benchmarking location based systems and services

BENCHMARKING LOCATION BASED SYSTEMS AND SERVICES 2004-2005

Pramod Sharma, Devon Nugent, Linda Dawson, Susan Foster, Paul Hawking, Andrew Stein and John Zeleznikow

BENCHMARKING LOCATION BASED SYSTEMS & SERVICES 2004-2005

Technical Reports The technical report series present data and its analysis, meta-studies and conceptual studies, and are considered to be of value to industry, government and researchers. Unlike the Sustainable Tourism Cooperative Research Centre’s Monograph series, these reports have not been subjected to an external peer review process. As such, the scientific accuracy and merit of the research reported here is the responsibility of the authors, who should be contacted for clarification of any content. Author contact details are at the back of this report.

Editors Prof Chris Cooper Prof Terry De Lacy Prof Leo Jago

University of Queensland Sustainable Tourism CRC Sustainable Tourism CRC

Editor-in-Chief Chief Executive Director of Research

National Library of Australia Cataloguing in Publication Data Benchmarking location based systems and services 2004-2005. ISBN 1 920704 87 6. 1. Tourism - Australia - Information services. 2. Tourist information centres - Australia. I. Sharma, Pramod Chandra. II. Cooperative Research Centre for Sustainable Tourism. 338.479194

Copyright © CRC for Sustainable Tourism Pty Ltd 2006 All rights reserved. Apart from fair dealing for the purposes of study, research, criticism or review as permitted under the Copyright Act, no part of this book may be reproduced by any process without written permission from the publisher. Enquiries should be directed to Brad Cox, Communications Manager [[email protected]] or Trish O’Connor, Publishing Manager [[email protected]].

Acknowledgements The Sustainable Tourism Cooperative Research Centre, an Australian Government initiative, funded this research.

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CONTENTS SUMMARY ____________________________________________________________________________ IV CHAPTER 1 OVERVIEW AND BACKGROUND ____________________________________________ 1 PROJECT AIMS AND OUTCOMES ____________________________________________________________ 1 CHAPTER 2 DEFINITIONS ______________________________________________________________ 2 LOCATION BASED SYSTEM ________________________________________________________________ 2 LOCATION BASED SERVICE ________________________________________________________________ 2 CHAPTER 3 COMMON SYSTEM COMPONENTS __________________________________________ 3 COMMUNICATION SYSTEM ________________________________________________________________ 3 POSITIONING TECHNOLOGY _______________________________________________________________ 3 GIS DATABASE _________________________________________________________________________ 3 CHAPTER 4 CATEGORIES OF LBS APPLICATIONS _______________________________________ 5 TRACKING AND POSITIONING INCLUDING SAFETY ______________________________________________ 5 LOCATION-BASED INFORMATION SERVICES (LBIS) _____________________________________________ 5 TRANSACTIONAL SERVICES INCLUDING BILLING _______________________________________________ 5 CHAPTER 5 LBS STAKEHOLDERS IN TOURISM __________________________________________ 6 CHAPTER 6 LBS BUSINESS AND REVENUE MODELS _____________________________________ 7 CHAPTER 7 TOURISM APPLICATIONS AND LBS _________________________________________ 8 THE TOURING LIFECYCLE _________________________________________________________________ 8 APPLICATION CASE STUDIES_______________________________________________________________ 9 POTENTIAL TOURIST APPLICATIONS ________________________________________________________ 12 ISSUES _______________________________________________________________________________ 12 Positioning Technology _______________________________________________________________ 12 Mapping Issues _____________________________________________________________________ 13 Interoperability and Standards _________________________________________________________ 13 Content Issues ______________________________________________________________________ 13 Security and Privacy _________________________________________________________________ 13 CHAPTER 8 POTENTIAL RESEARCH AND COMMERCIALISATION PROJECTS ____________ 14 FOUNDATION RESEARCH ________________________________________________________________ 14 POTENTIAL COMMERCIAL DEVELOPMENT ___________________________________________________ 14 CHAPTER 9 BENEFITS OF LBS FOR THE AUSTRALIAN TOURISM INDUSTRY _____________ 15 IMPROVING THE TOURIST EXPERIENCE ______________________________________________________ 15 SERVICE PROVIDER BENEFITS _____________________________________________________________ 15 ADVANTAGES FOR TOURISM OPERATORS ____________________________________________________ 15 APPENDIX A: LOCATION BASED AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS ______________________ 16 APPENDIX B: MOBILE MAPPING ISSUES ________________________________________________ 27 APPENDIX C: INTEROPERABILITY AND STANDARDS____________________________________ 38 APPENDIX D: MOBILE GIS - CHALLENGES AND SOLUTIONS _____________________________ 43 APPENDIX E: MOBILE TECHNOLOGIES AND TOURISM__________________________________ 56 REFERENCES _________________________________________________________________________ 69 GLOSSARY____________________________________________________________________________ 71 ABBREVIATIONS ______________________________________________________________________ 73 AUTHORS_____________________________________________________________________________ 74 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: A Generic LBS Environment_________________________________________________________ 4 Figure 2: The Touring Lifecycle ______________________________________________________________ 8 iii

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SUMMARY LBS for the Tourism Industry Location Based Services (LBS) are information systems which collect or deliver information based on a user’s location. Such services require a wireless network provider, a mobile device, positioning determining technology and a GIS provider. All of these components must be integrated to develop LBS. Hence, LBS require the integration of a wide variety of service providers (i.e. a longer value chain). Furthermore, LBS involve the use of a wide range of positioning technologies, devices, etc. While such services include the use of notebooks, PC tablets and wearable computers, for the purpose of this study we have focused on applications which collect information from or deliver information to light, highly mobile small screen devices such as PDAs (Personal Digital Assistants) and smart phones.

Types of LBS LBS include concierge services, ‘find a friend’ services, fleet tracking, location sensitive billing, routing and emergency services. Tourism specific LBS include tour guide and concierge services (e.g. where is the nearest Italian restaurant), routing (e.g. from your hotel to the National Museum) and the delivery of safety information (e.g. weather updates). Such applications have the potential to revolutionise the tourism industry in Australia.

