. The experts should be responsible for proper understanding and adequate use of the data in individual cases, as well as for assessment on whether the additional field studies are necessary, or if the existing data are sufficient. Limitations

There is a high probability that precise data is lacking for the particular site where the environmental impact assessment is being performed, particularly data for the period of five years prior to the assessment. If that is the case, it is necessary to perform the field research by using the other methods.

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ROOST INSPECTION In Serbia, bats use a wide spectrum of different roosts during the period of daytime rest and hibernation. Various species have different preferences for roost type (underground, tree hollows, artificial), and within the same roost they also prefer different parts of the roost (for example ceilings of spacious galleries or narrow cracks within the walls of caves, hollows, cracks or space underneath the tree bark, spacious attics or narrow spaces between structural elements of buildings). Additionally, within the roosts certain species form colonies composed of a large number of individuals, other form colonies of just a handful of individuals, some are solitary, and in certain species this behavior varies according to season. In Serbia, roosts may be composed of several individuals to several tens of thousands of bats! Therefore, roost inspection will be a more suitable method for species that form larger colonies in visually easily accessible places, and relatively complicated for solitary species that use visually poorly accessible fissure spaces. For the species that are visually poorly accessible within the roost, it is much better to perform the monitoring in immediate vicinity of the roost during the evening departure or early morning return. During the roost inspection, it is also possible to use equipment such as night-vision binoculars, classical or infrared (thermal) photographic equipment, as well as the endoscopes, which enable observation within the inaccessible narrow spaces.

Roost inspection is the most suitable method for the species that form larger colonies in visually easily accessible parts of roosts

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Inspection of roosts is most commonly performed with the goal of counting, including the identification of species and the assessment of bat population size. It is one of the basic and simplest methods. It may be performed on a particular site, regionally or in a whole country. For the purposes of assessment, the primary level is local counting; but for understanding and assessment of local population, it is necessary to understand the situation in the whole area. In order to perform the census, it is first necessary to identify and count the roosts, and then to identify the species, count the specimens and record the phases of their life cycle, ways of grouping

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and other aspects of behavior and ecology of recorded bats. They may be counted within their roosts or in their immediate vicinity during the evening departure from the roosts or the early morning return to them. Advantages

This is the easiest and most economical method for in situ assessment of species composition, population numbers and function of various bat roosts. Limitations

Due to the well-known fact that bats rarely use the same roosts throughout their annual cycle, a single visit to the roost may lead the researcher to wrong conclusions. Therefore, it is necessary to study each roost during all four seasons, including the periods of mating, reproduction, transitory periods and hibernation. This method does not yield data on other aspects of life activities of bats, or other functions of landscapes and habitats for bats. Regarding the analysis of owl pellets, it should be noted that owls have an ability to fly and may hunt in surrounding area outside of the zone included in the project.

Roost inspection yields poor results in finding solitary species using visually poorly accessible crevice spaces

Recommendations

Individual bats may be counted as they fly out of their roosts, or while they are hanging from the ceilings and walls during the torpor. In large colonies, it would be more precise to count bats from photographs, and that method would also decrease the length of disruptive activities.

ANALYSIS OF THE DEAD BAT REMAINS During the inspection of roosts, but also at some other sites within the habitats, it is possible to find dead individuals and their remains, as well as owl pellets (for explanation see the Glossary at the end of this manual) which may include bat remains mixed with other prey. Study and analysis of the remains may be useful for species identification and thus yield important data on their presence. If remains are collected at roost sites, it is even possible to determine certain features of species ecology (reproductive status of colony, age, sexual structure, even relative number of bat species) or roost functions.

In large colonies, it is better to perform counts from photographs, as this method is more precise and the disturbance is minimized

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CAPTURE There are several bat species where representatives are difficult to tell apart unless held in hand. Only by capturing and immediate observation, it is possible to notice subtle discriminatory morphological characteristics and measure the diagnostic morphometric parameters. When species are to be inventoried in an area, capturing may be much more efficient for species detection than the acoustic techniques, as certain individuals emit only weak ultrasound signals that are absorbed in the habitat or difficult to distinguish. Capturing is also necessary for realization of the method of marking each individual. Sometimes capturing may be done simply by hand, but in most cases, it is necessary to use various types of specific equipment, depending on the roost and/or habitat type. The general rule during capturing is to avoid hurting animals in any way and to manipulate with them as short as possible, in order to decrease the length of stress situations.

Hand-nets

Hand-nets may be used to capture resting bats

These nets are a well-known piece of equipment for studying butterflies, but they also yield good results when catching bats. Nets with thick mesh (as for butterflies) are very suitable, as they prevent the bats from being entangled and allow for easier extraction. This technique should be used for motionless bats hanging from the ceiling or on the wall of the roost, but their use on flying individuals may lead to injuries if bats get hit with the rim of the net.

Funnel traps They consist of a conic plastic tube, rings connected with fine polyethylene net in a form of a tunnel, and a textile-based collector at the end. This trap should be placed at the openings of tree hollows or small cracks. Bats leaving the roost pass through the cone and through the tunnel, ending up in the collector from which they are manually removed for further processing.

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Mist-nets They are made of very thin polyester threads so the very sensitive echolocation system in bats would detect a fairly harmless obstacle. These nets have pockets into which the bats fall. The mesh size (distance between the two adjacent knots) should be 16-19 mm for representatives of European bat species. These nets are placed between vertical holders, usually at the entrances of speleological objects, galleries, tunnels, above the surface of rivers and streams, at forest glades and above paths.

Captured bats should be removed from the net as quickly and carefully as possible

Mist nets should not be left unattended

Harp-traps These traps are composed of one or two rectangular frames with parallel vertical monofilaments of fishing nylon. A collector’s bag is placed underneath the frame. The principle of this trap is that the frames with fishing nylon should be placed in areas where bats regularly pass, so they hit the cords of fishing nylon and fall into the bag they cannot leave without help. This type of trap is placed at small openings and places where bats fly through but it is impossible to use mist nets.

Harp-trap made of household materials

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The method of bat capture and its various techniques are important in cases where direct approach is unfeasible and when it is not possible to directly observe the colonies in order to determine the number of individuals and the presence of species. The capture equipment is relatively inexpensive and simple for handling and transport. The techniques may be modified in various situations and according to present conditions in habitats and/or roosts. Limitations Capturing enables reliable identification of species that may be distinguished only by measuring and/or checking the morphological parameters

Capturing is of course an invasive method, causing smaller or greater stress in animals. Previous experience is necessary in order to apply this method properly, as the equipment should be placed in a proper way and in a proper position. If nets or traps are placed in unsuitable places, the results may be inadequate or insufficient. Additionally, in case of roosts with a larger number of bats, it is necessary to have several helpers so the captured bats would be processed and released as soon as possible in order to minimize their stress. Recommendations

Nets are placed in the chosen position at dusk, in order to prevent birds and other animals from being caught. It is necessary to have at least one net. Whether it is practical or not to set several nets at once depends on the number of persons who will check them, and a better effect can be achieved with several nets placed in different directions, depending on the habitat. This is particularly true for forest habitats.

If necessary, captured bats can be kept for short periods of time in non-transparent bags made of natural textile

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During the capture, the experts must be immediately next to the net in order to process and release the captured specimens as soon as possible. If it is necessary to keep the bats in captivity for a short time, they should be kept in nontransparent bags made of natural textile.

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ARTIFICIAL ROOSTS – BAT BOXES Bat boxes are essentially artificially made roosts that play an important part both in research and in conservation and protection of bats. In nature, bats are sometimes faced with the lack of suitable roosts, so placement of bat houses may be crucial for their existence in some areas. Such habitats are, for example, young artificially or naturally formed tree stands, shrub thickets or agricultural areas where adequate roosts are lacking or very scarce. In such cases, bats eagerly use provided artificial roosts, enabling the researcher to gather important data on the presence of species and the abundance of local colonies, ecology and behavior by simply checking on such roosts. They are commonly made of wooden planks, but might be made of concrete as well. Their shape and size vary depending on the species they are intended for. The opening is situated at the ventral side and it is very narrow, so exposure of bats to predators would be greatly reduced. The boxes are usually placed at greater heights from the ground level, and the number of occupied boxes, recorded individuals and species all increase with their height. Advantages

Boxes allow easy access, necessary for monitoring those bat species in which the natural roosts are otherwise poorly accessible or completely inaccessible. Limitations

Placement and periodical checking of bat boxes assumes working at greater heights. In order to achieve significant results in populating the boxes, and therefore an important amount of valuable data, it is necessary to set a large number of boxes at a site – the optimal number is about 100 boxes. Sometimes bats may be “shy”, visiting the new boxes only 2-3 years after they were placed in the habitat.

Placement and monitoring of bat boxes includes working at great heights so it necessary to exercise maximum caution

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MARKING Marked individuals may be monitored visually, acoustically and in time, using different methods. The marked bat has its individuality preserved and may be monitored from a distance. This is one of the most invasive methods as it involves capturing an animal and placing a foreign object on its body. During the marking procedure, it is necessary to observe the standard procedures for handling bats to the fullest, in order to minimize the consequences and prevent the marker from threatening the health of the animal or in any way influence the lifespan of the marked individual.

Light-tags Light-tags are small plastic capsules containing two components that produce light when they are mixed up. The chemical reaction starts when two glass elements, each containing one of the active substances, are destroyed within the outer shell. The light capsules are attached to bats (usually to their backs) with a special surgical adhesive that dissolves in time and is not toxic. The light-tags are visible from the distance of up to 200 m, or greater if using binoculars. The emission of light lasts for several hours, and the bats remove the capsules in a day or two. This way of marking is used to determine the roosts, flight paths and hunting areas. In order to collect massive amounts of data it is necessary that a larger number of researchers cover the study area, so the marked bats could be adequately monitored. This is an inexpensive method, but not useable in habitats with thick vegetation, as monitoring of marked specimens is impossible in those conditions.

Metal bat bands The properly placed band may slowly glide along the forearm. It doesn’t hurt the animal and it doesn’t interfere with its activities

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Metal bands are the oldest method of bat marking, which has been used in Europe for over 80 years. Bands made of light metal (most commonly some harder aluminum alloy) are placed on the arm of the bat’s wing. The bands

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have flanges at the edges in order to prevent damage to the flying membrane. Each band bears the inscription of the name of marking centre, size, serial number of the band and the individual number for each bat. The bands are made in several sizes, appropriate for different sizes of various bat species. Banding is performed in cases when it is necessary to recognize individuals and follow them in time and space. This method is useful in learning about the longevity of marked individuals, migration routes, use of roosts, size and density of populations. The individuals may wear bands throughout their lives. Marking with bands is relatively inexpensive, but not necessary for assessing the impact of infrastructure projects on local bat populations. Bat marking in Serbia is performed under the supervision of the Center for Animal Marking, at the Natural History Museum in Belgrade. In order to mark and manipulate bats, a person must have a permit, updated annually, from the Ministry of Environment, Mining and Spatial Planning of the Republic of Serbia. Marking is performed by banding associates who are specially trained in handling bats. In Serbia, about 300 individual bats of different species are banded on average each year. The bands are made in three sizes, covering all species recorded in Serbia.

Bat bands (right) differ from bird bands/rings (left) in specially made flanges, which, if placed properly, do not cause damage to flying membrane

Recapturing banded individuals is useful for determination of their life span - this individual of greater horseshoe bat wore its band for 14 years

Banded individuals should be best left hanging in vicinity of roost (banded individuals of noctule bat and Bechstein’s bat)

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Radio-telemetry Although it belongs to marking methods, radiotelemetry facilitates research of numerous very important aspects of bat ecology and provides much more information than marking with light-tags or metal bands. This method assumes that animals are located in space with the help of radio-transmitters attached to their bodies, emitting short repeated radio signals. The signals may be detected with a VHF radio receiver. This method, very popular in recent times, is used only in case when the less invasive methods cannot provide sufficient useful data for impact assessment. This method enables collecting data, primarily about movement and behavior, but also including: • The type of activity for an individual; Radio-transmitter for bats

• Measuring the greatest distance covered from the roost, the greatest altitude, size and structure of individual range; • Assessment of main hunting areas and habitat selection; • Locating roosts above ground level. Radio-transmitters used with bats have very small dimensions, only up to 10% of the total weight of the animal. The most commonly used transmitters are oval shaped and have a long antenna. They are attached to the dorsal side of the animal with a special surgical adhesive. Due to their small size, the period of activity with one set of batteries is only 4-7 days. The working frequency is 149-151 MHz, and in the ideal conditions, the maximal distance of signal detection is 5-7 km (up to 2 km in the hills). The main parts of the apparatus are transmitter, receiver and the directional antenna.

The radio-transmitter is attached to fur on a bat’s back with special adhesive

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This powerful method is very expensive and still developing, thanks to the innovations in transmitter technology, increase in length of their functioning time, strength and detection ability, as well as decrease in size. This method is considered unsuitable for impact assessment of infrastructure projects, so it is rarely used for that purpose. Advantages

This is the only method that allows collection of a large number of important ecological data on bat roosts, activities, diet, biology, hunting areas and individual behavior over short periods of time

The radio-transmitter is extremely small and light, so it does not significantly disturb the activity of the bat

Limitations

The equipment is relatively expensive and has to be ordered in advance. The research team must include at least two members, and in order to locate certain positions in space it is necessary to use additional geolocation devices such as GPS. This method requires a very high intensity of application, with many workdays/ nights, to be considered successful. Recommendations

Best results are achieved with digital interactive maps and GPS devices for direct visualization of recorded spatial data. This method enables precise determination of spatial position of individuals or colonies, which is particularly important in areas without underground roosts. Additionally, it is possible to determine local flight paths, size of hunting areas and the amount of time used for hunting and resting, respectively. Marking with radio-transmitters should only be used as the last resort, when the desired data could not be obtained by any less invasive method.

The directional antenna enables location of the signal produced by radio-transmitter

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ULTRASOUND AUDIO-DETECTION It is a well-known fact that the European bats orient in space and hunt using echolocation – a sophisticated natural system similar to modern artificial sonar systems that function according to precisely the same principles. Echolocation represents one of the most exciting ways of studying bats and plays an important role as a non-invasive method for studying their distribution and ecology.

Professional ultrasound bat detector, with the time expansion and heterodyning systems

Echolocation allows bats to form an “acoustic picture” of the world around them. The frequency of echolocation sounds is above the range of about 20 kHz, which represents the boundary of human hearing perception. Therefore, all sounds above 20 kHz are called ultrasound. Besides the echolocation ultrasound signals, certain species of bats (particularly males in the mating season) also emit communication signals at the higher registers of sound spectrum or lower parts of ultrasound spectrum. The range of echolocation signals of bats recorded in Serbia is from around 18 (Nyctalus noctula) to over 100 kHz (Rhinolophus hipposideros, Rh. euryale, Rh. blasii, Rh. mehelyi). The length of individual echolocation impulses is from 1 (certain species of genus Myotis) to 80 milliseconds (certain species of genus Rhinolophus), and bats emit series of individual signals during echolocation. The ultrasound audio-detection may be used both for the analysis of echolocation signals and of the communication sounds made by bats. This method requires the use of a special bat ultrasound detector, and the full analysis is possible only with the use of appropriate audio-recorder and a specialized software for analysis of recorded ultrasound signals made by bats. Besides the equipment, it is the researcher must have a good acoustic sensitivity (to have “an ear for music”), to pass special training and to have experience and practice in working with detectors. The

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detector transforms the ultrasound signals into sound audible to the researcher, who analyzes and interprets it on the spot. Most detectors also have an option of producing a signal that may be recorded (with an integrated or cable-connected recorder) and then analyzed in the laboratory with the help of special software, in order to provide further information and increase the possibility of species identification. There are three basic types of ultrasound detectors for bats - heterodyning, frequency division (+ envelope detection) and time expansion. They differ in the system they use to transform the ultrasound signals into sound signals as well as some other technical characteristics, leading to further differences in possibility of both direct audio analysis of produced sound signals at the site and the later computer analysis of recorded signals, and therefore in possibility of species identification. The most complete computer analysis of recordings can be obtained through the time expansion system, while analysis of records in the frequency division system offers less information, and the information provided by the recordings made in heterodyning is almost negligible and their later computer analysis would be almost useless. There are several brands and many commercial models of ultrasound bat detectors. The least expensive detectors contain only the heterodyning system and they are good mostly for amateurs and beginners, as their usefulness in research is limited by their characteristics. The most expensive, but also most suitable for expert use, are the detectors with the time expansion system, which as a rule also have an integrated heterodyning system. The detectors with the frequency division system, which also generally have an integrated heterodyning system, are somewhere in the middle, both regarding the price and the quality of information they can provide. There are two basic ways of using this method: hand-held detection and automatic systems (bat-boxes).

