promote the introduction of improved biomass stoves. Started by the DNES, the
National Programme on Improved. Chulhas (NPIC) was seeking to reduce fuel ...
Biomass Cookstove Testing Protocols and Standards Experiences from India Prof. Rajendra Prasad Centre for Rural Development and Technology,
Indian Institute of Technology Delhi
Historical Profiles International Testing Protocols •
Prasad, Verhaart and Visser: During the 1970s and 1980s there were several key individuals, including Dr. Krishna Prasad, Dr. Peter Verhaart and Dr. Piet Visser, from Eindhoven University, who were instrumental in designing the first stove testing protocols (known as the VITA protocols) that are used globally in revised form today.
•
Dr. Samuel Baldwin: In addition to important technological design information, Dr. Samuel Baldwin’s 1987 work, biomass Cookstoves: Engineering Design, Development and Dissemination, provided detailed, revised stove testing protocols that became standard practice for more than a decade.
•
Shell Foundation HEH Project: After nearly two decades of use, the VITA protocols were updated (2003‐ 2007) thanks to the Household Energy and Health (HEH) Project, supported by a Shell Foundation grant. These efforts were headed up by Dr. Kirk Smith of UC Berkeley, Dr. Rob Bailis of Yale University, Dr. Rufus Edwards from UC Irvine, and Dean Still, Damon Ogle and Nordica McCarty from Aprovecho Research Center, among others.
Water Boiling Test, version 4.1.2 • Starting in 2007, Version 3 of the WBT was evaluated and revised by a subcommittee of Engineers in Technical and Humanitarian Opportunities of Service (ETHOS) under the leadership of Dr. Tami Bond. Through electronic communication, twenty‐two people from 11 countries provided input to identify and resolve technical inaccuracies and challenges in the WBT, and recommend emission testing procedures. Their efforts are reflected in the new WBT protocol “Emissions and Efficiency in a Controlled Laboratory Setting.”
EMISSIONS AND PERFORMANCE TEST PROTOCOL (EPTP) BACKGROUND • In April 2009 Envirofit and Philips agreed to jointly develop a refined version of WBT 3.0 more suited to the needs of large scale manufacturers • Focus on repeatability • Focus on emissions taken per existing accepted protocols • Goal of going to an ISO standard • Parametric testing completed at Colorado State University’s Engines and Energy conversion lab to determine what variables need to be controlled • Revision of the document to improve readability/useability • Released in October of 09
EPTP Conclusions • Emissions & Efficiency/TTB can not be tested asynchronously. • Accurate emissions testing is possible, but requires – controlled hoods – calibrated and accurate emissions equipment – accurate exhaust flow measurement • To have reasonable confidence multiple test (6‐8 minimum) are required • The addition of a foam to the top of the pot reduces vapor release variability • Keeping the same ΔT but shifting the temperature range to prevent boiling reduces variability • Controlling wood dimensions and moisture content reduces variability • Controlling ambient conditions provides further variability control but is impractical in most cases and not included in the EPTP
Present Status Because of the diverse stove‐ improvement initiatives moving forward in tandem, however, to date no single governing standard for comparing stove performance has emerged.
Indian Standard WBT The procedures developed by the Bureau of Indian Standards, for measuring the efficiency of the cookstoves. In 1983 the Indian government, through the Department of Non‐Conventional Energy Sources (DNES), began a program to promote the introduction of improved biomass stoves. Started by the DNES, the National Programme on Improved Chulhas (NPIC) was seeking to reduce fuel use, limit deforestation, and improve air quality in the home [11]. As part of the program the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) developed a certification process for biomass stoves. The BIS protocol calls for using a set amount of fuel, based on stove heat production rate, and determining the amount of thermal energy which can be transferred to a cooking pot. The stove is lit and pots of water are heated to just below the boiling point and then replaced with pots with fresh water until all fuel has been consumed [5].
Chinese standard WBT The procedures developed by the State Standards Organization of the People's Republic of China ‐ "Testing Method for the Heat Properties of Civil Firewood Stoves". The largest improved stoves program to date was conducted by the Chinese’government through the National Improved Stove Program. The Testing Method for the Heat Properties of Civil Firewood Stoves calls for taking a standard amount of fuel and heating a pot of water to boil and then allowing that pot to simmer until a simmer cannot be sustained [3].
