Biodiversity and conservation of Turkish forests

Biological Conservation 97 (2001) 131±141

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Biodiversity and conservation of Turkish forests Zeki Kaya *, Dudley J. Raynal 1 Department of Biological Sciences, Middle East Technical University, 06531 Ankara, Turkey Received 26 October 1999; received in revised form 24 March 2000; accepted 16 May 2000

Abstract The rapid human population growth of Turkey and associated demands on natural resources threaten the biodiversity of the nation's natural ecosystems, including forests. Though limited to about 26% of the total land area of the country, maintaining healthy forests is vital to support sustainable development in Turkey. The purpose of this paper is to introduce the current status of Turkey's forests, present the national objectives for forest conservation and sustainable use, and describe the actions needed to protect forest biodiversity. While Turkey has numerous laws, regulations, and programmes that seek to promote biodiversity, implementation of these guidelines requires increased commitment and vigilance. Conservation programmes should be increased in number and eectiveness, particularly in light of increasing demand for forest products. Management plans for all conservation programmes require completion and implementation. Creating monitoring programs and building quantitative databases for conservation programs will be essential to assess future success in maintaining biodiversity. Conservation of natural resources requires public education and promoting awareness of the vital role of maintaining a healthy environment for sustainable development. Agroforestry endeavors can provide practical means of meeting both environmental protection and agricultural product production goals. # 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: Forest ecosystems; Forest resources; Agroforestry; Turkish forests

1. Introduction Turkey contains a great variety of natural habitats, ranging from Mediterranean, Aegean, and Black Sea beaches to towering coastal and interior mountains, from deeply incised valleys to expansive steppes, from fertile alluvial plains to arid, rocky hillslopes. A myriad of community types and habitat mosaics occurs, containing a rich mixture of plant and animal species, many of which are endemic (Table 1). Complex interactions among species and with their abiotic environment exist and the dynamics of habitat change over an exceedingly long period of human cultural history in the region have added an ever-changing dimension to ecosystem and landscape character. * Corresponding author. Tel.: +90-312-210-5177; fax: +90-312210-1289. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (Z. Kaya), [email protected] (D.J. Raynal). 1 Present address: College of Environmental Science and Forestry, State University of New York, 350 Illick Hall, 1 Forestry Drive, Syracuse, NY 13210-2788, USA.

Biodiversity has ®ve components: (1) genetic, (2) species, (3) community, (4) landscape, and (5) process or function (Hunter, 1996). Each constituent of diversity is important to maintain for the welfare and sustainable development of Turkey. Turkey contains the wild relatives of many domesticated plants, thus forming one of the eight major gene centers on earth (Briggs and Knowles, 1967; Harlan, 1995). For example, wild progenitors of such cultivated plants as lentil, chickpea, wheat, peach, almond, and pistachio are native to Turkey. Agriculture, forestry, animal husbandry, ®sheries, the pharmaceutical industry, and, tourism, all collectively vital to the Turkish economy, are dependent on the conservation of biodiversity for products, raw materials and natural habitats for use and recreation. In addition to its direct economic value, conservation of biodiversity yields a variety of natural, ecological and human health services. These include sustaining the carbon, nitrogen, oxygen and hydrological cycles, promoting mineral nutrient circulation, soil, water and air protection, and biodegradation of wastes, each essential for a hospitable and healthy environment (Lubchenco, 1998).

0006-3207/00/$ - see front matter # 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. PII: S0006-3207(00)00069-0

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Z. Kaya, D.J. Raynal / Biological Conservation 97 (2001) 131±141

Table 1 The total number of identi®ed, endemic, rare, and extinct species in Turkey (KuÈn et al., 1996; IsË õk et al., 1995) Living groups Plants Nonvascular plants Algae Mosses Lichens Vascular plants Ferns Seed plants Gymnosperms Angiosperms Monocotyledons Dicotyledons

Identi®ed species

4500 234 ± 8792 85 8707 22 8685 1390 7295

Endemic species

Rare species

Extinct species

2654 1

1701

12

65 1 190 556

Vertebrates Fishes Anurans Reptiles Aves Mammals

345 28 130 440 134

2

15 415

2658

Total

2. Present status of the forest ecosystems in Turkey In Turkey, forest lands constitute 20.7 million ha or 26.8% of the area of the country. Of these forests, 10.5 million ha (51% of total forest land) are considered to be productive while the remaining 10.2 million ha of forests are unproductive or highly degraded due to excessive exploitation (Boydak, 1999). Most forest lands are located in the Black Sea, the Mediterranean Sea and Aegean geographic regions (Fig. 1a). Turkish forest classi®cation is based on the primary ¯oristic regions (Fig. 1b), each, in turn, dependent on the main climatic conditions (Zohary, 1973; Atalay, 1994; Kaya, 1998).

3 2650 223 2427

Animals Invertebrates Protozoans Nematodes Molluscs Crustaceans

development, and in making sound investments in biodiversity conservation at the local, regional and national levels. The purpose of this paper is to describe the primary forest resources of Turkey. We present: (1) the current status of forest biodiversity in Turkey, (2) the national objectives and priorities for forest conservation and sustainable utilization of forests, and (3) actions needed to conserve biodiversity resources.