Benefits of LBS to Leisure and Business Travellers Current web based applications mainly support the traveller in the planning or pre-tour phase, with little support during the on-tour and post-tour/reminiscing phase of the tourist activity. For on-tour support tourists tend to rely on printed maps and guide books. LBS for travellers, however, are able to support all three phases of the tourist activity, particularly the needs of the mobile tourist. Hence, the development of tourism specific LBS can offer a wide range of services to tourists, that were not previously possible. LBS can provide context specific, personalised, value added services to users on the move. This is particularly important today, given the change from predominantly package travellers to independent travellers. Such travellers do not want to be tied down to set itineraries and destinations; they want flexibility. Many of us are also time poor and take shorter breaks more often. We do not have much time to spend planning a trip or time to waste during a trip. LBS can improve the experience of the tourist by delivering personalised information, filtered according to the users location, context (mobile device, weather, bandwidth, etc.), and characteristics (age, culture, language, interests, etc.). Such services also provide access to a wide range of information types, ranging from maps and text to a wide range of multimedia information (audio, video, images, 3D visualization, etc.). Users can view their location on a map, as well as the location of various points of interest; they can also interact with the maps; obtain more information on features/points of interest; interact with a variety of types of information; access dynamic and up-to-date information; obtain as much information as they want; and ask new kinds of questions such as ‘where is the nearest open art gallery?’. LBS can support not only the leisure traveller, but also the business traveller, who is extremely time poor and needs to be able to navigate unfamiliar environments in a very timely fashion. It is the business traveller who tends to own a PDA; that is the more powerful devices which can support more advanced applications. While the needs of both types of travellers are different, LBS have the potential to improve the experiences of both. Many of us, of course, are both leisure and business travellers. Most importantly these services can improve the safety of all travellers.

Benefits of LBS to Service Providers and Tourism Business Operators As well as benefiting the consumer, LBS applications for tourism also offer a number of advantages to a wide range of service providers. Firstly, by improving the experience of the traveller, they will have a positive impact on the whole tourism industry and boost tourism, creating a greater awareness of the history, culture and environment. They will also improve the knowledge of travellers and so have a positive impact on conservation and preservation efforts. Secondly, such services require a wide range of service providers from wireless network providers, to content providers, application developers, etc. Many will be able to benefit from this longer value chain and this will also lead to increased specialization of service providers. The revenue generated by these applications could be considerable. Small to Medium Tourism Enterprises (SMTEs) will also benefit from such applications, as they will provide access to (and a greater awareness of) the services of the SMTEs, support online bookings, advertising, etc. Tourism operators may also develop and on-sell such applications to their own advantage, provide products/content for these applications, etc. Additional revenue may also be obtained through the production of travel diaries on DVD. iv

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The ability to track/monitor the movements of consumers also provides a means for managers to better understanding the tourists and their movements, and improve services to meet user needs. It can also offer a superior means of minimising the impact on the environment, controlling/restricting the movements of consumers (as part of conservation efforts) and alerting managers of potential negative impacts or dangers. The ability to track travellers also enables faster response to emergency situations.

Principal Aim of Study The principal aim of this study has been to assess the potential of LBS for the Australian tourism industry and its possible impact; the issues/problems involved in the development of such applications; and the state of knowledge of LBS in the Australian tourism industry. Several case studies/prototypes show the potential and range of applications that can be developed and the issues /problems associated with LBS for tourism. Despite the issues/problems associated with the development of LBS, these applications provide proof of concept and show the advantages of LBS to consumers and service providers alike. From this we were able to suggest areas of further research, in particular potential commercial applications of LBS for the Australian tourism industry.

Objectives of Study The objectives of this study were: • To report on the state of knowledge regarding LBS; the potential usefulness of LBS for the Australian tourism industry; identify areas where further research may be needed ƒ The report describes the current state of play, key players, industry segments, and current and potential applications. • To identify and discuss any issues/problems associated with the development of LBS. • To identify potential tourism LBS research projects that have: ƒ a clear direction for future research in this area; and ƒ the potential to deliver commercial outcomes, vis-à-vis products and systems that enhance sustainable tourism in Australia.

Methodology In order to report on the state of knowledge of LBS and to identify the potential of LBS for the Australian tourism industry we did the following: • defined what we meant by LBS • identified system components of LBS • defined and discussed categories of LBS applications • identified the LBS stakeholders in tourism • identified possible business/revenue models • discussed the potential of LBS for all three phases of the tourist activity • examined several existing LBS applications/prototypes and the main issues/problems encountered • identified potential tourist applications • identified and discussed the issues/problems associated with the development of LBS ƒ positioning technology ƒ mapping issues ƒ interoperability and standards ƒ content issues ƒ security and privacy • identified potential research and commercialisation projects • discussed the benefits of LBS for the Australian tourism industry In addition to the discussion in the main part of the report, several issues have been further examined in additional articles which make up the appendices.

Key Findings •

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LBS require the integration of the following system components: ƒ Wireless communication system ƒ Positioning technology ƒ GIS provider ƒ Mobile device LBS can be divided into 2 kinds – push and pull services v

BENCHMARKING LOCATION BASED SYSTEMS & SERVICES 2004-2005 •

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We identified the following categories of LBS applications: ƒ Tracking and positioning ƒ Location-based information services ƒ Transactional services LBS require a longer value chain. The wide range stakeholders include mobile operators, travel service providers, on-sellers of travel products, SMTEs, local government, etc. ƒ Three categories of stakeholders a. infrastructure providers b. tourism providers c. consumers We identified the following potential business models for LBS ƒ Per request charging ƒ Subscription ƒ Combination of the above ƒ Revenue sharing with the mobile operators Unlike existing web services, LBS can support the tourist in all three phases of the touring activity We identified the following potential tourism applications ƒ LBS portal ƒ Tourism tracking ƒ Position based tour guide ƒ Location Based Recommender System While a number of issues/problems must be addressed before such applications become widespread; existing systems show the potential of LBS and the rapid improvements in technology will quickly overcome many of these issues. The Australia Federal privacy law does not address personal location tracking The following positive advantages of LBS for the tourism industry were identified: ƒ The ability to support all three phases of the tourist activity ƒ The ability to promote tourism and improve the experience of the tourist ƒ The ability to improve the knowledge of the tourist ƒ To enable tourists to access a wider range and types of information ƒ The ability to offer new kinds of services and ask new kinds of questions ƒ The delivery of personalised information ƒ A source of additional revenue for the tourism industry ƒ Longer value chains and increased specialization of service providers ƒ Greater access to the services of SMTEs ƒ Marketing for SMTEs ƒ Increased user satisfaction ƒ A superior means of managing/monitoring the impact of tourism ƒ A better means of tracking tourists movements, in order to improve safety and services Potential problems with the implementation of such services include: ƒ Limitations of existing wireless networks ƒ Limitations of positioning technologies ƒ Limitations of mobile devices ƒ Interoperability of system components ƒ Security/privacy issues ƒ Content availability ƒ Cost of mobile devices and applications ƒ User acceptance and willingness to pay ƒ Suitable business models Implications for tour agencies: ƒ LBS can provide another means of delivering services – access to information, online bookings, etc. ƒ LBS provide another mean of marketing services or advertising ƒ LBS may provide a new source of revenue

Future Action This scoping study has shown that LBS have the ability to revolutionise the tourism industry in Australia, by supporting the user in all three phases of the tourist activity, offering new kinds of services and increasing user satisfaction. Before such applications will be widely adopted, however, several technological and nontechnological issues need to be addressed.