Steady‐state Water Boiling Test Prasad of the Wood burning Stove Group believe that for laboratory work on wood‐stove research and development a more engineering‐oriented attitude must be taken than used in the standard Water Boiling Test. "A woodstove can be characterized by an efficiency‐versus‐power graph. The efficiency figures for a pan‐stove combination should be established by steady‐state water‐boiling experiments. For woodstoves, the best we can hope for is periodic steady state. And the water boiling test then is no longer a simulation of food‐cooking process, with the water replacing the food, but instead the measurement of a heat transfer process, with the water as a convenient medium to measure the heat transfer from the fire to the pan."
Comparative Water Boiling Test (CWBT): This is an adaptation by Jean‐François Rozis of the test method and procedure of the international standard Water Boiling Test (WBT), modified to account for the real customs and habits of cooking in Cambodia. CWBT is only for comparing stoves’ Potential Fuel Savings under similar conditions of use, which eliminates error sources from fuel heat value calculations. The CWBT is designed to duplicate as closely as possible real cooking conditions. As well, the CWBT is designed to be simple – it requires minimum equipment easily available in Cambodia and is easy to conduct in the field. The CWBT also simplifies the calculation at the end of the test.
Criticism of the Water Boiling Test • According to the Eindhoven Woodburning Stove Group (as described on http://www.cookstove.net/others/fuel‐ economy.html ), the Water Boiling Test has the following weaknesses. • Recovery of the charcoal is not sharply defined and is therefore operator dependent. • The charcoal weights are small and measurement of such small weights is always subject to large errors. • Estimation of the combustion value of charcoal, produced in a wood fire is at best a tricky task. • A lot of things must be done in as short a time as possible between the high‐power and the low‐power phase, so the risk of making mistakes or mis readings is pretty high.
Benefits and limitations of the WBT • The WBT test for efficiency can be performed throughout the world with simple equipment. (If emissions are measured, more complex equipment is required.) Its primary benefits are: – Provide an initial assessment of stove performance – Compare the effectiveness of different designs at performing similar tasks – Evaluate stove changes during development – Select the most promising products for field trials – Ensure that manufactured stoves meet design specifications • The WBT, on the other hand, is not an accurate way to determine actual fuel use under field conditions or changes in fuel use, for example from introduction of an improved stoves.
Controlled Cooking Test (CCT) • The controlled cooking test (CCT) is designed to assess the performance of the • improved stove relative to the common or traditional stoves that the improved • model is meant to replace. Stoves are compared as they perform a standard • cooking task that is closer to the actual cooking that local people do every day. • However, the tests are designed in a way that minimizes the influence of otherfactors and allows for the test conditions to be reproduced. • Controlled Cooking Test (CCT) v.2.0 with appendices • Controlled Cooking Test (CCT) data calculation sheet v.2.0 | PDF
Kitchen Performance Test (KPT) The Kitchen Performance Test (KPT) is the principal field–based procedure to demonstrate the effect of stove interventions on household fuel consumption. There are two main goals of the KPT: (1) to assess qualitative aspects of stove performance through household surveys and (2) to compare the impact of improved stove(s) onfuel consumption in the kitchens of real households. To meet these aims, the KPT includes quantitative surveys of fuel consumption and qualitative surveys of stove performance and acceptability. This type of testing, when conducted carefully, is the best way to understand the stove’s impact on fuel use and on general household characteristics and behaviors because it occurs in the homes of stove users (Lillywhite, 1984; VITA, 1985). However, it is also the most difficult way to test stoves because it intrudes on people’s daily activities. In addition, the measurements taken during the KPT are more uncertain because potential sources of error harder to control in comparison to laboratory‐based tests. For this reason, the protocol for the KPT is quite different from the protocols for the Water Boiling Test (WBT) and the Controlled Cooking Test(CCT). • •
Kitchen Performance Test (KPT) v.3.0 with appendices Kitchen Performance Test (KPT) data calculation sheet v.3.0 | PDF
Existing Cookstove Standard Worldwide [30] Designation
Topic1
Focus2
Name Perfo rman ce
Meth od
Indicators
Max/min values
Comments
Beijing municipal standard for solid fuelsscheduled for publication Q2 2008 First national test methodology designed specifically for cookstoves
Effici ency
Emisi on
-
-
Unknown
Unknown
Unknown
X
Water boiling test (Thermal Efficiency), stove hood for emissions tests
Thermal efficiency, CO/CO2 ratio, TSP
CO/CO2 ratio less than 0.04, TSP less than 2mg/m3
Water boiling test
PHU (% of heat utilized)
>30% PHU @ 3kW power output, Thermal shock resistance, external temp. ≤ 45o C
China
(No designation) Standard for Biomass molded fuel (Draft)
x
India
IS 13152 (CIS 1315 Z) (Part 1): 1991 Indian Standard on Biomass ChulhaSpecification DUS 761:2007 (Draft)
x
x
x
x
x
x
Uganda
Test method/s
Draft standard is based on Kenyan Jiko design. Emissions not included in standard.
