Oxyrhynchus Papyri . ...... 154. 63. â The âLarge Stone Structureâ that E. Mazar believes is David's Palace. â¡The âStepped. Stone Structureâ or Millo. ⢠The ...
Biblical Archaeology Volume 1: An Introduction with Recent Discoveries that Support the Reliability of the Bible
David E. Graves, Ph.D.
Moncton, New Brunswick, Canada 2015
Unless otherwise indicated, all Scripture quotations are from the ESV® Bible (The Holy Bible, English Standard Version®), copyright © 2001 by Crossway Bibles, a publishing ministry of Good News Publishers. Used by permission. All rights reserved. Italics within Scripture quotations indicate emphasis added. Biblical Archaeology. Vol. 1: An Introduction with Recent Discoveries that Support the Reliability of the Bible. Includes bibliographic references and indexes. Copyright © 2015 by David E. Graves Revision 1-Nov 2014; Rev 2-Dec 17, 2014; Rev 3-Feb 14, 2015; Rev 4-June 6, 2015 Published by Electronic Christian Media Moncton, New Brunswick, Canada E1C 3Z8 ISBN-13: 978-0-9948060-0-0 1. Bible–Evidences, authority, etc. 2. Bible–Antiquities 3. Bible-Archaeology. I. Graves, David E. II. Title Interior Book Design: David E. Graves Cover Design: David E. Graves Front Page Background - Dead Sea Scroll Messianic Testimony (4Q175) located in the Amman Museum, Jordan. God’s Name, Yahweh is represented by four dots. Ammon Museum. Photo by David E. Graves Center – Assyrian King Sargon II, 721-705 BC (Isaiah 20:1), from the courtyard of his palace at Khorsabad, Iraq. Oriental Institute Museum, University of Chicago. Photo by David E. Graves. Bottom Left – Iron Age 2A hippo storage jar excavated by the author at Tall el-Hammam in 2007: Photo by Michael Luddeni. Bottom Right - Bronze sestertius coin (65 AD) of Nero (54-68 AD). Laureate head right. The inscription reads “NERO CLAVD CAESAR AVG GER P M TR P IMP P P.” Courtesy of CNG. Top and bottom boarder - scarab seal of Amenhotep II, ca. 1485-1418 BC discovered at Khirbet el-Maqatir in 2013. Photo of Michael Luddeni. Back Page Background – Assyrian Court scene (ca. 865-860 BC), from Nimrud, North-West Palace, Room G, panels 2-4 portraying King Ashurnasirpal II (883-859BC) with attendants. Original is in the British Museum, copy from Pushkin Museum, Moscow Russia. Photo by David E. Graves. Picture Acknowledgements Photographs Todd Bolen/BiblePlaces.com: Nos. 58, 60, 78, 86, 96, 100, 104, Classical Numismatic Group, Inc. (CNG): Nos. 77, 103, 117, 118 Wikimedia Commons, the free media repository. Public Domain. This is a faithful photographic reproduction of an original twodimensional work of art. The work of art itself is in the public domain for the following reason: This work is in the public domain in the United States, and those countries with a copyright term of life of the author plus 100 years or less. Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 9 (Israel Moshe Pridan), 25, 35 (JRUL), 36, 42, 73 (Ariel Horowitz), 87, 89 (Paradiso), 90 (deror_avi), 91 (Paradiso), 101 (Berthod Werner), 109 (Lalupa), 115 (Adam Carr), 116 (Magnus Manske) Zachi Dvira: No. 72 David E. Graves: Nos. 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 22, 23, 24, 26, 27, 28, 31, 32, 33, 37, 39, 40, 41, 44, 46, 47, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 59, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 74, 75, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 85, 88, 92, 97, 98, 102, 105, 106, 107, 108, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128 George M. Grena: No. 12 Ferrell Jenkins: Nos. 94, 99 Oriental Institute Museum, University of Chicago. Photo by David E. Graves: Nos. 21, 30, 38, 57, 71 Michael C. Luddeni: Nos. 49, 51, 61, 62 Ritmeyer Archaeological Design: Nos. 29, 45, 48, 50, 84, 93, 131 University of Glasgow Library, Special Collections: No. 34 Mark Wilson: No. 95 Bryant G. Wood: No. 43 Charts David E. Graves: all charts Maps David E. Graves: Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 Ritmeyer Archaeological Design: No. 9 All rights reserved. No portion of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form (i.e., electronic, scanning, photocopy or recording) without the written permission of the publisher. The only exception is brief excerpts for reviews. Printed in the United States of America.
To my daughters Jessica and Rebecca
Intentionally Left Blank
ACKNOWLEDGE CKNOWLEDGEMENTS This book owes a great debt of gratitude to many friends and family whose profession and passion for the Bible and archaeology have contributed to its completion. First is Steven Collins, who has allowed me to have the priviledge of working as a field supervisor at Tall el-Ḥammâm and disovering many amazing artifacts. Another individual not to be forgotten is Scott Stripling, a friend and colleague who dug with me at Tall el-Ḥammâm, Jordan, for several seasons and is now the director of the excavation at Khirbet el-Maqatir. His insights, over the years, have been greatly appreciated. Also, to my good friend and editor Glen Ruffle-thanks for your patience and wisdom during this project. His eye to detail and prompt attention to minor issues is much appreciated. I could not have done it without your help. I wish to thank Kimberly Day, the resource sharing librarian, at the Jerry Falwell Library for her help in locating journal articles and books for my research. I also wish to express my gratitude to Leen Reitmyer and Michael Luddeni for their advice and permission to use their fine work in photographs, illustrations, and images. Lastly, I wish to express my thankfulness to my loving wife Irina for her helpful comments, deep love, care, and patience during the long hours of writing and editing this work. Her editing skills and keen eye to detail were deeply appreciated. Sola Deo Gloria
TABLE OF CONTENTS INDEX OF IMAGES ............................................................................................... XIII ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................................................... XXIII HEBREW BIBLE / OLD TESTAMENT .............................................................................XXIII NEW TESTAMENT .................................................................................................................XXIII APOCRYPHA .............................................................................................................................XXIII OT PSEUDEPIGRAPHA ........................................................................................................ XXIV DEAD SEA SCROLLS.............................................................................................................. XXIV APOSTOLIC FATHERS .......................................................................................................... XXIV ANCIENT SOURCES............................................................................................................... XXIV MODERN SOURCES ............................................................................................................... XXVI PREFACE ............................................................................................................... XXX CHAPTER ONE – INTRODUCTION TO BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY ............ 33 ASSUMPTIONS ...................................................................................................................................33 1. History is Reliable .......................................................................................................................33 2. Pluralistic Audience .....................................................................................................................33 3. Selective Scope ..............................................................................................................................33 4. Can’t Please Everyone..................................................................................................................34 DEFINITION OF BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY ................................................................................34 SHORT HISTORY OF BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY .........................................................................35 Antiquarians ...................................................................................................................................35 Nationalism .....................................................................................................................................35 Rosetta Stone ...................................................................................................................................36 Filling Museums ..............................................................................................................................37 Mesopotamian Expeditions ..............................................................................................................38 Deciphering the Tablets ....................................................................................................................39 Palestine Surveys ..............................................................................................................................39 Egyptian Controversy .......................................................................................................................40 Pottery Dating and Stratigraphy .......................................................................................................41 Chronology and the Dating System ...................................................................................................44 BC and AD.....................................................................................................................................................................44 C.E. and B.C.E. .............................................................................................................................................................45 BP.....................................................................................................................................................................................45 Ancient Egyptian Chronology....................................................................................................................................46 OT Chronology .............................................................................................................................................................47 NT Chronology .............................................................................................................................................................49 Three-Age Dating System ...........................................................................................................................................52 Approach to Numbers .................................................................................................................................................53