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Ultrasound audio-detection with automatic systems (bat-boxes) This method may be used stationary at census points, or moving along transects, usually with a vehicle.

Automatic system for ultrasound audio-detection (bat-boxes)

The automatic audio-detection systems are composed of a detector with the time expansion or, more commonly, the frequency division system, connected with a recorder. All data on recorded activity of bats is gathered through a computer analysis of recordings. As this method does not allow combining audio and visual data, the possibility of species identification with this method is considerably smaller than with the hand-held detector. The advantage of this method is that it allows us to follow the activities in a long-term manner, on several locations at the same time.

Ultrasound audio-detection with hand-held detector This method may be used in stationary census spots or on walking transects. The best results are achieved when in combination with visual detection, with the help of a hand-held reflector lamp. Combination of audio and visual characteristics (morphology, type of flight, behavior) contributes greatly to the possibility of proper determination of species and quality of information on behavior of individual bats, thus also to understanding the bat use of space, including the ecological functions of habitats and landscapes to bats. Whenever it is possible, the audio-visual analysis should be used in combination with the later computer analysis of the recordings.

Ultrasound audio-detection provides best results when combined with visual detection by using a hand-held reflector lamp and the computer analysis of recordings

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Potential of different detector systems, when used together with visual detection and computer analysis of records in conditions where relatively good audio-visual perception is possible, for identification of the bat species recorded or considered highly probably present in Serbia, is presented in the following Table:

Rhinolophus hipposideros Rhinolophus ferrumequinum Rhinolophus euryale Rhinolophus mehelyi Rhinolophus blasii Myotis myotis/blythii Myotis myotis Myotis blythii Myotis daubentonii/capaccinii Myotis daubentonii Myotis capaccinii Myotis dasycneme Myotis nattereri Myotis emarginatus Myotis bechsteinii Myotis mystacinus/alcathoe/brandtii Myotis mystacinus Myotis alcathoe Myotis brandtii Pipistrellus pygmaeus Pipistrellus pipistrellus Pipistrellus kuhlii/nathusii Pipistrellus kuhlii Pipistrellus nathusii Hypsugo savii Nyctalus noctula Nyctalus leisleri Nyctalus lasiopterus Eptesicus serotinus Eptesicus nilssonii Vespertilio murinus Barbastella barbastellus Plecotus auritus/austriacus Plecotus auritus Plecotus austriacus Miniopterus schreibersii Tadarida teniotis

frequency division*

time expansion*

Species

heterodyning**

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Legend:

*

when used together with computer analysis of the recordings

** when used together with visual detection

Identification difficult, possible only in certain cases

Identification possible, if certain audio-visual characters can be observed

Identification relatively easy in most cases

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EXPERT SECTION HEALTH RISKS OF BAT WORK Rabies Just like many other wild animals, bats may transmit certain diseases found in humans and domestic animals. Therefore, when they are handled it is necessary to take proper measures of precaution and protection in order to prevent transmission of infection. Studies on the presence of specific EBL (European Bat Lyssa) virus were recently performed in Serbia. The European bat species are the reservoirs of this virus, similar to the virus of sylvatic rabies. The studies in Serbia had a negative result – the presence of virus was not proven (Vranješ et al. 2010). However, bat bites are best prevented using physical protection during manipulation (thick glove, rag). If a bite or some other injury that may lead to infection still occurs, it is necessary to apply the anti-rabies preventive and protection.

Advantages

This method is particularly suitable for open habitats such as wetlands and steppes, but it can also be used in forests and urban habitats. It is very important for bat monitoring as it may be repeated in various periods and seasons, using the same transects. It also enables us to compare the present conditions at different positions of the same site, as well as the results recorded in different sites and even regions. Limitations

Detectors, particularly the professional ones, are expensive pieces of equipment, and only highly trained experts may use them efficiently. Due to the differences in strength and modulation of echolocation signals of various bat species, the species are recorded with different quality, and some are even very difficult to tell apart. Therefore, the exclusive use of this method may be insufficient to make the complete faunistic list of a given area, so it is necessary to combine it with other research methods. The ultrasound noise produced by other animals (particularly crickets, grasshoppers and some other insects), wind etc. may significantly complicate or even completely disable any efficient use of this method in certain situations.

Histoplasmosis This disease is caused by spores of fungus Histoplasma capsulatum, which grows on bat guano in warm, humid roosts. It is more common in tropic areas. After inhaling the spores, humans and other mammals may get a respiratory infection that is not contagious. Therefore, it is necessary to use protective equipment during the visits to potentially risky bat roosts with larger piles of guano.

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Recommendations

Even the simple detectors with limited functions of ultrasound detection may enable recording of flyover – existence of bat activity above the studied site. The detectors may enable determination of those parts of the site where the number of bats is the greatest, and therefore save much effort, energy and resources, particularly during research of wide-open areas. Ultrasound detectors are very useful in determination of suitable locations for placing mist nets, as well as places with intensive bat activity.

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MOLECULAR-GENETIC METHODS Certain species of bats in Europe and Serbia are difficult, and sometimes even impossible to identify in the field. The only method useful for identification of these cryptic species demands genetic and molecular analyses of small tissue samples from each individual. The samples most commonly collected are small pieces cut out of the flying membrane in the wing, as the wound heals very fast and that injury does not jeopardize the life of a bat.

OTHER SAFETY RISKS OF BAT WORK Bats may live in places that are barely accessible, so activities at their roosts may be very risky and often demand alpinist and other extreme-sport equipment. These sites may be researched only if the researcher is well trained. Otherwise, it is necessary to provide assistance of well-trained, experienced, licensed experts who can perform such tasks.

Advantages

This method may be used when the assessment requires precise determination of an individual bat as a certain species living in some roost or habitat. Limitations

All measures of personal protection must be observed while visiting any risky objects if it is necessary for the studies of impact assessment. Therefore, it is important not to take any risks if you are not experienced and trained enough!

This method is very expensive, especially if it is necessary for identification of a larger number of individuals. Recommendations

Before samples are taken, the person who will perform the analysis, as well as the laboratory where it will be performed must be known. There are several laboratories for molecular-genetic studies in Serbia, but none of them has performed studies on bats to this day. Negotiations for work on bat genetics are presently in progress in Serbia. Note

This method is rarely used in surveys of impact assessment of development projects/plans on bats.

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EXPERT SECTION All speleological objects are protected by Law on nature protection, and many are additionally protected as important natural assets. Environmental impact assessment may be required for all projects within the protected natural asset.

LAW ON NATURE PROTECTION (Službeni glasnik RS, No. 36/09, 88/10) Protection of speleological objects Article 24 Speleological objects are public property of the Republic of Serbia. Due to their natural and cultural values, speleological objects are protected and used according to this Law and other legislative. A Cadastre of speleological objects is prepared in form of digital geographic information system (in further text: cadastre). Protection and use of speleological objects Article 25 In speleological objects and their vicinity, it is forbidden to: 1) Pollute watercourses and springs, release, bring and leave poisonous matter, solid waste and dead animals, or store any form of waste material at these sites and in such way that they may be brought into the speleological object by moving water or free movement; 2) Destroy, damage or remove parts of cave ornaments, cave sediments, fossil remains and artifacts;

PROJECTS AND PLANS FOR WHICH STRATEGIC ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT IS NEEDED MANAGEMENT OF UNDERGROUND HABITATS All types of underground habitats with a relatively stable microclimate and temperature above 0oC are potential bat roosts. These include caves and abysses, abandoned mines and tunnels, artificial underground systems of tunnels and catacombs, etc. Use of underground habitats by humans usually includes a certain degree of “adaptation”, causing changes in accessibility, complete or partial closing of entrances, installation of a transfer system for water and/or electric energy, excavation and leveling of floors, filling the crevices and hollows, and much more. All these activities alter the shape and climate of caves, disturbing the bats either immediately or during the use of the object, and may lead to a decrease in population numbers or even to complete desertion of the locality. This is in complete contradiction with the LAW ON NATURE PROTECTION and relevant international conventions, especially in cases when these activities threaten the most important known underground bat roosts in Serbia. Several decades ago, the common practice during the adaptation of a cave for tourism (show caves development) was to completely or partially close the entrances with impermeable material (concrete, rock, iron doors or

3) Destroy or remove representatives of fauna and flora and disturb their habitat conditions; 4) Perform construction activities that may cause significant negative and permanent changes in geomorphologic and hydrological features. Government prescribes the forms and conditions of management, use and research of speleological objects, as well as preparation and maintenance of the cadastre as outlined in Article 24, Line 3 of this Law..

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The previously common practice of building walls over cave entrances is unacceptable, as it changes the microclimate, leading to great changes or complete extinction of the cave fauna (Lazareva Pećina, Eastern Serbia)

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other construction elements) in order to facilitate and increase the creation of cave ornaments and thus its visual attractiveness. This type of practice is completely unacceptable, as it drastically changes the microclimate of an underground habitat, leading to complete extinction or great changes in the overall fauna of the cave! Therefore, whenever any projects are undertaken in the caves, and especially those with a status of a protected natural asset, the high probability of presence of bats should be considered and a study of environmental impact assessment required, as it will have to include bats. Impact assessment for each project planned in underground bat roosts must include data on population numbers and seasonal dynamics of all species within the cave, as well as the list of precisely determined locations where bats were recorded in different seasons. The priority species for protection are those using the cave as an important site for reproduction, hibernation or rest during migration. The imperative is to protect important bat habitats from adverse effects of the projects (as they might lead to drastic changes or complete disappearance of bat fauna) through implementation of appropriate measures if avoidance, mitigation and compensation or, if this is not possible, by complete legal protection – denying to issue a permit for implementation of such a project.

CASE STUDIES Consequences of anthropogenous impact on natural assets of Lazareva Pećina without an impact assessment on bats The best known and best studied example of not taking bats and other biospeleological assets in consideration while developing the cave for tourism is the cave of Lazareva Pećina near the village Zlot in Eastern Serbia (Paunović 2000). This example is very illustrative and at the same time documented with a substantial amount of data. There is some rich documentation even from the 19th century. The consequences were not suffered only by bats but also by other biospeleological, paleontological and archeological assets that used to be plentiful at the Lazareva Pećina (Ćurčić et al. 1997). Although this cave is a known prehistoric human shelter, large-scale anthropogenic activities have started in 1953 when sediment started to be removed in order to enlarge the entrance. These activities have lasted for 25 years (until 1978) when the cave was officially open for tourist visits, with the peak of intensity in these last several years. One of the main indicators of changes and resulting damage was bat fauna, which became much poorer, first in qualitative and then in quantitative sense. The cave is presently just a winter roost of a mixed colony of about 2000 medium-size horseshoe bats (Rhinolophus euryale, Rh. blasii, Rh. mehelyi). These species are thriving in the present microclimatic conditions of high humidity and increased temperature. The former richness, composition and ecology of bat fauna of Lazareva Pećina are indicated by subfossil records of these animals as well as huge ancient burnt piles of their guano.

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Part of hibernation colony of horseshoe bats at Lazareva Pećina

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EXPERT SECTION Although presently there are only 3 species living in the cave in greater numbers during the winter months, before the start of anthropogenic activities there were at least 9, both in breeding and hibernation period. The microclimate used to be more constant, with much lower humidity and lower temperature. The first great impact on disruption of wildlife of Lazareva Pećina was the enlargement of the entrance, which remained in that position for a long time until in mid 1970s it was completely closed by barrier wall and large front door. This in turn led to drastic increase of humidity and temperature in the cave, additionally amplified by installment of strong inappropriate lighting that significantly contributed to increase in air temperature and disturbance of bats with light. Eventually an inadequate cage bar obstacle was installed in front of the barrier wall, disabling bats from entering the cave, particularly the larger species. In this way the bat fauna was irreversibly changed and significantly deprived.

Show caves development projects (adaptation of a cave for tourism) During the planning stage of a show cave development, it is necessary to perform an impact assessment in order to precisely determine the possible adverse effects of this project on bats. Expected impacts during the construction

• Complete disappearance of all bat species due to constant disturbance, noise and light over a relatively long period of time. • Direct destruction of unique cave microhabitats for troglodytes. Expected impacts during the operation

• Artificial lights and presence of humans change the microclimate, increasing the temperature in the cave for about 2-4oC, depending on the position and direction of light sources. The increase in temperature will additionally increase the dryness of air. Representatives of most bat species cannot adapt and therefore disappear from the cave.

There is no documentation on possible assessment of impact and consequences of plans and realization of cave development. During the recent enhancement of anthropogenous activities, the expert public successfully insisted that several changes must be made in order to reduce adverse effects on cave wildlife. The upper part of the grill was modified in order to enable and ease the passage of bats. Holes were made above the entrance door on the barrier wall, so bats can freely pass in both ways.

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Before the removal of vertical bars in its upper part, the gate grill at the entrance of Lazareva Pećina did not allow the passage of bats

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• Mosses, algae and fungi belonging to species not characteristic for the natural cave environment develop on illuminated surfaces. The visitors are also inevitably bringing the microorganisms from the outside world, and many of these more or less succeed in adapting to underground life, causing changes in food chain and composition of the previously mostly isolated ecosystem. • Bat colonies are constantly disturbed and distracted, and if proper avoidance, mitigation and compensation measures are not implemented, they disappear from the cave Research methods

• Roost inspection must be performed several times during all seasonal aspects, both in winter and summer months.

Use of artificial lighting in Bat Hall was stopped, so visitors cannot directly approach the colony. All this is a useful, but small and insufficient step toward proper management of protection and conservation of Lazareva Pećina and understanding the role of bats in this ecosystem as a key natural asset, upon which the other species depend, including some endemic ones. There are several other caves of Serbia that used to be developed in a way that did not include a multidisciplinary approach or impact assessment of such development on bats and underground wildlife. However, they were not scientifically studied well enough to provide so many obvious proofs as Lazareva Pećina.

• Capturing bats at the entrance of the underground roost from late August to early October will show which species visit the cave for swarming and mating. For more details on the impact of the development of underground roosts on bats, methodology of research and measures of avoidance, mitigation and compensation, please see:

After the removal of vertical bars in its upper part, the gate grill at the entrance of Lazareva Pećina allows passage of bats

Mitchell-Jones, A. J., Bihari, Z., Masing, M. Rodrigues, L. (2007): Protecting and managing underground sites for bats. EUROBATS Publication Series No. 2 (English version). UNEP / EUROBATS Secretariat, Bonn, Germany, 38 pp.

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EXPERT SECTION INSTALLATION OF GATES AND GRILLS AT ENTRANCES According to the assessment of impact of a cave adaptation project for business, tourist or other purposes, installation of an appropriate gate or grill may be recommended. Depending on specific conditions, present species and roost function, it is necessary to determine the optimal design, technical specifications and materials for fencing or gating. Poorly designed gates may significantly alter the airflow or represent physical obstacles for bats or other species using a cave or a mine. Sometimes they are poorly constructed, so they are easily vandalized or bypassed. The properly designed gate is efficient in control of human approach and vandal-resistant, and at the same time, it provides free air circulation and movement of bats. As a rule, the distance between the bars must allow bats to fly freely in between (minimum of 35 cm between the horizontal bars and 20 cm between the vertical bars). If a cave is inhabited by more than 50 individual bats, the distance between the bars must be increased by at least 5 cm, to facilitate a simultaneous passage of a larger number of bats. Design of grills depends on the size and shape of the entrance.