Existing Cookstove Standard Worldwide [30]… Kenya
KS 1814
-
-
-
-
unknown
unknown
South Africa
SABS 11111976 (Coal burning domestic appliances)
x
x
x
x
Time to reach temperature, heat distribution, obscuration (smoke)
South Africa
SANS 1243:2007, Ed. 3 (Pressurized paraffin-fueled appliances)
x
x
x
x
South Africa
SANS 1906:2006 Ed. 2.1 (Non-pressure paraffin stoves and heaters)
x
x
x
x
Water boiling test, kitchen performance test (cooking test), stack measurement (smoke) Combustion efficiency test (CO:CO2 ratio), thermal output (kW, calculated from fuel consumption), smoke hood and stack measurements Fuel consumption (thermal efficiency), smoke hood and stack measurements (emissions)
CO:CO2 ratio (combustion efficiency), Power output (kW) averaged over 600 seconds burn time, (thermal output)
Power output in kW averaged over 7.5 hours burn time, particulates and CO:CO2 ratio
Shell Foundation’s Standards Mostly Followed by Different Groups Presently 3 stone fire
Shell Foundation Percentage Reduction
CO
100 g
20 g
80%
PM
4800
1500 mg
69%
Wood Consumption
2000 g/hr
800 g/hr
60%
Facts about chulha use in India • Nearly three‐fourths of Indian households use open fires or chulhas (with or without chimneys) and depend on solid fuel (wood, charcoal, coal, dung cakes, etc.) for cooking. • Two‐thirds of Indian households (including 3 out of 10 urban households and 8 out of 10 rural households) use open fires or chulhas without a chimney. This is not just a rural issue. • 44 percent of households use open fires or chulhas without a chimney inside the house, exposing women and children to high levels of toxic smoke from solid fuels.
Facts about chulha… • Open fires or chulhas without a chimney, used inside poorly ventilated houses are a major contributor to indoor air pollution (IAP). The majority of those exposed to IAP are women, who are normally responsible for food preparation, and their infants and young children, who are usually with theirmothers in the cooking area. • In India every year exposure to smoke from solid fuels may be responsible for nearly 400,000 deaths to children under 5 years of age and 34,000 deaths to women due to chronic respiratory disease. • Substantial evidence has been generated associating IAP with health hazards such as childhood acute lower respiratory infections, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), lung cancer, perinatal mortality, low birth weight, and cataracts. It has been estimated that IAP contributes to 3‐ 5percent of the national burden of disease in India.
Indian Initiative‐Past • The then Department of Non‐conventional Energy Sources (DNES), created in 1982 initiated demonstration of improved cookstoves soon after its inception followed by a National Programme on Improved Chulhas (NPIC) in 1985–1986. • Programme Objectives – fuelwood conservation – removal/reduction of smoke from kitchens – reduction of deforestation and environmental degradation – reduction in the drudgery of tasks performed by women and girl‐children and their consequent exposure to health hazards – employment generation in rural areas
Indian Initiative‐Past… • Implemented through various State Nodal Departments/ Agencies in almost all States. • Technical and training support provided by 22 Technical Back‐up Support Units (TBSUs), set up at different universities, IITs and other institutions of the country. • More than 60 fixed and portable models, with and without chimney, single‐pot and multi‐pot, suitable for different fuels, cooking habits and local requirements and using different materials of construction developed and taken up for installation.