Archaeology and Intelligence Work ...................................................................................................54
TABLE OF CONTENTS CHARACTERISTICS OF ARCHAEOLOGY....................................................................................... 55 1. A Team Player ........................................................................................................................... 55 2. A Volunteer Enterprise .............................................................................................................. 55 3. A Destructive Science .................................................................................................................. 55 4. A Potsherd is Their Text ............................................................................................................ 55 5. A Preoccupation with Squares ..................................................................................................... 56 6. An Obsession with Documentation.............................................................................................. 56 7. A Need for Funding ................................................................................................................... 56 THE ROLE OF ARCHAEOLOGY ..................................................................................................... 56 LIMITATIONS OF ARCHAEOLOGY ................................................................................................ 59 1. Old Does Not Make It True ...................................................................................................... 59 2. To Err is Human ....................................................................................................................... 59 3. We Have Only Scratched The Surface ......................................................................................... 59 4. We See Through a Glass Darkly ................................................................................................ 60 5. We All Have Presuppositions ..................................................................................................... 60 6. A Subjective Interpretation .......................................................................................................... 60 7. Politics Play a Role ..................................................................................................................... 60 8. The Scourge of Looters ................................................................................................................ 60 MINIMALIST VS MAXIMALIST APPROACH................................................................................... 61 Minimalist View............................................................................................................................. 61 Maximalist View ........................................................................................................................... 63 DIRECT AND INDIRECT EVIDENCE ............................................................................................ 64 TOLERANCE ..................................................................................................................................... 65 ARCHAEOLOGICAL FALLACIES .................................................................................................... 66 1. The Fallacy of Neutrality ............................................................................................................ 66 2. The Fallacy of Seeing More Than is There .................................................................................. 66 3. The Fallacy that Archaeology is an Exact Science ....................................................................... 67 4. The Fallacy that Archaeology is a Monologue .............................................................................. 67 5. The Fallacy that the a priori Method is Bad Science .................................................................... 67 6. The Fallacy that the Simplest is Always the Best Answer............................................................ 68 7. The Fallacy of Fitting a Square Peg Into a Round Hole .............................................................. 68 8. The Fallacy of Negative Proof ..................................................................................................... 69 9. The Fallacy that the Geography of the Bible is Unreliable ............................................................ 70 10. The Fallacy that Most Biblical Sites Have Been Identified Using an Inscription ........................ 71 11. The Fallacy that a Surface Survey is the Same as an Excavation .............................................. 72 12. The Fallacy that All Archaeologists Use the Same Date System ............................................... 72 EXCAVATION METHODS ............................................................................................................... 72 How to Tell a Tell? ......................................................................................................................... 73 Choosing a Site................................................................................................................................ 74 The Tells Utilitarian Essentials .................................................................................................................................. 74
Permits ............................................................................................................................................ 75 Surveying the Site ............................................................................................................................ 75 Excavating the Site ......................................................................................................................... 75 Phases ............................................................................................................................................................................. 75 Excavation Methods .................................................................................................................................................... 75 Setting Up the Work Area .......................................................................................................................................... 77 Excavation ..................................................................................................................................................................... 77 Tools of the Trade ....................................................................................................................................................... 78 Data Collection ............................................................................................................................................................. 78
BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY Drawings .........................................................................................................................................................................78 Pottery Washing ............................................................................................................................................................78 Pottery Reading .............................................................................................................................................................78 Pottery Mending............................................................................................................................................................80 Baulk Reading ................................................................................................................................................................80 Records and Photographs ...........................................................................................................................................80
Publishing the Finds.........................................................................................................................80 CHART 1: MANUSCRIPT DISCOVERIES .........................................................................................82 CHAPTER TWO – ARCHAEOLOGY AND BIBLICAL MANUSCRIPTS ............. 83 LANGUAGES OF THE BIBLE ...........................................................................................................83 Semitic Languages ............................................................................................................................83 Cuneiform Script ..............................................................................................................................83 Ebla Tablets ....................................................................................................................................84 Mari Tablets ....................................................................................................................................84 History of Hebrew ............................................................................................................................85 Paleo-Hebrew ................................................................................................................................................................86 Classical Biblical Hebrew ............................................................................................................................................87 Late Biblical Hebrew ....................................................................................................................................................87 Qumran Hebrew ...........................................................................................................................................................88 Writing Yahweh ............................................................................................................................................................89 Mishnaic Hebrew ..........................................................................................................................................................90 Masoretic Text (MT) ....................................................................................................................................................91
History of Aramaic ..........................................................................................................................92 History of Greek ..............................................................................................................................92 The Septuagint (LXX)....................................................................................................................93 Origin of the Septuagint ..............................................................................................................................................93