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We have identified areas of potential research and several potential commercial applications for the Australian tourism industry: Areas of potential research • User requirements • Design development and availability of services and content attractive to tourists and the tourism industry • Analysis of the potential of LBS is all 3 phases of the tourist activity • The development of suitable business models for tourism specific LBS in Australia • Investigating niche markets. Potential Commercial development • Location Based Travel Recommender System • Location Based commentary system • LBS portal • Tourism tracking.

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Chapter 1

OVERVIEW AND BACKGROUND Location based systems are computerised systems which depend on the automated detection of the location of a target (e.g. a tourist on the move, a tour vehicle …) to either deliver or collect information. Currently mobile phones are seen as the obvious (but not the only) means of information delivery/collection for LBS. This technology has considerable potential for the Australian tourism industry. Possible applications include on-tour support for tourists (in enhancing visitor interpretation, multi-lingual commentaries and associated services); visitor data collection, visitor monitoring, and impact management. Tourism is both a leading revenue generator worldwide and an umbrella industry that enhances regional, Small to Medium Enterprises (SMEs), cultural, sports and many other industry sectors. It is in essence an information-based industry. Worldwide US$515 billion was spent in 2003 on international tourism activities, with 694 million international tourist arrivals recorded in 2003 (WTO 2004). The US Travel & Tourism sector is estimated to constitute 10.5% of GDP and is expected to grow 4.1% per year from 2005 – 2014 (WTTC 2004). Four trends were identified by the WTO in their 2003 Tourism Highlights report; low-cost airlines were expanding, the Internet dominates information collection as well as tour booking, non-organised touring and ‘doit-yourself’ travel. The travel and tourism industry has been a leading adopter of innovative technology. The mobile nature of tourism is creating the terms ‘ubiquitous tourism’ or ‘u-tourism’ which are based on concepts from ubiquitous technology ‘ … where technology recedes into the background of people’s lives and activities, where computing technology is a part of life and is embedded in the environments in which human beings live and work.’ (Dawson, Fisher & Scheepers 2002) and ambient intelligence (CORDIS 2004) based on the interaction of ubiquitous computing and user-friendly interfaces. The dominant computer interface now is ‘lean forward’ requiring proactive user interaction. Ambient intelligence promises ‘laid-back’ relaxed and enjoyable interactions (Stabb & Werthner 2002). Ambient intelligence promises the ability to personalise and localise tourist activities, and the integration of these with narrative concepts will enhance on-tour activities (Zipf 2002; Gretzel & Fesenmaier 2002). The conceptual evolution of LBS in tourism can be traced from Geographic Information Systems (GIS) positioning technology through to ubiquitous tourism. The GIS technology provides the intelligence to support ubiquitous environments. The development of LBS in tourism can be seen in terms of the convergence of GIS positioning technology, mobile communication technology and the travel and tourism industries (see Appendix D on the development of Mobile GIS). The potential consumers for LBS in tourism will include direct consumers, such as tourists and mobile device users, and indirect consumers and stakeholders, such as mobile operators, travel service providers, on-sellers of travel products, SMEs (food, accommodation, entertainment, vehicle providers, etc.), local governments and government departments. This report outlines a project which aimed to assess the state of knowledge regarding LBS technologies in the Australian tourism industry, the potential usefulness of LBS for the Australian Tourism industry, recommend potential future commercial exploitation of LBS technologies in the Australian tourism industry and also to identify areas where further research may be needed. While all of these issues are discussed in the main body of the report, some are further explored in the appendices (e.g. positioning technologies).

Project Aims and Outcomes • • •

To report the state of knowledge regarding LBS, their potential usefulness for the Australian Tourism industry and also identify areas where further research may be needed. The report describes the current state of play, key players, industry segments, and current and potential applications. To identify and discuss any issues/problems associated with the development of LBS. To identify potential tourism LBS research projects that have: ƒ a clear direction for future research in this area ƒ the potential to deliver commercial outcomes, vis-à-vis products and systems that enhance sustainable tourism in Australia.

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Chapter 2

DEFINITIONS Location Based System So what is a Location Based System? A location based system is a computer based system which can deliver information to or collect information from a device (usually a mobile device such as a mobile phone or PDA) based on location information for that device. While the mobile devices utilised for such applications can include notebooks, PC tablets and wearable computers, for the purpose of this study we will focus our attention on light, highly mobile small screen devices such as PDAs and smart phones. These are the devices tourists are most likely to use (and have with them) and are the most practical for consumers to carry.

Location Based Service A location based service (LBS) ‘aims to provide specific, targeted information to users based on each specific user’s location at any time’ (Benson 2001). Diverse applications include fleet tracking, emergency dispatch, sensor monitoring, customer location for target marketing and advertising, roadside assistance, stolen vehicle recovery, navigation, directory services, and more. Concierge LBS provide location-specific information on something nearby to the mobile device or user’s location (e.g. restaurants, cinemas, car parks, hospitals, ATMs etc.) (Dao, Rizos & Wang 2002). Using the knowledge of where someone is or where they intend to go is the essence of LBS. Push LBS are service provider driven (e.g. advertising, updates, etc.). Pull LBS are consumer driven (e.g. requests for information).

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Chapter 3

COMMON SYSTEM COMPONENTS Both Push and Pull LBS require the integration of several system components – a wireless network provider, a mobile device, position determining technology and a GIS provider. All of these components must be able to communicate with each other, which is a considerable problem given the variety of wireless networks, mobile devices, positioning technologies, etc. that can be utilised for each application (see Appendix C on the need for interoperability and standards). Not only does this require the interoperability of technology, but also of service providers. LBS involve a much longer value chain than web based services, including wireless network providers, software providers, content providers, application developers, positioning technology manufacturers, etc. The incorporation of a wireless communication system is essential for the delivery of information to mobile (‘untethered’) consumers. There are, however, a wide variety of wireless networks available, each with different characteristics, utilising different protocols, supporting different positioning technologies, different bandwidths, etc. (see Appendix A for an overview of wireless communications systems and their characteristics).

Communication System One of the biggest problems is that protocols are not globally interoperable. The internet is the most universal protocol (WAP, WML). Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) is a standard communication protocol to allow the internet to be accessed using mobile devices. It uses Wireless Mark-up Language (WML), which is an XML base mark-up language for content on mobile devices. The wireless internet is also subject to local wireless infrastructure - GSM, CDMA, WCDMA/UMTS in Australia (see Glossary). 2G technology (e.g. GSM) has a bandwidth of up to 10 kbps, requires the connection to be open and supports periodic transmission (Karl 2004: 222-223). GSM also supports SMS, which can provide many LBSs (e.g. turn by turn directions or other textual information). 2.5G (e.g. GPRS) and 3G (e.g. WCDMA) technology, however, offer the advantages of being always on, higher bandwidth (up to 115kbps for GPRS and 2Mbps for WCDMA), streaming and supports the transmission of multimedia information (Gartner & Uhlirz 2001; KMS, National Survey and Cadastre – Denmark/Nissen, Hvas, Münster-Swendsen & Brodersen 2003; Uhlirz 2001). The position determining techniques supported by the different types of infrastructure also varies.