1

29

1 19

1731

32

Over many millennia, civilizations have exploited the natural resources of Turkey. Today, because of Turkey's rapid human population growth (about 2.5% per annum) and associated intensive or unwise utilization of natural resources and habitats, the biodiversity of Turkey is deteriorating. Alarmed by the prospect of the disastrous consequences of biodiversity loss and committed to the essential need to maintain natural resources for wise and sustainable use (e.g. to date 12 plant and 20 animal species have become extinct recently, Table 1), Turkish governmental ocials and scientists have developed a Biodiversity Action Plan for Turkey (Anon., 1997a). The Plan identi®es the unique biodiversity resources of the nation and proposes speci®c objectives to protect them. Responsibilities of all sectors of society, including individuals and municipal agencies, government ministries and private sector organizations, are recognized. The Plan is organized in three sections representing the major ecosystem types of the country: forest, steppe, and aquatic ecosystems. Each of these components has been developed for inclusion in a comprehensive ``National Environmental Action Plan'' (Anon., 1998). This national plan includes ®ve-year strategic tasks formulating working and development plans for all participating groups. It provides guidance in setting priorities in research and

2.1. Forests of the Euro-Siberian ¯oristic region (ESFR) This region covers the Black Sea and the Marmara geographical regions (Fig. 1b), excluding the peninsulas of Gelibolu and Biga. The southern boundary of the region follows the northern slopes of the mountains, extending E±W in direction. The mean annual temperature varies between 10 and 14 C along the coastal belt of the Black Sea. The mean temperature ranges from 6 to 10 C between 1000 and 2000 m altitudes. The average annual precipitation exceeds 1000 mm with precipitation distributed unevenly throughout the region. For example, semiarid and subhumid conditions are dominant in the valleys such as CËoruh, GoÈkõrmak, Kelkit and Devrez, all located in the hinterlands of north-eastern Turkey or the Ergene basin in Thrace. The most arid part of the region is the Yusufeli district and vicinity in the CËoruh valley. During the summer period, the northern slopes of the mountains are often shrouded by fog. High humidity here favors hydrophytic vegetation (Atalay, 1994; IsË õk et al., 1995; Kaya, 1998). 2.1.1. Broad-leaf deciduous and conifer forests 2.1.1.1. Eastern Black Sea region. Forests of Fagus orientalis Lipsky, Picea orientalis (L.) Link.with an understory of Rhododendron spp. are characteristic and occur throughout this area (Table 2). Additionally, mixed forests composed of various combinations of beech and oriental spruce; beech, oriental spruce and Alnus glutinosa (L.) Gaertner.; Fagus orientalis and


133

Fig. 1. (a) The geographic regions of Turkey. The numbers in each geographic region represent the forest land coverage in each geographic region. (b) The ¯oristic regions of Turkey: (II) Mediterranean ¯oristic region (MFR), (I) Euro-Siberian ¯oristic region (ESFR), and (III) Irano-Turanian ¯oristic region (ITFR) (adopted from Atalay, 1994).

2.1.1.2. Middle Black Sea region. Productive Fagus orientalis forests occur on the upper part of the Canik Mountains. These forests are found with admixtures of Castanea sativa, Alnus barbata C.A.Meyer, Prunus spp. and Carpinus betulus L. The shrub layer is dominated by Rhododendron ¯avum G. Don. Natural forests have been degraded by rural settlements, especially between the towns of Fatsa and AkkasË .

composition of forests. Coastal mountains (such as those at CËangal and Zindan) support productive Fagus orientalis forests with the following associates: Pinus brutia Ten., Laurus nobilis L., Castanea sativa, Tilia rubra and T. tomentosa Moench, and Carpinus betulus. At high elevations, mixtures of Pinus sylvestris L., Abies bornmulleriana Mattf. and Fagus orientalis are abundant. Rhododendron ¯avum, Taxus baccata L., Quercus spp. Prunus laurocerasus L., Taxus baccata occur only in river and stream valleys. Acer spp. and shrubs of Cornus spp. are characteristic of the Fagus orientalis forests.

2.1.1.3. Western Black Sea region. Coastal mountain ranges, deeply dissected river valleys such as GoÈkrmak, Devrez and interior mountains, including those at Bolu, Abant, KoÈrogÏlu, in¯uence the distribution and

2.1.1.4. Marmara region. Broad-leaved deciduous forests are common in Yõldõz Mountains in Thrace, and along both sides of the Bosphorus; Fagus orientalis, Carpinus betulus, Castanea sativa and Quercus spp. are

Castanea sativa Miller; Castanea sativa and Tilia rubra DC.; Fagus orientalis and Abies nordmanniana (Stev.) Spach.

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Table 2 Forest types within each of the three ¯oristic regions of Turkey (Atalay 1994; IsË õk et al., 1995) Type of ¯oristic region and forest types

Geographic regions

Major forest species within the forest types

Elevational range where tree species occur

A. Euro-Siberian 1. Broad-leaf deciduous and conifer forests

Black Sea, Marmara

Fagus orientalis, Castanea sativa, Carpinus spp. Picea orientalis, Pinus sylvestris, Pinus nigra subsp. Pallasiana

500±1200 m 1200±1500 m

2. Humid-subhumid coniferous forests

Black Sea, Marmara

Pinus nigra Pinus sylvestris, Picea orientalis Abies bornmulleriana, A. equi-trojani

1000±1500 m 1500±2000 m 1000±1500 m

3. Dry oak and pine forests

Black Sea, Marmara

Quercus spp. Pinus brutia Pinus nigra subsp. Pallasiana

Up to 1500 m 400±500 m >600 m

4. The shrub (pseudomaquis and maquis) formation

Black Sea, Marmara

Pinus brutia

From sea level to 500 m

Marmara, Aegean, Mediterranean

Quercus coccifera, Q. ilex, Arbutus spp.