ORAL TRADITION ............................................................................................................................94 PROFESSIONAL SCRIBES .................................................................................................................95 OT Scribes .......................................................................................................................................95 NT Scribes ......................................................................................................................................96 Scribes’ Toolbox ...............................................................................................................................96 KINDS OF MANUSCRIPTS ................................................................................................................99 Uncial ........................................................................................................................................... 100 Minuscule...................................................................................................................................... 100 IMPORTANT BIBLICAL MANUSCRIPTS ....................................................................................... 100 OT Pseudepigrapha ....................................................................................................................... 100 Oxyrhynchus Papyri ...................................................................................................................... 101 The NT Papyri............................................................................................................................. 102 Nag Hammadi Library ................................................................................................................ 104 NEW TESTAMENT CODICES ....................................................................................................... 105 Codex Sinaiticus (alpha a) ............................................................................................................ 105 READING THE MANUSCRIPTS..................................................................................................... 105 CHART 2: BRONZE AGE DISCOVERIES ..................................................................................... 107 CHAPTER THREE – GENESIS .............................................................................. 108 CREATION ACCOUNT (GEN 1–3)............................................................................................... 108 DEVELOPMENT OF CIVILIZATION (GEN 4) ............................................................................ 108 GENEALOGIES (GEN 5, 11) ......................................................................................................... 108 Sumerian King List....................................................................................................................... 109
TABLE OF CONTENTS THE FLOOD AND NOAH.............................................................................................................. 111 Durupinar..................................................................................................................................... 112 Takht-e Soleyman ......................................................................................................................... 112 Mount Ararat............................................................................................................................... 113 Eyewitness Accounts...................................................................................................................... 113 Ancient Flood Texts ..................................................................................................................... 114 Epic of Gilgamesh 1600 BC ......................................................................................................... 114 TOWER OF BABEL (GEN 10–11) ................................................................................................. 116 Ziggurat of Ur............................................................................................................................... 117 ABRAHAM AND UR (GEN 12–25) ............................................................................................... 118 Excavation of Ur .......................................................................................................................... 118 UNDERSTANDING ABRAHAM ..................................................................................................... 119 Nuzi Tablets................................................................................................................................. 119 Adoption ...................................................................................................................................................................... 120 Household Gods ........................................................................................................................................................ 120 Sisterhood .................................................................................................................................................................... 120
Hittite Law................................................................................................................................... 121 Separation of Abraham and Lot ................................................................................................... 121 SODOM AND GOMORRAH ........................................................................................................... 121 Criteria for Locating Sodom .......................................................................................................... 122 Search for the Cities of the Plain .................................................................................................... 124 Southern Theory ............................................................................................................................ 126 Northern Theory ........................................................................................................................... 129 Evidence of Destruction ................................................................................................................. 131 Mysterious Clinkers, Identified as Trinitite .................................................................................... 131 Does Zoar Help Identify Sodom? .................................................................................................. 132 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................................... 132 CHART 3: CRITERIA FOR THE IDENTIFICATION OF SODOM FOR THE SST AND NST .................................................................................................................................. 134 CHART 4: LATE BRONZE AGE DISCOVERIES .......................................................................... 135 CHAPTER FOUR – EXODUS AND CONQUEST .................................................136 LACK OF EVIDENCE FOR THE PATRIARCHS ............................................................................ 136 ISRAEL IN EGYPT: POSSIBLE EVIDENCE .................................................................................. 137 Hyksos and Rameses ..................................................................................................................... 137 Asiatic Residences ...................................................................................................................................................... 138 Hyksos Palace and Empty Sarcophagus ................................................................................................................ 139 A Plague and Abrupt End ........................................................................................................................................ 139
Possible Egyptian References to the Exodus ................................................................................... 139 The Destruction of Mankind ................................................................................................................................... 140 Berlin Statue Pedestal Relief .................................................................................................................................... 141
Mount Sinai.................................................................................................................................. 144 ENCAMPMENT PRIOR TO ENTERING THE PROMISED LAND ............................................... 145 JOSHUA AND THE CONQUEST .................................................................................................... 146 Conquest Theories ......................................................................................................................... 146 The Conquest Theory ............................................................................................................................................... 147 The Peaceful Infiltration Theory ............................................................................................................................ 147 The Peasant Revolt Theory ...................................................................................................................................... 147 The Peaceful Withdrawal Theory ........................................................................................................................... 147 The Climate Change Theory .................................................................................................................................... 148
BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY Jericho (Joshua 2–3)...................................................................................................................... 148 Archaeological Evidence .......................................................................................................................................... 151
Ai (Joshua 7–8) ........................................................................................................................... 153 Archaeological Evidence .......................................................................................................................................... 155
Hazor (Joshua 11)........................................................................................................................ 156 CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................................. 157 CHART 5: IRON AGE AND PERSIAN DISCOVERIES ................................................................. 158 CHAPTER FIVE – UNITED AND DIVIDED MONARCHY ............................... 162 UNITED MONARCHY .................................................................................................................... 162 Jerusalem – Large Stone Structure (David’s Palace?) .................................................................... 164 Archaeological Evidence .......................................................................................................................................... 165