Indian Initiative‐Past… • Installed for family, community and industrial applications with the help of state level nodal departments and agencies, through their district and block level cells. • At the village level, non‐governmental organizations (NGOs) and self‐employed workers (SEW) played an important role in the dissemination of improved cookstoves. • Annual targets, decided at the national level and then forwarded for implementation at the state level. • Supported heavily by subsidy. • Cost varied in the range of Indian Rs 100‐300, 50‐75% of which was met by a direct cash subsidy.
Indian Initiative‐Past… • A total of 33.8 million improved chulhas installed by 2004 with varying degree of success in different regions in the country. • Some models had better acceptability than others in specific regions. • Certain regions showed greater enthusiasm on the part of the users to adopt new designs. • For a variety of reasons the programme brought a mixed bag of experiences. • The programme was formally declared closed in 2004.
New Initiative • Need for a new initiative – brainstorming session in March 2009 • An joint project to IITD and TERI for working out the contours of the new initiative (October 2009‐May 2010). Objectives‐ To advise MNRE on the action plan for the new cookstoves initiative covering the following – – – – – –
Technical Aspects (R&D, Testing) Delivery of Cookstoves Fuel Processing and Supply Global Innovation Contest Community Stoves Implementation Strategies
New Initiative… • Several brainstorming sessions and consultations with a range of stakeholders and experts from civil society, academia, business, and government to develop an understanding of current activities and future potential of such a programme. • The programme launched on 2nd October 2009 by MNRE.
• Aims to distribute approximately 150 million high efficiency stoves in the next 15 years. • Aims to achieve quality of energy services from Cookstoves comparable to that from other clean energy sources such as LPG.
Final report •
“The Final Report titled “New Initiative for Development and Deployment of Improved Cookstoves: Recommended Action Plan”. Submitted in July 2010.
Recommendations‐ General
¾ Need to learn from strengths and weaknesses of NPIC, but based on the recognition that that Cookstoves technology has improved considerably in the past few years, and further advances are still possible, indeed essential. ¾ Desirable to have a different management and implementation structure for the new initiative although it will build on the several successes of that programme while also drawing lessons from the experience gained from its implementation.
Recommendations… Need for carrying out the initiative in two phases ¾ Phase I – Pilot dissemination (various delivery models, fuel processing units) A series of pilot‐scale projects envisaged using several existing commercially‐available and better Cookstoves and different grades of processed biomass fuels. This will help in exploring a range of technology deployment, biomass processing, and delivery models leveraging public‐private partnerships. – Will set in motion a series of activities that are designed to develop the next‐generation of household Cookstoves, biomass‐processing technologies, and deployment models, including‐
Recommendations… – An innovative global contest to develop combustion units with high thermal efficiency and low pollution characteristics. – Appropriate biomass‐processing devices. – Enhancement of technical capacity in the country by setting up state‐of‐the‐art testing, certification and monitoring facilities and strengthening R&D programmes in key technical institutions. – An independent monitoring and evaluation component envisaged to assess the activities and fine‐tune them on an ongoing basis. – It will welcome and promote participation by civil society and private actors to make it a true public‐private partnership. ¾ Phase II – Full scale dissemination
Action/ Activities Undertaken • A steering committee setup under the chairmanship of Member(Energy), Planning Commission of India. • Decided to setup a Section 25 company under public private mode to implement the programme. • An MoU signed with X‐Prize Foundation of USA to conduct the global contest during the next two years or so.
Action/ Activities Undertaken… • Four Testing and Evaluation Centres in four different regions‐ North(IIT Delhi), South(IISc Bangalore), East(IMMT Bhubaneswar), West(MPUAT Udaipur). • Budget outlay Rs. 42 Lakhs each for two years. • Objectives: Development of standards, protocols, testing of stoves and provide training and technical backup to the stove programme in the country.
Action/ Activities Undertaken… • Pilot Field Testing And Evaluation Of Community Sized Biomass Cookstoves. • Coordinated and monitored by IIT Delhi and implemented by ten different agencies, a mix of Govt. and NGOs. • Ten clusters in six different states identified. • A package of 50 stoves for each cluster, 30 ICDS/ tribal hostels, 10 midday meal schools, 10 commercial setups like dhabas and restaurants. • Total Cost Rs. 44 Lakhs. • Duration 9 months, (starting August 2010)
Proposed Pilot Programme for family size cookstove • A few hundred thousands stoves planned during next two years. • Prefabricated, mass manufactured improved biomass cookstoves, made of metals, ceramic, pottery or a combination their of, duly approved by Testing and Evaluation Centres and passing/meeting BIS test standards which will be suitably modified to suit forced draft stoves as well as community size biomass stoves in terms of burning rate so as to get thermal efficiency and emission reductions parameters similar to those recommended by family size biomass stove under BIS till such time improved/ modified biomass cookstoves test standards are not developed and adopted.
