bedouins status in oman: development and ... - OIDA IJSD Journal

BEDOUINS STATUS IN OMAN: DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION TOWARDS CULTURAL BELIEFS a,b

Amna Suhail Said Hardan a, Ismail Hussein Amzat b Department of Education Foundation and Administration, college of Education, Sultan Qaboos University, Sultanate of Oman a Corresponding author: [email protected]

©Ontario International Development Agency ISSN: 1923-6654 (print) ISSN 1923-6662 (online). Available at http://www.ssrn.com/link/OIDA-Intl-Journal-Sustainable-Dev.html

Abstract: This research has stepped forward with its singularity to shed a light on the history of a tribe that people speculated to be educationally, economically, socially and politically disadvantaged or forgotten by the Government. The research has strived cogently to examine the level of Omani Government contribution to Bedouin education, social development and Government empowerment in upgrading their living standards as well as upgrading their economic status. Historically, Bedouins are known as travelers, subject to instability and hardly to be found in one location. Thus, Bedouins are unique in their lifestyles and somehow different in terms of living, tradition, culture and beliefs. With this regard, this study has opted to scenically investigate whether Bedouins cultural-beliefs have something to do negatively or positively with their educational development and responding to changes. Besides, it has thoroughly aimed to study the Bedouins' perceptions of schooling and their level of participation in the community. These questions were answered appropriately by the help of 185 Bedouins who participated actively in this research from about 13 regions and locations all over Sultanate of Oman. All requested data were obtained by distributing questionnaires in the following regions Salalah, Al Sharqeiya, Adakhelia, Nizwa, Al Wosta, Adhahera, Jalan Bani Buo Ali, Sinao and Al Sidiarah, Thumreet, Maqshan, Shaleem and Hullanyat islands and Roaya. The results find that the government provides the basic facility to develop the Bedouin status in the Omani society. Moreover, the government empowers

Bedouins socially and gives them the chance to participate actively in the Omani society. They even participate in the Omani political issues because the government gives them this honor by selecting some qualified Bedouin representatives to have positions in the Omani council. In terms of education, schools which are well equipped with latest technologies are provided in the Bedouin areas and the vocational training is available to improve the Bedouin teachers' skills. In terms of tradition and cultural beliefs, we discovered that, the Bedouin cultural beliefs influence their educational development where 60.5% Bedouins males prefer to work instead of studying. In addition, the early marriage is commonly widespread in the Bedouin areas. Hence, about 62.7% of the Bedouin females prefer to get married early according to their tradition and beliefs because they believe in the proverb saying "home is the woman kingdom". However, their present situation is much far better compared with the past by noticeable number of Bedouins enrolling into higher institutions in Oman, although, there are still some areas that needs to be improved and developed. Keyword: Bedouins; Education; Cultural Beliefs; Education; Sultanate of Oman INTRODUCTION AND RELATED LITERATURE

O

man is located in the southeast of the Arabian Peninsula surrounded by the Arabian Sea in the south, the Omani Gulf in the north-east and Hurmuz Strait in the north. Oman with its coastal, mountainous and desert terrain has a

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Hardan and Amzat / OIDA International Journal of Sustainable Development 03: 09 (2012)