Positioning Technology There are a wide range of positioning technologies used – satellite based, communications network based, wireless networks and Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) – each of which differ in terms of accuracy and latency (see Appendix A for an overview of the different positioning techniques). The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite based technique and provides global coverage. A standard GPS has a positional accuracy of around 10 m, but there are limitations to this technique in urban environments and indoors. These problems are partially overcome through the use of Assisted GPS (A-GPS), which improves latency and accuracy by utilising assistance data from the network. There are also a wide variety of communications network based positioning technologies such as COO, TOA, AOA and E-OTD, each with different accuracy and latency (see Glossary). In order to support locationbased services, however, the existing mobile networks need to be modified and an additional component installed – i.e. the Gateway Mobile Location Centre (GMLC) or Mobile Positioning Centre (MPC). This component stores information on the network and uses the information to identify the location of the mobile device. The application server will request the position of the mobile device from the network through the GMLC or MPC (otherwise known as the location server). The GMLC/MPC interfaces the network and application server (Agrawal & Agrawal 2003: 20-22).

GIS Database It is the application server that allows the consumer to access the information relevant to their location. This information is generally stored in a GIS database. The GIS databases store two kinds of information – spatial and attribute data. Spatial data is data for which location (coordinates) are known and attribute data is information on the characteristics of objects. Traditionally GIS store spatial data or geometry in proprietary format and the attribute data in commonly available database packages (e.g. dBase, Oracle). Vendors include Database 3

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Management Systems (DBMS) software with their GIS or provide the ability to interface to DBMSs. Some GIS databases can also store information on the relationships between features (topology). Object-relational DBMS (ORDBMS) also store information on the behaviour of objects and can handle complex objects, including maps, features (roads, hospitals, restaurants etc), travel time between 2 points etc. The Application Server will include the GIS software and interface to the data server. Figure 1: A Generic LBS Environment

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Chapter 4

CATEGORIES OF LBS APPLICATIONS The development of location based systems has initially been driven by government directives and legislation where ‘Carriers are being forced by regulators to accurately position wireless emergency calls, through E911 in the U.S., and E112 in the EU.’ (Geer 2001) as cited in Rao and Minakakis (2003). The development of services based on location based systems is a logical outcome from the infrastructure and technology now available. The main categories of applications for LBS (Barnes 2003, Agrawal & Agrawal 2003) are: • Tracking and positioning including safety • Location-based Information Services (LBIS) • Transactional Services including billing. To overcome privacy, etc. issues it would be desirable to have active ‘opting-in’ or ‘opting-out’ by the user.

Tracking and Positioning Including Safety All LBS applications and business models depend on the tracking and positioning of mobile devices, usually mobile phones. Safety business applications would include emergency services and roadside assistance (Barnes 2003). For the tourism industry business applications could include roadside assistance for hired vehicles or coach/bus parties; tracking of hikers or off-road tourists in remote areas.

Location-based Information Services (LBIS) LBIS can be any information that can be requested by a consumer or subscriber or information automatically sent to a subscriber who has opted in for push services from an LBS content provider. In the tourism industry this could include personal position information such as ‘Where am I?’ ‘Where is?’ (accommodation, restaurants, theatres, hospitals, banks, etc.), local information (maps, tourist guides and weather and traffic alerts). LBIS can also be used for targeted advertising, provision of public information from government providers and yellow pages information.

Transactional Services Including Billing Transactional services allow consumers to use the mobile internet to pay bills, purchase goods and services, and conduct other financial transactions using a mobile device. Such services must support micro-payments. These three types of services have the potential to revolutionise the tourism industry in Australia, by enhancing the experience of the traveller, improving access to the services and marketing of SMTEs, and by involving a wider range of service providers in the value chain. The revenue from such services could be considerable.

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Chapter 5

LBS STAKEHOLDERS IN TOURISM The LBS value chain is comprised of many key players (NUS Wireless Venturing Forum 2003): • Positioning technology manufacturers • Mapping and GIS companies • Location technology developers • Content providers • Application toolkits • Mobile portals • Handset and platform vendors • Service providers • Mobile operators. Stakeholders in LBS for tourism fall into three basic categories: infrastructure providers, tourism providers and consumers including tourists, potential tourists and other tourism businesses. 1. Infrastructure providers include: • Hardware providers of handsets and other mobile devices such as PDAs (e.g. Nokia, Ericsson, HP, Toshiba, Palm) • Mobile network providers and carriers (e.g. Telstra, Optus) • Mobile Operators who piggyback off network providers (e.g. Primus, Orange) • GIS and LBS middleware positioning system providers (e.g. MapMakers Australia, MapTrax, Map Data Sciences Australia) • General application providers (e.g. Navman, Vindigo) 2. Tourism providers include specific product providers such as travel agents, airlines, itinerary providers, hospitality providers, vehicle rental providers and various government agencies: • Tourist product providers who would use LBS include travel agents, airlines, package providers and itinerary providers • Hospitality providers include hotels, bed and breakfasts, caravan parks, resorts, etc. • Vehicle rental providers include car and bike rental companies • Government tourism includes government tourism centres, national parks, etc. 3. Consumers include the general public who are travelling as tourists or are seeking tourism information, niche market tourists who are particularly seeking LBS and assistance, and members of the tourism industry who on-sell services: • General public (tourists) and niche consumers – B2C (Business to consumer) • Tourism providers (as above) – B2B (Business to business). All of these stakeholders will benefit from the development of LBS (see Section 9). Not only will such services result in greater knowledge and user satisfaction for the traveller, but will also provide a new means of interaction with tourism organisations and SMTEs. They may also provide a new means of revenue for tourism businesses and the revenue generated from some applications may even be fed back into the tourism industry. In order for such applications to succeed, however, they require a suitable business model. Users must be willing to pay for these services and so they must offer significant advantages over traditional sources of tourism information. Another issue of course is the cost of the mobile devices suitable for such applications. The costs of developing and maintaining an application must also be considered. Nevertheless, business models will not work unless the technology works.