Standards and Protocols • In India, BIS standards developed in 1991 for a particular kind of cookstove. • Performance standards very limited in scope. • Testing protocols have thermal efficiency as the main focus. • Testing facilities need updation and expansion • Recent developments in technology and Focus on health aspects call for a close look at the above.
Standards and Protocols‐ Work Plan Phase I Need for interim testing protocol to replace BIS protocol – Adaptation of WBT4.0 – Background work and coordination by an institute in project mode – A one/two day workshop to finalize the same
To work on long term development of new protocols Coordinated project involving various groups Due emphasis on emission characteristics Specific consideration to gasifier‐type and forced draft stoves Balance between repeatability and representation of the cooking practices – Need for technical rigour as well as practical experience
– – – –
Standards and Testing Facilities Three types of testing centres proposed • In R&D institutes for in‐house development and training of testing personnel • Certification centres with testing facilities – independent organisations • Field testing centres – associated with grassroot level NGOs. • Centres to be set‐up through EOIs/RFPs • Star‐Ratings on the basis of thermal and emissions characteristics and hence health impacts. • Government support to be linked with star rating
Testing Phase II • New protocols in place. • Star rating standards in place. • Training of testing personnel from certification and field testing centres by R&D centres. • Certification centres to carry out testing and certification in accordance with protocols and star ratings. • Field testing centres to help in evaluation of stoves in the field pilot as well as full scale dissemination.
Research and Development Need for continuing research on the fundamental scientific principles underlying the design and operation of cookstoves Different areas of research identified in the report Phase I – Call for EOIs for research projects – Formation of consortia and call for RFPs – Some institutes may be identified as R&D centres.
Need for an integrated approach ‐ coordinated evaluation of different proposals with the help of an Advisory body. Possibility of funding by different Ministries and funding organisations.
Research and Development… Phase II • Execution of research projects to continue. • Research activities could lead to development of new products. • Product development also carried out intuitively by many stove manufacturers. – Proposal to facilitate Technical Consultancy Centres which can help in technical analysis of these stove designs and hence their improvement. – Particularly important for addressing specific regional cooking needs
Standards and Protocols‐Present Status • The BIS being upgraded and modified to include new developments like forced draft stoves, community stoves, new emissions standards and new testing protocols. • The first draft prepared and circulated to concerned experts on the subject for their comments and suggestions. • Comments received and being analyzed. • Some major comments have been received from Engine and Energy Conversion Lab, Colorado State University. The same are being looked into carefully. In fact a collaboration effort is on between CSU and IIT Delhi to setup the testing laboratory for biomass cookstoves in India.
Indian Standard SOLID BIO‐MASS CHULHA –SPECIFICATION India is probably the only country where formal/ official Standards and Testing Protocols have been developed, accepted and applied to a mega programme on improved biomass cookstoves about a decade back. It may be worthwhile to start with that and if need be modify the same to suite the present time requirements.
Indian Standard SOLID BIO‐MASS CHULHA –SPECIFICATION Existing
Modifications Proposed
Scope‐Family Application
To cover community/commercial applications also
References‐ Indian Standards referred To include Standard References for for construction metallic materials Alloys, Ceramic materials, Blowers and thermometers, Capacitors, Batteries, Switches, Electric Wire, Plugs, Thermopiles, LED Lamps, etc. Terminology, Designs and Types‐ Only two or three natural draft metallic portable stoves described for guidance. These are‐ Mild Steel and Cast Iron, All cast iron, Mild steel, cast iron and stainless steel.
Should include more Designs and Types like‐ Metal ceramic/ceramic/ceramic insulated, Forced draft (mech./ battery operated), Forced Draft with thermopile/thermoelectric devices.