350 m in Marmara

Pistachia lentiscus, Myrtus communis

600 m in Aegean and 800 m in the Mediterranean

2. Lower (Eu- or Thermo) Mediterranean belt forests

Marmara Aegean, Mediterranean

Pinus brutia Pinus nigra subsp. Pallasiana

Sea level to 1000 m 800±1500 m

3. Aegean mountain (Oro-) forests

Aegean

Castanea sativa Fagus orientalis, Tilia rubra, Corylus avellana Pinus sylvestris Quercus spp. Pinus brutia Pinus nigra

400±1000 m >1500 m

B. Mediterranean 1. Shrub (maquis and garrigue) formation

1600±1900 m Up to 1000 m 700 m

4. Mediterranean (Oro-) mountain forests

Mediterranean

Quercus spp. Pinus nigra subsp. Pallasiana Abies cilicica Cedrus libani Juniperus spp. Fagus orientalis, Carpinus orientalis

500±1200 m 1200±2000 m 1200±1800 m 1000±2000 m 1000±1800 m 1100-1900 m

C. Irano-Turanian 1. Tree steppe vegetation

Inner Anatolia

Juniperus oxycedrus, Juniperus excelsa, Pinus nigra, Quercus cerris, Quercus pubescens

800±1500 m

2. Dry black pine, oak, juniper forests

Inner Anatolia

Quercus spp. Pinus nigra subsp. Pallasiana Pinus sylvestris

Up to 1200 m 1000±1500 m >1500 m

3. Dry forests

East Anatolia

Quercus spp. Pinus sylvestris

>850 m 1500±2700 m

4. Oak forests

South Anatolia

Quercus spp.

>850 m

predominant. Fagus orientalis is characteristic in the Samanli Mountains with mixtures of Carpinus betulus, Tilia tomentosa, Pinus nigra Arnold subsp. Pallasiana (Lamb.) Holmboe, and Pinus sylvestris with rhododendrons in the shrub layer. Forests of Abies bornmulleriana and Fagus orientalis occur on the southern slopes of

UludagÏ and Domanic Mountains. Humid forests occupy the northern slopes of Kaz mountains. Overstory dominants are Carpinus betulus, Castanea sativa, Tilia rubra subsp. caucasica Pallas, T. tomentosa, Populus tremula L.; the shrub layer consists of Taxus baccata, Rhododendron ¯avum, IIex aquifolium L., Daphne pontica


L., Corylus avellana L., Cornus sanguinea L., Sorbus terminalis (L.) Crantz, Sambucus nigra L., Acer campestre L., Prunus avium L. and Fraxinus angustifolia Vahl. 2.1.2. Humid-subhumid coniferous forests In the high mountains of north eastern Turkey where cold and humid conditions prevail (the KacËkar Mountain Region), forests are composed of pure or mixed stands of Picea orientalis (L.) Link. & Carr., Pinus sylvestris and Abies nordmanniana. In the middle and western part of the Black Sea subregions, Pinus sylvestris, Abies bornmulleriana and Pinus nigra subsp. Pallasiana occur (Table 2). In the eastern and southern parts of the Marmara region, Pinus nigra subsp. Pallasiana and Abies equi-trojani Ashers. & Sint. ex. Mattf forests are characteristic. Abies equi-trojani is endemic to Turkey. Picea orientalis forests with a Rhododendron spp. understory occur between 1500 and 2000 m elevation where fog formation is frequent. 2.1.3. Dry oak and pine forests The hinterlands of the Black Sea Floristic Region are characterized by xeric habitats. Dry forests composed of Quercus spp., Pinus nigra subsp. Pallasiana and Pinus brutia, and shrubs typical of the Mediterranean Floristic Region are found (Table 2). For example, the CoruhKelkit valley has Pinus brutia forests with maquis elements; upper altitudes on north-facing slopes support Euro-Siberian Floristic Region vegetation with Fagus orientalis communities. Vegetation of the lower altitudes of the Kastamonu plateau is composed of Quercus spp. forests whereas lower altitudes of the Kõzõlõrmak and GoÈkõrmak valleys and their south-facing slopes support Pinus brutia communities. 2.1.4. The shrub (pseuodomaquis and maquis) formation Shrub-dominated communities composed of both Mediterranean shrubs (maquis) and Black Sea tree elements (pseuodomaquis) occur in abundance along the Black Sea coast where the original broad-leaved deciduous forests have been destroyed. Elements of pseudomaquis are: Ostrya carpinifolia Scop., Buxus sempervirens L., Rhododendron ponticum L., R. luteum Sweet, Diospyros lotus L., Quercus petraea (Maatuschka) Liebl. subsp. Iberica (Steven ex Bieb.) Krassiln, Staphylea pinnata, Carpinus orientalis Miller, Celtis glabrata Steven ex Planch., Acer divergens Pax, Rhus coriaria L., Ficus carica L., Arbutus andrachne L., Cistus creticus L., Laurus nobilis, Punica granatum L., and Juniperus oxycedrus L. Principal areas of occurrence of relic vegetation with maquis elements include valley bottoms and tectonic depressions lying in the hinterland of the Black Sea region including the Kelkit valley, the Erbaa-Niksar tectonic depression, the lower part of the Coruh valley in the Artvin Province. Typical elements are Pinus pinea L., Arbutus andrachne, and Arbutus unedo L.