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Chapter 6

LBS BUSINESS AND REVENUE MODELS According to Rao and Minakakis (2003) LBS ‘… have emerged as an important component of m-commerce strategy. The LBS subscriber base is forecast to reach 680 million customers globally by 2006. Predictions are that LBA will generate over $32 billion in Europe by 2005’. Business and revenue models for the commercial deployment of LBS depend on how revenue is being generated and how the LBS value chain is structured between mobile operators and content providers (NUS Wireless Venturing Forum 2003). The main potential revenue models for LBS (D’Roza & Bilchev 2003, Agrawal & Agrawal 2003): • per request charging • by subscription charging • a combination of the previous 2 items above • Revenue sharing with mobile operators. Revenue sharing is problematic while LBS revenue is low (Agrawal & Agrawal 2003) and it may be necessary to investigate and adopt internet-based electronic commerce B2C and B2B models to address transaction issues such as micro-payments, account consolidation, third party coupon accounts, debit accounts, etc. (see Appendix E for further discussion of business models and challenges for tourism).

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Chapter 7

TOURISM APPLICATIONS AND LBS The Touring Lifecycle LBS technology has considerable potential for the Australian tourism industry in the three phases of the touring life cycle (Siebold 2004). The touring life cycle can be segmented into three phases (see Figure 2): • Planning (pre-tour) – data management • Touring (during tour) – data delivery • Reminiscing (post-tour) – data sharing Planning encompasses many internet enabled information sharing processes. Data management is the crucial information activity in this phase. Touring spans the time when the tourist visits, wanders, stays and generally is ‘on the ground’. Digital delivery of information has huge potential in this phase. Reminiscing takes in the after tour experience and can involve sharing of information. There are many activities that can be undertaken within the phases and these are shown in Figure 2. The range of activities that can be supported by the application of ucomputing include on-tour support for tourists (in enhancing visitor interpretation, multi-lingual commentaries and associated services); visitor data collection, visitor monitoring, and impact management. Figure 2: The Touring Lifecycle

Hence, LBS have the potential to revolutionise the experience of the traveller. Current web based applications mainly support the traveller in the planning or pre-tour phase, offering little support during the ontour and post-tour/reminiscing phase of the tourist activity. For on-tour support tourists tend to rely on printed maps and guide books, as well as tourist information centres. For the post-tour phase, tourists largely rely on the use of emails, photographs and written diaries. LBS for travellers, however, are able to support all three phases of the tourist activity, particularly the needs of the mobile tourist (e.g. LOL@ is able to support all 3 phases of the tourist experience). The development of tourism specific LBS can offer a wide range of services to tourists, that were not previously possible. Users can access new kinds of services and ask new kinds of questions (see Appendix E for further discussion). LBS can provide context specific, personalised, value added services to users on the move. This is particularly important today, given the change from predominantly package travellers to independent travellers. Such travellers do not want to be tied down to set itineraries and destinations; they want flexibility. Many tourists are also time poor and take shorter breaks more often. They do not have much time to spend planning a trip or time to waste during a trip. The nature of tourism is changing and such services are able to meet the needs of the new types of travellers. 8

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The advantages and benefits of LBS for tourism can be seen in the following LBS systems and prototypes. These applications and many more provide proof of concept and also highlight both the benefits and problems/issues associated with the development of such services.

Application Case Studies APPLICATION AREA: Mobile Tourist Guide B2B/B2C: B2C IMPLEMENTED: on laptop SUMMARY: LOL@ is a prototype of a mobile electronic interactive tour guide for the city of Vienna. The aim of this project was to develop a location based multimedia service for UMTS. It supports three kinds of services: pre-tour planning (maps, text and multimedia information on tours and Points Of Interest (POIs), filtered according to user’s profile/behaviour); support for the tourist on the move; access to a tour diary (stored on the server) via the web or PC, the user can record text and multimedia information whilst on tour, friends can also follow the users activity. PUSH/PULL SERVICES PROVIDED: Push – predefined or user defined tours; records visited POIs, route segments travelled, etc.; information (text and multimedia data) on POIs/landmarks; route guidance and navigation; adding to and accessing electronic tour diary Pull – records information on visited POIs in tour diary; user location and orientation GEOGRAPHIC COVERAGE/ENVIRONMENT: outdoor urban environment, Vienna’s first district PLATFORM: three tier application architecture; OSA/Parlay API interfaces to LBS Platform and Mobile Network Operator; Geomedia Web Map from Intergraph; WebKIS server compresses and prepares data; GISSquadrat Active CGM JAVA Map Viewer; XML; Apple Darwin Streaming Server and Apple QuickTime Player for streaming audio and video; Nuance Speech toolkit for speech recognition POSITIONING TECHNIQUES: GPS; A-GPS; Cell ID; radio signal propagation; user input; small active or passive senders (e.g. Bluetooth) in the future MOBILE DEVICES SUPPORTED: smart phones, PDAs and laptops; demonstration version uses a laptop as PDAs do not provide for full functionality of the map viewer applet or speech recognition software (Pospischil, Umlauft & Michlmayr 2002: 152); for PDA like phones 120 x 320 pixels, with Java MExE, colour liquid crystal display (LCD) and pen input (Anegg, Kunczier, Michlmayr, Pospischil & Umlauft 2002); platform comparable to Windows Pocket PC 2002 with internet browser, 32 or 64 MB memory, virtual keyboard, text recognition and simple GUI (Umlauft, Pospischil, Niklfeld & Michlmayr 2003) COMMUNICATIONS INFRASTRUCTURE: UMTS or GPRS (always on) DESIGN INTERFACE: uses the map metaphor and browser metaphor; consistent design, multi-modal interaction; hierarchy of maps (overview maps in raster and detailed maps in vector); high contrast for outdoor use; POIs grouped into regions to avoid clutter on overview maps; speech commands; uses views not application modes; multi-lingual (English, German French); graphical, text and voice routing BUSINESS/ REVENUE MODEL: charged through phone bill; additional revenue for tourist agencies from access to tour diary and production of diary on CD/DVD (Umlauft, Pospischil, Niklfeld & Michlmayr 2003) PERFORMANCE/ PROBLEMS/ISSUES: Network and device constraints; user in strange environment; must work ‘out of the box’; connection loss addressed through seamless restart; network initiated push mechanism to reduce network traffic; part of business logic resides in mobile device; locational accuracy and scale; automated labelling issues (use of tool tips and hot spots); 3D silhouettes and stretching the map to improve orientation; interactive and dynamic mapping; assumes low level devices (limited hard keys, uses soft keys); data compression; data integration; symbology (simple, self explanatory); data flow Sources: Umlauft, Pospischil, Niklfeld & Michmayr 2003; Pospischil, Umlauft & Michlmayr 2002; Anegg, Kunczier, Michmayr, Pospischil & Umlauft 2002.