Size‐ Only domestic stoves of different sizes/ power rating like Small‐ 0.5 ‐0.8 kw Medium‐ 0.8‐1.3kw Large‐ 1.3‐1.3kw Extra Large‐ Above 2.5kw
To include Community/ Commercial Stoves 3‐10 kw and Extra Large Stoves Above 10kw. In fact in place of power output, it will be better to categorise stoves on the basis of burning rate (Power Input).
Manufacture and Workmanship defined for various mechanical components.
To include electrical components.
Performance Testing‐ for natural draft domestic stoves Thermal Efficiency‐ above 25%. ,
Domestic Stoves, Natural Draft‐ As such forced draft‐ above 40%. Community/ Commercial Stoves Natural draft‐ above 30%, Forced draft‐ above 40%.
CO/C02 Ratio‐ less than 0.04,
As such. In addition total mass of CO and CO2 to be included.
Total Suspended Particulate‐ less than 2.0 mg/m3, using handy sampler for one hour with suction of ambient air placed at a distance of 32‐45 cm from stove and at a height of 30‐37.5 cm from the ground level.
Emissions concentration of particles will depend on the hood flow rate, the location of measurement, to hood features such as doors, air inlets, exhaust pipes, etc. Since hood flow rate will strongly effect the measured concentration of particles in the hood, the total mass emissions should be taken and for that all of the emissions should be collected using an emissions hood and the hood should completely encircle the stove and also be equipped with filters and doors to remove background particles. The hood doors should be opened only for tending the fire. Then it will be simpler and more accurate to sample the particles from the exhaust pipe using isokinetic sampling techniques.
Surface Temperature(at handles) less than 60oc, Cast Iron Components to meet Quenching Test, Stable when tilted to 15 degrees.
To include Electric Appliance Test‐ Blowers, condensers/ storage battery, wires, plugs, thermopile as per Indian/ International standards.
Procedure‐ Fuel‐ Kaill Deodarl Mango] Accasia , pieces of 3 cm x 3 cm square cross‐section, length of half the dia/ Iength of combustion chamber
Also Douglas Fir/Pine pieces of 1.5cm by 1.5cm square cross‐ section, As such
Burning Rate Determination‐ Stack the combustion chamber with test fuel in honey comb fashion up to 3/4 of the‐ height 'or in a pattern recommended by the manufacturer.
Weigh a sample of fuel, let the mass be M1" [g] Stack the combustion chamber with test fuel in honey comb fashion up to the ¾ height or as recommended by the manufacturer.
Sprinkle 10 to I5 ml of kerosene on the fuel from the top of chulha/ fire box mouth.
Sprinkle 10 to 15 ml. of kerosene on the fuel from the top of chulha/fire box mouth and light. Simultaneously start the stop watch.
Weigh the chulha with fuel, let the mass be M1 kg. After half an hour of lighting weigh the chulha again and let the mass be M2 kg.
After half an hour of operation remove fuel and extinguish by placing in a metal pot with a tight fitting lid, weight remaining fuel and let the mass be M2[g].
Thermal Efficiency Measurement‐ A single phase procedure starting with a cold stove and adding fuel in four equal lots after every 15 minutes, heating a measured quantity of water up to 5oc below boiling point and replacing the first vessel after that with a second similar one and keep on repeating till the whole fuel is exhausted and no visible flame in the combustion chamber.
The procedure can be replaced by a three phase one as in WBT 3 or WBT 4 to bring it almost at par with international/ global procedures being considered these days as more appropriate, effective and elaborate procedures, beginning with a Cold Start High Power Phase, followed by a Hot Start High Power Phase and then the Low Power Simmering Phase of 45 minutes. This will also help determine a Turn Down Ratio for the stove.
References 1. Indoor Air Pollution in Developing Countries: a major environmental and public health challenge.