135

Maquis vegetation is also found at altitudes of 550± 600 m on the south-facing slopes along the coastal belt of Marmara Sea, often in association with Pinus brutia. Garrigue (or phrygana) vegetation, composed of compact, thorny, hemispherical, drought-deciduous shrubs, is typical of the Sinop Peninsula along the Black Sea coastal zone. 2.2. Forest ecosystems of the Mediterranean ¯oristic region (MFR) This region encompasses the coastal belt of the Marmara Sea, the western portion of the Anatolian and the Mediterranean geographical regions. The elevation of MFR ranges from sea level to up to 4000 m. Annual mean temperature is approximately 17 C and the annual mean precipitation is about 870 mm (range, 400±2000 mm). The primary vegetation formations of this area are the following: 2.2.1. Shrub (maquis and garrigue) formation Shrub-dominated vegetation, characteristic of secondary successional communities along coastal areas, penetrates a few hundred kilometers inland. It extends up to 300±400 m altitude in the Marmara region, 600 m in the Aegean region and 1000 m in the Mediterranean geographical region. Maquis elements are ®re-adapted and produce deep root systems; often they grow in rocky soil. Most of the species are evergreen, sprout readily and are fast-growing. Maquis is used as pasture land. Some maquis elements are found as components of the shrub layer in Pinus brutia forests. When Pinus brutia forests are completely cleared, maquis vegetation becomes dominant and restricts germination of Pinus brutia seeds, preventing forest regeneration. Maquis vegetation occurs in the coastal belt of the Marmara Sea, the Gelibolu Peninsula, and in the Aegean and Mediterranean regions. Quercus coccifera L. typi®es marginal sites. In relatively humid habitats and karstic areas, Laurus nobilis, Arbutus andrachne, Mrytus communis L., Nerium oleander L. and Spartium junceum L. are characteristic species (Table 2) (Atalay, 1994; IsË õk et al., 1995; Kaya, 1998). The Mediterranean geographical region, being more humid, is somewhat dierent in species composition from the Aegean and Marmara maquis. Communities dominated by Mrytus communis and Laurus nobilis are common along the valley bottoms. The best examples of maquis in the Mediterranean region are found in Termessos National Park, northwest of Antalya. Stable communities, dominated by the maquis indicator Quercus coccifera, are found in all parts of the Mediterranean region, thriving as high as 1500 m altitude, especially on the karstic areas on south-facing slopes of the Taurus Mountains. Successional garrigue vegetation develops where both maquis and Pinus brutia forests have been destroyed.

136


Regardless of soil parent materials, garrigue is found in all coastal parts of Turkey, especially areas subject to forest ®res. Forest formations of the Mediterranean phytogeographical region can be divided into two main groups called Eu- (Lower) Mediterranean and Oro- (Higher) Mediterranean, each depending on climatic and elevational conditions (Atalay, 1994; IsË õk et al., 1995; Kaya, 1998). 2.2.2. Lower (Eu- or Thermo) Mediterranean belt forests Pinus brutia, a relatively drought tolerant species, is the dominant tree of old growth forests in the Aegean, Marmara and Mediterranean regions (Table 2). Such forests range from the sea level up to 300±400 m altitude in the Marmara, 700±800 m in the Aegean and 1500 m in the Mediterranean Regions. 2.2.3. Aegean mountain (Oro-) forests In the Mediterranean and Aegean mountain regions, the amount of precipitation increases and temperature decreases with elevation. Thus the vegetation can be categorized as dry or humid forest types, depending on localized climatic and topographic conditions. Humid forests typify the northern slopes of the mountains. Here Castanea sativa, Fagus orientalis, Acer campestre, Tilia rubra communities are typical. Pinus nigra subsp. Pallasiana and Pinus sylvestris occur on northern slopes between 1600 and 1900 m elevation (Table 2). 2.2.4. Mediterranean (Oro-) mountain forests In the humid oro-belt of the Taurus Mountains, Cedrus libani A. Rich., Pinus nigra subsp. Pallasiana and Abies cilicica (Ant. & Kotschy) Carr. forests are dominant. Pinus nigra subsp. Pallasiana forests are found between 1200 and 2000 m in the Taurus Mountains, often associated with the Cedrus libani and Abies cilicica (Table 2). Abies cilicica occurs between 1150 and 2000 m on the north facing slopes, and 1450 and 1550 m on the south facing slopes on the Taurus Mountains, growing optimally at 1200±1800 m. The species rarely grows in pure stands, but rather mixes with Pinus nigra subsp. Pallasiana and Cedrus libani. In addition, Abies cilicica forests are found between 1300 and 1500 m in the Nur Mountains. Cedrus libani forests, characteristic of the Mediterranean belt, grow at altitudes between 800 and 2000 m on south-facing slopes, reaching 2200 m in the inner section of the mountains. Juniper (Juniperus excelsa M. Bieb., Juniperus foetidissima Willd.) forests are common in the Taurus Mountains in locations where coniferous cedar and pine forests have been degraded. Oak forests occur mainly between an altitude of 800 and 1200 m, and are common in the western and eastern parts of the Taurus. Common species are: Quercus libani Olivier, Q. frainetto Ten., Q. cerris L., Q. infectoria Olivier and Q. pubescens Willd.