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BENCHMARKING LOCATION BASED SYSTEMS & SERVICES 2004-2005

APPLICATION AREA: Rural and Recreation Tourist Guide B2B/B2C: B2B and B2C IMPLEMENTED: Prototypes trialled SUMMARY: Webpark aims to create a platform for LBS for tourists in rural, recreation and protected areas across Europe (e.g. National Parks). Utilising existing information Webpark will create new value added services (and new value chains), providing location specific, timely and personalised information (maps, text, multimedia information from several databases) and services to cyclists, hikers, etc. to aid their choices. Such services are enhanced through data mining (e.g. to predict travel times or accessibility). Webpark can also be used by administrators to not only collect and manage information, but also to aid in the protection of natural resources, educate and influence attitudes towards conservation . (www.webparkservices.info/pages/project.html). PUSH/ PULL SERVICES PROVIDED: Push – safety, weather and ecological alerts; spatial and temporal queries about flora and fauna (e.g. where are eagles found, which species are found close by at this time of year); species identification; reconnaissance; route guidance, tracking and route profiles; information on POIs, hotels, restaurants (e.g. visible POIs filtered according to user preferences); record personal information on places visited (notes, photos, etc.) Pull – emergency services; visitor tracking (providing information to administrators on user preferences, where visitors go and when, travel times according to different modes of transport, etc.); the user is requested to opt in for visitor tracking GEOGRAPHIC COVERAGE/ENVIRONMENT: developed for outdoor rural and recreation environments of Europe; trialled in the Swiss National Park, Dartmoor National Park and Wadden Sea National Park PLATFORM: based on OpenGIS and LIF standards, XML, Java, GML, C++; 3 tier-architecture; accessed from any HTML, WML, i-MODE enabled browser; ArcPad used in initial trials and then replaced by their own platform POSITIONING TECHNIQUES: GPS (not restricted by network coverage); also utilises mobile communications networks; able to utilise any positioning technology MOBILE DEVICES SUPPORTED: smart phones and PDAs; initial trials used a Compaq PDA (iPAQ and Navman GPS) and a Nokia GPRS phone COMMUNICATIONS INFRASTRUCTURE: GPRS capabilities tested in Swiss National Park trials DESIGN INTERFACE: initial trials used ArcPad, which was replaced by their own platform due to problems, such as too many buttons and menus, and instability of the application (Edwardes, Burghardt & Weibel 2003: 1013); Webpark utilises three groups of controls - a query interface (lists and maps), explore answers interface and display answers interface (lists, maps, multimedia information); for map interfaces commonly used controls such as pan, zoom, etc. are available BUSINESS/ REVENUE MODEL: free and pay per use services; micro-payments can be used from an internet wallet account; premium services require user subscription (for additional personalisation and push data, such as weather alerts) PERFORMANCE/ PROBLEMS/ISSUES: user needs, information availability, delivery mechanisms, interoperability; knowledge discovery, the use of intelligent agents; dynamic visualisation on small displays (e.g. scale and generalisation issues); limited network coverage in rural areas; the need for spatial and temporal metadata for value added personalised services; data integration; privacy; security; pricing Sources: Krug, Mountain & Phan 2003; Edwardes, Burghardt & Weibel 2003.

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BENCHMARKING LOCATION BASED SYSTEMS AND SERVICES 2004-2005

APPLICATION AREA: Public-Area Wireless Networks (PAWNS) B2B/B2C: B2C IMPLEMENTED: yes SUMMARY: Choice. The goal of the project was to enable pervasive ubiquitous computing in public areas (such as airports, malls, university campuses, etc. using wireless LANs). It also incorporates location and context awareness. It addresses the inadequacies of existing wireless LANs – network security, privacy, authentication, mobility management, provisioning of key services- and supports a wide range of service models – from free access to payment depending on level of service. Uses an individual-centric approach whereby unknown users can be given secure access to the Choice network. PUSH/ PULL SERVICES PROVIDED: Push – WISH – users can look for other people who have made their name and location available to Choice; Location Based Buddy Lists – users are alerted that their friend is in the area and are provided with directions to their location; personalised sales announcements are pushed to users based on user profiles GEOGRAPHIC COVERAGE/ENVIRONMENT: for public areas such as mall, airports, etc.; implemented in a public mall, Crossroads Shopping Centre Bellevue, Washington PLATFORM: Choice network – hardware and protocol agnostic, built on a software module called Protocol for Authorisation and Negotiation of Services (PANS) – facilitates authentication, authorises access, enforces policy and last-hop QoS and provides privacy and accounting. POSITIONING TECHNIQUES: using RF LAN – association with the Access Point, using signal strength of AP beacons, using signal strength from multiple APs MOBILE DEVICES SUPPORTED: COMMUNICATIONS INFRASTRUCTURE: wireless LAN based on IEEE 802.11 standard DESIGN INTERFACE: Choice network - web based interface BUSINESS/ REVENUE MODEL: free access to local intranet services; billing for full access to the internet and various quality of service options; differentiated charging models according to the users level of service and negotiated rate; accounting done on a per packet basis and information passed to third party accounting and charging systems; charge on amount of bandwidth used PERFORMANCE/ PROBLEMS/ISSUES: PAWNS - network security, privacy, user authentication, provision of policy based services; lack of trust of public networks, need for access control, bandwidth allocation according to negotiated rates; service differentiation; flexible charging; seamlessly manage and configure devices when leaving and entering network.; policy enforcement Sources: Bahl, Balachandran & Venkatachary 2000; Bahl, Balachandran, Miu, Russell, Voelker & Wang 2002.

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BENCHMARKING LOCATION BASED SYSTEMS & SERVICES 2004-2005

APPLICATION AREA: Event base information for indoor hotspots B2B/B2C: B2C IMPLEMENTED: yes SUMMARY: The project recognised the usefulness of LAN and Bluetooth for hotspots such as airports and shopping malls. In particular it recognised the benefits of using Bluetooth for PDAs (especially low power dissipation). The project developed an online version of the CeBIT 2001 fairguide – The Mobile Fairguide for the delivery of unsolicited event-based information using Bluetooth technology. They developed their own middleware for location based services and triggering information transfer. PUSH/ PULL SERVICES PROVIDED: Push – navigation to an exhibit; access to CeBIT database; the delivery of personalised, location specific event based information; delivery of exhibitor information and documents on products; tickertape broadcasts; internet access. GEOGRAPHIC COVERAGE/ENVIRONMENT: indoors, in a hall 25 000m2 with 130 base stations; CeBIT 2001 trade fair. PLATFORM: CeBIT 2001 database; own middleware (sighting proxy, LocalNavigator core, WebTag server) POSITIONING TECHNIQUES: Bluetooth; accuracy to 10-20m. MOBILE DEVICES SUPPORTED: Compaq iPAQ Pocket PC, HP and Casio Pocket PCs. COMMUNICATIONS INFRASTRUCTURE: Bluetooth, 2.4Ghz radio band; ceiling mounted regular grid of 130 base stations. DESIGN INTERFACE: BUSINESS/REVENUE MODEL: PERFORMANCE/PROBLEMS/ISSUES: owing to the high event rate expected at hotspots and the fact that each event requires several database queries, filtering the data using user profiles is an important part of the application; the number of active terminals per base station was limited to 4; connection time after handover was too long; client software did not use a full HTML browser interface with other LANsome instability from faults in the base-band software and missing TCP/IP driver. Source: Kraemer & Schwander 2003.