considerable variety of a population of 2, 340, 518 people about whom we shall discuss only the status of the Bedouins in this study (Census 2003, Alwatan Newspaper, June 2003, No. 7261). The Bedouins are commonly defined as a type of people that travel from place to another according to their surrounding natural environments. They are also known to live in tents and depend on camels as a means of transportation and sheep as sources of milk, food and clothing. They mostly originated from the Arabian Peninsula, particularly, Yemen. In Oman, the Bedouins live in the desert areas that remind them of their origin, thus, they are mostly found in Sinao, Alburaimi, Ibri, Al-Sharqeiya, Al-Waheeba sands, AlWosta, Addakheilia, Nizwa, Salalah, Thumreet, Maqshan, Al-Muzyoona…. They are just like any other citizens in the Sultanate of Oman and have the equal rights to practice and fulfil their duties to the state (a brochure from the general census of population and housing for the distribution of population of the Sultanate of Oman, December 2003). Bedouins and their Definitions According to the linguists, residence and urbanization are the opposite of desert and Bedouin nomads. Civilization refers to residence in urban areas while permanent residence and urban could be referred to as cities, villages and countryside. People living in the urban regions are referred to as urban people living in houses in the cities while people in the villages are called the desert Bedouin people (Al Hankari, 1998). If that be the case, according to Al Hankari, (1998), a Bedouin can be defined traditionally as a nomadic person, while the meaning of “urban” refers to the people living in the cities and towns. The modern use of these words is similar partially, while some parts are used synonymously and other parts are antonymous. It is further defined socially and economically as people who continuously travel from one place to another specifically determined by nature and situational circumstances. The Bedouins of Oman are similar to the ones in Jordan, Egypt and other GCC countries in terms of their way of living, traditions, conservatism …etc. as mentioned in the book titled “Married to a Bedouin” by Marguerite van Geldermalsen, (2006), which states that the Bedouins are living in brick houses in villages which are being reflected as a good project to grant those people stability in residence. Bedouin Tribes: Location and Tradition In the past, during ancient times, most people lived near the rivers but the Bedouin people of the time preferred to live in the open deserts. Some

histories claimed that, the Bedouins mainly lived in the Arabian and Syrian deserts, the Sinai Peninsula of Egypt and the Sahara Desert of North Africa. Bedouin communities are located in many countries, such as, Egypt, Syria, Israel, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Oman, Iraq in the Middle East, Morocco, Sudan, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya in North Africa and their population altogether is about 4 million people (Bedawi.com 2007). In another history, the Bedouins, particularly, and the Arabs, generally, are believed to be descended from two brothers named Qais and Yemen and sometimes they were called Adnan and Qahtan or Nizar and Qahtan. The Arab Bedouins, according to Assyrian records, have their history that could be traced back to the 3rd millennium B.C., closely linked with the domestication of the camel. Historical events changed in the 5th century B.C. when the century witnessed a strong flourishing of three great commercial centres along the perimeters of the Arabian Peninsula. These took place in the agricultural kingdoms of Yemen, and the regions of Syria and Iraq which together formulated a great crescent of economic fertility. The Bedouins were moving with their camels to the Peninsula and across the mountains of Western Arabia to do trading, and with the advent of invention of technology and gaining military power and economic strength, a new commercial journey began by taking new routes, crossing the Arabian Plateau in the middle and northern fringe (Chatty, D. 1991). From the researchers' readings through some articles and books about the Bedouins, it was discovered that all the Bedouins are alike in terms of social structure, dominant characteristics and life style, while the role of the governments is to help them towards upgrading their social status. For example, the Bedouins of Oman are similar to the ones in Jordan, Egypt and other GCC countries in terms of their ways of living, traditions, conservatism …etc. As extracted from the book above mentioned book “Married to a Bedouin” it states that the Bedouins are living in villages in brick houses, hence, this is a good project for the government to grant those people stability of residence and work which is being responsibly performed by the Sultanate of Oman where the government has established many projects to build concrete houses and provide areas for those Bedouin travelers to live in, whereby schools and medical care are also provided for as well as supply of water and electricity. Moreover, the Bedouin’s pastoralism in general has witnessed a fundamental change towards improvement. As an example, the Saudi Bedouins make their living through irrigation of the fragile and arid desert rangelands through difficulties (Andrew

Hardan and Amzat / OIDA International Journal of Sustainable Development 03:09 (2012)