Oaks increase in dominance in locales where the continental climate prevails. Quercus vulcanica (Boiss. and Heldr.) ex Kotschy, an endemic tree of karstic depressions, occurs on limestones in the DedegoÈl and Davraz Mountains in the Lake region. A variety of mesic trees and shrubs belonging to Euro-Siberian zone including Sorbus terminalis, Tilia rubra, Fraxinus excelsior L., Ulmus glabra Huds., Ostrya carpinifolia also occurs in this area. In the places where fog and orographic rain are prevalent such as in the Nur Mountains, Fagus orientalis and Carpinus orientalis forests are found as small clusters, together with several members of ESFR. 2.3. Forest ecosystems of the Irano-Turanian (inner-, eastern- and southwestern-Anatolia) phytogeographical region (ITFR) This region encompasses all parts of the inner, eastern and southeastern Anatolian geographic area. Forests are present at the edge of plains and in tectonic depressions. Most basins support steppe vegetation. There are considerable temperature dierences between winter and summer. The amount of annual precipitation is less than the coastal belts. The mean annual temperature ranges widely, from 4 to 18 C. The mean annual precipitation varies from 400 mm in central Anatolia to 600 mm in eastern Anatolia. However, mean annual precipitation is higher in the southeastern Taurus mountains, about 1000 mm (Atalay, 1994; IsË õk et al., 1995). 2.3.1. Tree steppe vegetation As a result of destruction of natural forests of Pinus nigra subsp. Pallasiana and Quercus and Juniperus spp., most areas are dominated by steppe vegetation (Table 2). Remnant stands of Quercus spp. and Pinus nigra subsp. Pallasiana are preserved in the Beynam Forest near Ankara and in the Yozgat National Park, east of Ankara. 2.3.2. Dry black pine, oak, juniper forests They are found in the inner Anatolian region. Pinus nigra subsp. Pallasiana and Quercus pubescens are the climax forest species of central Anatolia (Table 2). However, these species have been largely replaced by anthropogenic steppe vegetation. Quercus stands are found in clusters in the transitional region between steppe and forest. Pinus sylvestris occurs in the vicinity of Yozgat-Akdag-madeni and Sundiken Mountain, north of EskisË ehir. Cistus laurifolius L. is the leading secondary, regressive successional shrub of central Anatolia. 2.3.3. Dry forests Dry forests are found at high elevation in eastern Anatolia. Tree line occurs at 2700 m in this area. Quercus forests extend from the natural steppe to the subalpine


137

belt. The Southeastern Taurus mountains including the a erafettin and Bitlis complex are characterized by oaks forests, mainly Q. infectoria, Q. ithaburensis Dcne. subsp. macrolepis Kotschy, Q. brantii Lindley, Q. libani, Q. robur L. subsp. pedunculi¯ora C. Koch and Q. petraea. Pinus sylvestris forests are found in pure stands in the vicinity of SaryÂkamyÂ in the northeastern Anatolia extending from the Black Sea coast to 2700 m (Table 2). Best growth is achieved on volcanic sands and tu in the vicinity of SarõkamõsË , SËenkaya and GoÈle.

Mediterranean and Aegean regions. Natural habitats have also been degraded due to urbanization and frequent forest ®res. Summer residential site construction and expansion have led to forest fragmentation and subsequent degradation of the biological integrity of many forest ecosystems (Table 3). Although there are no available inventory ®gures except for the extinct species (Table 1), fragmentation, destruction, and habitat loss in many terrestrial ecosystems, have reduced the population sizes of numerous plants and animals.

2.3.4. Oak forests The plant communities of southeastern Anatolia, the driest and hottest region of Turkey, resemble somewhat those of the eastern and central Anatolian regions. Forest vegetation of this area is sparse and poor due to aridity and widespread human in¯uence. Some Quercus spp. occur at the highest elevations in the vicinity of Diyarbakr and Mardin provinces. The primary species of the region are Q. brantii and Q. infectoria subsp. Boissieri (Vender) O. Schwarz (Table 2).

3.2. Over-exploitation of plant species

3. Biodiversity loss in Turkey The factors that cause the loss or decline of forest biodiversity in Turkey can be classi®ed into six distinct groups. 3.1. Habitat alteration, habitat fragmentation and habitat loss Natural ecosystems degrade and decline rapidly as human populations increase. Due to the rapid population increase in Turkey within the last few decades many natural habitats have been fragmented, reduced in size, degraded or destroyed. Intensive forestry practices have further accelerated the loss of natural forest lands, especially along the coastal Black Sea and coastal