Jerusalem – Gihon Spring Rock–Cut Pool .................................................................................... 166 Gath – Tell eṣ-Ṣafi ....................................................................................................................... 167 The Gath Ostracon ................................................................................................................................................... 168
Naṭa‘im – Khirbet Qeiyafa ........................................................................................................... 169 Archaeological Evidence .......................................................................................................................................... 169 Khirbet Qeiyafa Ostracon ........................................................................................................................................ 171
Tel Reḥōv and Apiculture ............................................................................................................. 173 Inscriptions ................................................................................................................................................................. 173 Apiary ........................................................................................................................................................................... 174
Ziglag – Tel Zayit Abecedary ....................................................................................................... 174 Solomonic Site – Tall el-Ḥammâm................................................................................................ 176 Edomite Copper Mines ................................................................................................................. 176 Khirbet en-Nahas ...................................................................................................................................................... 177 Khirbet Hamra Ifdan ................................................................................................................................................ 178 Timna Valley Site ....................................................................................................................................................... 178 NORTHERN KINGDOM – ISRAEL ............................................................................................... 179 SOUTHERN KINGDOM – JUDAH ................................................................................................ 179
Jerusalem – Temple Mount Sifting Project ..................................................................................... 180 CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................................. 181 CHART 6: ROMAN PERIOD DISCOVERIES I .............................................................................. 183 CHAPTER SIX – THE GOSPELS............................................................................ 184 ABSALOM’S TOMB INSCRIPTION ................................................................................................ 185 HEROD THE GREAT ..................................................................................................................... 186 Herod’s Tomb ............................................................................................................................... 187 KHIRBET QUMRAN ....................................................................................................................... 189 Qumran and the Essenes............................................................................................................... 189 Qumran and Baptism ................................................................................................................... 190 John the Baptist and the Essenes ................................................................................................... 191 HEROD ANTIPAS ........................................................................................................................... 192 Livias (Tall el-Ḥammâm) ............................................................................................................. 193 Oil Lamps .................................................................................................................................................................... 195
EPHRAIM – KHIRBET EL-MAQATIR ........................................................................................... 196 POOL OF SILOAM .......................................................................................................................... 196 GOSPEL OF JUDAS......................................................................................................................... 198 OSSUARIES...................................................................................................................................... 200 The Talpiot Tomb......................................................................................................................... 201
TABLE OF CONTENTS The James Ossuary ........................................................................................................................ 203 GABRIEL’S REVELATION ............................................................................................................. 204 SOREG INSCRIPTIONS................................................................................................................... 206 CHART 7: ROMAN PERIOD DISCOVERIES II ............................................................................ 208 CHAPTER SEVEN – ACTS AND EPISTLES ........................................................ 209 CITIES IN SYRIA ............................................................................................................................. 209 CITIES IN EASTERN ASIA MINOR............................................................................................... 210 CITIES IN WESTERN ASIA MINOR.............................................................................................. 211 CITIES IN MACEDONIA ................................................................................................................ 211 CITIES IN CYPRUS .......................................................................................................................... 212 CITIES IN GREECE ........................................................................................................................ 212 CITIES IN ITALY ............................................................................................................................. 212 SERGIUS PAULUS INSCRIPTIONS ACTS 13 ................................................................................. 212 Inscription 1 .................................................................................................................................. 213 Inscription 2 .................................................................................................................................. 213 Inscription 3 .................................................................................................................................. 213 POLITARCH INSCRIPTIONS (ACTS 17)........................................................................................ 214 GALLIO INSCRIPTION (ACTS 18) ................................................................................................ 214 The Biblical Context ..................................................................................................................... 214 The Inscription .............................................................................................................................. 215 MILETUS INSCRIPTION (ACTS 20) .............................................................................................. 216 The Biblical Context ..................................................................................................................... 216 The Inscription .............................................................................................................................. 217 CAESAREAN MOSAIC INSCRIPTION (ROMANS 13) .................................................................. 218 ERASTUS INSCRIPTION (ROMANS 16) ........................................................................................ 218 The Biblical Context ..................................................................................................................... 218 The Inscription .............................................................................................................................. 219 MEGIDDO CHURCH INSCRIPTION ............................................................................................. 220 Significance .................................................................................................................................... 221 SARCOPHAGUS OF ST. PAUL........................................................................................................ 221 CHART 8: ROMAN PERIOD DISCOVERIES III ........................................................................... 223 CHAPTER EIGHT – REVELATION ..................................................................... 224 THE OCCASION OF REVELATION .............................................................................................. 224 PATMOS ........................................................................................................................................... 225 LOCAL REFERENCES .................................................................................................................... 228 THE CULTURAL BACKGROUND ................................................................................................. 229 Problems from Without ................................................................................................................. 230 Problems from Within ................................................................................................................... 235 THE SEVEN CHURCHES OF ASIA MINOR ................................................................................. 236 Ephesus (Rev 2:1–7) .................................................................................................................... 236 Smyrna (Rev 2:8–11) ................................................................................................................... 238 Pergamum (Rev 2:12–17)............................................................................................................. 242 Thyatira (Rev 2:18–29) ............................................................................................................... 243 Sardis (Rev 3:1–6) ....................................................................................................................... 246 Philadelphia (Rev 3:7–13) ............................................................................................................ 248 Laodicea (Rev 3:14–22) ............................................................................................................... 250
BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................................. 252 MAPS AND CHARTS .............................................................................................. 253 MAP 1: PROPOSED SITES FOR THE THE CITIES OF THE PLAIN ............................................ 253 MAP 2: MIGRATION OF ABRAHAM FROM BABYLON .............................................................. 254 MAP 3. TRIBAL ALLOTMENTS OF ISRAEL ................................................................................. 255 MAP 4: THE ROUTE OF THE EXODUS ....................................................................................... 256 MAP 5: ISRAEL IN THE TIME OF JESUS ...................................................................................... 257 MAP 6: THE FIRST MISSIONARY JOURNEY............................................................................... 258 MAP 7: THE SECOND MISSIONARY JOURNEY ......................................................................... 259 MAP 8: THE THIRD MISSIONARY JOURNEY AND TRIP TO ROME ....................................... 260 MAP 9. SITE PLAN OF TALL EL-ḤAMMÂM ................................................................................ 261 CHART 9: ARCHAEOLOGICAL PERIODS (NEW CHRONOLOGY)........................................... 261 CHART 10: COMPARATIVE ARCHAEOLOGICAL DATING ...................................................... 264 CHART 11: EGYPTIAN CHRONOLOGY ...................................................................................... 266 CHART 12: CHRONOLOGY OF PAUL’S LIFE ............................................................................. 267 CHART 13: THE GRECO-ROMAN LITERARY CONTEXT FOR THE SEVEN MESSAGES OF REVELATION ....................................................................................... 269 CHART 14: PROPOSED DATING FOR THE PATRIARCHS......................................................... 282 CHART 15: TIMELINE FOR CITIES OF THE PLAIN SITES ....................................................... 285 GLOSSARY ............................................................................................................... 286 BIBLIOGRAPHY ..................................................................................................... 294 PRIMARY SOURCES........................................................................................................................ 294 SECONDARY SOURCES ................................................................................................................. 300 INDEX ....................................................................................................................... 361
INDEX OF IMAGES 1. 19th cent. oil portrait by Leon Cogniet of Jean-François Champollion (1831. Photo PD – Art). ... 36 2. From a German edition of Austen Layard’s A Popular Account of Discoveries at Nineveh. The image depicts the transport of the human headed winged bull at Nimrod (Photo PD). ........................... 37 3. Sir Austen Henry Layard (1817–1894), oil on canvas (Photo PD – Art). ........................................... 38 4. Sir Henry Creswicke Rawlinson. Photograph by Lock & Whitfield. Wellcome Library, London (Photo PD – Art). ........................................................................................................................................ 39 5. Portrait of Sir Flinders Petrie, ca. 1886 (Photo PD – Art). ..................................................................... 40 6. Typical stratigraphy of a Tell. Number 1 represents a well or cistern dug in the Hellenistic period into the previous Persian and Iron Age periods. When features are cut into previous periods, like digging modern pits, graves or foundations, this can make reading the pottery difficult, as there can be later pottery down in earlier strata. Sometimes a probe is used to get a sense of what periods lie below the surface. .......................................................................................... 41 7. Pottery styles identify the periods: top row, from left, Iron 2A, Bronze/Iron/Maccabean, Herodian; bottom row, from left, Late Roman, Byzantine, Islamic. ................................................. 42 8. The author, standing in front of a cut-away section of the city wall at Tall el-Ḥammâm, in season 1 (2006) exposing the stratigraphy of the tall. The military cut a road through the wall and exposed this cross section, which was later clarified. At his feet is the location of a 0.5 m (1.6 ft.) thick MB burn layer in the mudbrick section of the city wall, dated by a MB handle (inset photo) at the same location. The IA stone wall was built over the earlier burned MB mudbrick wall. .............................................................................................................................................. 45 9. Archaeologist Prof. Nelson Glueck in Israel, 1956 ( Photo PD–Israel Moshe Pridan www.gpo.gov.il). .......................................................................................................................................... 48 10. Author standing in the Lion Gate of the Hittite capital Ḫattuša (Boğazköy) founded in the Old Kingdom period by Hattushili I ca. 1586–1556 BC. ............................................................................. 57 11. Reproduction of a Seal (Bulla) with the inscription “Belonging to Hezekiah (Son of) Ahaz King of Judah” from the 8th cent. BC. .................................................................................................... 62 12. Pottery jar handles stamped with seals reading lmlk (belonging to the King). Upper right: twowinged icon with only one word in the top register. Upper left: two-winged icon with divided words in both registers. Center: two-winged icon with divided word in the top but an undivided word in the bottom. Lower left: four-winged icon with a professional carved inscription. Lower right: four-winged icon with an amateurish, cursory inscription. Such stamps are specific to the reign of Hezekiah of Judah (716–687 BC). .............................................. 63 13. Tall el-Ḥammâm on the eastern side of the Jordan Valley. The tall rises to 45m (150 ft.) although the occupation levels sit on top of the natural hill and around the base of the tall. The white arrows indicate the location of two hot springs that provided year round water for irrigation. ....................................................................................................................................................... 73
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BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY 14. An in situ Iron Age 2A hippo storage jar, excavated from a storage room behind a domestic kitchen at Tall e-Hammam in Season 2, January 8, 2007. This turned out to be a complete vessel, something which is rare in excavations. There were six similar jars all broken beside it with a portion of one still visible. See Fig. 15. ....................................................................................... 74 15. The author holding the extricated Iron Age 2A hippo storage jar from the Tall el-Ḥammâm, Season 2. See Fig. 14. .................................................................................................................................. 76 16. Scale drawing of square 16B1 in the Roman bath complex at Tall el-Ḥammâm from 2014 season. Notice that the baulk was removed to expose the artitectural features. Drawn to 1:25 scale. ............................................................................................................................................................... 79 17. The Sumerian pictograph tablet. This tablet is one of the first pieces of writing recovered, dating to 3100–2900 BC. This replica is an identical cast of the original at the University of Pennsylvania Museum. ............................................................................................................................... 83 18. Reproduction of a seal (bulla) with the 8th cent. BC inscription “Belonging to Ahaz (son of) Yotham King of Judah” written in the Paleo-Hebrew script. ............................................................. 84 19. The Siloam inscription records the construction of Hezekiah’s tunnel in the 8th cent. BC and demonstrates one of the oldest examples of the ancient Paleo-Hebrew alphabet. In the nineteenth century, it was damaged when thieves cut it from the tunnel wall, but it was recovered and repaired. Reproduction with the original located in the Istanbul Archaeological Museum. ........................................................................................................................................................ 85 20. Reproduction of the Gezer tablet (10th cent. BC). This limestone agricultural calendar, written in Paleo-Hebrew, is only about 4 inches (10 cm) tall and lists the seasons and their associated agricultural activities. ................................................................................................................................... 86 21. Storage Jar in which the Dead Sea Scrolls were stored with their unique lid (Used with permission of OIM). ................................................................................................................................... 87 22. Dead Sea Scroll reproduction located in the Qumran Visitors Center, Qumran, Israel. ............... 87 23. Qumran Cave number 4............................................................................................................................. 88 24. Dead Sea Scroll Messianic Testimony (4Q175) located in the Amman Museum, Jordan. God’s Name, Yahweh is represented by four dots. .......................................................................................... 89 25. Codex Leningradensis, Text sample of Hebrew calligraphy (Photo CC-PD – old). ...................... 90 26. The library of Celsus in Ephesus (modern Selçuk, Turkey). It was built in honour of Roman Senator Tiberius Julius Celsus Polemaeanus and completed by his son in 135 AD. The library held 12,000 scrolls but was destroyed by an earthquake with all of its contents in 262 AD. ........ 94 27. Relief of a group of Egyptian scribes from the tomb of Mereruka, Saqqara, Egypt (ca. 2300 BC). ................................................................................................................................................................ 95 28. Qumran benches used by scribes to work on, now located in the Amman Museum, Jordan. ..... 96 29. Qumran Scriptorium. According to the Dead Sea Scrolls, ten men were continually employed in the Qumran Library. Here we see the process of producing the scrolls from the cutting of individual pages and drawing lines on them, the copying from other scrolls, and the assemblage and mending of scrolls on long tables. A special room was set aside for the storing of the scrolls in individual boxes (© Ritmeyer Archaeological Design). ........................................... 97 30. Wooden writing board with flat surface to put wax on for writing (Permission of OIM). ........... 98 31. Qumran Inkwell. .......................................................................................................................................... 98