and Timothy J., 2004). But the issue changed dramatically to the context of Saudi Bedouins’ livelihood with the new technology breaking through the market which has changed all aspects of the Bedouins’ lives, the result of which creates a development claim on lands and demands for a modern nation state. Eventually, the Bedouins accepted the changes and their new environment in which they live and these become less important for their survival (Andrew and Timothy J, 2004). Bedouins in the Present Day As was known in the past, the Bedouins were characterized as nomads representing lineage organization and tribalism. But in the present day, the Bedouins have changed significantly in terms of making means and earning for a living as well as creating an identity today for themselves in their societies. The socioeconomy, sociopolitic, and commercialization of pastoral production, occupational change, and residential embedment in Arabic countries and regions have led to huge changes in the Bedouins' lives, social adjustments, sectarian movement and development (Cole, 2003). The early 20th century saw a rapid growth of the Bedouins in Arabian regions and the world tended to be transformed under western colonization, technological inventions and the issues of dividing borders by westerners. This transformation has forced the Bedouins to accept the changes, especially, during World War II and the hegemony of the Ottoman Empire in the 18-19 centuries (Chatty 2003, Cole & Justin 2003) where their land was converted into an agricultural land. Further, the changes in the Middle East, especially, the problem of Syria and western intervention in terms of borders, have led the Bedouins to give up their pastoral lives in favor of a sedentary lifestyle, and eventually the Bedouins found themselves with fewer economic opportunities, such as, in Israel with a high rate of unemployment (Manski, Rebecca 2006, Cole & Justin, 2003). Across the borders and in other states of the Arabian Peninsula, the Bedouins tended to do well starting from 1950s when the region discovered oil and wealth. They were engaged in business and other economic sectors; working for investment side by side with the Arabs living in the cities. For this reason, some invested their earnings in their flocks by returning to a pastoral life while many of them still stick to their sedentary way of life. Omani Bedouin Tribes and Development As previously mentioned above, the Omani Bedouins or Omani pastoral nomadic tribes are believed to be divided into two groups one of which descended from Qahtan and the second originally from Nizar or perceived as Adnan (Chatty, D. 1991). Hence, it is

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claimed that, the majority of the Qahtani tribes are the Mahra, the Jebena, the Beit Kathir and the Harasis. They are believed to move gradually from norththern Yemen and Hadramaut into Oman. For the Nizari or Adnan tribes and including the DURU and the Wahiba, these tribes and other inhabitants are believed to enter Oman from the north or through the Buraimi pass which can be traced back to the 2nd and 3rd century A.D. Furthermore, development in Oman has differed from other states possessing nomadicpastoral populations that normally remain as a “disadvantaged population” (Chatty, D. 1991). The Bedouins of Oman, according to Chatty & Dawn, (2000), Caitlin L. (n.d), are characterized in part by a growing number of less-nomadic pastoralists who have begun to accumulate a degree of political power and the ability to represent their own interests. The Omani Bedouins have been granted a greater degree of access to government services and the government has established a unique policy in which services are extended to the pastoralists in the interior desert without forcing them to abandon their traditional way of life which is considered as a very heart-warming approach towards the Bedouins. In terms of the Omani Bedouins’ recent development, these pastoral nomadic tribes possess a huge area of land and a considerable wide area of desert landscapes which include big rocky land space for agriculture for supply and production. Thus, the winter grazing area of Jiddatil-Harasis, the Awta and its heavily mineralized springs and the woodlands of Ghubra north of the Harasis tribe, have contributed economically to the development of some Bedouin tribes in Oman, such as, in Harasis. This tribe also ventured their ways to Wadi Rawanab and Wadi Arah searching for water for their camels and today they can also be found in Wadi Halfayn and in Adaba. Thus, these movements have helped them in terms of business and commerce to some trading centres, such as, Adam and Sinaw which have contributed to their tribal existence. In addition, some tribes, like the Duru, have expanded their territory over the area of Wadi Safa in the sands of west and northwest to the semi-arid plain of Hamratid-Duru and their regular areas of visit are Subaikha,m Ibri, Adam, Ma'mur, Bisya and Bahla (Chatty, 1991). As for the Janeba tribe, such as, in Afar and Izz further down the Wadi Halfayn, they are involved in different activities, practicing pastoral nomadism and they also constitute the population of Sur and Ja'laan. In relation to the Wahiba tribe, it has occupied a wide range of land at Sufr-ad-Dawh and the eastern coast of Oman and can also be found in Sharqiyah, Khaluf and Duqm. The history doesn’t forget the Mahra tribe in Oman of which the recent history stated that, this