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• Ultrasound audio-detection with a hand-held detector (preferably with the time expansion system), combined with visual detection in the vicinity of the cave, may be an efficient way to determine the presence of certain bat species difficult to notice during the roost inspection, and to indicate their presence in the cave as well. Avoidance, mitigation and compensation measures

• Construction works must be performed exclusively in the period when they will not cause a significant disturbance. They must be adapted to the specific seasonal dynamics of recorded bat species (for example, if bats are using the cave for hibernation, construction works must be performed in summer and vice versa). • Lighting system must be based on LED diodes or similar light sources with low heat emanation, and the regime of lighting must not disturb the bats. • If swarming takes place in the cave in late summer and autumn, the lights at the entrance must be turned off at night in the appropriate season. • A permanent or seasonal regime of restrictions must be introduced in order to control the visitors’ access to the areas most important for bats and cave invertebrate fauna. • The gate must be designed in such a way to enable unlimited access for the maximum possible number of bats known to live in the cave. • One safe way of monitoring bat colonies in passages with restriction of approach is to install remotecontrolled infrared cameras. Picture may be projected on a monitor outside of the cave. This may fulfill the curiosity of visitors and expose interesting data on reproduction biology of these species and their underground movements in all seasons of the year.

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Management of existing show caves In Serbia, there are 15 caves adapted for tourism, and 11 of them are currently open for tourists. These are: Rajkova Pećina (municipality Majdanpek), Lazareva Pećina and Vernjikica (Bor), Dubočka Pećina, Ceremošnja and Ravništarka (Kučevo), Resavska Pećina (Despotovac), Risovača (Aranđelovac), Hadži-Prodanova Pećina (Ivanjica), Potpećka and Stopića Pećina (Užice). Following caves are partially adapted and/or used to be open for tourists in the past: Bogovinska Pećina (Boljevac), Prekonoška Pećina (Svrljig) and Petnica (Valjevo), while for Mermerna Pećina (Lipljan), situated on the territory of AP Kosovo and Metohija, the present situation is not known. Of these caves, the most important bat roosts were recorded at Lazareva Pećina, Vernjikica and HadžiProdanova Pećina, with large bat colonies that may reach the number of several tens of thousands individuals!

After the dimensions and proportions are measured, it is necessary to construct the grills in the workshop. In order to set a proper gate it is generally necessary to use a generator, a powerful drill and a cutter, fixing anchors, bolts, cement or some kind of glue, as well as all the relevant equipment and consumables. Rectangular or triangular grills made of solid metal should be used to close mineshafts. If representatives of species Miniopterus schreibersii are present in large numbers, closing the entrance with a grill may lead to complete desertion of the site.

As a rule, bats were not considered when plans of development and management of these and other caves were prepared (Paunović 2000). Only the implementation of strict and adequate management regimes would lead to the survival of bat colonies in caves open for visitors. The appropriate limitations of tourist visits during the periods when bat colonies are present in the caves, combined with active participation of cave guides, would help minimize the impact on bat populations. It is necessary to perform an impact assessment of the current status for all the previously adapted show caves, and the management plans should take in considerations the results of impact assessment. The impact assessment of the current status should include the same elements as the assessment of the impact of new projects of show caves development of cave adaptation for business purposes.

The gate grill at the entrance of Hadži-Prodanova Pećina allows for free passage of bats in the upper area, while it prevents the uncontrolled approach of humans

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Avoidance, mitigation and compensation measures

• They are the same as in the new projects of adapting the caves for tourist purposes, but they also include: • The assessment of the “permeability” of the existing gate for bats, and if necessary, a new design should be suggested. • Change in lighting might be suggested if necessary. Special attention should be paid to where the light beam is directed, and in periods of the year critical for bats, these light sources should be turned off. • Concerts, film shootings, celebrations and other mass gatherings should be completely forbidden in the period when bats are present.

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Cave use for business purposes

Examples of a good design of gate grill

Turning caves into wine cellars or spaces for cheese maturation or mushroom farming, or any other uses of caves in business purposes, are not common in Serbia. Same as in projects of adapting the caves for tourist purposes, it is necessary to perform an impact assessment in order to precisely determine the possible adverse effects of these projects on bats, so the impact assessment must contain the same elements. Expected impacts during the operation

In order to maintain constant temperature in caves used for mushroom farming or cheese maturation, the entrances are commonly closed with walls made of construction materials (concrete, bricks etc.) and/or metal plate doors. The soil near the entrance is often covered in concrete, and the natural formations within the cave are destroyed. Cables and lighting are installed within the walls. In most cases, a generator of electrical energy, situated at the entrance or close to it, is left working throughout the workdays. In such conditions, the existence of bat colonies in caves becomes problematic or impossible. Avoidance, mitigation and compensation measures

• Construction and restoration activities may be performed only during the periods when they pose no threat or disturbance to bats. • Impact assessment must explicitly state the size and design of gate and ventilation vents, so bats would be able to freely pass through. • If the cave is the place of swarming, artificial lighting and activities at the entrance must be forbidden during this period. • Generators of electric energy and other types of work equipment are not allowed to produce noise above 45 Leq (dBA), while the exhaust fumes must not enter or lead to the cave.

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EXPERT SECTION Restrictions during the reconstruction and development of caves During the process of preparing an impact assessment of projects on underground roosts and deciding on approval these studies, we suggest that the following list of prohibitions and restrictions, which are a legal obligation as well, should be officially assigned for each underground locality, in order to protect the underground environment and the bats that live there. The following activities should be explicitly forbidden: • Disturbing, poisoning, killing, capturing, carrying or restricting the movement of animals that permanently or temporarily inhabit caves during the certain stages of their life cycle; • Destroying, damaging, collecting or shifting nests or dens of animals that permanently or temporarily inhabit the caves; • Removing sediments, taking out, shifting, destroying or damaging paleontological or archaeological sites; • Using caves for disposal of living or dead animals or their body parts; • Lighting open flames (except for acetylene, gas or gasoline lamps); • Lighting fires or using flares in the cave or at its entrance, as it will blacken the walls; • Use of explosives during the adaptation or repair works, or for enlargement of the natural openings in walls, ceiling and the floor of the cave;

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Closing the abandoned mines Most abandoned mines and geological and research mine galleries represent suitable roosts for bats. The galleries may be fully dry, with flooded entrances or completely flooded, so the elements of environment (temperature, humidity, airflow, etc.) are in most cases identical to those in natural caves. In most cases, bats use mine galleries for hibernation. Research results from other Balkan countries have shown that only 5% of abandoned galleries have not been inhabited by bats. In most galleries, plans for closing generally include sealing the entrance by demolition or cementing. In some cases, the entrances may be flooded and embanked to prevent the children from entering the mines. Research methods

• Roost inspection, if safety conditions allow it, must be performed several times each season, and particularly in winter. • Capturing bats at the entrance and its vicinity will enable identification of general bat fauna in the vicinity of the gallery, and at the same time show if bats use the gallery for mating purposes (late August to early October) or during migration (April-May, September-October). • Ultrasound audio-detection with a hand-held detector (preferably with the time expansion system) combined with visual detection in the vicinity of the gallery may indicate presence of bats in the cave as well. WARNING! Due to erosion and collapsing that may have happened after the abandonment, and the decay of pillars connecting the floor and the ceiling entering and working in many galleries and mines is very dangerous!

EXPERT SECTION Avoidance, mitigation and compensation measures

• If the field studies show that a gallery (or a complex of galleries) meets the criteria of being an important underground bat roost, demolition or complete closing of the entrance must be strictly forbidden. • The design of entrance gate/grill, which is supposed to protect the gallery, must allow for appropriate “permeability”, in accordance with the maximal number of bats recorded during the assessment survey. Most of the gate/grill should have horizontal instead of vertical bars, in order to prevent bats from colliding with the bars during swarming.

• Noise that exceeds 45 Leq (dBA); • Causing vibrations; • Flushing or storing objects, substances and wastes, except for those allowed by management plan; • Construction works, except in cases specifically outlined in management plan; • Activities which destroy, damage or cause removal of historic paintings, inscriptions, archeological and other artifacts, which are evidence of human presence in the caves, except when rescue operations are underway and there is no other way to save human life; • Destroying, damaging or removing elements of geological structure of the cave; • Covering over, blocking or destroying the cave entrances; • Destroying, damaging or removing items of cave infrastructure, except during repairs and reconstruction proposed by the development plan; • Taking out elements of cave structure; • Marking the walls, ceilings or floor with letters or symbols (visibly or not), except for mapping purposes.

Removal of cave ornaments is forbidden by law (“Cave man”, Vernjikica Cave, Zlot, Eastern Serbia)

Activities on cave development must not compromise the design requirements of the entrance area.

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EXPERT SECTION Impact assessment is mandatory or may be required for all projects of opening or expanding of quarries, depending on the surface area.

CASE STUDY In Serbia, a good example of an important bat roost endangered by an active and expanding quarry is HadžiProdanova Pećina near Ivanjica in western Serbia. A quarry with very intensive exploitation and high frequency of explosions is situated just outside the entrance of this protected cave. The vegetation in the vicinity of the cave, which represents an important habitat for cave bats, is greatly damaged by extension of the quarry. The comparison of population numbers in 1994 and 2009 has shown the same qualitative composition of species, but abundance of certain species dropped by 30-80%!

OPENING AND EXPANDING OF QUARRIES Opening new quarries or expanding the existing ones in limestone massifs will definitively have an impact on caves, rock crevices and other sites bats use as roosts. Such projects may even lead to direct death of individuals/colonies and loss of (potential) roosts, which may have a significant adverse effect on both local and migratory populations and species. Therefore, bats must be included in the impact assessment with this type of project. The main goal of impact assessment and its part pertaining to bats should be to determine the possible presence of bat roosts at the project site or its immediate vicinity. Additionally, it is necessary to identify the species present at the site and its vicinity, whether it includes their presence in possible roosts, or their activity in the zone. Research methods

• Searching for and inspection of roosts and colonies, • Ultrasound audio-detection with a hand-held detector (advisably with the time expansion system) combined with visual detection, in order to determine the activity and identify the roosts of species that are inaccessible or poorly accessible for direct inspection when in the roosts. Special attention should be paid to searching for the (potential) roosts and searching for and researching the landscape elements that are potential bat roosts (such as caves, niches, rock crevices etc.). Researchers must paid special attention to determine or asses if a location offers possibility for (mass) hibernation of species Nyctalus noctula and Pipistrellus nathusii i.e. their migratory populations. Avoidance, mitigation and compensation measures

Kamenolom kod Hadži-Prodanove pećine

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The possible speleological objects present at the site and the protective zone around the entrance, particularly if there is a proven bat roost, must be exempted from the location in order to get an approval and permission to start the project. This should not be a problem for the investor, as this area is generally negligible in size in comparison with the total area the project is supposed to cover.

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WIND FARMS The projects of wind farms are a relatively new initiative in Serbia, with the aim of obtaining energy from renewable sources, and are quickly gaining popularity. Presently, at least 5 of these projects are in preparation and impact assessment is currently being performed, and several more are planned. The Ministry of Environment, Mining and Spatial Planning of Republic of Serbia has prepared a special guidelines, which are now being distributed to potential developers and investors, introducing them to all steps and procedures required for realization of this type of projects, including the procedure of impact assessment. In all known cases, the decisions on determining the scope and content of the EIA study have included bats, as well as birds, as the subjects of the study. This indicates that the competent government authorities clearly recognize the potential impact of these projects on bats. It remains to be seen if this approach will continue to be applied in the decisions making on the environmental EIA study approval, checking the fulfillment of conditions set out in approval and later supervision over the fulfillment of conditions for each individual project.

Impact assessment is mandatory or may be required for projects of wind farms, depending on total power and number of wind generators.

Potential impacts on bats and their importance

This list shows that all landscape elements functional for bats may be threatened by this type of projects, and the importance of negative impact depends of specific features of each species and ecological functions of particular location for each species. The study therefore must present a complete answer to the question: which bat species use the project site, which functions does the site have for them, and in what way does the relative abundance and activity of species varies seasonally. The precise positions of roosts must be identified in the zones where they may be destroyed by the project in question or where they are situated in the immediate vicinity of wind turbines, because that may lead to a high mortality rate. In the case where the location of the project includes only the hunting areas, flight paths and/or migration routes of certain species while the roosts are situated in the zones where there is no a direct threat of mortality and/or loss of roosts, it is sufficient to identify the zones with roosts of the individual specimens present on the location, but it is not necessary to precisely determine the position of each roost.

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Table. Significance of expected impacts during the construction and due to siting Impact/conflict

Local populations

Migratory populations

Loss of hunting areas during and due to construction of access roads, foundations and other infrastructure

Small to medium impact, depending on the site and species present at that site

Small impact

Loss of roost sites during and due to construction of access roads, foundations and other infrastructure

High to very high impact, depending on the site and species present at that site

High to very high impact, e.g. loss of mating roosts

Table. Significance of expected impacts during the operation Impact/conflict

Summer time

During migration

Fatalities (due to barotrauma, collision with rotor blades and other infrastructure etc.)

Small to high impact, depending on the species

High to very high impact

Loss of hunting areas

Small to high impact, depending on species

Probably a minor impact during spring, a medium to high impact in autumn

Loss or disturbance of flight paths

Medium to high impact.

Small impact.

Ultrasound emission

Probably a negligible impact

Probably a negligible impact

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EXPERT SECTION Research methods

Necessary methods for field research: • Ultrasound audio-detection with a hand-held detector (with the time expansion system) combined with visual detection, preferably using walking transects, as that is the most efficient way of gathering the most complete sets of data on presence of species and their habitat and landscape use at the site; • Searching for and inspecting roosts and colonies. Other recommended methods are: • Capturing, especially in the areas of hunting areas and flight paths, with the goal of precise identification of species that can not be fully identified through ultrasound signals, provided that the ecological characteristics of the location allow for efficient use of this method; • Ultrasound audio-detection with automatic systems (bat-boxes) If possible, (provided there are sufficient financial means and enough time) the following can also be used: • radio-telemetry tracking and/or marking with the aim of collecting as precise and detailed information on hunting areas and flight paths as possible, particularly for the most important species from the aspect of protection and conservation. • Modern techniques of Doppler radar and thermal (infrared) cameras. Research should last at least for one whole year (the period when bats are active) and include all seasons, and its intensity and dynamics should depend on conditions at the particular locality. It is advisable to combine the audio-detection (whether by a hand-held detector or automatic systems) with collecting data on environmental factors such as temperature, precipitation and wind speed, so that they may be correlated with data on bat activity.

For more details on impact of wind-generator fields on bats, methodology of research and measures of avoidance, mitigation and compensation, please see: Rodrigues, L., Bach, L., Dubourg-Savage, M.-J., Goodwin J., Harbusch C. (2008): Guidelines for consideration of bats in wind farm projects. EUROBATS Publication Series No. 3 (English version). UNEP/ EUROBATS Secretariat, Bonn, Germany, 51 pp.

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EXPERT SECTION LAW ON NATURE PROTECTION (Službeni glasnik RS, No. 36/09, 88/10)

Protection of ecosystems Article 17 Conservation of ecosystems (forest, high-mountains, water and wetland, vulnerable, agro- and other ecosystems) is performed through the protection of their natural composition, structure, function, range and balance, through appropriate measures and activities aimed at their conservation, enhancement and sustainable use.

Protection of forest, wetland and water ecosystems and habitats within the agroecosystems Article 18 Conservation of biological diversity of forest ecosystems is performed in order to enhance the generally useful functions of forests, according to Law. Forest management must be based on principles of sustainable development and conservation of biological diversity, preservation of natural composition, structure and function of forest ecosystems, according to the conditions of environmental conservation that are the integral part of forest base.