These case studies show some of the benefits of LBS for the tourism industry, as well as the broad range of services that can be provided. They also offer some insight into the range of communication systems, devices, positioning technologies, etc. that are supported; and some of the issues arising from the development of LBS.

Potential Tourist Applications The above case studies give some idea of the range of applications that can be supported, but there are many more that can be developed. The following potential applications have also been identified. • Location-specific portals – providing resources and information to consumers of location based services. • Tourism Tracking including GPS Tracking for adventure tourists in remote locations. • Position-based sightseeing information for specific sites or venues including position-based commentary systems such as feature-triggered multilingual commentary for exhibitions, museums, national parks, tours vehicles etc. • Location based recommender systems for providing individualised tourism advice at any stage of the touring lifecycle.

Issues The above case studies show some of the issues/challenges faced in the development of LBS for the tourism industry. There are 2 categories of issues - LBS issues (e.g. positioning technology, mapping issues) and Tourism issues (e.g. content availability). The following provides a brief discussion of some of these issues. See the appendixes for a more in-depth discussion. It should also be noted that the rapid improvements in technology will quickly make many of these issue obsolete.

Positioning Technology There are a wide variety of positioning techniques employed in LBS, each with differing infrastructure requirements. Satellite navigation, mobile communications, wireless networks and RFID location technologies are used and each method has their own inherent limitations. For example, the Cell ID method requires the least cost to implement, but is unsuitable for many applications owing to its coarse accuracy. GPS, on the other hand, has high accuracy, but is not suitable for indoor use, suffers form signal blockage and multi-path errors in urban environments, and requires the handheld device to include a GPS receiver. In order to combat such limitations, many LBS integrate a number of positioning technologies. A wide variety of communication systems can be 12

BENCHMARKING LOCATION BASED SYSTEMS AND SERVICES 2004-2005

used for the transfer of this information, each with different capabilities (coverage, transmission rates, etc.). See Appendix A for further discussion.

Mapping Issues Cartographic output on mobile devices is greatly limited by the characteristics of the mobile devices themselves (i.e. small screen size, storage and memory; low resolution, limited colour palette, etc.), the wireless communications systems (low transmission rates) and the accuracy of the positioning technologies. With improvements in technology and communications systems (e.g. 3G networks), however, many of these problems will be addressed. Mobile cartography also requires new data formats and forms of visualisation (e.g. focus maps). Key considerations in mobile mapping are the generation of adaptive, dynamic and interactive maps (utilising GML and SVG); automated generalisation (to select the appropriate data layers, level of detail, scale, etc.), the use of widely understood symbology, automated labelling and the integration of disparate and distributed data sources. See Appendix B for further discussion.

Interoperability and Standards Before the adoption (and ongoing implementation) of standards, LBS were closed, stand-alone services utilising different proprietary formats and interfaces. There was little interoperability, extensibility or scalability. LBS are made up of a variety of components – location server, application server, data server, network, mobile devices – and it is essential these components communicate with each other. Each service also utilises a variety of positioning techniques and communication protocols; different mobile devices; different data formats, platforms, GIS software, networks and content. In order to ensure that LBS can operate across networks, platforms, devices, etc. open standards are required. There are a number of standards bodies, the most significant of which are the Location Interoperability Forum (LIF) and Open GIS consortium (OGC). The LIF API introduced the Mobile Location Protocol (MLP), which interfaces between location server and the LBS application, independent of the network. The OGC introduced the Open LS API which specifies the interface standards for core LBS. Standards include XML, GML, WAP, TCP/IP, J2ME. See Appendix C for further discussion.

Content Issues The take up of even simple LBS in Australia has been slow. Some early applications include WhereIs and Sensis, and tourism services such as RACV (Royal Automobile Club of Victoria) and RACQ (Royal Automobile Club of Queensland) travel planners. While there may be further issues with user acceptance (it is not clear what consumers want or need from LBS, whether they are aware of LBS and applications), the key is the availability of suitable content. This is more than providing narrowly defined content. Data suitable for wired internet applications must be reorganised for use on mobile devices. Another major issue is the lack of content providers, the lack of availability of attractive services for consumers and the lack of new players in the LBS market.

Security and Privacy Australian Federal privacy law under the Privacy Act 1988 does not appear to directly address the matter of personal location tracking. Personal identity information and an individual’s right to control it might both be compromised by the new systems. (See NPP extracted from the Privacy Amendment Act 2000). Legislation in the UK and USA • UK Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act of 2001 - can require recovery of locational information for intelligence purposes • US Wireless Communication and Public Safety Act of 1999 defines conditions under which network operators can release locations to emergency services • US E911 requires wireless carriers be able to locate a cell phone if it is used to dial 911. The carrier can then give the user's location information to emergency dispatchers. Social Implications of LBS include the concept of the commodification of location information where that location information acquires a value and therefore becomes potentially available to be traded and exchanged. Privacy issues centre around an individual’s desire to guard against intrusion, or breach of confidence. Location profiling, including tracking of the user, and characteristics associated with tracking, such as speed of movement, positional accuracy, and the relevance of information to the user, can also create privacy issues. Individuals may not be aware of the location information being disclosed about themselves. Security and data management issues centre around the ownership of data and the accountability and duty of care regarding location information and the security of stored location data from unauthorised access.

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BENCHMARKING LOCATION BASED SYSTEMS & SERVICES 2004-2005

Chapter 8

POTENTIAL RESEARCH AND COMMERCIALISATION PROJECTS This study has identified several areas where further research is needed and potential tourism applications for the Australian Tourism Industry.

Foundation Research • • • • • •

User needs in LBS-based tourism – what do consumers want from LBS in tourism? Design development and availability of services and content attractive to consumers and the tourism industry. An analysis of the potential for LBS in the 3 phases of tourist activity – pre-tour (information seeking), on-tour (push/pull LBS), après-tour (reminiscing systems, recommending systems). Proposals for LBS as part of integrated and packaged tourist services. Investigation and development of LBS and tourism business and revenue models based on models being used in the marketplace and adaptation of electronic commerce models. Investigating niche markets for LBS – trekkers and off-roaders, surfers, skiers, etc.

Potential Commercial Development • • • • • •

14

Dynamic packaging – building LBS-assisted tours from various components. LBS logging and history applications for après-tour reminiscing and recommending systems. Position-based commentary systems including feature-triggered multilingual commentary for exhibitions, museums, national parks, tours vehicles etc. Consolidated billing systems based on accumulated micro-payments. Position-based push/pull recommender systems. Position-based visitor data collection at tourist sites including visitor behaviour and navigation monitoring.