Some economically important plant species in forest ecosystems have been harvested, irrespective of sustainable management principles. Over-exploitation has led either to decline or loss of populations and genetic diversity of many organisms of forest ecosystems. Today, 49% of Turkish forests are considered to be heavily degraded, requiring restoration programs (Table 3). Because of intense over-grazing, many species of palatable plants have been replaced by unpalatable plant species on rangelands. Some wildlife species such as fallow deer (Dama dama L.), roe deer (Capreolus capreolus, L.), wild goat (Capra aegagus Erxleben), wild cat (Felis sylvestris Schreber), lynx (Felis lynx L.), red fox (Vulpes vulpes L.), pheasant (Phasianus colchicus L.,) and partridge (Alectoris spp.) have virtually disappeared from many forest lands due to habitat loss and excessive hunting. Where still found, they have suered dramatic population declines, even below the critical population sizes necessary to maintain enough genetic diversity for independent evolution and survival of the species. Due to unlawful ®shing by dynamite between 1950s and 1980s, and by Euphorbia extracts, natural populations of many ®sh [e.g. trout (Salmo trutta L). and pike (Esox lucius L.)], mammals [e.g. otter (Lutra lutra L.)] and various molluscs have disappeared from inland waters. However, inventories that document the

Table 3 Forest and habitat type losses in Turkey Causes of habitat and forest losses

Period

Aected total area (ha)

% Of whole country

Source

. Industrial or housing developments . Due to overexploitation, degraded forests . With new forestry acts, forest lands declared as not- forestry lands . Forest ®res . Pasture and forest lands open to erosion by wind or water . Pasture land lost or Heavily degraded . Wetland habitats lost . Expansion of agricultural lands at the expense of forest, pasture and wetlands

To date To date 1974±1994

1.5 million 10.2 million 413

1.93 13.14 0.0005

Boydak (1999) Boydak (1999) Boydak (1999)

1973±1987 In 1989

223,302 2.8 million

0.29 3.61

1935±1999 Since 1960 1948±1994

22.3 million 1.3 million 21.5 million

28.72 1.67 27.70 (Total agricultural land is 46% of the country)

Anon. (1989) Anon. (1989) GuÈnay (1999) Yarar and Magnin (1997) Kaya et al. (1997)

138


magnitude of population decline of many animal and plant species are lacking.

4. National objectives for conservation and sustainable utilization of forest biodiversity

3.3. Pollution of soil, water and atmosphere

Although the articles in the Turkish Constitution do not directly address the conservation of plant genetic diversity, article 63 of Constitution approved by Turkey on 18.10.1982 states that the government should protect its historical, cultural and natural values and resources as well as support and promote conservation eorts. In addition to the articles present in the Constitution, The Law for Protection of Cultural and Natural Values (Code No: 2863, 1983), Environmental Law (Code No: 2872, 1983), National Parks Laws (Code No: 2873, 1993), Laws Special Protection of Environmental Regions (Code No: 88/13019, 1988), and Forestry Law (Codes: 6896, 1956; 2896, 1983; 3302, 1986) provide for the protection of nature and biological diversity, and promote activities related to the conservation of genetic resources. Furthermore, revised government regulations such as The Regulation on the Collection, Storage and Use of Plant Genetic Resources (1992, The Turkish Ocial Gazette) restrict the overexploitation of genetic resources (Kaya et al., 1997). National goals for biodiversity can be summarised as: 1. protection, 2. research and development, and 3. utilization (Anon., 1997a). Speci®cally the objectives are to:

Pollution reduces or eliminates populations of sensitive species such as Pinus brutia populations close to fossil fuel burning power plants (YatagÏan power plant, Aegean geographical region). To date, there has been no substantial use of chemicals (pesticides, insecticides, herbicides, fertilizers) on forest lands in Turkey. However, use of such chemicals on agricultural lands adjacent to forests have been common since 1960s; and many bird and animal species living in forests may be adversely aected by application of these chemicals. Intensive use of agricultural chemicals in Antalya region during the past two decades, for example, decimated local populations of magpie (Pica pica L.) and jackal (Canis aureus L.). 3.4. Introduction of exotic species Exotic species such as Eucalyptus species introduced in western Anatolia and along the southern coast of Turkey have potential to adversely aect the growth and reproduction of native species. Use of Eucalyptus and other exotic trees as sources of rapid-growing ®ber must be carefully considered in light of their potential harmful in¯uences on biodiversity. 3.5. Industrial agriculture and industrial forestry Timber is the major product of Turkish forestry. Timber harvest ranges from 6 to 8 million m3 annually, most of which is used in the construction, furniture, and paper industries. Wood is also used as fuel, especially in rural areas in Turkey; annual ®rewood production is approximately 35 million m3, about one ®fth of which is harvested by illegal means. Therefore, 49% of Turkish forests are considered as degraded. Demand for forest products exceeds about 14% available supply, thereby increasing pressure on the forests and forest products. As a result, the biological integrity of forest ecosystems in Turkey is threatened. Conversion of natural forests into monocultural plantations of species of commercial value is widespread. Although they exhibit desirable qualities when grown under intensive management, genetically improved modern strains may be of limited genetic diversity. Genetically improved clone or varieties can be planted on large areas to increase productivity and facilitate harvesting. Monocultural management reduces habitat diversity, especially in forest lands where micro-habitat dierences are much needed for wildlife. Further, monoculture plantations having narrow genetic diversity, may be sensitive to insect and disease epidemics.