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The basic goal of these measures should be prevention of a high mortality rate in bats during the operation of wind farms. Another goal is to prevent the disruptions of flight paths (circadian, local) that connect the roosts to hunting areas, as well as the (seasonal) migration routes that connect summer and winter roosts/habitats, which could lead to significant threats to the influenced populations and species. The most adequate solution in each particular case will primarily depend on the ecological characteristics of the species the measures are intended for and on the characteristics of the terrain and the particular project. • Project activities in areas important for bats should be performed exclusively by day, as noise and lighting during the night may significantly disturb their life activities. • During the project activities, any removal of tree and shrub vegetation not in direct function with project realization should be avoided, except when it is included in the measures leading to the decrease in mortality rates in bats. • Decrease of impact by appropriate layout of wind turbines and setting up the safety zones. Careful planning of wind turbine layout may significantly contribute to the decrease in direct mortality rate. The greatest mortality rates are expected in zones where bat activity is focused – flight paths, hunting areas, immediate vicinity of large colony roosts and migration routes, particularly for higher risk species, due to their specific ecology. The wind turbines that would be placed in zones of important flight paths would be a bigger problem as, besides the risks of high mortality rates, they could also present a barrier to daily movements from roosts to hunting areas. In Serbia, the traditional migration routes of birds, and as far as it’s known of bats as well, are situated along the valleys of

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the rivers Tisa, Danube, Sava and Velika Morava. On the local level, every well-defined mountain pass or saddle is certainly, and every linear landscape element potentially, a place where migratory and non-migratory movements are concentrated. The research must be detailed enough to gather sufficient information for making proper decisions on wind turbine layout, in order to provide undisturbed activities and minimal mortality rates for present species. Zones with the greatest concentrations of bat activities and their functions for recorded bats should be presented on a map, and wind farms should not be built within a certain safe distance from these zones. • Curtailment or decreasing of blades speed at low wind speeds. Most bat deaths happen at low wind speeds of up to 5-6 m/s, as bat activity decreases drastically when the wind gets stronger. The very large pool of newest research data on American wind farms show that stopping the blades (curtailment) or drastically decreasing their speed by changing the angles of the blades until the moment when wind reaches the critical speed, have led to drastic decrease in bat mortality (6090%), with negligible losses in production of electric energy on the annual level. Therefore, especially in projects with predicted high risk of bat mortality, and depending on the individual wind turbine type used, some of these methods should be applied in order to decrease the risk of mortality. • Reduce the surface area of the bats’ prey habitat in the vicinity of turbines. The immediate vicinity of wind farms and roads, disturbed by construction and activities of the project, may include places with significant concentration of insect prey. The increase in the amount of prey may then attract bats and increase the risk of mortality. Measures should be suggested in order to decrease the attractiveness of immediate vicinity of wind turbines for insects and consequentially bats, during both the construction and the operation of the wind farm.

In order to enrich the biological and landscape diversity, the forest management strives to preserve forest glades (meadows, pastures etc.) and forest edges as much as possible. Actions, activities and work threatening hydrological phenomena or survival and conservation of biological diversity are forbidden in water and wetland ecosystems. The amount of water in water and wetland ecosystems that is considered necessary for preservation of hydrological phenomena and survival of biological diversity is determined by the ministry in charge of agriculture, forestry and water industry activities, in accordance with the decision of the Ministry. Conservation of biological and landscape diversity of habitats within the agroecosystems and other non-autonomous and semi-autonomous ecosystems is performed primarily through conservation and protection of ecotone habitats, hedges, cairns, individual trees, groups of trees, ponds and meadow belts, as well as other ecosystems with preserved or partly altered forest, shrub, meadow or marsh vegetation. During the increase in size of plots of agricultural land, it is necessary to consider the conservation of existing and the creation of new ecotone habitats, in order to provide biological and landscape diversity of the ecosystem

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EXPERT SECTION POST-CONSTRUCTION MONITORING As a minimum, the post-construction monitoring should determine: • The accuracy of the assessment of mortality rate in EIA study. • Relative mortality rates when compared to other similar projects. • How appropriate were the implemented avoidance, mitigation and compensation measures. • Is it necessary to implement additional avoidance, mitigation and compensation measures? • Are the implemented measures of compensation appropriate and are additional ones necessary? The period of post-construction should be long enough to determine if the assessment of impact on bats was precise enough and if operation of wind farm has caused any unpredicted adverse effect, particularly a high mortality rate which would require additional avoidance, mitigation and compensation measures.

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• Avoid lighting that attracts insects and bats. Different species of bats react to artificial light in different ways, but knowledge on this phenomenon is still insufficient. It is certain that the lights that are constantly turned on repel certain bat species. On the other hand, such light attracts nocturnal insects, which in turn attract those bat species that are adapted to hunting around the artificial lights, increasing the risk of high mortality rates. Therefore, it is suggested that lights installed on the wind turbines should be switched on and off, and the period the lights are on should be at the minimum proposed by safety regulations. The recommended light sources are those that do not attract insects or attract them in small numbers, and the best types have switches and sensors that turn off the lights when they are not necessary. Light sources should be directed so that the lit area outside of the project activity zone is kept to the minimum.

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• Decommission – removal of non-operational wind turbines or wind farms. Individual wind turbines or whole wind farms should be removed when they permanently stop working, as that eliminates the risk of mortality and permanent disruption of landscape functionality for bats. All studies of impact assessment must list this measure for preventing further impact after the project decommission, and the authorities should demand that the plan for decommission and removal should be included in the project. The plan should include all details on how the wind turbines and additional structures will be dismantled and removed, including the removal of foundations (up to one meter below the surface), additional roads, unnecessary fences and additional structures. The decommission plan should also include documentation that shows financial ability to fulfill the demands of decommission and restoration. Compensation measures

In contrast to impact on habitat, where loss of one hectare of land at the project site may be compensated by protection or restoration of appropriate number of hectares of habitat outside of the site, there is no simple measure to compensate for fatalities..

At project sites where available information is insufficient (which will always be the case in Serbia, at least in the initial phase of using wind energy), it would be necessary to perform systematic monitoring of mortality rate for at least two years, using some of the standard techniques of fatality count (search for carcasses). That is the only way to precisely determine the mortality rate, taking seasonal variability into account. For comparison, assessments of risks and mortality rates must be quantified in a uniform way, expressed as the number of fatalities per megawatt (MW) of installed capacity per year. The field research pertaining to bat mortality may be performed simultaneously with the similar bird monitoring as they use the same methodology.

Some possible means of compensation known to contribute to conservation and enhancement of bat populations, and which may form a part of compensation program include: • Protection of appropriate habitats and their functional elements outside of the project location, above all roosts, hunting areas, flight paths and migration routes. • Improvement and/or renewal of appropriate habitats and their functional elements outside of the project site, above all roosts, hunting areas, flight paths and migration routes..

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EXPERT SECTION Environmental impact assessment mandatory or may be required for all projects of road construction, reconstruction and/or expanding, depending on the number of road lanes.

For more details on impacts of road construction and road traffic on bats, research methodology and measures of avoidance, mitigation and compensation, please see: Limpens H. J. G. A., Twisk P., Veenbas, G. (2005): Bats and Road Construction. Brochure about bats and the ways in which practical measures can be taken to observe the legal duty of car for bats in planning, constructing, re-constructing and managing roads. Rijkswaterstaat, Dienst Weg-en Waterbouwkunde, Delft, Netherlands., 24 pp.

Highways Agency (2006): Best practice in enhancement of highway design for bats - Literature review report. Halcrow Group Limited, Exeter, UK. 83 pp.

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ROAD CONSTRUCTION Planning of road infrastructure must be viewed from a broader perspective, as it may have multifold impacts on bats living in the vicinity of a proposed construction project. The road might break the continuity of habitat, or even completely destroy the habitat or its functional elements for the populations of bats (roosts, flight paths, hunting areas and migration routes) at the site or in the region. Construction of road infrastructure is also an expensive and complex process, which includes several stages of research, projecting ideas, technical projecting, commissioning, construction and maintenance. The impact assessment must include the impact of road construction project (including all the project alternatives) on: • all bat roosts existing along and in vicinity of the planned road; • flight paths that will be potentially interrupted by the planned road, including the flight paths of those populations that do not roost in immediate vicinity of the planned road; • hunting areas of each recorded bat species on the planned road and in its vicinity; • migration routes that will potentially be interrupted or disrupted by the planned road and those in the vicinity.

Figure 1 (explained in text)


Field research must include at least one whole season and the whole area that may be affected by the road construction project, including all the project alternatives. The most adequate combination of methods and appropriate intensity of research depend on the ecological characteristics of the area that may be affected by the project, as well as on the composition of potentially present species and their ecological functions in that area (ANNEXES IV-VII). Necessary methods for field research are: • Searching for and inspection of roosts and colonies, • Ultrasound audio-detection with a hand-held detector (with the time expansion system), in combination with visual detection, preferably using walking transects. Additional recommended methods include: • Capturing, especially in the hunting areas and along the flight paths, with the goal of precise identification of species that may not be reliably identified by using ultrasound signals alone, and • Ultrasound audio-detection with automatic systems (bat-boxes). Where it is possible, it is also advisable to use: • radio-telemetry tracking in order to collect as precise and detailed information as possible on the hunting areas and flight paths, particularly for the most important species from the aspect of conservation and protection.

Figure 2. Green bridge (explained in text)

Rulebook on special technicaltechnological solutions that enable uninterrupted and safe communication by wild animals (Službeni glasnik RS, No. 72/10) Article 3: The ecological corridors are determined according to the analysis of ecological conditions and threats to the area, composition of natural vegetation and movements of wild animals, particularly in the reproductive period, which is determined within the procedure of assessing the conditions of nature conservation, or environmental impact assessment, and is an integral part of the document of environmental impact assessment, as regulated in special legislations.

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EXPERT SECTION LAW ON NATURE PROTECTION (Službeni glasnik RS, No. 36/09, 88/10) Measures of protection for migratory species Article 80: Public roads and other types of traffic lines, telecommunication and electric energy systems, hydro-construction and other objects where construction cuts through the usual corridors of circadian and seasonal migrations of wild animals, causes fragmentation of habitats or otherwise disrupts their normal life cycle, have to be constructed in such a way to diminish the negative effects, with use of special construction and technical-technological solutions in objects and their vicinity, during both the construction and exploitation activities. Special technical-technological solutions that enable uninterrupted and safe communication of wild animal populations (ecological bridges, overpasses and underpasses, tunnels, underground tubes, ditches, safeguarding and directing objects, fish paths and elevators etc.) as well as the protection measures and way of maintenance of technicaltechnological solutions are prescribed by the Minister, with the agreement of Ministry in charge of traffic, mining and energy, agriculture, forestry and water industry.


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The ultimate goal should be to prevent any disruptions and breaks in (circadian, local) flight paths connecting the roosts with the hunting areas and (seasonal) migration routes connecting summer and winter habitats/roosts, as that would have a very significant adverse effect to the affected populations and species. Another goal is to evade high bat casualty rates during the construction, operation and maintenance of roads. The choice of the most adequate measures in each particular case will depend primarily on the specific ecological features of species enabled by these measures and on the characteristics of site. • Road construction activities in places important for bats should be exclusively performed by daylight, as noise and artificial lights may significantly disturb their activities; • Whenever possible, the existing flight paths and migration routes, as well as landscape elements that define them, should be preserved, and special measures should be taken in places where the road interrupts them in order to enable safe “transit” of bats – for example specific hop-over vegetation formations (Figures 3, 4), green viaducts (Figure 2), appropriate passes below the road (Figure 5) or bridge (Figure 6) etc.

Figure 4 (explained in text)1

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• When it is not possible to preserve the safety of the existing flight paths and migration routes for bats, and/or it is not possible to provide safe “crossing” for bats at the places where the road interrupts these corridors, it is necessary to develop a system of measures (Figure 1), which must include the following: 1. discouraging bats from crossing the road at the unsafe places – for example by bright light, removal of vegetation etc.;


2. redirection of flight paths toward the closest safe crossing – for example by reshaping the linear landscape elements; 3. enabling an appropriate safe crossing at the closest possible location – for example by specific hop-over vegetation formations (Figures 3, 4), green viaducts (Figure 2), appropriate passes below the road (Figure 5) or bridge (Figure 6) etc.


• Avoid any removal of trees and shrub vegetation that is not in direct function of project realization, except when it is proposed by the measures in function of decreasing the possibility of bat fatalities; • Artificial lights should be projected in such a way to disrupt the life activities of bats as little as possible (Figure 7), except when it is proposed by the measures in function of decreasing the possibility of bat fatalities;


• Protective walls that prevent the spreading of noise should be erected wherever needed, and at the same time they will prevent the occurrence of animal casualties on the road (including bats); • If forest vegetation including some more important hunting areas and/or a number of roosts of dendrophilous species must be removed during the realization of the project, this must be compensated by appropriate measures – for example forming new appropriate forest stands in safe zones, making appropriate replacements for lost roosts (Figure 8) etc.


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EXPERT SECTION Impact assessment is compulsory or may be required for all projects of constructing dams and other objects with the purpose of storing or accumulation of water.

CASE STUDY Đerdap reservoir (lake) It was formed after a dam was built on river Danube for needs of hydroelectric plant “Đerdap 1”, which started to work in 1970. The large water mass of the newly formed Đerdap Lake has flooded several human settlements, important geological and archaeological sites, as well as gorge and riverbank habitats and roosts of bats. The detailed overview on changes in mammalian fauna was provided by Mirić (1981) in a study where according to the collected data he concluded that the appearance of hydroaccumulation will not have a more significant impact on mammalian fauna. The bat fauna around Đerdap Lake is presently rich and diverse, and most important roosts and habitats, as well as larger forest complexes, are presently included within the boundaries of National Park “Đerdap”, representing an effort for their protection and conservation.

CONSTRUCTION OF RESERVOIR FACILITIES Construction of reservoirs has a great industrial importance, as they serve to provide water for various purposes, and sometimes play a crucial role in areas where water sources are insufficient or entirely non-existent. The construction of dams causes large-scale changes in nature, from climatic factors to wildlife, and for most elements of flora and fauna, these changes are fatal. As construction of reservoirs may directly lead to bat fatalities and threaten all aspects of their lives, the study on impact assessment should include impacts of dam construction projects and formation of reservoirs on: • all bat roosts present in the zone suggested for submersion and its vicinity; • flight paths that will be disrupted or severed by the reservoir, including the flight paths of those populations that roost away from the immediate vicinity of the planned reservoir; • hunting areas of each recorded bat species in the zone suggested for submersion; • migration routes that will be potentially disrupted or severed by the reservoir, as well as those in the vicinity. Research methods

Field studies must include at least one whole season and the whole area that may be affected by the project; and particularly the zone suggested for submersion. The most adequate combination of methods and intensity of research will depend on the ecological characteristics of the area that may be affected by the project and on the potentially present species and their ecological functions in that area (ANNEXES IV-VII). Necessary methods for field research include: • searching for and inspection of roosts and colonies;

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• ultrasound audio-detection with a hand-held detector (with the time expansion system), combined with visual detection, with best results provided by walking transects; • capture, particularly in hunting areas, flight paths and at roost entrances, with the goal of precise identification of species that may not be reliably identified based on ultrasound signals alone. If possible, it is advisable to also use: • ultrasound audio-detection with automatic systems (bat-boxes); • radio-telemetry tracking with the goal of collecting as precise and detailed information on hunting areas and flight paths as possible, particularly for species most important from the point of view of conservation and protection. Avoidance, mitigation and compensation measures

If the zone proposed for submersion includes important bat roosts, it is imperative to avoid the high mortality rate within the roosts, which would certainly happen if the submersion were to occur during the period of hibernation and reproduction. Therefore the period of activities at the site should be carefully scheduled, and the submersion process should be limited to the period when the roosts do not contain more important colonies (particularly hibernation and nursery ones).