BENCHMARKING LOCATION BASED SYSTEMS AND SERVICES 2004-2005

Chapter 9

BENEFITS OF LBS FOR THE AUSTRALIAN TOURISM INDUSTRY Improving the Tourist Experience LBS can provide location and time specific, personalised, value added services to consumers. They can provide services that were not previously possible and offer advantages over traditional modes of information delivery (e.g. internet, printed guides). Hence, they have the potential to improve the experience and satisfaction of tourists. Most importantly such services can support the traveller in all three phases of the tourist activity, especially in the on-tour phase. The delivery of timely information also means users can obtain the most relevant and up-to-date information. LBS can improve the experience of the tourist by delivering personalised information, filtered according to the users location, context (mobile device, weather, bandwidth, etc.), and characteristics (age, culture, language, interests, etc.). Such services also provide access to a wide range of information types, ranging from maps and text to a wide range of multimedia information (audio, video, images, 3D visualization, etc.). Users can view their location on a map, as well as the location of various points of interest, streets, etc.; they can also interact with the maps; obtain more information on features/points of interest (be it text, photos, etc.); interact with a variety of types of information; access dynamic and up-to-date information (as long as network coverage is available); obtain the depth of information they require (a little or a lot); and ask new kinds of questions such as ‘where is the nearest open art gallery?’ LBS can support not only the leisure traveller, but also the business traveller, who is extremely time poor and needs to be able to navigate unfamiliar environments in a very timely fashion. It is the business traveller who tends to own a PDA; that is the more powerful devices which can support more advanced applications. While the needs of both types of travellers are different, LBS have the potential to improve the experiences of both. Many of us, of course, are both leisure and business travellers. Most importantly these services can improve the safety of all travellers, by providing better access to safety information and emergency services.

Service Provider Benefits As well as benefiting the consumer, LBS applications for tourism also offer a number of advantages to a wide range of service providers. Firstly, by improving the experience of the traveller, they will have a positive impact on the whole tourism industry and boost tourism, creating a greater awareness of the history, culture and environment. They will also improve the knowledge of travellers and so have a positive impact on conservation and preservation efforts. Secondly, such services require a wide range of service providers from wireless network providers, to content providers, application developers, etc. Many will be able to benefit from this longer value chain and this will also lead to increased specialization of service providers. The revenue generated by these applications could be considerable and may even be fed back into the tourism industry.

Advantages for Tourism Operators SMTEs will also benefit from such applications, as LBS will provide access to (and a greater awareness of) the services of the SMTEs, support online bookings, advertising, etc. Hence, they are a new means of marketing the services of SMTEs. Tourism operators may also develop and on-sell such applications to their own advantage, provide products/content for these applications, etc. Additional revenue may also be obtained through the production of travel diaries on DVD. The ability to track/monitor the movements of consumers also provides a means for managers to better understanding the tourists and their movements, and improve services to meet user needs. It can also offer a superior means of minimising the impact on the environment, controlling/restricting the movements of consumers (as part of conservation efforts) and alerting managers of potential negative impacts or dangers. The ability to track travellers also enables faster response to emergency situations. Hence, there are many advantages to tourist, tourism organisations, SMTEs and other service providers. All stakeholders in the LBS value chain stand to benefit and this in turn will have a positive effect on the Australian Tourism Industry.

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BENCHMARKING LOCATION BASED SYSTEMS & SERVICES 2004-2005

APPENDIX A: LOCATION BASED AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

By David Readman & Bijan Mojarrabi

School of Information Technology & Electrical Engineering (ITEE) The University of Queensland November 2004

Introduction For most purposes with location based systems, both a method of locating the user/unit and providing a data uplink/downlink will be required. This report will cover: ƒ Location technologies ƒ Communications techniques.

Location systems Location systems are divided into two main areas. Tracking, where the position of the object or user is located from a remote position and Positioning, where the object or user finds its own location. This report will cover both of these systems, giving an overview of the types of systems that can be used for either tracking or positioning. A point to take note of is that location technologies are not mutually exclusive. Many technologies these days are being combined to provide a more reliable system. A good example of this is the GPS assisted mobile phone, where the mobile location systems are used to increase the reliability of the GPS system. Table 1 gives a brief overview of current location systems and some examples. Satellite Navigation

Mobile Location Wireless networks

Mobile location Description Satellite navigation is based on the provision of systems cover a number of coded either handset or ranging signals. These network methods signals are used to of locating a calculate the position of a handset. user. Examples

NAVSTAR(GPS) GLONASS GALILEO

Wireless network location relies on knowing the location of the networks and triangulating the position of the user. CELL-ID 802.11a Angle Of Arrival 802.11b (AOA) Timing Advance TDOA E-OTD OTDOA

Table 1: Location technologies

16

Radio Frequency (RFID) RFID can be used as either a passive system or an active system. It covers any means where a unit can be identified by a radio signal.

RFID tags UBISENSE systems.

BENCHMARKING LOCATION BASED SYSTEMS AND SERVICES 2004-2005

Satellite Navigation Satellite navigation systems currently give the best coverage. These systems are designed to provide a number of satellites with global coverage. Each satellite sends out a coded message which identifies the satellite broadcasting. A receiver that is capable of acquiring this coded signal, can identify which satellite sent the signal. When three or more satellite signals are received and identified, they provide a location to the user. NAVSTAR(GPS) [1][2]

GLONASS [1][2][3]

GALILEO [4]

Satellites (nominal) Satellites (useable) Orbit

24

24

30

27

8

0

20,200km

19,100km

23, 616km

Accuracy Horizontal Accuracy Vertical Frequencies

13m

57-70m

6.5m

22m

70m

12m

L1 1575MHz L2 1227MHz

L1 1602.5625MHz ∆f = 562.5 kHz L2 1246.4375 MHz ∆f = 437.5 kHz

technology

CDMA

FDMA

E5a 1176.45 MHz E5b 1207.14 MHz E6 1278.75 MHz E2 1575.42 MHz L6 downlink 1544.10 MHz CDMA predicted operational by 2012 Will include an emergency beacon feature

Notes

Table 2: Satellite systems SATNAV enhancements The SATNAV (GPS) system has a high degree of accuracy, but for some purposes this accuracy is not enough. To increase the accuracy of the SATNAV system, a number of enhancements have been produced. A number of these are available in Australia, primarily introduced by the maritime industry. Table 3 gives a number of these enhancements as detailed by the Australian Global navigation Satellite System Coordination Committee (AGCC). Accuracy

Notes

Fully operational by

GPS[5]

13m H 22m V

Current

DGPS