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INDEX OF IMAGES 32. Ostracon bearing the name “ben Yair” which could be short for Eleazar ben Ya’ir, the leader of the Zealots. .............................................................................................................................................. 99 33. Papyrus plant harvested from the Nile river in Egypt prepared to make Papyrus. ......................... 99 34. Papyrus 1228 manuscript (P22 Gen 1026/13) from Oxyrhynchus Egypt. Late 3rd century MS. Contains John 15:25–16:2 and 16:21–32. ............................................................................................. 101 35. The recto of Rylands Papyrus P52 (Gr.P.457) of John 18:31-33. Papyrologist Bernard Grenfell (1920), as preserved at the John Rylands Library (Photo: courtesy of JRUL. PD-old). ............... 102 36. Folio from P46 a 3rd cent. Papyrus codex of the Epistles of Paul containing 2 Corinthians 11:33-12:9. P. Chester Beatty II; Ann Arbor, Univ. of Michigan (Photo PD – Art). ................... 103 37. St. Catherine Greek Orthodox Monastery in front of Jebel Musa, Egypt, the traditional location of Mount Sinai. ........................................................................................................................... 105 38. Sumerian statue from ancient Mesopotamia (ca. 2900–2500 BC). Believed to be self portraits, they were presented to temples as votive gifts to honour the gods and represent their donors (Used with permission of OIM). ............................................................................................................ 108 39. Weld-Blundell Prism (also known as the Sumerian King List ca. 1827–1817 BC) is a clay prism inscribed with a list of Sumerian kings in cuneiform. It is only about 10 cm tall but it is inscribed on all sides. ................................................................................................................................ 109 40. Durupinar clay formation near Dogubayazit Turkey, which some claim is Noah’s ark. .............. 112 41. The larger and lesser Ararat, Turkey. ..................................................................................................... 113 42. Ur near Nasiriyah, Iraq with the sacred temple or “Great Ziggurat of Ur”, built in the Early Bronze Age (21st cent. BC). The façade of the lowest level and the monumental staircase were rebuilt by orders of the President of Iraq, Saddam Hussein (Photo PD). ...................................... 117 43. Teraphim or household gods. 8th-6th cent. BC. .................................................................................... 121 44. View of Israel from Mt. Nebo. The plaque indicates the location of various sites on the opposite side of the Jordan. The southern Dead Sea area and Bâb edh-Dhrâʿ are not visible from this location on top of Mt. Nebo. ................................................................................................ 123 45. Chart showing the relative sizes of major cities in the Levant during the Late Chalcolithic through to the IB2 periods, ca. 4000–2000 BC. Bâb edh-Dhrâʿ at this time was 9-10 acres, the size of Jerusalem and Jericho. ................................................................................................................. 124 46. Western fortifications of Bâb edh-Dhrâʿ overlooking the southern Jordan Valley. This is the southern candidate for the location of Sodom. ................................................................................... 125 47. View from Tall Habbassa overlooking Tall el-Ḥammâm and the Middle Bronze age city-state area around the Tall. Jericho is directly across the Jordan Valley and Tall Kefrein is visible to the right below the arrow. ........................................................................................................................ 128 48. Chart showing relative sizes of major cities in the Levant during the MB1-2 (MB IIA-B-C), ca. 1950–1540 BC. During the MB Age, Bâb edh-Dhrâʿ did not exist. ................................................ 129 49. Human remains in the Middle Bronze Age destruction layer at Tall el-Ḥammâm. The remain were not in a burial, but found within the destruction layer of the city (Michael C. Luddeni). .. 130
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BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY 50. The 4.5-inch-long klinker of melted pottery (large piece to the left in the photo) that was discovered in the MB layer at TeH. To the right are two smaller pieces of trinitite from ground zero at Trinity New Mexico (Photo by Michael C. Luddeni). ........................................................... 131 51. Reconstruction of the TeH MB gate complex discovered in 2012 and drawn by Leen Ritmeyer from the archaeological data provided by archaeologists. ................................................................. 131 52. Partial reconstruction of an Iron Age four-roomed house from Tall Umayri, Jordan. There are three rooms in the front, with one at the back. Wattle and daub (sticks and twigs) are used to form the roof. A mudbrick floor is placed on top of the roof to form another living area. ....... 136 53. A sandy mudbrick wall of a rectangular hut (Stratum H, Areas F/I) of the Asiatic settlement at Tell el-Dabʿa (Avaris or Rameses) that dates to 1973–1944 BC. The mudbricks were made without the use of straw. .......................................................................................................................... 138 54. Mortuary Temple (Gr. Speos Artemidos) of Queen Hatshepsut and Seti I........................................ 140 55. Drawing of the Berlin relief which Borg, van der Veen and Theis translate as the name Israel and the bound Asiatic prisoner carried away captive. The shaded area, to the right, is the missing section that has been easily restored from the complete section. ...................................... 142 56. Tell es-Sulṭân, the site of biblical Jericho. Trench I excavated by Kathleen Kenyon (Area C, MB2 1800–1540 BC). 5 m. high Cyclopean Wall destroyed in ca. 1550 BC (Area A, MB2 1650–1550 BC). Houses built outside Building A1 against the eastern side of the tower (Area A, MB2 1800–1650 BC). ............................................................................................................... 149 57. Philistine bichrome ware jugs from Megiddo, Stratum IX, Late Bronze 1 (ca. 1550–1400 BC. Used with permission of OIM). .............................................................................................................. 150 58. Dr. Bryant G. Wood pointing to the base of the mudbrick wall at Jericho, that he believes dates to the period of the Conquest (ca. 1400 BC. © Todd Bolen/BiblePlaces.com). ................. 150 59. The author holding a large mudbrick from the site of OT Jericho. ................................................. 151 60. Grain storage jars are still visible here in one of Kenyon’s baulks in Jericho (© Todd Bolen/BiblePlaces.com). .......................................................................................................................... 152 61. Burnt gate at Khirbet el-Maqatir (Ai?) from the time of Joshua (LB ca. 1400 BC). The Bible states that Joshua burned the gate (Photo courtesy of Michael Luddeni)....................................... 153 62. The scarab is a rare type that was made in the early 18th dynasty (Amenhotep II, ca. 1485-1418 BC) similar to others from the reigns of Amenhotep II and Thutmoses III (1506-1452). It provides an independent date for the fortress at Khirbet el-Maqatir, apart from pottery (Photo courtesy of Michael Luddeni).................................................................................................................. 154 63. The “Large Stone Structure” that E. Mazar believes is David’s Palace. The “Stepped Stone Structure” or Millo. The House of Ahiel. This four-roomed house was built into and over the Millo around 650 BC in the days of young Josiah and Jeremiah. The staircase to the left provided access to the home’s flat roof. Cahill states that “construction of the monumental stepped rampart in the City of David at the dawn of the Iron Age set the stage for Jerusalem’s future development as capital of the united monarchy.” Cahill, “Jerusalem at the Time of the United Monarchy,” 54. ............................................................................................................................. 163 64. The remains of a 10th cent. BC foundation wall that is part of the Large Stone Structure that Israeli archaeologist Eilat Mazar claims is part of David’s palace. ................................................... 165 65. Undecipherable ostracon in proto-Canaanite script, from the “Large Stone Structure” excavation, in Jerusalem, discovered in 2012. The writing dates to the time of King David. ..... 166