CASE STUDY Reservoir at Drina River – Perućac Lake Accumulation lake Perućac was formed at river Drina, in the border area between Serbia and Bosnia-Herzegovina, in 1966, after the construction and start of activities of hydroelectric plant “Bajina Bašta”. After the raise of water level, the gorge of river Drina above the hydroelectric plant was flooded. It used to be, and still is, a landscape with high biodiversity levels and part of range of many strictly protected and rare species. In spite of the significant change of microclimatic conditions, many animals, including the bats, have managed to find alternative habitats. However, several dozen well-known speleological objects that used to be important bat roosts have disappeared below the water mass of the lake. Same as in the case of Đerdap Lake, a protected natural asset was established in vicinity of Perućac Lake – National Park “Tara”, significantly compensating the negative consequences of nature modification.

Loss of habitats, flight paths and hunting areas caused by formation of reservoirs (submersion) is almost impossible to mitigate, and certainly not completely avoid. Therefore, it is necessary to plan for measures of compensation that will make up for the lost ecological function and loss of habitat in the immediate vicinity. The most efficient way to implement the compensation measures is to establish legal protection and active measures of improving the conditions of ecosystems in immediate vicinity. If the study of impact assessment shows that the zone of a planned reservoir covers some very important flight paths, hunting areas, migration routes, and particularly roosts, this project should not be approved.

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EXPERT SECTION Conservation, protection, planning, planting and utilization of forests and management of forests and forest areas are included in the Serbian Law on Forests (Službeni glasnik RS, No. 30/10). Planning in forestry is performed through a hierarchical system of programs and plans. The strategic environmental impact assessment was proposed for programs and plans at the highest level, adopted for a period of 10 years: • Programs of forestry development – strategic planning documents on national and regional level;

FOREST MANAGEMENT Out of 29 species of bats recorded in Serbia, about a half live in forests. These species fulfill all or most of their needs within the forest habitats. These forest bats feed on moths, caterpillars, mosquitoes, beetles and dozens of other types of flying and crawling insects, many of them classified as harmful to forests. Bats catch their prey in the air or collect it from leaves, ground or tree bark. As bats are present in all forest ecosystems in Serbia, and many bat species completely or mostly depend on forests for fulfillment of their needs, it is necessary to include bats in all (strategic) impact assessments pertaining to forests. Research methods

• Development plans – plan documents for forest areas and national parks. Environmental impact assessment may be required for all projects that include activities in forest habitats leading to changes to another type of land exploitation. Many forest habitats, complexes and fragments already have the status of legally protected natural assets, and the environmental impact assessment may also be required for all projects realized within the protected natural asset.

There are numerous problems specific to studying bats in the forests. Field research on forest bats is usually longer, with higher intensity and covering a greater area than the research on bats in other habitat types, such as caves or urban areas. The greater intensity demands the larger research team and a greater number of work nights during all seasons. The complete list of species living in forests and understanding of their habitats and landscape use may be determined only after several years of systematic research combining several different methods. It is also important to know that certain forest areas (young forest for example) may not be permanently inhabited by bats, but several species may use them as hunting areas or temporary roosts, while in some forests population density of bats is often very low. • Capturing with mist- nets and/or traps. This is the main research technique in forest habitats. The most efficient way is placement of nets above rivers, streams, ponds, forest glades, forest paths, and especially at the entrances of caves and rock outcrops if they exist. Such placement of nets increases the possibility of recording a greater number of species. Probability of capture also increases with the increase of the total length of nets used, which should be greater than 50 m for efficient capture in forest habitats. The advantage

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of this method is that it provides the most precise identification of species, while the disadvantage is that certain forest species are difficult to catch using any techniques due to specific features of their ecology and behavior – they have a very low population density, they are very cautious and successfully avoid nets, they fly from tree hollows straight up and almost never come closer to the ground etc. • Ultrasound audio-detection with a hand-held detector (with the time expansion system) combined with visual detection; preferably walking transects. This method provides efficient recording of bats flying over or hunting, and determines the positions of their flight paths and hunting areas. It should be noted that the spatial range of the detector is smaller in forests than in other types of habitat, due to the increased absorption of ultrasound signals in closed-type habitats and the lower energy of ultrasound signals of most forest-dwelling bat species. Therefore, this method is particularly suitable for young forests or parts with lower vegetation, in gallery forests, as well as in the parts with more open vegetation stands – at the forest glades, along the roads and paths, rivers and streams, and forest edges. • Radio-telemetry tracking. This may be the most precise method to show the feeding areas of bats, the flight paths they use to reach the hunting areas and the precise locations of roosts, but it demands a time-expensive, high intensity research, as well as expensive equipment. Recommendation of measures for improving forests as bat habitats

Modern concepts of forest management include a number of measures with the aim of conservation of rich diversity, including the bat fauna. Roosts and food are the essential resources. These two basic resources can be improved by taking targeted forestry measures. The following suggestions are not intended to be implemented within the same forest stand, but rather represent a list of all possible actions to be taken depending on the site conditions, the practicability, and the spectrum of bat species.

LAW ON NATURE PROTECTION (Službeni glasnik RS, No. 36/09, 88/10) Protection of ecosystems Article 17 Conservation of ecosystems (forest, high-mountains, water and wetland, vulnerable, agro- and other ecosystems) is performed through the protection of their natural composition, structure, function, range and balance, through appropriate measures and activities aimed at their conservation, enhancement and sustainable use.

Protection of forest, wetland and water ecosystems and habitats within the agroecosystems Article 18, Lines 1 - 3 Conservation of biological diversity of forest ecosystems is performed in order to enhance the generally useful functions of forests, according to Law. Forest management must be based on principles of sustainable development and conservation of biological diversity, preservation of natural composition, structure and function of forest ecosystems, according to the conditions of environmental conservation that are the integral part of forest base. In order to enrich the biological and landscape diversity, the forest management strives to preserve forest glades (meadows, pastures etc.) and forest edges as much as possible.

For more details on bats and forest management, please see: Meschede, A. (Serbian edition by Karapandža, B., Paunović, M.) (2004): Slepi miševi naših šuma - Informacije i preporuke za upravljače šumama. Društvo za očuvanje divljih životinja »Mustela«, Beograd, 20pp.

105

EXPERT SECTION Aims of bat conservation

Recommendations for forest management

Initializing a two-level roostsite network aiming at a permanent and long-term roost supply of 25 to 30 tree holes per hectare of old stand, equalling 7 to 10 roost trees per hectare

• level 1: securing a network of trees that already show holes due to rotting or made by woodpeckers, cracks in the trunk, or loose bark. Distances between hole hot spots should not exceed 1,000 m • level 2: developing a network of successors for trees of level 1. If possible, chosen trees should already show signs of holes or ecological qualities like a fungus infestation • mark and protect known roost trees (summer and winter roosts)

Promotion of feeding habitats for species that forage in open air space (e.g. Leisler’s bat)

• clearings or clearcuts no larger than 0.5 - 1 ha through natural processes or measures of restocking • harvesting trees in clusters • establishing ponds (200 m2 minimum)

Promotion of hunting habitats for species that feed in dense vegeta-tion (e.g. Bechstein’s bat, Natterer’s bat, brown longeared bat)

• increase of the substratum and intermediate layer up to 20 - 30 % coverage • partial thinning of the canopy to increase light intensity and thus promote undergrowth (density of canopy about 80 %) • toleration of succession areas

Support of a canopy with high food production (e.g. for Bechstein’s bat, whiskered and Brandt’s bat) support of canopy gaps as a source for food production for all bat species

• introducing deciduous tree species suitable for the site, e.g. oak, beech, hornbeam (species with high insect abundance) • no harvesting of old trees (especially oak) and enhancement of the amount of light incident on such trees and their surroundings to increase insect abundance

Free airspace about 1 m above the ground and open forest floor (important for the greater mouse-eared bat)

• creation of areas free of undergrowth by promoting one-layered ”hall-like” stands • development of dense canopy to decrease light intensity, by promotion of medium-sized trunks (40 - 50 cm diameter at breast height), by increasing the age of trees (targeted thinning) which in turn increases space between trees

Structures and sources of food in general (particularly for Nathusius’ pipistrelles, common pipistrelle, whiskered and Brandt’s bat, but also for all other species)

• ”designing” inner forest margins along waysides, e.g • development of outer margins of forests (minimum 30 m in depth) by ”natural development” as links between forest and open cultivated landscape, continued by hedges, tree lines, ditches etc. • establishing ponds (100 - 200 m2 minimum) and forest meadows • re-establishing wet forest parts by closing drainages and/or diverting waters; restoration of riparian forests and old river beds • no use of pesticides, especially insecticides in case of pest infestation, but reliance on preventive steps

106

EXPERT SECTION

URBAN DEVELOPMENT At least seven bat species (Pipistrellus kuhlii, Nyctalus noctula, Hypsugo savii, Eptesicus serotinus, Pipistrellus nathusii, Pipistrellus pipistrellus, Pipistrellus pygmaeus) are regular inhabitants of human settlements in Serbia. Residential and business buildings, city greenery, industrial zones, road infrastructure and other elements of urban landscape provide a large number of suitable habitat functions, particularly roosts, which bats have learned to use permanently or seasonally. The size of bat colonies in settlements and human-made objects usually varies from several individuals to several hundred individuals, and in certain cases even several thousand individuals, depending on the ecology of species and the conditions in the particular roost. Bats may find suitable roosts in attics and roof constructions, in basements and other underground spaces, crevice-like spaces in construction and/or facades of buildings, ventilation ducts, chimneys, hollows in bridge constructions, and generally in any barely accessible or rarely used or abandoned space in man-made constructions, as well as in the city trees. Some species may use only one or two roosts during the year, while others may use 40-70 different roosts in a single summer, changing them every couple of days.

Poorly maintained buildings in the old part of Belgrade provide an abundance of roosts for Kuhl’s pipistrelle

Projects of urban development and other projects of construction or restoration of infrastructure within the human settlements belong to the group of projects for which environmental impact assessment may be required.

For more details on impact of renovation of immobile cultural assets on bats, research methodology and measures of avoidance, mitigation and compensation, please see: Marnell, F., Presetnik P. (2010): Protection of overground roosts for bats (particularly roosts in buildings of cultural heritage importance). EUROBATS Publication Series No. 4 (English version). UNEP / EUROBATS Secretariat, Bonn, Germany, 57 pp.

Entrance of typical roost site of Kuhl’s pipistrelle in Belgrade

107

EXPERT SECTION CASE STUDY Mixed nursery colonies of bats in Vršac in southern Banat Vršac is situated in southern Banat and it is one of rare towns in Serbia where larger bat colonies were recorded in an urban environment. Within the joined activity of Naturalist Society “Gea” from Vršac, Wildlife Conservation Society “Mustela” and Natural History Museum from Belgrade on studying bats of southern Banat, presence of mixed nursery colonies was determined in attics of several buildings. A mixed colony of greater mouse-eared bats Myotis myotis and greater horseshoe bats Rhinolophus ferrumequinum, composed of over 200 adult females of both species, was recorded in the attic of the Orthodox Church in June 2003. This church underwent restoration in 2009 and further fate of this colony is unknown. A mixed colony of greater horseshoe bats Rhinolophus ferrumequinum and Geoffroy’s bats Myotis emarginatus was recorded in July 2004 in the attic of Technical High School “Nikola Tesla”. There were about 300 adult individuals, predominantly females. This colony exists to this day in same numbers. A large mixed colony of greater horseshoe bats Rhinolophus ferrumequinum and Geoffroy’s bats Myotis emarginatus was recorded in the attic of Carpet and Floor Tiles shop Sintelon in 2002. Among approximately 2000 specimens, Geoffroy’s bats were dominant in 2:1 ratio. This colony exists to this days in same numbers.

108

Urban development projects with potentially greatest adverse effect on bats are those that include complete demolition of objects or their parts, as well as the restoration projects. The most critical period for performing any projects in human settlements, especially demolition and/or restoration, is the time when bats give birth and nurse their young (May-July) or hibernate (NovemberFebruary). Demolition of spaces or buildings inhabited by bats in these periods, besides the disturbance and loss of roosts, may also lead to fatalities, sometimes even of a very large number of individuals. During the period of birth and nursing, the young bats are almost completely helpless and, besides the direct fatal injury, they may also be abandoned by their mothers due to constant disturbance. During the hibernation period, all bats may be exposed to direct fatal injuries, but fatalities may also result from exhaustion and stress caused by disturbance and forceful awakening, or due to exposure to extreme winter climatic conditions caused by roost destruction. Parts of populations of certain migratory species coming from northern parts of Europe hibernate in our Serbia (some of them may be very numerous, such as Nyctalus noctula), so there is also a significant risk of transboundary impact. In conclusion, for the projects including demolition and/or restoration on greater scale, it is possible to estimate whether they might have an important impact on bats. Therefore, in these projects it is necessary to require an environmental impact assessment, which would have to include bats. Impact assessment of such projects may be performed very quickly and efficiently – the field research in certain cases may be completed in just a few work nights during the period of bat activity.

EXPERT SECTION Research methodsa

• searching for and inspection of roosts and colonies, • ultrasound audio-detection with a handheld detector (advisably with the time expansion system) combined with visual detection, in order to identify roosts of species that are inaccessible or hardly accessible for direct inspection when in the roosts Avoidance, mitigation and compensation measures

• Whenever possible it is necessary to precisely prescribe the schedule of when the activities at the site of bat roosts or it their vicinity start and end, limiting them to a period when the colony is absent; • Only in cases when it is not possible to prescribe time limitations as a period when the colony is absent, a person with special permit should remove the bats from the locations planned for destruction/renovation; • It is necessary to provide preventive presence of an experienced bat expert at the site immediately before the start of the activities.

At the top floor of this skyscraper in Zemun, there is a hibernation colony of noctule bat. The roost is in the crevice space between the concrete elements

CASE STUDY Bats of Belgrade As a metropolis and the capital city of Serbia, Belgrade is full of bats. Citizens of Belgrade find it difficult to believe that their city offers shelter to hundreds of thousands of bats throughout the year and particularly in winter. So far, there are 15 recorded species of bats finding adequate habitats, hunting areas and numerous roosts in Belgrade. Until recently, the condition of facades and windows in buildings in older parts of Belgrade enabled comfortable roosting of bats, and citizens contacted the Natural History Museum and Society “Mustela” for help at the rate of about eight calls per year (Paunović et al. 2000). In last several years, the restoration of old facades has significantly increased, and the calls by citizens of Belgrade became even more common, so in the period from June to October there are on average 6 calls per month. This phenomenon might be a result of several facts, and the greatest probability is that all of them have a cumulative effect: • Restoration of buildings is more common than it used to be, so bats are experiencing a shortage of roosts in Belgrade. • Number of bats in Belgrade is increasing. • After more than ten years of education, citizens of Belgrade now know where to look for the solution of their problems with bats, which has greatly increased the number of calls. The most numerous species throughout the year is Kuhl’s pipistrelle Pipistrellus kuhlii. First records in Serbia were actually from Belgrade in 1994 (Paunović et Marinković 1995). Since then, Kuhl’s pipistrelle has completely conquered Belgrade and almost all towns and settlements in Serbia. During the colder period of the year, Belgrade is a big wintering area for common noctules Nyctalus noctula that use anthropogenous roosts and tree hollows. In recent times there is another species conquering Belgrade – records of Savi’s pipistrelle Hypsugo savii are increasing throughout the city area.

109

EXPERT SECTION Environmental impact assessment may be required for all projects in the protected vicinity of an immobile cultural asset (cultural heritage buildings).

RESTORATION OF PROTECTED CULTURAL HERITAGE BUILDINGS Certain bat species (Rhinolophus hipposideros, Rh. ferrumequinum, Myotis emarginatus, M. myotis, Pipistrellus spp., Hypsugo savii etc.) may be found in basements and underground tunnels, attics and roof constructions, hollows and crevices in walls and in many other places in old buildings. Many local bat populations have a long tradition of using the same roosts, as they are often attracted to the special microclimate maintained in historical buildings over a long period of time. Therefore, during the projects of restoration and/ or change in use of buildings designated as protected immobile cultural assets, it is necessary to consider the high probability of the presence of bats, and require environmental impact assessment, which will obligatorily include bats. Study on impact assessment should include a list of species with proven or possible presence at the site, as well as a precise map of site with marked bat roosts and estimates of number of individuals using each roost.