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tribe was believed to have migrated from Hadramaut to the southwestern and the southeastern areas of the Nejd of Dhofar. Besides, this tribe was highly perceived in terms of mobility and capability in looking for water sources. During the hottest months, a huge number of these tribe members seemed to move closer to Shelim, being the cool area in the regions. Additionally, the government’s development and contributions from some ministries, such as, the Ministry of Interior and the Ministry of Social Affairs, have taken a significant humane step in establishing a veterinary hospital, a boarding school and petrol stations in the Bedouin’s areas. Besides, the Ministry of Water and Electricity is in charge of delivering water since 1980s to the Harasis’ families. In terms of transportation, the government has paved the desert roads for the Bedouins for the survival of their goats, sheep and camels. Today, things have changed and we can see the Bedouins using truck to bring water for their camels and this has considerably helped to establish the permanence of the Bedouins in their areas (Chatty, 1991). Bedouins toward Education Arab Bedouins seemed to have a problem in terms of education and coping with the environmental political changes, especially, with the establishment of the State of Israel. A glaring example of the persecution of the Arab Bedouins that inhabited Negev, the southern desert and now Israel, is that the Bedouins had been made to suffer under the military government of Israel that intended to populate Negev with the Jews and the Bedouins were incapable of defending themselves through political or armed resistance towards the brutal authorities to resolve the untenable issues. Their vulnerabilities, illiteracy and isolation from other communities also tended to render the Negev Bedouins powerless to face the Israeli formidable defence (Maddrell, 1990 & JanineGivati, 2007). At present, the government of Israel has embarked on using education as an empowerment for the Bedouin’s development. In the educational development, the Ben Gurion University of Negev is the only university in the south of Israel and it is the only institution where Bedouin university students, who study in Israel, obtain their academic degrees. Incredibly, the number of female Bedouin students has increased dramatically in the last few years with the female-male ratio among the Bedouin undergraduate students being roughly even (JanineGivati, 2007). Today, unemployment amongst the Bedouin people is very high in all regions, although, some Bedouins

have been employed by the government, but some were involved in politics and self-employed but still a huge number of Bedouins is still underemployed, perhaps mainly due to their low education and traditional life style. Only a few obtains a high school diploma and even fewer graduates from the colleges (Bedawi.com 2007). Further, in terms of gender acceptance in the Bedouin society, men tend to adjust and interact with the modern cultures, but contrarily, women are requested to stay at home with the family as a traditional honour and therefore lack the opportunities for academic advancement (Bedawi.com 2007). In the case of Arab Bedouins in Negev, the girls tend to leave schools due to the cultural clashes between the Israeli (Western) institution’s views of modernity and the Bedouins’ minority traditional values which incidentally have created a huge illiteracy among the Arab Bedouin girls (Giddens, 1994, & Sarab, 2006). STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM In Oman, the Bedouin tribe is one of the largest tribes which have been divided into sub-tribes as mentioned above. There are many unproven facts related to the development of the Bedouins, their education and participation in the communal activities. Some people perceive low participation of the Bedouin in education and community has to do with their culture and desert preference as a home link with their customary traditional way of life. Besides, in Oman it is believed by some people that the Omani government has not done enough to support the Bedouin’s development, education and social participation. Thus, it is said that, there is no significant financial support from the government to improve the Bedouins’ financial status. In addition, it is speculated that, low enrolment of Bedouins in schools and higher institutions of learning has something to do with their tradition and culture as well while some people related Bedouin girls marrying at an early stage and men preferring to work rather than to school, according to Bedouin’s beliefs. With this speculation going on, this research comes into being to test these speculative perceptions. It aims to illuminate the darkness and clarify the consistent ambiguities concerning the Bedouins at large. The questionnaire is designed and translated from English to answer the above questions and other related misapprehansions. The questionnaires were distributed to some regions in Oman in the North and the South, such as, Salalah, Thumreet, Maqshan, Nizwa, and Al-asharqeia region where the Bedouins qre largely found.