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INDEX OF IMAGES 66. Gath (Tell eṣ-Ṣafi) Ostracon with two non-Semitic names ALWT and WLT written in Semitic “Proto-Canaanaite” script, that are both etymologically similar to the biblical name of Goliath.168 67. Drawing of the Khirbet Qeiyafa Ostracon from the infrared photo of the ostracon by Clara Amit, Israel Antiquities Authority believed by some to contain the names of David and Goliath. ca. 16.5 x 15 cm. ......................................................................................................................... 170 68. Drawing of Izbet Sartah Abecedary (1200-1000 BC). The Proto-Canaanite alphabet read from left to right. It was discovered in 1976 at what is believed to be the biblical city of Ebenezer (1 Sam 4). This demonstrates writing during the period of the Judges. ............................................... 174 69. Iron age oil lamp from the time of Solomon (ca. 750 BC). The fuel usually comprised olive oil or fish oil to provide light for homes. ................................................................................................... 176 70. Drawing of the Sheshonq I scarab discovered at Khirbet Hamra Ifdan, Jordan. The hieroglyphs on the scarab read: “bright is the manifestation of Re, chosen of Amun/Re,” and corresponds to the throne name of Sheshonq I, who ruled from 943 to 924 BC. ....................... 178 71. One of the panel’s of the Black Obelisk depicts the Israelite King Jehu bringing tribute to King Shalmaneser III in around 841 BC (Used with permission of OIM). ................................... 179 72. Seal impression from the Temple Mount with a partial inscription that reads “Belonging to Ga’alyahu son of Immer.” Immer was the priestly family which controlled the Temple area during Solomon’s day and who beat and imprisoned the prophet Jeremiah (Jer 20:1). Photo courtesy of Zachi Dvira ........................................................................................................................... 181 73. Yad Avshalom (Absalom’s Tomb) in the Kidron Valley (Photo by Ariel Horowitz; PD). ......... 185 74. Al Khazneh or The Treasury at Petra, Jordan which was the Nabataean capital, and the center of their caravan trade. ............................................................................................................................... 187 75. Looking inside the dome of the Herodium. The pillared hall to the left is a reception room which later became a synagogue. In the center are the living quarters with the bath complex to the far right. ................................................................................................................................................ 188 76. Scriptorium room at Qumran. ................................................................................................................ 189 77. Bronze Sestertius coin (AD 71) of Vespasian (AD 69-79). On the left is the laureate head of Vespasian with the words IMP CAES VESPASIAN AVG P M TR P P P COS III. The right depicts Vespasian, holding a spear and standing with his left foot on a helmet over a Jewess who is mourning over the destruction of Jerusalem. It reads IVDAEA CAPTA: Judea captured. In AD 69 Vespasian left his son Titus to suppress the Jewish revolt led by the Zealots, John of Gischala and Simon bar Giora. Titus finished the task in AD 70 by entering Jerusalem and plundering the temple. It is believed that the Romans attacked Qumran on the way to Masada but the Essenes hid the scrolls in the caves before they arrived (Photo courtesy of CNG). ..................................................................................................................................................... 190 78. Numerous mikva’ot (ritual purity baths) lined with plaster were discovered at Qumran scattered throughout the site indicating that the Essenes practiced baptism by immersion. Fresh water (living water) was supplied from local springs. This mikveh is split down the middle with a 30 cm. (12 in.) crack as a result of an earthquake in 31 BC which destroyed Qumran (Photo by Todd Bolen. BiblePlaces.com). ............................................................................................................... 191 79. Madaba Map, Jordan. Site 2, according to scholars, is the location of Livias. This site is also in the same location on the map as Tall el-Ḥammâm. Scholars have identified Site 1 with Abila. . 192
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BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY 80. The author standing beside a Roman mile marker indicating 6 Roman miles to Livias. Mt. Nebo museum, Jordan. ............................................................................................................................ 193 81. Livia Drusilla, (58 BC-AD 29, Tiberius’ mother), Ephesus Museum, Turkey. After her formal adoption into the Julian family in AD 14, she was deified by Claudius, subsequently acquiring the additional name Julia Augusta. ......................................................................................................... 193 82. Roman bath complex excavated in 2011-2012 from Tall el-Hammâm, Jordan. The site is believed to be the city of Livias and this structure originally may have been Herod Antipas’ bath complex. The building this room was located in measures 35 x 40 metres. .......................... 194 83. Oil lamp fragments from the 2009 Tall el-Ḥammâm excavation. Left: The top section of a pear shaped oil lamp with tongue handle that dates to the Umayyad period, 8th to 11th cent. AD. Right: Byzantine oil lamp fragment with Greek letters that represent “The Light of Christ Shines for All” dating to the 5th to 7th cent. AD. ................................................................................. 195 84. A stepped pool was discovered at the mouth of the Central or Tyropoeon Valley which is located between the Western and Eastern Hills of Jerusalem. This large pool served as one of the water reservoirs of Jerusalem. The building with the double entrance at the top of the drawing probably had a religious function. It was perhaps in that building that the blind man, who was healed by Jesus, washed himself (John 9:11. © Ritmeyer Archaeological Design). ...... 197 85. Pool of Siloam, newly discovered in 2004. Currently over 20 steps have been excavated leading down into the Pool (© Todd Bolen/BiblePlaces.com). ..................................................................... 198 86. Artist’s depiction of the Pool of Siloam based on the excavation carried out in 2004. ................ 198 87. The first page of the Gospel of Judas (Page 33 of Codex Tchacos. Photo PD–old). ....................... 199 88. In 1955, during construction of the Dominus Flevit (“The Lord wept”) Church, a burial chamber was discovered. Excavations uncovered a number of ossuaries (bone boxes) from the time of Jesus with numerous inscriptions of biblical names and geometric shapes. ..................... 201 89. The inscribed ossuary of the high priest, Joseph, son of Caiaphas (Yosef Bar Kayafa), found in Jerusalem in 1990 (Josephus Ant. 18.35; 18.95). Caiaphas was the leader of the Sanhedrin from AD 18–36 and played an integral role in Jesus’ conflict with the Jewish leaders in the final week of his life (John 11:49–53; 18:14). Caiaphas presided over the evening trial in which Jesus confessed to being the Messiah and ultimately condemned him to death (Matt 26:57–68). The Israel Museum, Jerusalem (Photo by deror_avi; PD).......................................................................... 203 90. Close-up of the Aramaic inscription on the James ossuary which was on display at the Royal Ontario Museum from November 15, 2002 to January 5, 2003 (Photo by Paradiso; PD). ......... 204 91. The James ossuary (bone box) was on display at the Royal Ontario Museum from November 15, 2002 to January 5, 2003 (Photo by Paradiso; PD). ........................................................................ 204 92. View of the Dead Sea from Machaerus in Jordan looking over to En Gedi, Israel. ..................... 205 93. Jerusalem, Herod’s Temple Mount at the time of Jesus. A reconstruction based on archaeological and historical evidence. This drawing illustrates the Herodian Temple Mount with associated structures and features, as seen from the southwest. This reconstruction is based directly on Leen Ritmeyer’s own work at the Temple Mount (© Ritmeyer Archaeological Design. Labels by David E. Graves). ......................................................................... 206 94. The Theodotus (priest and synagogue ruler) inscription, discovered by Raymond Weill in Jerusalem in 1914, preventing Gentiles from entering the sacred space (Heb. soreg) of the Temple (Photo by Ferrell Jenkins, BiblicalStudies.info). .................................................................... 207
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INDEX OF IMAGES 95. Inscription of Sergius Paulus, the proconsul in Paphos, Cyprus, housed in the Yalvac Museum, Pisidian Antioch. Some scholars suggest that: “L[ucius] Sergius Paulus the younger, son of L[ucius]” may be the son of the elder Sergius Paulus, the proconsul of Acts 13. The name of Sergius Paulus (nomen, name of tribe) was certainly known in Cyprus (Photo courtesy of Mark Wilson). ....................................................................................................................................................... 213 96. The Gallio inscription from the Temple of Apollo in Delphi, Greece (Photo courtesy of Todd Bolen. BiblePlaces.com). .......................................................................................................................... 215 97. The visible area of the synagogue in Miletus next to the colossal circular Harbor Monument (63 BC). Paul may have met the Ephesian elders here. ...................................................................... 216 98. An inscription on a theatre seat in the Miletus theatre that states “Place of the Jews, who are also called God-fearing.” The term Godfearer is mentioned in the NT (Acts 13:16; 26). .......... 217 99. One of two mosaics at Caesarea Maritima quoting Romans 13:3. This is the shorter version. The original mosaic is on display at the Kibbutz Sdot Yam Museum (Photo courtesy of Ferrell Jenkins, BiblicalStudies.info). .................................................................................................................. 218 100. Erastus inscription which some claim refers to the Erastus mentioned by Paul in Romans 16:23 (Photo courtesy of Todd Bolen. BiblePlaces.com). ................................................................ 219 101. Statue of St. Paul in front of the facade of the Basilica of Saint Paul Outside-the-Walls, Rome (Photo by Berthold Werner; PD)............................................................................................................ 221 102. Bust of Julius Claudius (AD 41-54) discovered in Nikomedia; now on display in the Istanbul Archaeology Museum, Turkey. ............................................................................................................... 225 103. Silver Denarius coin (AD 82–83) of Domitian, which features his deified infant son, who was born in AD 73 and died young (Suetonius Dom. 3.1), seated on a globe surrounded by seven stars. The child has been identified as the empress Domitia Longinas’ son (AD 82–96 left). DIVVS CAESAR IMP DOMITIANI: “The Deified Caesar, Son of the Emperor Domitian.” The stars symbolize the child’s divine status. The globe suggests that the Romans believed the earth was a sphere although Eratosthenes (276–194 BC) of Cyrene (modern Libya) was the first to discover that the earth is round. Did John have this coin in mind when he penned “and in the midst of the seven lampstands One like the Son of Man, clothed with a garment down to His feet … He had in His right hand seven stars” (Rev 1:13, 16. Photo CNG). ..................... 226 104. Island of Patmos where John received his vision of Revelation (Photo by Todd Bolen. BiblePlaces.com)........................................................................................................................................ 226 105. Restored Library of Celsus, Ephesus. The relief in the foreground is reminiscent of the elements of armor given in Ephesians 6:13–17, including the belt, breastplate, greaves for the feet, shield, helmet and sword. While the Library was only completed in 135 AD and was not present in Paul’s day, the relief may have existed earlier, as it was not attached to the structure.228 106. Round altar (ara) used in the Imperial Cult from the 2nd or 3rd cent. AD. Altars were usually decorated with the works of the most notable artists of the day. Most altars were erected outside in the open air and in sacred groves. Side Museum, Turkey. .............................................. 229 107. Martyrdom of Polycarp. Painting on the ceiling of St. Polycarp Catholic Church, Smyrna (modern Izmir), Turkey............................................................................................................................ 230 108. Priest who served in the temple of the Imperial Cult. This statue comes from Ephesus and dates from the 2nd cent. AD. The priesthood of the emperor cult was usually held by the local