Detail of Smederevo Fortress

110

The most critical periods for performing these projects are the time of birth and nursing the young (May-July) and the period of hibernation (NovemberFebruary). In the period of birth and nursing, the young bats are almost completely helpless and, besides the possible direct fatal injuries, they may also be abandoned by their mothers due to constant disturbance. During the hibernation period, all bats may be exposed to direct fatal injuries, but fatalities may also result from exhaustion and stress caused by disturbance. Reconstruction or demolition of certain parts of the complexes of immobile cultural assets containing bat colonies in these periods of year may lead not only to disturbance and loss of roosts, but also to direct fatalities, sometimes even of a very large number of individuals, and even to disappearance of local populations.


• searching for and inspection of roosts and colonies, • ultrasound audio-detection with a handheld detector (advisably with the time expansion system) combined with visual detection, in order to identify roosts of species that are inaccessible or hardly accessible for direct inspection when in the roosts. It is possible to discover bat guano on a single visit to each attic, basement, tunnel or other potential bat roost within the complex of immobile cultural asset. Information provided by the employees is a valuable additional source of data on the presence of bats. Ultrasound audio-detection may indicate presence of roosts of species otherwise difficult to identify.

CASE STUDIES The Petrovaradin Fortress Sixty years ago, the multi-branched system of underground tunnels under the Petrovaradin fortress was one of the most important and largest artificial underground habitats in Vojvodina. Bats used to be recorded throughout the year, while the greatest valuable data was collected during the winter months. Although certain parts of the fortress were used for various purposes throughout the years, it still supports an abundant bat fauna. This is mostly a due to the fact that the fortress had been used for military purposes for a very long time, which provided relatively constant conditions and prevention of access for a large number of people and vandals.

St. Mark’s Church in Belgrade During the 1950s, the crypts of this church housed a large summer colony of greater mouse-eared bats Myotis myotis. According to data stored in the databank of the Mammal Collection of Natural History Museum, this colony already ceased to exist in the 1960s. Although there are no reliable data, if is assumed that disappearance of this colony is a consequence of restoration of their roost.

111

EXPERT SECTION Avoidance, mitigation and compensation measures

• It is necessary to precisely prescribe the schedule of when the activities at the site of bat roosts or it their vicinity start and end, limiting the activities to a period when the colony is absent, or if it is permanently present, to the period when disturbance has the lowest adverse effect;

For more details on impact of renovation of immobile cultural assets on bats, research methodology and measures of avoidance, mitigation and compensation, please see: Marnell, F., Presetnik, P. (2010): Protection of overground roosts for bats (particularly roosts in buildings of cultural heritage importance). EUROBATS Publication Series No. 4 (English version). UNEP / EUROBATS Secretariat, Bonn, Germany, 57 pp.

• If bats are permanently present at the roost, activities should be limited to the period when the disturbance would lead to least adverse effect, and the roosts must be adequately protected from disturbance (noise, light, passing-by…). • The wooden construction elements should be protected with chemical compounds non-toxic to bats, and if they are applied within the bat roost it must be done in the period when bats are absent. • The openings used by bats to enter the roost should remain unaltered whenever possible. • Whenever possible the vegetation in vicinity of the roost should be preserved, particularly in the immediate vicinity of the entrance to the roost. • Placement of any type of artificial lighting should be avoided in the vicinity of the roost, particularly in the immediate vicinity of the entrance. • If there is a bat colony, the inspection shall check and regularly supervise the fulfillment of conditions as set out in the decision on EIA study approval.

Detail of Kalemegdan Fortress in Belgrade

112

ANNEXES

ANNEXES

ANNEX I. Species preference of habitat types (probability of the presence of species in habitat types)

Pipistrellus kuhlii Pipistrellus nathusii Pipistrellus pipistrellus Pipistrellus pygmaeus Plecotus auritus Plecotus austriacus Vespertilio murinus Miniopterus schreibersii

114

2 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 9 1 9 2

1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 9 2 2 2 1 1 1 2 2 2 1 9 2 2 9 2 1 2 1

9

3

2

9

3

2 9 1 2 2 1 2 1 2

Rocky Areas

Wetlands (inland) 2 2 2 2 9 2 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 3 2 2 3 1 1

3 3

3 2

2

Artificial

2 2 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 1

Caves and Subterranean

Rhinolophus blasii Rhinolophus euryale Rhinolophus ferrumequinum Rhinolophus hipposideros Rhinolophus mehelyi Barbastella barbastellus Eptesicus serotinus Myotis alcathoe Myotis bechsteinii Myotis blythii Myotis brandtii Myotis capaccinii Myotis dasycneme Myotis daubentonii Myotis emarginatus Myotis myotis Myotis mystacinus Myotis nattereri Nyctalus leisleri Nyctalus noctula Hypsugo savii

Grassland

Forest

Species

Shrubland

Habitat types

1 1 1 1 1 1 2 9 3 1

2

1 3 3 1 1 2 1 3

1

1

3

1 2 2

2

1

2

1 2 2 2 3 9 3 2 2 2 3 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 2 1 2

ANNEXES

Legend 1 2 3 9

primary habitat (very high probability) secondary habitat (possible) unsuitable habitat (unlikely) possibly suitable habitat (possibly very high probability)

ANNEX II. Significance of habitat types for life functions of bats in Serbia

Forest

Shrubland

Grassland

Wetlands (inland)

Rocky Areas


Artificial

Habitat types

Roosts

xxx

0

0

xxx

xx

xxx

xxx

Hunting areas

xxx

xxx

xx

xxx

xx

0

xxx

Flight paths

xxx

xxx

xx

xxx

0

0

xxx

Migration routes

xxx

x

?

xxx

?

0

x

Life functions

Legend x xx xxx 0 ?

small significance moderate significance high significance no significance possibly significant, but no sufficient data

115

ANNEXES

ANNEX III. Possibility of adverse effects of certain activities on bats Life functions

Trees

Artificial overground

Underground

Hunting areas

Flight paths

Migration routes

Direct fatalities

Roosts

Removal of trees

xxx

x

x

xxx

xxx

x-xx

Management of banks

xxx

x

x

xxx

xxx

xxx

Construction of reservoirs

xxx

xxx

xxx

xxx/+*

xx

x

Complete or partial disruption of linear landscape elements

x-xxx

0

0

xxx

xxx

xxx

Renovation and/ or reconstruction of infrastructure

0

xxx

xxx

xx

xxxxx*

x-xx*

xxx

xxx/+* 0-xxx* 0-xxx*

0

Activities

Artificial lighting Surface ore exploitation

x-xxx* 0-xxx* xxxxx

x-xx

xxx

x-xxx

x-xxx

x

Inadequate protection and development of underground objects

0

0

xxx

0

0

0

Operation of wind farms

0

+

0

xxx/+*

x-xx

x-xx

Road traffic

x

0

0-x

x-xxx*

x-xxx*

0

Legend x xx xxx 0 +

small possibility of adverse effect probable adverse effect highly probable adverse effect no adverse effect possible possible positive effect possible direct fatalities * depending on the ecology of particular species (see Annexes I and IX)

116

ANNEXES

ANNEX IV. Usefulness of methods in identification of functions of habitats for bats, and identification of bat presence (regardless of the species identification)

Trees

Artificial overground

Underground

Hunting areas

Flight paths

Migration routes

Presence of individuals

Life functions

xxx

xxx

xx

xxx

xxx

xxx

xxx

0

0

0

xx

xx

xx

xx

Roost inspection

xxx

xxx

xxx

Capture

xxx*

xxx

xxx

?

?

x

?

0

0

0

0

0

0

xx

Light-tags

xxx

xxx

xx

xxx

xxx

xxx

Radio-telemetry tracking

xxx

xxx

xxx

xx

xx

x

0

0

0

0

0

0

Roosts Methods

Ultrasound audio-detection with a hand-held detector Ultrasound audio-detection with automatic systemsa

Analysis of the dead bats remains

Molecular-genetic methods

xxx

xxx

Legend x xx xxx 0 ?

identification difficult identification possible in certain circumstances identification easy in most cases identification not possible depending on the habitat type – difficult in open habitats and easy in more closed habitats

* only funnel traps may produce any useful result Recommendation for use (efficiency) recommended (very efficient) advisable in certain situations, but not necessary (moderately efficient)

?

not recommended (inefficient for this purpose or too expensive) depending on the type of habitat – recommended in habitats with marsh, shrub and/or woody vegetation and at roost entrances.

117

ANNEXES

ANNEX V. Usefulness of methods of identification of bat species

118

Light-tags


Moleculargenetic methods

xxx xx xx xx xx xxx xx xxx xx xx xxx xx xxx x 0/xx*** x x xx 0/xx*** xx 0/xx*** x 0/xx*** xxx xx x 0/xx*** x x x-xxx* 0/xx*** xxx 0/xx*** x x xx xxx xx xxx x-xxx** xxx x xx/xxx*** xx xx/xxx*** x-xxx** xxx xx-xxx** xxx x-xx** 0/xx*** xx 0/xx*** xx xx xxx xxx xxx

Analysis of the dead bat remains

xx xx xxx xx xx xxx xxx x/xx*** xx x/xxx*** x/xx*** xx/xxx*** xxx xx/xxx*** xx x/xxx*** x/xx*** xx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx x/xxx*** x/xxx*** xxx xxx

Capture

Rh. blasii Rh. euryale Rh. ferrumequinum Rh. hipposideros Rh. mehelyi B. barbastellus E. serotinus M. alcathoe M. bechsteinii M. blythii M. brandtii M. capaccinii M. dasycneme M. daubentonii M. emarginatus M. myotis M. mystacinus M. nattereri N. leisleri N. noctula H. savii P. kuhlii P. nathusii P. pipistrellus P. pygmaeus P. auritus P. austriacus V. murinus M. schreibersii

Roost inspection

Species

Ultrasound audio-detection with automatic systems##

Ultrasound audio-detection with a handheld detector#

Methods

xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx





ANNEXES #

for the detector with the time expansion and heterodyning systems, used together with visual detection by using a hand-held reflector lamp and later computer analysis of recordings (for possibilities of other detector systems, see the chapter on methods and table on p. 77)

##

for the detector with the frequency division system, with computer analysis of recordings

Legend x xx xxx 0

identification difficult identification possible in certain circumstances identification easy in most cases identification not possible

* depending on season – difficult in winter, easy in summer ** depending on habitat type – easy to possible in mating roosts, difficult to possible in other types *** possibility of precise species identification / possibility of identification to the level of the group of species Recommendation for use (efficiency) recommended (very efficient) advisable in certain situations, but not necessary (moderately efficient) not recommended (inefficient for this purpose or too expensive) **

depending on roost type – recommended only for mating roosts

119

ANNEXES

ANNEX VI. Usefulness of methods in various habitat types

Forest

Shrubland

Grassland

Wetlands (inland)

Rocky Areas


Artificial

Habitat types

Ultrasound audio-detection with a handheld detector

xx

xx

xxx

xx

xxx

x

xxx

Ultrasound audio-detection with automatic systems

x

x

xx

xx

xx

x

xx

Roost inspection

xxx

xxx

xxx

xxx

xxx

xxx

xxx

Capture

xxx

xxx

x

xxx

xx

xxx

x-xxx*

Analysis of the dead bat remains

x

x

x

x

x

xx

x

Light-tags

xx

xx

xxx

xx

xx

xxx

xx-xxx*


xxx

xxx

xxx

xxx

xxx

xxx

xxx

Moleculargenetic methods

xxx

xxx

xxx

xxx

xxx

xxx

xxx

Methods

Legend Level of information that method may provide in certain habitat conditions x fragmentary xx sufficient xxx complete * depending on the type of habitat – fragmentary to sufficient in closed-type habitats, complete in open-type habitats Recommendation for use (efficiency) recommended (very efficient) advisable in certain situations, but not necessary (moderately efficient) not recommended (inefficient in certain habitat type or too expensive) **

depending on the type of habitat – fragmentary to sufficient in closedtype habitats and complete in open-type habitat

120

ANNEXES

ANNEX VII. Usefulness of methods in different months of the year Month Methods j

f

m

a

m

j

j

*

*

**

**

a

s

o

n

d

Ultrasound audio-detection with a handheld detector Ultrasound audio-detection with automatic systems Roost inspection Capture Analysis of the dead bat remains Light-tags Radio-telemetry tracking Moleculargenetic methods

**

**

**

Legend Recommendation for use (efficiency) recommended (very efficient) *

capturing not allowed, but it is possible to monitor already marked individuals

**

capturing not allowed, but guano or remains of dead individuals may be used advisable in certain situations but not necessary (moderately efficient) not recommended, as bats are not active in this period not allowed due to a very negative impact of disturbance

121

ANNEXES

122

Abundance

Rhinolophus blasii Rhinolophus euryale Rhinolophus ferrumequinum Rhinolophus hipposideros Rhinolophus mehelyi Barbastella barbastellus Eptesicus serotinus Myotis alcathoe Myotis bechsteinii Myotis blythii Myotis brandtii Myotis capaccinii Myotis dasycneme Myotis daubentonii Myotis emarginatus Myotis myotis Myotis mystacinus Myotis nattereri Nyctalus leisleri Nyctalus noctula Hypsugo savii Pipistrellus kuhlii Pipistrellus nathusii Pipistrellus pipistrellus Pipistrellus pygmaeus Plecotus auritus Plecotus austriacus Vespertilio murinus Miniopterus schreibersii

Habitat valence

Species

Distribution

ANNEX VIII. Ecological characteristics of bat species in Serbia

1 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 2

2 2 2 2 2 1 2 ? 1 2 ? 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 2 ? 2 2 2 2

2 2 2 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 2 1 2 2 2 2 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 2 2

Legend Distribution 1 narrow 2 wide

Habitat valence 1 narrow 2 wide ? no sufficient data

Abundance 1 everywhere low 2 somewhere high

In Serbia except Vojvodina province, river valleys and lowlands. There are 107 known localities.

Only at two localities in Eastern Serbia

Rhinolophus hipposideros

Rhinolophus mehelyi

123 Only in caves

Inspection of caves, ultrasound detectors

Exclusively the hilly karst areas with trees and shrubs

Inspection of caves, attics and other artificial underground roosts, ultrasound detectors, capturing in nets, marking Inspection of caves, capturing in nets, analysis of owl pellets, marking

Mostly in caves or artificial underground tunnels, abandoned mines, in attics of buildings in Vojvodina

Rhinolophus euryale

Inspection of caves and tunnels, analysis of owl pellets, ultrasound detectors, radiotelemetry

Inspection of caves, analysis of owl pellets, ultrasound detectors, radio-telemetry

Research methods

Karst areas with mosaics of trees, shrubs and open spaces

Mostly karst areas with mosaics of trees, shrubs and open spaces

Mostly in caves or artificial underground tunnels, abandoned mines

In Serbia southern from rivers Sava and Danube, mostly in karst areas, at 58 localities

Mostly in caves or artificial underground tunnels, abandoned mines, in attics of buildings

Mostly karst areas with trees and shrubs near water

Only in caves

All over Serbia. Rhinolophus There are 154 known ferrumequinum localities

Exclusively the hilly karst areas with trees and shrubs

Only in karst areas at 13 localities in Eastern Serbia and 1 locality in Western Serbia

Rhinolophus blasii

Habitats

Roosts

Distribution

Species

ANNEX IX. Ecological characteristics of bat species in Serbia and recommended research methods

ANNEXES

124 Spacious deciduous and mixed forests, from 70 to 1500 m in mountains

Unknown, probably tree hollows at waterside Nursery colonies in tree hollows, and single individuals in tree crevices, caves and artificial underground roosts (old fortresses) Only in caves, mine galleries, rarely in artificial structures

Only 3 known localities in hilly areas of Western and Eastern Serbia

All over Serbia wherever there are some forests. There are 17 known localities

All over Serbia, mostly in karst regions. There are 39 known localities

Myotis alcathoe

Myotis bechsteinii

Myotis blythii

Karst regions with forests or open habitats

Mostly karst areas with trees and shrubs near water

Rocks, manmade structures, tree hollows and crevices

Rocky regions and forests, also commonly in human settlements

Humid broadleaf and mixed forests from lowlands to high hills

In whole country. There are 45 known localities

Hollows, crevices and under the bark of old trees, caves

In whole Serbia, but it is very uncommon and scarce. There are 7 known localities

Barbastella barbastellus

Habitats

Eptesicus serotinus

Roosts

Distribution

Species

Inspections of caves, galleries, bunkers, basements; analysis of owl pellets; capturing in nets, radio-telemetry

Capturing in nets in forests and above rivers, radio-telemetry, bat houses

Capturing in nets, molecular methods

Capturing in nets at cave entrances, inspection of residential buildings, and analysis of owl pellets

Capturing in nets, inspection of cave entrances, niches and galleries in forests

Research methods

ANNEXES

Belts of deciduous forests along large rivers.