Chart (Pie) 1: Gender of the respondents

Chart (Bar) 1: Respondent's Region

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Chart (Bar) 2: Respondents' Educational Level Table 1: Respondents' perceptions towards the government’s roles for Bedouins' social participation No

Statement

Yes (n)

No %

(n)

%

1

The government empowers Bedouins socially

126

68.1

59

31.9

2

The government contributes to social wellbeing of Bedouins

107

57.8

78

42.2

3

The government provides financial supports for Bedouins

108

58.4

77

41.6

4

The government encourages Bedouins to participate in community development The government provides cultural safeguard for the Bedouins

131

70.8

54

29.2

146

78.9

39

21.1

133

71.9

52

28.1

135

73.0

50

27.0

5 6 7 8

The government provides social services to improve Bedouins’ social status in the Omani society. The government provides jobs in the government sectors for the Bedouins

120

64.9

65

35.1

9

The government establishes an organization/center/office especially to develop the Bedouins’ socio-economy. The government caters for the Bedouins' housing/living

133

71.9

52

28.1

10

Bedouins participate politically in Omani society.

138

74.6

47

25.4

11

The government ensures rapid environmental changes in the deserts.

95

51.4

90

48.6

12

The government assists in providing convenient living for the Bedouins.

119

64.3

66

35.7

13

Bedouins are employed in public and private sectors in Oman.

159

85.9

26

14.1

14

The government has tried enough to uplift the Bedouins’ social standards in Oman.

126

68.1

59

31.9


RESEARCH QUESTIONS What is the level of government’s contribution to upgrade the Bedouins' status and to improve their social standard in Oman? To what extent has the government supported the Bedouins educationally, socially and culturally? Do the Bedouins’ cultural beliefs influence their perceptions towards education and social participation? PURPOSE OF THE STUDY This research aims of achieving the following objectives: (a) To examine the level of the Omani Government`s contribution to the Bedouins’ education and social development (b) To explore the level of the Government’s empowerment and support of upgrading the Bedouins' living standards and economic status (c) To investigate if there is any statistical correlation between the Bedouins’ culture or custom and beliefs with their educational development as well as responding to the dominant socio-environmental changes (d) To study the Bedouins' attitudes towards schooling and their level of participation in the community. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY This study has contributed significantly to the body of knowledge on the following aspects: (a) Based on the researchers' best knowledge, there is a scarcity of research done on the Bedouins’ status and development in Oman. (b) There is an extreme scarcity of literature on the issues related to the Bedouins, generally, in the Arabian countries and, particularly, in Oman (c) This research helps in revealing the kind of contributions made by the government in uplifting the Bedouins’ standards of living and their related status in the society. This is based on the government’s campaigns, especially His majesty, in catering for the Omanis’ social advancement without exception and providing their needs. (d) It helps us to reveal the latest development that takes place in the desert areas. FINDINGS Demography Data Chart 1 presents the gender of the respondents which shows that, 66.5% (n=123) are females while 33.5% (n=62) were males. Regarding the region, Bar Chart 1 shows that 36.8% (n=68) of the respondents were from Nizwa, 14.1% (n=26) from Adekhelia, 12.4% (n=23) from Thumreet, 10.8% (n=20) from Adhahera, 10.3% (n=19) from Al-Sharqeia, 5.4% (n=10) from Salalah, 4.9% (n=9) from Sinao, 1.6% (n=3) from Shaleem and Hullanya Islands, 1.1% (n=2) from Maqshan and