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BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY aristocracy, providing them with political status and a means of social advancement. Izmir Archaeological Museum. .......................................................................................................................... 231 109. Apotheosis of Antoninus Pius and Faustina. The basis of the Campo Marzio Colonna Antonina, relief on the front face of the pedestal of the Antoninus Pius’ column, three-quarter view. 161 A.D. Rome, gardens of the Vatican Museums, Cortile delle Corazze (Photo by Author Lalupa; PD). .................................................................................................................................. 232 110. Parts of the colossal statue of from the Temple of Sebastoi, Ephesus Museum, Selçuk, Turkey. The head is over 1.18 m high. Originally identified as Emperor Domitian (AD 81–96), but has since been shown to be Emperor Titus. ................................................................................. 233 111. The Sebasteion (Gr. Sebastós = Lat. Augustus) or Augusteum, in Aphrodisias (in modern Turkey AD 5) was jointly dedicated, according to a first cent. inscription on its propylon, “to Aphrodite, the Divine Augusti and the People.” The temple was used by the Imperial Cult to honor Augustus and the Julio-Claudian Emperors. ............................................................................ 233 112. Marble Statue of Imperator Marcus Ulpius Trajanus (Trajan AD 98–117) in armor discovered in the Hall of the Perge Theatre, now on display in the Antalya Museum, Turkey. ..................... 234 113. Artemis, the goddess of hunting, as portrayed in Cyrene (2nd cent. AD). She was originally holding a bow in her hand. She is represented with many breasts or eggs in Ephesus. Istanbul Archaeological Museum, Turkey. ........................................................................................................... 235 114. Reproduction of the Ephesian Greek goddess Artemis (Roman goddess Diana). She was the goddess of the hunt, wild animals, childbirth, virginity, and twin of Apollo. Homer describes Artemis “of the Wilds” (Agrotera) and “Mistress of Animals” (Potnia Theron; Il. 21.470) and she is often depicted as a huntress carrying a bow and arrow (Ovid Metam. 3.251). The Ephesian depiction of Artemis was unique with multiple breasts, sometimes identified by scholars as bull testicles, pomegranates, or eggs and wearing a long cloak of bees. There seemed to be similar attributes with Cybele (an Anatolian mother goddess), including being served in the Temple by female slaves, young virgins, and eunuch priests. ................................................................................ 236 115. This single, remaining column of the original 127, and this foundation, are all that remains of the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. Originally it measured 67 meters (220 ft.) wide by 130 meters (425 ft.) long and was 18 meters (60 ft.) high. (Photo by Adam Carr; PD). ........................................................................................................... 236 116. Recreation of the Artemision, Temple of Artemis, as it would have looked at Ephesus. This model is at Miniatürk Park, Istanbul, Turkey (Photo by Magnus Manske; PD). ........................... 237 117. Ephesian Drachma coin (ca. 202–133 BC). A bee depicts the Artemision priestess. A stag is depicted in front of the sacred palm tree (tree-shrine) depicting the sacred groves (CNG). ...... 238 118. Silver Tetradrachm coin from Smyrna (ca. 155–145 BC) featuring Tyche/Cybele wearing a turreted crown, and with the obverse displaying the magistrate’s monogram ZMUR/NAIWN within a laurel wreath (CNG). ................................................................................................................. 238 119. Bronze statue of a runner wearing the laurel wreath (crown) awarded to the winner. Found in the Aegean Sea off the coast of Cyme. Roman copy of a late Hellenistic statue dating to the 2nd cent. AD. Izmir Archaeological Museum, Turkey............................................................................... 239 120. Acropolis of Pergamum, with the Hellenistic theatre (ca. 225–200 BC) carved vertically out of the side of the mountain with a capacity of ca. 10,000 citizens. Visible on the top are the pillars of the Temple of Trajan (2nd cent. AD), which after Alexandria, was next to the second largest library (200,000 volumes) in the world. ................................................................................................. 240
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INDEX OF IMAGES 121. Original location of the altar of Zeus at Pergamum. The structure around the altar dedicated to Zeus is actually not a temple but an open-air altar. The tree in the centre marks the location of the altar, but the structure which surrounded it was relocated to the Pergamum Museum in Berlin, Germany to prevent it from being destroyed by locals during excavation between 1878 and 1886. Strangely, it is only mentioned by Ampelius, who described it as “Pergamon [sic.] altar forty feet tall with very large marble sculpture, which contains a Battle of the Giants” (Lib. Mem. 8.14 [Graves]). This has been identified by some commentators as the “throne of Satan” in the message to the church in Pergamum. However, other centers like Olympia, Greece also had open-air altars to Zeus. ............................................................................................... 241 122. The Trajaneum (temple) in Pergamum was started under the Roman Emperor Trajan (98– 117 AD) and enlarged and completed under Hadrian (117–138 AD). This temple for the worship of the emperor may have been similar to the temple to Tiberius which was built earlier in Smyrna. If one holds to a late date for the writing of Revelation, then this temple to the emperor Trajan was built shortly after the book was written. The temple was uncovered in the 1880’s under the direction of the architect H. Stiller. It was abandoned, but received renewed interest in the 1960’s from the Turkish Antiquities and the German Archaeological Institute. ...................................................................................................................................................... 242 123. Column in the courtyard of the entrance (propylon) of the Asclepion (hospital), from the lower site of Pergamum, decorated with snakes. Snakes were worshipped in the cult of Asclepius, the god of healing. The way serpents shed their skins to renew themselves became a symbol of new life. John stated that Satan lived in Pergamum, and some believe that this is one of the local references. The symbol of the intertwined snakes still decorates medical emblems today. 243 124. This white stone pillar at Pergamum with names inscribed on it reminds us of Jesus’ words: “And to the angel of the church in Pergamum write:... I will give him a white stone, with a new name written on the stone that no one knows except the one who receives it.” (Rev 2:12, 17). 244 125. The Temple of Artemis in Sardis (330 BC). The scrolled (Ionic) capitals on the top of the columns add to the beauty of this temple. However, because these capitals were never fluted, it indicates the temple was never finished. The small red brick building in the foreground is a 4th cent. AD Byzantine church. The acropolis of the city is visible on the mountain in the distance. The only remains visible on the summit are Byzantine structures. ................................. 245 126. The bema (Heb. bimah) of the 3rd cent. AD synagogue in Sardis (modern Turkey) which was used as the reading platform in a synagogue. Some believe that the lion statues and the eagles carved on both sides of the altar are evidence of synchetism to appease the Roman authorities.247 127. Hieropolis’ (modern Pamukkale, Turkey) travertine terrace pools formed by the mineral laden hot springs. The water not only provided a medical eye salve but also water for the city of Laodicea across the valley. ....................................................................................................................... 250 128. Water tower at Laodicea. Calcification is visible inside the terracotta water pipes, formed by the mineral laden water from the hot springs in Hieropolis.............................................................. 251 129. MAP 1: Proposed sites for the northern and southern location of the Cities of the Plain. ...... 253 130. MAP 2: Migration of Abraham from Babylon. ................................................................................. 254 131. MAP 3. Map of the tribal allotments of Israel with Levitical cities and cities of refuge. .......... 255 132. MAP 4: The route of the Exodus. ....................................................................................................... 256 133. MAP 5: Israel in the time of Jesus. ...................................................................................................... 257
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BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY 134. MAP 6: The First Missionary Journey. ............................................................................................... 258 135. MAP 7: The Second Missionary Journey. .......................................................................................... 259 136. MAP 8: The Third Missionary Journey and trip to Rome. ............................................................. 260 137. MAP 9. Multi-period site plan of Tall el-Ḥammâm showing excavation Fields. Courtesy of Leen Ritmeyer. Used with permission. .................................................................................................. 261 138. Chart 15: Timeline for the proposed location of the sites associated with the Northern and Southern Sodom Theories. ...................................................................................................................... 285
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