Insufficiently known. Probably tree hollows, basements and artificial underground roosts along large rivers Mostly tree hollows, sometimes under river bridges, individually in caves and artificial underground roosts

House attics, churches, dry caves, artificial underground roosts

In Vojvodina and eastern Serbia. There are 3 known localities

In whole country in wetland habitats and along water bodies. Recorded at 31 localities

Widely distributed, but only sporadically in larger numbers. There are 26 known localities

Myotis dasycneme

Myotis daubentonii

Myotis emarginatus

Capturing in nets above rivers and wetlands, detectors, marking

Inspection of dry caves and galleries, marking, radio-telemetry, capturing with harp traps

Deciduous forests with rivers

Typical for karst and rocky regions at mountain foothills, covered in low vegetation, as well as for forest-steppe areas

Capturing in nets above rivers and wetlands, detectors, bat houses

Inspections of caves, capturing in nets, marking

Only in caves

Myotis capaccinii

Typical for karst regions with caves at hills and mountain foothills, always near water

There are 35 known localities in karst areas of Eastern and Western Serbia

Research methods Capturing in nets at cave entrances; molecular methods

Tree hollows and crevices

There are 5 known localities in karst areas of Eastern and Western Serbia

Myotis brandtii

Habitats Mixed forests at foothills and middle belt of mountains

Roosts

Distribution

Species

ANNEXES

125

126

Capturing in nets at cave entrances and at forest clearings; molecular methods for precise identification

Regions with forests and open areas

Fringes of broadleaf and mixed forests at foothills and lower mountain zones, mostly near water Humid broadleaf and mixed forests at hills and mountains

Broadleaf forests at foothills, rarely in human settlements

Settlements, broadleaf and mixed forests near rocks, rivers, wetland habitats

At summer probably in tree crevices, at winter in trees and caves Tree hollows and crevices, occasionally caves and other underground roosts. Mostly as single individuals Tree hollows and crevices, rarely roosts in buildings Tree hollows, windows in buildings, places of connection between pillars in residential and industrial buildings and bridges, caves

All over Serbia. There are 45 recorded localities

In whole country in appropriate habitats. It was recorded at 19 localities

In whole country in appropriate habitats. It was recorded at 12 localities


In whole country. It was recorded at 101 localities

Myotis myotis

Myotis mystacinus

Myotis nattereri

Nyctalus leisleri

Nyctalus noctula

Inspection of residential buildings, analysis of owl pellets, capturing in nets in forests and at forest entrances; detectors and evening observations; bat houses

Capturing in nets in forests and above rivers, analysis of owl pellets, bat houses

Capturing in nets at cave entrances and at forest clearings; radiotelemetry

Inspection of caves, galleries, basements; analysis of owl pellets; capturing in nets, marking, radiotelemetry

Mostly caves but also artificial underground roosts (basements, tunnels). Also in church towers and attics of buildings

Research methods

Habitats

Roosts

Distribution

Species

ANNEXES

Human settlements, resorts; rarely outside of urbanized areas

Forest regions with rocks, river valleys, settlements, parks

Human settlements, forested regions, gorges

Residential and industrial buildings

Tree hollows, residential buildings, rock crevices

Rock crevices, under roofs and in wall constructions in buildings, in trees, caves Rock crevices, under roofs and in wall constructions in buildings, in trees

In whole country in appropriate habitats. It was recorded in at least 40 localities

In whole Serbia. There are 20 known localities


It is known from Vojvodina and vicinity of Belgrade from 16 localities

Hypsugo savii

Pipistrellus kuhlii

Pipistrellus nathusii

Pipistrellus pipistrellus

127

Pipistrellus pygmaeus

Human settlements, forested regions, orchards

Rocky regions, settlements

Rock crevices, narrow spaces in residential buildings, bridges

Karst areas of Eastern and Western Serbia, Belgrade and its close vicinity. So far there are 18 known localities

Habitats

Roosts

Distribution

Species

Detectors and evening observations around the buildings in settlements, capturing in nets at forest glades

Detectors and evening observations around the buildings in settlements, capturing in nets at forest glades, in gorges and at cave entrances, detectors

Detectors and evening observations around the rocky outcrops, capturing in nets at forest glades

Detectors and evening observations around the buildings in settlements, analysis of owl pellets

Capturing in nets in rocky regions, detectors and evening observations

Research methods

ANNEXES

128

Broadleaf and mixed forests from lowlands to high mountains

Broadleaf and mixed forests, commonly in cities and villages

At winter in settlements, at summer in gorges, even at high mountains Karst regions, river valleys with caves, in hills and mountains up to 1500 m above sea level

Hollows, cracks and under the bark of old trees, natural and artificial underground roosts, abandoned buildings Caves and mine galleries, in hollows and under bark of old trees, buildings

In whole Serbia, but relatively scarce. There are 19 known localities

In whole Serbia, but relatively scarce. There are 46 known localities

In whole Serbia, mostly as single individuals. So Residential buildings, far there are 22 known rock crevices, rarely at localities, mostly in cave entrances Belgrade and its vicinity

In whole Serbia, mostly in medium-sized and large colonies. So far there are 50 known localities

Plecotus auritus

Plecotus austriacus

Vespertilio murinus

Miniopterus schreibersii

Underground roosts – caves, tunnels under old fortresses. Forms colonies

Habitats

Roosts

Distribution

Species

Inspection of caves, galleries and old fortresses

Inspection of buildings, capturing in nets in gorges and at mountain ridges, detectors in human settlements in autumn and spring

Capturing in nets and inspection of cave entrances, overhangs and galleries

Capturing in nets, inspection of caves, galleries, basements, attics, church towers

Research methods

ANNEXES

ANNEXES

Bern conv. (Annex)

Bonn conv. (Annex)

Habitats Dir. (Annex)

EUROBATS

Serbian Law

Global IUCN

National IUCN

ANNEX X. List of bat species in Serbia with their status in international and national legislation and global and national IUCN status

Rhinolophus blasii

II

II

II, IV

+

+

LC

NT

Rhinolophus euryale Rhinolophus ferrumequinum Rhinolophus hipposideros Rhinolophus mehelyi Barbastella barbastellus Eptesicus serotinus Myotis alcathoe Myotis bechsteinii Myotis blythii Myotis brandtii Myotis capaccinii Myotis dasycneme Myotis daubentonii Myotis emarginatus Myotis myotis Myotis mystacinus Myotis nattereri Nyctalus leisleri Nyctalus noctula Hypsugo savii Pipistrellus kuhlii Pipistrellus nathusii Pipistrellus pipistrellus Pipistrellus pygmaeus Plecotus auritus Plecotus austriacus Vespertilio murinus Miniopterus schreibersii

II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II III II II II II II

II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II

II, IV II, IV II, IV II, IV II, IV IV IV II, IV II, IV IV II, IV II, IV IV II, IV II, IV IV IV IV IV IV IV IV IV IV IV IV IV II, IV

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

+ + + + + +

NT LC LC VU NT LC DD NT LC LC VU NT LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC NT

NT LC NT EN VU LC DD NT LC DD LC DD LC VU LC LC NT LC LC DD LC LC LC DD NT LC LC LC

Vrsta

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

129

ANNEXES

ANNEX XI. Glossary of bat expert terms and expressions Habitat

Living space of a bat, characterized by specific physical and biotic features.

Roost

Living space of a bat within a habitat, providing shelter, hiding and survival of adverse conditions, as well as rest and reproduction.

Flight path

Generally a narrow space, corridor, more commonly used by a bat in order to travel between habitats and/or roosts and/or hunting areas than other parts of habitat.

Hunting area

Space within a habitat that is optimal for foraging = hunting for pray, which in case of European bats includes crepuscular and nocturnal insects.

Transitory roost and/or habitat

Short-time habitat and/or roost used by bats during the spring and/or autumn migration, as well as during the nocturnal or circadian activity.

Linear landscape element

Any element within the landscape that is linear in shape. It may be natural – tree alley, overgrown hedge, bushes along the road, overgrown bank; or artificial – telephone line, electric power line, road etc. They are usually important as flight paths and hunting areas.

Colony

Group of animals (bats) which are genetically or socially connected and depending on each other, living in one or several roosts. A colony of forest species in a tree hollow may include 15-50 individuals, while cave species may form colonies of several tens of thousands of individuals. The colonies may be composed of a single species (monotypic colonies) or of several species (mixed colonies).

Climatic conditions in a habitat or narrow locality that have Microclimate significant, almost crucial, importance for presence of bats and other stenobiont creatures.

Migration

Similar to situation in birds and other animals, seasonal movement of populations or their parts in order to survive adverse climatic and trophic conditions.

130

ANNEXES

Troglodytes

Organisms spending their whole lives under the surface of earth, in this case in underground shelter. Bats are not troglodytes, as they spend one part of their circadian activity outside of roosts, above the surface of earth.

Torpor

A (generally short-term) condition where physiological activity of an animal is reduced and life functions slowed down in order to preserve energy and warmth.

Hibernation

A condition of decreased physiological activities during the winter period, in order to survive unsuitable climatic and trophic conditions in a habitat.

Swarming

A condition of increased flying activity within the roost (mostly underground) or at its entrance, in order to find a mating partner. It usually happens from mid August to mid October.

Green viaduct

A viaduct above the road or railway track with high frequency of traffic, planted with vegetation and with the purpose of providing safe transit to animals when their habitat is cut through; it is an artificial corridor that connects the disconnected habitat.

Owl pellet

An oval or globular grey object, up to 5 cm in size, composed of hair, bones and feathers, which are the undigested parts of owls’ prey. Owls regurgitate pellets through their mouths. Analysis of pellet contents may be used to identify prey species consumed by owls.

131

Telephone

E-mail

132 031.863644

036.471011

11000 Beograd Njegoševa 51, p.f. 401 11160 Beograd Ruže Jovanović 27a

31250 Bajina Bašta Milenka Topalovića 3 Kopaonik: Naselje Suvo Rudište Raška: Miluna Ivanovica 10 36354 Kopaonik

Natural History Museum, Belgrade

Agency for Environmental Protection of the Republic of Serbia

NP TARA

NP KOPAONIK

National parks

21000 Novi Sad Radnička 20

Pokrajinski zavod za zaštitu prirode

011.286108

011.3442147

021.4896301

011.2093801

11070 Novi Beograd Dr Ivana Ribara 91

Institute for nature conservation of Serbia, RJ Beograd

011.3131356

11070 Novi Beograd Omladinskih brigada 1

www.pzzp.rs

www.nhmbeo.rs

novi-sad@pzzp. rs nhmbeo@ nhmbeo.rs

nacparkkop@ open.telekom.rs

office@nptara. rs

www. npkopaonik. com

www.nptara.rs

www.sepa.gov. rs

www. natureprotection. org.rs

beograd@zzps. rs

office@sepa. gov.rs

www.ekoplan.rs

Web address

info@ekoplan. gov.rs

Bat protection and conservation and environmental impact assessment

Address

Ministry of Environment, Mining and Spatial Planning of the Republic of Serbia

Institution/asset

ANNEX XII. Institutions and authorities responsible for nature and bat conservation and environmental impact assessment in Serbia

ANNEXES

violeta67le@ gmail.com

063.8339966 290.73499

38236 Štrpce

NP ŠARPLANINA

063.10767 064.8674711 063.399414 064.3214404 063.740472 065.5148477 024.753121

RG Ecka, 23224 Lukino selo Rezervat Uvac d.o.o. 31320 Nova Varoš, Svetog Save 16 NATURA - Centar za prirodne resurse, 14000 Valjevo, Sinđelićeva 55 Lovačko udruženje "Perjanica" 23305 Mokrin, Dositeja Obradovića 8 Lovačko društvo "Novi Becej" 23272 Novi Bečej Pokret gorana Sremska Mitrovica, 22000 Sremska Mitrovica, Sv. Save 19 JP "Palić - Ludaš" 24413 Palić, Park narodnih heroja 9

SRP Stari Begej - Carska bara

SRP Uvac

SRP Klisura reke Trešnjice

SRP Pašnjaci velike droplje

SRP Slano Kopovo

SRP Zasavica

SRP Selevenjske pustare

Other protected natural assets

office@ npdjerdap.org

030.590788

19220 Donji Milanovac Kralja Petra I 14,

NP ÐERDAP

133

sandra.cokic@ gmail.com

zasavica@ zasavica.org.rs

laslo.senji@ novibecej.rs

perjanica@ panline.net

[email protected]

slobo.ljuboje@ gmail.com

sb.carskabara@ beotel.net

natlpfg@eunet. rs

021.463666

21208 Sremska Kamenica Zmajev trg 1

NP FRUŠKA GORA

E-mail

Telephone

Address

Institution/asset

www.zasavica. org.rs

www.npdjerdap. org

www. npfruskagora. co.rs

Web address

ANNEXES

Telephone 024.753121 021.765107

064.8155559

064.8155559

063.594026

063.594026

063.594026

063.594026

063.594026

Address JP "Palić - Ludaš" 24413 Palić, Park narodnih heroja 9 VU Karađorđevo 21421 Karađorđevo, Ive Andrica 63 JP "Srbijašume" 11070 Beograd, Bulevar Mihaila Pupina 113 JP "Srbijašume" 11070 Beograd, Bulevar Mihaila Pupina 113 JP "Vojvodinašume" 21131 Petrovaradin, Preradoviceva 2 JP "Vojvodinašume" 21131 Petrovaradin, Preradoviceva 2 JP "Vojvodinašume" 21131 Petrovaradin, Preradoviceva 2 JP "Vojvodinašume" 21131 Petrovaradin, Preradoviceva 2 JP "Vojvodinašume" 21131 Petrovaradin, Preradoviceva 2

Institution/asset

SRP Ludaško jezero

SRP Karađorđevo

SRP Jelašnicka klisura

SRP Lazarev kanjon

SRP Deliblatska peščara

SRP Gornje Podunavlje

SRP Obedska bara

SRP Koviljsko-petrovaradinski rit

SRP Bagremara

www. srbijasume.rs www. srbijasume.rs www. vojvodinasume. rs www. vojvodinasume. rs www. vojvodinasume. rs www. vojvodinasume. rs www. vojvodinasume. rs

gordana. jancic@ srbijasume.rs grujicic@ vojvodinasume. rs grujicic@ vojvodinasume. rs grujicic@ vojvodinasume. rs grujicic@ vojvodinasume. rs grujicic@ vojvodinasume. rs

Web address

gordana. jancic@ srbijasume.rs


E-mail

ANNEXES

134

064.8155559

JP "Srbijašume" 11070 Beograd, Bulevar Mihaila Pupina 113

064.8155559


PIO Lepterija-Sokograd

PP Golija

024.753121

JP "Palić - Ludaš" 24413 Palic, Park narodnih heroja 9

PIO Subotička pešcara

064.8155559

017.815359

Direkcija za građevinsko zemljište i puteve opštine Surdulica 17530 Surdulica, 5. septembar 27