Bruce, Nigel. 2000, Bulletin of the World Health Organization, pp. 1078‐1092. 2. Indoor Air Pollution From Biomass Combustion and Respiratory Symptoms of Women and Children in a Zimabwean Village. Rumchev, K. 2007, Indoor Air, pp. 468‐474. 3. Chinese Fuel Saving Stoves: A Compendium. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Bangkok, Thailand : FAO Regional Wood Energy Development Programme in Asia, 1993. Field Document No 40. 4. Bailis, Rob. The Water Boil Test. s.l. : Household Energy and Health Programme,Shell Foundation, 2007. http://ehs.sph.berkeley.edu/hem/hem/protocols/WBT_Version_3.0_Jan2007a.pdf. 5. Bureau of Indian Standards. Solid Bio‐Mass Chulha ‐ Specification. 1991. BIS Procedure. IS 13152. 6. Indoor Air Pollution and Its Impact on Children Under 5 Years Old in Bangladesh. Khalequzzaman, M. 2007, Indoor Air, pp. 468‐474. 7. WHO/UNDP. Indoor Air Pollution ‐ Killer in the Kitchen. World Health Organization/United Nations Development Programme. Geneva : s.n., 2004. Joint Statement. 8. Research Needs for Improving Biofuel Burning Cookstove Technologies. Ahuja, D. 1990, Natural Resources Forum, pp. 125‐134. 9. Wood Smoke Health Effects. Naeher, Luke. 2007, Inhalation Toxicology, pp. 67–106. 10. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Health and Environemental Effects of Particulate Matter. [Online] July 17, 1997. [Cited: September 12, 2008.] http://www.epa.gov/ttncaaa1/naaqsfin/pmhealth.html.
References… 11. Indian Improved Cookstoves: A Compendium. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Bangkok, Thailand : FAO Regional Wood Energy Development Programme in Asia, 1993. Field Document No 41. 12. Effects of Aerosol from Biomass Burning on the Global Radiation Budget. Penner, Joyce. s.l. : Science, 1992, Science, Vol. 256, pp. 1432‐1433. 13. Carbon Monoxide and Nitric Oxide from Biofuel Fires in Kenya. Kituyi, E. 2001, Energy Conversion and Mangement, Vol. 42, pp. 1517‐1542. 14. Wood Products: Thermal Degradation and Fire. White, R. 2001, Encyclopedia of Materials: Science and Technology, pp. 9712‐9716. 15. Baldwin, Samual. Biomass Stoves: Engineering Design, Development, and Dissemmination. Princeton University. Arlington, VA : Volunteers in Technical Assistance, 1987. 16. The Science of Wood Combustion. Emmons, H. 1982, Sadhana, pp. 259‐268. 17. Tillman, David. Wood Combustion: Principles, Processes, and Economics. New York City, New York : Academic Press, 1981. 18. The Creosote Problem: Chimney Fires and Chimney Cleaning. Karsky, T. s.l. : University of Idaho, 2002, UI Extension Forestry Information Series. Wood as a Fuel No. 6. 19. United States Deparment of Agriculture ‐ Forest Service. Wood Handbook ‐ Wood as an Engineering Material. Madison, WI : Forest Product Laboratory, 1999. FPL‐GTR‐113. 20. Soot Formation. Haynes, B. 1981, Progress in Energy and Combustion Science, pp. 229‐273.
References… 21. Kinetics and Mechanism of the Oxidation of Carbon. Grabke, H. 686, Materials and Corrosion, pp. 686‐688. 22. An Aerothermochemical Analysis of Solid Carbon Combustion in the Stagnation Flow Accompanied by Homogeneous CO Oxidation. Matsui, K. 1987, Combustion and Flame, pp. 79‐99. 23. What Makes People Cook with Improved Biomass Stoves? Barnes, D. s.l. : World Bank Technical Paper, 1994. WTP 242. 24. Emissions Factors and Thermal Effiencies of Cooking Biofuels from Five Countries. Gupta, S. 1998, Biomass and Bioenergy, pp. 547‐559. 25. Hinds, William. Aerosol Technology. New York : Wiley‐Interscience Publication, 1999. 26. Simpson, William. Physical properties and moisture relations of wood. Wood handbook : wood as an engineering material. Madison, WI : USDA Forest Service, 1999, pp. 3.1‐3.24. 27. van Loo, S. The Handbook of Biomass Combustion and Co‐firing. London : Earthscan, 2008. ISBN‐13: 978‐1‐84407‐249‐1. 28. United States Department of Agriculute, Forest Service. How to Estimate Recoverable Energy in Wood or Bark Fuels. s.l. : United States Department of Agriculute, 1979. 29. Johnson M.,Edwards R. Berrueta V, Masera O.New Approaches to Performance Testing of Improved Cookstoves, Environmental Science & Technology, 2009. 30. PCIA‐Bulletin‐Issue‐21