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Al Wosta, while 0.5% (n=1) was from Roaya, Jalan Bani Bou Ali and Al-sidiarah. Bar Chart 2 shows the respondents' educational level which shows that 45.4% (n=84) of the respondents had finished their higher education (Degree), 22.7% (n=42) with high school (Secondary), 20% (n=37) with primary school, 6.5% (n=12) were staying at home, perhaps not attending schools while 5.4% (n=10) were housewives. Government’s Roles towards Social Participation. Table 1 explains the government`s roles towards the Bedouins’ social participation. In Item 1, 68.1% of the respondents agreed that the government empowered the Bedouins socially, while 31.9% disagreed with the statement. In item 2, 57.8% of the respondents agreed that the government contributed to the social wellbeing of the Bedouins while 42.2% disagreed with the statement. In item 3, 58.4% of the respondents agreed that the government provided financial supports for the Bedouins while 41.6% disagreed. In item 4, 70.8% of the respondents agreed that the government encouraged the Bedouins to participate in community development while 29.2% disagreed with the statement. In item 5, 78.9% of the respondents agreed that the government provided cultural safeguard for the Bedouins while 21.1% disagreed with the statement. In item 6, 71.9% of the respondents agreed that the government provided social services to improve the Bedouins’ social status in the Omani society while 28.1% disagreed with statement. In Item 7, 73% agreed that the government provided jobs in the government sectors for the Bedouins but about 27% disagreed with that. In item 8, 35.1% agreed that the government established an organization/center/office especially to develop the Bedouins socio-economy while 64.9% disagreed. In item 9, 71.9% agreed that the government catered for the Bedouins' housing/living while 28.1% disagreed. In item 10, 74.6% agreed that the Bedouins participated politically in the Omani society while 25.4% disagreed. In item 11, 51.4% agreed that the government ensured rapid changes in the deserts while 48.6% disagreed with the statement. In item 12, 64.3% agreed that the government assisted in providing convenient living for the Bedouins while 35.7% disagreed with the statement. In item 13, 85.9% agreed that Bedouins were employed in public and private sectors in Oman while 14.1% disagreed. In item 14, 68.1% agreed that the government had tried enough to uplift the Bedouins’ social standards in Oman while 31.9% disagreed.

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Table 2: Respondents' perceptions towards government’s roles for the Bedouins' Educational Development No

Statement

Yes (n)

%

No (n)

%

1

The government built schools for the Bedouins

166

89.7

19

10.3

2

The schools built for the Bedouins are well equipped with the latest technologies

119

64.3

66

35.7

3

The government provides learning environment for the Bedouins

150

81.1

35

18.9

4

The government conducts educational awareness programs for the Bedouins The government conducts literacy programmes to reduce the percentage of illiteracy among the Bedouins.

126

68.1

59

31.9

135

73.0

50

27.0

5 6

The government provides vocational training for the Bedouins.

93

50.3

92

49.7

7

Bedouin students are not aware of the importance of higher education in Oman.

104

56.2

81

43.8

8

Bedouins have low encouragement and motivation towards learning.

94

50.8

91

49.2

9

The Bedouins’ status in the Omani society in terms of education is very low. The Bedouins have financial problems of sending their children to schools The Bedouins cannot afford their children's education expenses.

103

55.7

82

44.3

98

53.0

87

47.0

103

55.7

82

44.3

97

52.4

88

47.6

10 11 12

Competitive atmosphere in getting university admission in Oman discourages the Bedouins’ students from entering universities.

Government’s Role towards Educational Development Table 2 illustrates the government`s roles towards the Bedouin’ educational development; Table 2 shows that in item 1, 89.7% of the respondents agreed that the government built schools for the Bedouins while 10.3% disagreed with the statement. In item 2, 64.3% of the respondents agreed that the schools built for the Bedouins were well equipped with the latest technologies, while 45.7% disagreed. In item 3, 81.1% agreed that the government provided learning environment for the Bedouins while 18.9% disagreed. In item 4, 68.1% agreed that the government conducted educational awareness programs for the Bedouins while 31.9% disagreed. In item 5, 73% of the respondents agreed that the government conducted literacy programmes to reduce the percentage of illiteracy among the Bedouins while 27% disagreed. In item 6, 50.3% of the respondents agreed that the government provided vocational

training for the Bedouins while 49.7% disagreed with the statement. In item 7, 43.8% agreed that the Bedouin students were not aware of the importance of higher education in Oman while 56.2% disagreed. In item 8, 50.8% agreed that the Bedouins had low encouragement and motivation towards learning while 49.2% disagreed. In item 9, 44.3% of the respondents agreed that the status of the Bedouins in the Omani society in terms of education was very low while 55.7% disagreed. In item 10, 47% of the respondents agreed that the Bedouins had financial problems of sending their children to schools while 53% disagreed. In item 11, 44.3% agreed that the Bedouins could not afford their children's education expenses while 55.7% disagreed. In item 12, 47.6% agreed that the competitive atmosphere in getting university admission in Oman discouraged the Bedouins’ students from entering universities while 52.4% disagreed.


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Table 3: Bedouins' Belief and Culture No

Statement

Yes

No

1

Bedouin parents prohibit their children from attending schools.