(a) recognize the factors that threaten biological diversity in the forest ecosystems, (b) take immediate measures to prevent loss of habitats and species diversity, (c) make thorough inventory of renewable natural resources on forest lands, continue research and update information on these biological resources, (d) develop necessary scienti®c, technical, legal and administrative measures to improve nation-wide quality and quantity of forest biodiversity, (e) manage and utilize forest biological resources based on sound ecological and sustainable management principles. In relation to the objectives above, about 5% of the country has been reserved for various conservation programs. This small allocation is not sucient for comprehensive conservation of the natural resources of Turkey (Table 4). However, with future conservation program development, it is expected that the area of protected lands will be increased to 10% of the country. 4.1. Actions needed to conserve forest biological resources To protect biodiversity of Turkish forests, both ex situ and in situ conservation strategies are required. Such eorts are being planned and implemented currently (Atalay, 1994; Anon., 1998). Ex situ conservation is

Z. Kaya, D.J. Raynal / Biological Conservation 97 (2001) 131±141 Table 4 Type, number and size of conservation areas in Turkey and their proportion of the total country area (Kaya et al., 1997) Conservation program types

Numbers Total area % Area of (ha) country

National parks Nature conservation areas Nature parks Natural monuments Seed stands Gene conservation forests Wildlife conservation areas Specially protected regions Protection forests Rest and camp areas State farms

31 32 11 54 322 16 109 12 48 415 38

612 112 82 023 46 872 74 32 914 2816 1 800 000 418 800 360 130 12 770 381 162

0.8 0.1 0.06 0.0001 0.04 0.0036 2.32 0.54 0.46 0.016 0.49

Total

3 749 673

4.83

Projected conservation programs

7 763 298

10.00

achieved by establishing gene and seed banks, botanical gardens and arboreta, forest plantations and seed orchards to preserve species and their inherent genetic variability. In addition to maintaining plant biodiversity, some of these facilities provide opportunities for propagating desirable stock for transplantation. In situ conservation involves setting aside natural forest tracts where species are preserved in their natural ecosystems. 4.1.1. Ex situ conservation Gene banks are currently maintained by the Turkish Ministries of Agriculture and Forestry. Seeds of fruit trees and commercially valuable timber and ®ber species are stored to protect genetic variability. As well, seed orchards are kept to produce genetically improved forest trees. For major timber trees (Pinus brutia Ten., Pinus nigra Arnold. Subsp. Pallasiana, Pinus sylvestris L., Pinus halepensis Mill., Cedrus libani, Picea orientalis, Abies spp. Juglans regia L. and Liquidambar orientalis L.) more than 150 seed orchards with an area of 817 ha have been established. Further orchard development is anticipated. While Turkey has several arboreta and botanical gardens useful for conservation purposes, expansion of such resources is needed (Anon., 1989; Atalay, 1994; Kaya et al., 1997). 4.1.2. In situ conservation Today about 4 million ha land have been set aside for conservation purposes in Turkey (Table 4). This area supports national parks (NP) nature parks (NAP), nature conservation areas (NCA), natural monuments (NM), seed stands (SS), wildlife conservation areas (WCA), and the other programs. Numerous actions to promote in situ conservation have been enumerated in the National Plan for in situ Conservation of Plant Genetic Diversity in Turkey (Kaya et al., 1997) and the Biodiversity Action Plan (5). These proposals focus on eectively utilizing

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the following: National Parks and Nature Conservation Areas, Protection Forests (PFs) and Gene Conservation Forests (GCF), Gene Management Zones (GMZs), Degraded Forest Lands, and Production Forests and Aorestation Sites. The key recommendations are presented in the following sections. 4.1.3. National parks (NPs) and nature conservation areas (NCAs) 1. Increase the number and size of NPs and NCAs, ensuring that representative community types in each biogeographcial region are represented. 2. Develop a biodiversity reserve network to incorporate existing and new NPs and NCAs into a national program. 3. Establish research and educational programs in the NPs and NCAs in conjunction with regional universities and research organizations. 4. Divide NPs and NCAs into zones where multiple use management is possible and restricting ecotourism to selected areas so that natural biota are protected. 5. Strengthen the legal basis to expropriate private lands within and adjacent to NPs and NCAs to prevent fragmentation and unwanted disturbances. 6. Regulate the number and activities of visitors to preserve the integrity of NPs and NCAs. 7. Develop programs to integrate conservation, research, and education activities across the national network of conservation facilities. 4.1.4. Protection forests and gene conservation forests Forestlands that are not managed are designated as ``Protection Forests''. These forests constitute only 1.5% (about 360 000 ha) of all forest areas (Kaya et al., 1997). To guard against devastating eects of landslides, ¯oods, and soil erosion, additional lands should be acquired and designated in this category. Lands around dams, municipal watersheds, major highways, industrial zones should be targeted as ``Protection Forests''. Gene conservation forests are designated as natural forests characterized by uneven age structure and managed like production forests. Currently 79 gene conservation forests totalling about 9349 ha have been set aside by the Turkish Forest Trees and Seeds Improvement Research Directorate. These provide protection for Pinus brutia, Pinus nigra subsp. Pallasiana, Pinus pinea, Pinus sylvestris, Cedrus libani, Picea orientalis, Abies cilicica, Abies equi-trojani, Abies bornmulleriana, Cupresus sempervirens L., Castanea sativa, Quercus spp, Liquidambar orientalis L., Fagus orientalis, Tilia spp., Fraxinus spp. and Juniperus spp. (Anon., 1997b). The gene conservation forests could be incorporated into other conservation programs in the country, but the number and size of GCFs are inadequate for some species. New GCFs are needed to ensure better representation of diverse ecosystems and habitats.