PIO Vlasina


065.3343721

JU "Turistička organizacija Čačka" 32000 Čačak, Trg Ustanka 4

PIO Ovčarsko-kablarska klisura

PP Stara planina

066.8887180 062.409187 062.402206

Pravoslavna eparhija vranjska Episkopski dvor 17500 Vranje , I. Milutinovića 26,

PIO Dolina Pčinje

064.8830207

013.821614

JP "Varoš" 26300 Vršac , Dvorska 10a

PIO Vršacke planine

Park prirode Mokra gora d.o.o 31243 Mokra Gora

064.4049326

Udruženje sportskih ribolovaca Deliblatsko jezero, 26225 Deliblato, Maršala Tita 123

SRP Kraljevac

PP Šargan- Mokra Gora

Telephone

Address

Institution/asset

www.mecavnik. info www. srbijasume.rs www. srbijasume.rs

gordana. jancic@ srbijasume.rs gordana. jancic@ srbijasume.rs

www. srbijasume.rs

Web address

rcancarevic@ mecavnik.info



direkcijasur@ open.telekom.rs

[email protected]

milutinovic. vladan@yahoo. com

varos@neobee. net

nkatarina@3dnet. rs

E-mail

ANNEXES

135

Telephone 064.8155559

021.4881888

064.8155559

064.8155559

064.8155559

063.1088210 063.669400 063.669400 034.712415, 034.702415 063.8955077

Address JP "Srbijašume" 11070 Beograd, Bulevar Mihaila Pupina 113 JVP "Vode Vojvodine", Bulevar Mihajla Pupina 25, 21000 Novi Sad JP "Srbijašume" 11070 Beograd, Bulevar Mihaila Pupina 113 JP "Srbijašume" 11070 Beograd, Bulevar Mihaila Pupina 113 JP "Srbijašume" 11070 Beograd, Bulevar Mihaila Pupina 113 AD Planinka 27000 Kuršumlija, Kosovska 38 JP "Resavska pecina", 35213 Despotovac, Rudnička bb JP "Resavska pecina" 35213 Despotovac, Rudnička bb Narodni muzej Aranđelovac 34300 Aranđelovac, Čede Plećevića 19 JKP Belosavac 12320 Žagubica

Institution/asset

PP Sićevačka klisura

PP Jegrička

ORP Danilova kosa

ORP Bukovo

ORP Vinatovača

SP Ðavolja varoš

136

SP Resavska pećina

SP Lisine

SP Risovača

SP Vrelo Mlave

www. srbijasume.rs www. srbijasume.rs www. srbijasume.rs

gordana. jancic@ srbijasume.rs gordana. jancic@ srbijasume.rs gordana. jancic@ srbijasume.rs

[email protected]

liladrobackrstic@ yahoo.com

resavskapecina@ yahoo.com



www. vodevojvodine.rs

www. srbijasume.rs

gordana. jancic@ srbijasume.rs office@ vodevojvodine

Web address

E-mail

ANNEXES

062.8085860

064.8155559

JP „Srbijašume” 11070 Beograd, Bulevar Mihaila Pupina 113

RP Prokop

064.8155559

JP „Srbijašume” 11070 Beograd, Bulevar Mihaila Pupina 113

SP Klokočevac

Fond za ekologiju opštine Prokuplje 18400 Prokuplje, Vasilija Đurovića Žarkog 56

062.205696

21000 Novi Sad, Nikole Tesle 1a

SP Dunavski park

SP Prebreza

064.8517645

Turistička organizacija ''Zlatibor'' 31315 Zlatibor

SP Stopića pećina

137


ekofondpk@ beotel.net

info@direkcija. rs

ilijaandrejic@ yahoo.com

srki@direkcija. co.rs

veljicm@bio. bg.ac.rs

[email protected]

www. srbijasume.rs

www.direkcija. rs

064.1588377

Planinarsko društvo ''Kamena Gora'' 31300 Prijepolje, 4. decembra 1

SP Slapovi Sopotnice

064.8568907


064.2284787

Direkcija za izgradnju Grada Niša 18000 Niš, 7. jula 6

SP Cerjanska pećina

Direkcija za urbanizam i izgradnju 18230 Sokobanja, Svetog Save 23

www. srbijasume.rs

svetlana. kuzmanov@ zelenilo.com

064.8237931

Biološki fakultet - Institut za botaniku 11000 Beograd, Takovska 43

SP Botanička bašta Jevremovac

SP Ripaljka

www.zelenilo. com

[email protected]

063.8955077

JKP Belosavac 12320 Žagubica

SP Homoljska potajnica

[email protected]

063.8955077

JKP Belosavac 12320 Žagubica

Web address

SP Krupajsko vrelo

E-mail

Telephone

Address

Institution/asset

ANNEXES

ANNEXES

ANNEX XIII. Selected bibliography

BIOLOGY, CONSERVATION AND METHODOLOGY OF RESEARCH ON BATS Battersby, J. (comp.) (2010): Guidelines for Surveillance and Monitoring of European Bats. EUROBATS Publication Series No. 5. UNEP / EUROBATS Secretariat, Bonn, Germany, 95 pp. Dietz, C., von Helversen, O., Nill, D. (2009): Bats of Britain, Europe and Northwest Africa. A & C Black Publishers Ltd., London, 400pp. Hutson, A. M., Micklenburgh, S. P., Racey, P. A. (comp.) (2001): Microchiropteran Bats: Global Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan. IUCN/SSC Chiroptera Specialist Group, X + 258 pp, IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. Mitchell-Jones, A. J. (2004): Bat mitigation guidelines. English Nature, London. . Mitchell-Jones, A.J., McLeish, A. P. (eds). 2004. 3rd Edition Bat Workers’ Manual. Joint Nature Conservation Committee, Peterborough, UK, 178 pp.

IMPACT OF DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS AND PLANS ON BATS Arnett E. B., Huso, M. M. P., Schirmacher, M., Hayes, J. P. (2010): Altering turbine speed reduces bat mortality at wind-energy facilities. Front Ecol Environ 2011, 9(4): 209–214 Baerwald E, Edworthy, J., Holder, M., Barclay, R. (2009) A large-scale mitigation experiment to reduce bat fatalities at wind energy facilities. Journal of Wildlife Management 73(7): 1077-1081. Entwistle, A. C., Harris, S., Hutson, A. M., Racey, P. A., Walsh, A., Gibson, S. D., Hepburn, I., Jacklyn Johnston, J. (2001): Habitat management for bats: A guide for land managers, land owners and their advisors. Joint Nature Conservation Committee, Peterborough, UK, 49 pp. European Commission (2010): EU Guidance on wind energy development in accordance with the EU nature legislation. 116 pp.

138

ANNEXES

Harbusch, C., Bach, L. (2005): Environmental Assessment Studies on wind turbines and bat populations - a step towards best practice guidelines. Bat News (BCT) 78: 4-5 Highways Agency (2006): Best practice in enhancement of highway design for bats - Literature review report. Halcrow Group Limited, Exeter, UK. 83 pp. Kunz, T H., Arnett, E. B., Cooper, B. M., Erickson, W. P., Larkin, R. P., Mabee, T., Morrison, M L., Strickland, M. D., Szewczak, J. M. (2007): Assessing Impacts of Wind-Energy Development on Nocturnally Active Birds and Bats: A Guidance Document. The Journal of Wildlife Management 71(8): 2449-2486. Limpens H. J. G. A., Twisk P., Veenbas, G. (2005): Bats and Road Construction. Brochure about bats and the ways in which practical measures can be taken to observe the legal duty of car for bats in planning, constructing, re-constructing and managing roads. Rijkswaterstaat, Dienst Weg-en Waterbouwkunde, Delft, Netherlands., 24 pp. Marnell, F., Presetnik P. (2010): Protection of overground roosts for bats (particularly roosts in buildings of cultural heritage importance). EUROBATS Publication Series No. 4 (English version). UNEP / EUROBATS Secretariat, Bonn, Germany, 57 pp. Meschede, A. (srpsko izdanje preveli i uredili Karapandža, B., Paunović, M.) (2004): Slepi miševi naših šuma - Informacije i preporuke za upravljače šumama. Društvo za očuvanje divljih životinja »Mustela«, Beograd, 20pp. Mitchell-Jones, A. J., Bihari, Z., Masing, M. & Rodrigues, L. (2007): Protecting and managing underground sites for bats. EUROBATS Publication Series No. 2 (English version). UNEP / EUROBATS Secretariat, Bonn, Germany, 38 pp. Rodrigues, L., Bach, L., Dubourg-Savage, M.-J., Goodwin J., Harbusch C. (2008): Guidelines for consideration of bats in wind farm projects. EUROBATS Publication Series No. 3 (English version). UNEP/EUROBATS Secretariat, Bonn, Germany, 51 pp.

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ANNEXES

BATS OF SERBIA Karapandža, B., Paunović, M. (2009): National Report on the Implementation of the Agreement on the Conservation of Bats in Europe 2008 - Serbia. Manuscript, Inf.EUROBATS.AC14.18, UNEP/EUROBATS Secretariat, Bonn. . Marković, Z., Paunović, M., Puzović, S. (1995): Fosilna i recentna fauna sisara kao kriterijum za vrednovanje i zaštitu speleoloških objekata. XI kongres speleologa Jugoslavije, knjiga abstrakata, 16, Petnica-Valjevo. Marković, Z., Paunović, M., Vasić, V. (1996): An Analysis of Fossil and Subfossil Remains of Bats from Lazareva pećina Cave (Eastern Serbia). VI European Bat Research Symposium, Book of Abstracts, Veldhoven. Mirić, Đ. (1956): O potrebi zaštite slepih miševa. Zaštita prirode, 7: 17-22, Beograd. Mirić, Đ. (1980/81): Fledermausschutz in Jugoslawien. Myotis, 18-19: 27-35, Bonn. Mirić, Đ. (1982): Fauna ljiljaka i stanje njene zaštite. V Savetovanje o nacionalnim i regionalnim parkovima Jugoslavije, zbornik radova, 133-134, Beograd. Mirić, Đ., Paunović, M. (1994). Distribution and Status of Bats in Serbia and Montenegro (Yugoslavia). Symposium on Current Problems of Bat Protection in Central and Eastern Europe, Abstracts, Bonn. Pančić, J. (1869). Građa za faunu Kneževine Srbije. Glasnik Srpskog učenog društva, 26: 62-103, Beograd. Paunović, M. (1995-1998): Predlog srpske nomenklature evropskih slepih miševa Chiroptera Blumenbach, 1779 (Mammalia). Glasn. Prir. muz., B 49-50: 237243, Beograd. Paunović, M. (1997): Istorijat, rezultati i problemi markiranja slepih miševa u SR Jugoslaviji. V naučno-stručni skup o prirodnim vrednostima i zašt. živ. sred., zbornik radova, 360-365, Donji Milanovac. Paunović, M. (2000). Posledice antropogenih zahvata na prirodne vrednosti Lazareve pećine – analiza i predlozi za njihovo očuvanje. VIII Naučno-stručni skup o prirodnim vrednostima i zaštiti životne sredine, Zbornik radova, 391-398, Soko Banja. Paunović, M. (2001): Zoogeografska i ekološka analiza faune potkovičara Rhinolophidae (Chiroptera, Mammalia) u Srbiji. Biološki fakultet, Univerzitet u Beogradu, magistarski rad, 1-153, Beograd. Paunović, M. (2004). Pećina Vernjikica – značajno zimsko sklonište slepih miševa (Mammalia, Chiroptera) u Srbiji. Zbornik radova Odbora za kras i speleologiju, 8 (2): 105-118, SANU, Beograd.

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Paunović, M., Horvat, A. (1994): Caves Important for the Cave-dwelling Bats of Serbia. 5th International Congress of Hellenic Speleological Society, Book of Abstracts, Athens. Paunović, M., Karapandža, B. (2003): Slepi miševi – leteće noćobdije. Društvo za očuvanje divljih životinja »Mustela«, Beograd, 36pp. Paunović, M., Karapandža, B. (2005). Serbia and Montenegro. In: Bat Migrations in Europe – A Review of Banding Data and Literature; Hutterer, R., Ivanova, T., Meyer-Cords, Ch., Rodrigues, L. (eds.), Naturshutz und Biologishe Vielfalt, 28: 53-54, Federal Agency for Nature Conservation, Bonn. Paunović, M., Karapandža, B., Stamenković, S., Milenković, M. (2004): Diversity of bats in Serbia. A study bases of national action plan for conservation. Manuscript, Ministry of Science and Environmental Protection of Republic of Serbia - Directorate of Environmental Protection, Belgrade. Paunović, M., Kataranovski, D., Jovanović, T. (2000). Fauna slepih miševa (Chiroptera, Mammalia) urbane sredine, sa posebnim osvrtom na grad Beograd. IV Beogradska konferencija o suzbijanju štetnih artropoda i glodara, zbornik radova, 241-254, Beograd. Paunović, M., Marinković, S. (1998): Kuhl’s pipistrelle Pipistrellus kuhlii Kuhl, 1817 (Chiroptera, Vespertilionidae) - A New Species in the Mammal Fauna of Serbia, with Data on its Balkan Distribution Range, Status and Ecology. Zbornik o fauni Srbije, SANU, 5, Beograd. Savić, I. R., Paunović, M., Milenković, M., Stamenković, S. (1995). Diverzitet faune sisara (Mammalia) Jugoslavije, sa pregledom vrsta od međunarodnog značaja. in: Stevanović, V., Vasić, V. (eds.): Biodiverzitet Jugoslavije sa pregledom vrsta od međunarodnog značaja. Biološki fakultet i Ecolibri, Beograd. Vranješ, N., Paunović, M., Karapandža, B., Stankov, S., Lalošević, D. (2010a): Besnilo slepih miševa u Evropi. Med. Data Rev. 2010, 2(4): 325-332. Beograd. Vranješ, N., Paunović, M., Milićević, V., Stankov, S. Karapandža, B., Ungurović, U., Lalošević, D. (2010b): Passive And Active Surveillance Of Lyssaviruses In Bats In Serbia. 2nd International Berlin Bat Meeting: Bat Biology and Infectious Diseases, 94, Leibnitz Institute for Zoo and Wildilfe Research (IZW), Berlin.

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599.4(035) 502/504(035) PAUNOVIĆ, Milan, 1966Bats and Environmental Impact Assessment : methodological guidelines for environmental impact assessment and strategic environmental impact assessment : #a #manual for environmental expert and consultancies, planning authorities and developers / [Milan Paunović, Branko Karapandža, Sabina Ivanović ; translation Željko Stanimirović ; photos Branko Karapandža ... et al.]. - Belgrade : #Wildlife Conservation Society #Mustela, 2011 (Belgrade : Lithoart studio). - 141 str. : ilustr. ; 24 cm Izv. stv. nasl: Slepi miševi i procena uticaja na životnu sredinu. - „This manual is prepared within the project Bats and environmental impact assessment: tools for implementation of the European habitats directive and the Euorbats agreement in Serbia ...” --> prelim. str. - Podaci o autorima preuzeti iz kolofona. - Tiraž 500. Bibliografija: str. 138-141. ISBN 978-86-914719-1-0 1. Karapandža, Branko, 1976- [аутор] [фотограф] 2. Ivanović, Sabina, 1965[аутор] a) Слепи мишеви - Заштита - Приручници b) Животна средина - Заштита - Приручници COBISS.SR-ID 184544012

What is the purpose of the manual? To provide comprehensive synthesis of up-to-date knowledge on bats in Serbia and present an adequate methodology for their study in relation to EIA To help the conservation of bat populations in an intensively changing environment, particularly in zones with direct conflicts of interest between bat conservation and planning/development To help the experts involved in environmental impact assessment and strategic environmental assessment, in order for their studies/reports to include applicable measures for avoidance, mitigation and compensation of negative impacts of projects/plans To help Ministry of Environment, Mining and Spatial Planning, as well as other responsible authorities, during evaluation of submitted studies/reports as they relate to bats To introduce the investors and developers to the needs and proper way of identifying and applying of solutions for reducing negative impact on bats in the conflict zones; To facilitate the implementation of numerous legal acts related to conservation of protected species.

Development and printing of this manual was financed by the Dutch Ministry of Economic Affairs, Agriculture and Innovation