(n) 137

% 74.1

(n) 48

% 25.9

2

Bedouin males prefer to work instead of studying.

112

60.5

73

39.5

3

Bedouin girls are not allowed by their parents to study in a distant university. Bedouin girls prefer to get married early according to their beliefs.

93

50.3

92

49.7

116

62.7

69

37.3

4 5

Bedouins believe sending their children to school is considered as westernization.

118

63.8

67

36.2

6

114

61.6

71

38.4

7

Bedouins believe sending boys/girls to colleges or universities are against their belief/culture. Bedouins prefer to stay in the desert as compared to the city.

106

57.3

79

42.7

8

Living in the desert is better as compared to living in the city.

122

65.9

63

34.1

9

Bedouins dislike government developing their areas.

117

63.2

68

36.8

10

I enjoy my social status as a Bedouin in the Omani society.

155

83.8

30

16.2

11

Bedouins accept government’s change of their culture and living styles.

134

72.4

51

27.6

12

Bedouins are ready to participate in the society if there are chances open for them.

164

88.6

21

11.4

Belief and Culture Table 3 below indicates the Bedouins’ belief and culture. Table 1 shows that, in item 1, 74.1% of the respondents agreed that Bedouin parents prohibited their children from attending schools, while 25.9% disagreed with the statement. In item 2, 60.5% of the respondents agreed that Bedouin males preferred to work instead of studying while 39.5% disagreed. In item 3, 50.3% agreed that Bedouin girls were not allowed by their parents to study in a distant university while 49.7% disagreed. In item 4, 62.7% agreed that Bedouin girls prefer to get married early according to their beliefs while 37.3% disagreed. In item 5, 36.2% of the respondents agreed that the Bedouins believed in sending their children to school was considered as westernization while 63.8% disagreed. In item 6, 38.4% of the respondents agreed that the Bedouins believed sending their boys/girls to colleges or universities were against their belief/culture while 61.6% disagreed with the statement. In item 7, 57.3% agreed that the Bedouins preferred to stay in the desert as compared to the city while 42.7% disagreed. In item 8, 65.9% agreed that living in the desert was better as compared to living in the city while 34.1% disagreed. In item 9, 36.8% of the respondents agreed that the Bedouins disliked

the government developing their areas while 63.2% disagreed. In item 10, 83.8% of the respondents agreed that “I enjoyed my social status as a Bedouin in the Omani society” while 16.2% disagreed. In item 11, 72.4% agreed that the Bedouins accepted the government’s change of their culture and living styles while 27.6% disagreed. In item 12, 88.6% agreed that the Bedouins were ready to participate in the society if there were chances open for them while 11.4% disagreed. SUMMARY OF THE FINDINGS Finally, this research has answered its questions and achieves its purposes and objectives which are to examine the current Bedouins’ status in Oman, such as, the educational development, the influence of culture, the belief/custom towards attending schools, the social contribution and the participation. Besides, it investigates the government’s contributions in terms of financial supports, educational and social empowerment. As a summary, in terms of the government’s roles, the research has proven that, the government supports the Bedouins financially as other Omanis and has built many schools around the desert area and regions for educational development and awareness, especially for the Bedouins. Besides, the

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schools provided by the government are well equipped with full facilities.

important for the pursuit of a better life, country and societal growth.

With regards to the influence of culture or custom and belief, it was discovered that the Bedouins' culture and belief influenced the progress of their education by some awareness of the importance of education, and the disadvantages, especially, their girls marrying at an early age and boys preferring to work rather than studying. Although, the socio-environmental changes are gradually making substantial inroads wherein we can now see quite a good number of Bedouin boys and girls enrolling into high educational institutions but the culture and custom barriers are still there as obstacles which may take time to resolve.