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4.1.5. Gene management zones Gene management zones are natural and semi-natural areas that are set aside for maintaining genetic diversity of certain species. These areas provide conditions for natural evolutionary processes to continue in a natural setting for the species of interest. This program was initiated in 1993 by the Turkish Ministries of Agriculture and Rural Aairs (MARA), Forestry (MOF), and Environment (MOE) as part of an in situ conservation project supported with special funding from Global Environment Facility of The World Bank. Ten GMZs in two pilot sites, at Kaz and Bolkar Mountains, were established with a total area of 24,374 ha for the target species Pinus brutia, Pinus nigra subsp. Pallasiana, Cedrus libani, Abies equi-trojani, Juniperus excelsa, and Castanea sativa. According to the suggestions made in the National Plan for in situ conservation of plant genetic diversity in Turkey (Kaya et al., 1997), new GMZs representing dierent habitats in the country along with their management plans are urgently needed for sustainable forestry in the future. 4.1.6. Degraded forest lands While the social and environmental factors that lead to degradation of forests may not be easily overcome, lands that are subject to degradation should be identi®ed, restored and protected. This is especially critical to protect riparian and wetlands ecosystems. Already degraded forestlands should be converted to appropriate use, but whenever possible, forest restoration should be initiated. 4.1.7. Production forests and reforestation and aorestation sites To ensure compatibility of forest management objectives with biodiversity goals, silvicultural and forest engineering practices should be reviewed and modi®ed in view of national biodiversity objectives. Natural regeneration of forest species should be encouraged wherever possible. Utilizing mixtures of native trees on aorestation and reforestation sites should be encouraged and introduction of exotic, potentially invasive, action should be avoided. In large aorestation areas, patches of unplanted sites should be reserved to create habitat diversity to support biodiversity. 4.1.8. Agroforestry Meeting multiple objectives in agriculture and forest development may be possible by promoting agroforestry practices (Botkin and Keller, 1995). Intense pressure on the natural resources of Turkey resulting from human exploitation necessitates new techniques for promoting sustainable resource use. The Turkish Ministry of Forestry has funded programs to promote beekeeping, animal husbandry, and ®sh culture in villages located within or near forests. To date, about $330 million USD in loans

have been given to villagers for improving their economic welfare (Z. Argimak, Turkish Ministry of Forestry, personal communication, June 1999). A recent forestry project on `` the Management of Western Black Sea Deciduous Forests'' that has been funded by the Turkish Ministry of Forestry and the organization of German Technical Cooperation (GTZ) has allocated about 1.6 million German marks for pasture improvements, mushroom farms, fruit orchards, and public awareness (S. Kaplan, Turkish Ministry of Forestry, personal communication, June 1999). One of the most successful agroforestry programs in Turkey is poplar farming. Today, annual poplar wood production exceeds 2 million m3, reducing shortages of unprocessed wood. In addition to state nurseries, private poplar nurseries produce about 10 million seedlings for transplantation. Still, there will be a need for more poplar seedlings in the future because the potential for increasing poplar plantations is great. Gallery production opportunities along at least 100 000 km, of streambanks exist (Anon., 1989). 5. Conclusions Because of the convergence of vegetation from three distinct ¯oristic zones, Turkey has a highly diverse variety of forests. Though limited to about 26% of the total land area of the country, maintaining healthy forests is vital to support national objectives of sustainable development. While Turkey has numerous laws, regulations, and programs discussed in the previous sections that seek to promote biodiversity, implementation of these guidelines requires increased commitment and vigilance. Conservation programs such as those of the nature conservation areas, national parks, and gene management zones should be increased in number, particularly in the light of increasing pressure on forest resources. Management plans for all conservation programs require completion and implementation. Creating monitoring programs and building quantitative databases for conservation programs will be essential to assess future success in maintaining biodiversity. Conservation of natural resources requires public education and promoting awareness of the vital role of maintaining a healthy environment for sustainable development. Agroforestry endeavors can provide practical means of meeting both environmental protection and agricultural product production goals. Acknowledgements We express gratitude to the Fulbright Program that made our collaboration on Turkish forests possible. We thank G. Raynal and F. Kaya for their assistance with the manuscript.


References Anon., 1989. Turkish Forestry. General Directorate of Forestry, Publication No. 30/673, Ankara. Anon., 1992. Regulations on collection, conservation and utilization of plant genetic diversity. The Turkish Ocial Gazette 21316, 4±8. Anon., 1997. Biodiversity Assessment, Strategy and Action Plan Ð Turkey (First-Draft, Report to the World Bank, Ankara Oce). Anon., 1997. The Progress Report for 1996 and Working Program for 1997, The Forest Trees and Seeds Improvement Research Directorate, Ankara. Anon., 1998. National Environmental Strategy and Action Plan of Turkey. The Republic of Turkey, The State Planning Organization, Ankara. Atalay, I., 1994. Vegetation Geography of Turkey. Ege University Press, Bornova, Izmir. Botkin, D.B., Keller, E.A., 1995. Environmental Science: Earth as Living Planet. J. Wiley, New York. Boydak, M., 1999. The future of trees. YesË il Atlas (special environment issue of Atlas) 2:24±31, Ankara. Briggs, F., Knowles, P.F., 1967. Introduction to Plant Breeding, Reinhold Publishing Corporation, Davis. GuÈnay, T., 1999. This road leads to deserti®cation. YesË il Atlas (Special environment issue of Atlas) 2;56±63, Ankara.

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