CONCLUSION

RESEARCH IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Some implications can be drawn first on the common issues related to Bedouins’ daughters in getting married at the early stages and male Bedouins' preferences of working instead of completing their studies. This can somewhat be a backward step for human development and education in Oman. Besides, it can also be a major drawback on the Bedouins' culture and ethics in mingling with other social ethics in Oman. Again, every category of the Omani society has their beliefs, culture, custom and values but these culture and values or identities should not form a conflict in any way with the human’s and country’s development. Thus, while they only have high school diplomas, their other peers in the Omani society will be academically superior to them. As a matter of fact, it is compulsory for the Omani government to reduce the rate of the Bedouins’ illiteracy as much as possible and to ensure a majority of its citizens have education for access to better job opportunities: (a) Male and female Bedouins should be motivated to complete their studies (b) They should be reorientated to know the importance of education and higher education as prerequisites of modern day life. The implication can be drawn on the Bedouins’ beliefs towards education and sending their children to schools with the belief that western education symbolizes paganism and worldly materialistic knowledge as distinct from the esoteric religious knowledge. Thus, the knowledge–oriented awareness should be manifestly made clear to them in simple but profound terms, clarifying to them in no uncertain terms that attending schools and institutions of higher learning is not being pagan or preferring worldly knowledge but it is only through true knowledge that we can comprehend the attributes of Allah as knowledge can be applied to advance the Islamic way of life internationally and globally for purposes to serve the present day demands in various fields of disciplines. Besides, males should be taught that completion of their academic education is very

The development and empowerment of the Bedouins were started by the government by providing them with residential stability, such as, giving them areas to live in. Along the line, the government started to spread awareness of the importance of education amongst them and gradually the Bedouins could improve their status in the Omani society socially, educationally and financially. Although education has eliminated some negative cultural beliefs, such as, early marriage, another problem appeared on the gender mix up in schools and institutions of higher learning in the name of coeducation. Anyway, the government did gradually succeed to eliminate such perceptive problems and people started to send their children, boys and girls to universities and colleges. It is recommended, that the Bedouins’ cultural beliefs that have been the bane for the Bedouins all this while from developing their social status, do not conflict with their religion and these cultural beliefs should be put aside once and for all. Therefore, now the Bedouin, like any other Omani citizen, has benefitted from education and starts to encourage and support their children to continue their higher education. This empowerment provided by the government has opened the door for many Bedouin individuals, men and women, to contribute to the progress of the Omani society in multiple ways. Nowadays, because of the government’s empowerment on the Bedouins, who are part of the Omani society, they can now participate actively in the Omani political arena. Through the Omani counsel, many Bedouins are being presented by one of their candidates. REFERENCES [1]

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The Commission on Nomadic Peoples. New York, NY: Berghahn. [6] Chatty, D. (1991) “The Bedu and al-Badiyah in Oman”. PDO News. No. 1. http://www.nomadsinoman.com/nomadiclife/articles/articles/the-bedu-and-al-badiyah-in oman-1991-pdf [7] Cole, D. P. (2003). Where Have the Bedouin Gone? Anthropological Quarterly - Volume 76, Number 2, pp. 235-267. E-ISSN: 1534-1518 Print ISSN: 0003-5491 [8] General census of population and housing for the distribution of population of the sultanate of Oman, December (2003) Brochure. [9] Giddens, A. (1994). Living in a posttraditional society, in: B. Ulrich, A. Giddens & S. Lash (Eds) Reflexive modernization: politics, tradition and aesthetics in the modern social order (Cambridge, Polity Press). [10] Janine Givati-Teerling (2007). Negev Bedouin and Higher Education: At the Crossroads of a Community in Transition. Sussex Migration Working Paper No. 41 [11] Marguerite van Geldermalsen (2006). Married to a Bedouin. http://www.facebook.com/group.php?gid=29708 5933006. [12] Manski, R. (2006). The nature of Environmental Injustice in Bedouin Urban Townships: The end of Self-Subsistence. BUSTAN L'SHALOM. Report originally published in Hebrew by the Life & Environment NGO coalition in Environmental Injustice. [13] Maddrel, P. 1990. The Bedouin of the Negev, M.R.G. Report No. 81. [14] Sarab, A., R., Q. (2006). Between tradition and modernization: understanding the problem of female Bedouin dropouts. British Journal of Sociology of Education Vol. 27, No. 1, pp. 3–17 [15] Census (2003) , Alwatan Newspaper, June 2003, No. 7261.

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