bird guide training curriculum

National Audubon Society

BIRD GUIDE TRAINING CURRICULUM: Basic Level

Curriculum Designed for Training Bird Guides in Latin America and the Caribbean

BIRD GUIDE TRAINING CURRICULUM: Basic Level

National Audubon Society International Alliances Program Washington, DC

January 2015

Bird Guide Training Curriculum: Basic Level

Financial support: Multilateral Investment Fund (MIF) of the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) Writers: Editors: Design: Translation:

John Sterling, Alvaro Jaramillo, Floyd Hayes International Alliances Program of National Audubon Society Eng Li Green Loyda Sanchez, Alvaro Jaramillo

Copyright © Inter-American Development Bank 2015

The material in this work is subject to copyright and by downloading and/or printing the material you agree that you may reproduce and distribute the materials for educational purposes only. No other use, including editing, modifying or making commercial use, is permitted without express written permission from the National Audubon Society. The opinions, interpretations, findings and/or conclusions expressed in this work are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views or the official policy or position of the IDB, its Boards of Directors, or the governments it represents. The IDB does not make any warranty, express or implied, nor assume any liability or responsibility for the accuracy, timeliness, correctness, completeness, merchantability, or fitness for a particular purpose of any information that is available herein. Unless otherwise noted, photographs are credited to Floyd Hayes, Alvaro Jaramillo, and John Sterling. Photographs, charts, tables, and illustrations may not be reproduced separately without written permission. Contact the International Alliances Program, National Audubon Society, in Washington, DC (202) 861-2242 or [email protected] for additional information or to request permission to use this material in any manner not explicitly permitted above. Front cover photos: American Flamingoes on Inagua by Walker Golder; Red-legged Honeycreeper by John Sterling; Collared Aracari by Dirk Francisco.

Back cover photos: Wilson’s Plover and sunset at Joulter Cays by Walker Golder

Message from David Yarnold President and CEO of Audubon

On behalf of National Audubon Society, one of the leading bird conservation organizations in the United States, I want to thank you for your interest in bird guiding. Latin America and the Caribbean offer some of the best birdwatching in the world, and guides are important ambassadors for the birds and natural heritage of their countries. But that’s not all. Guides can also help protect the natural beauty and biodiversity of the region, by inspiring people to appreciate and value birds and biodiversity. I would like to thank the Multi-lateral Investment Fund of the Inter-American Development Bank, whose support for this project—Bird-based Tourism as a Conservation and Sustainable Development Tool—has made development of this training curriculum possible. I would also like to recognize Audubon’s partners in Latin America and the Caribbean who are helping to adapt this curriculum to their national contexts, and using it for localized training: Bahamas National Trust, Belize Audubon Society, Wildlife Conservation Society-Guatemala, Asociación Vivamos Mejor (Guatemala) and Guyra Paraguay. I am tremendously excited about Audubon’s and our partners’ bird-based ecotourism initiative. It’s an opportunity to support economic development in local communities and protect treasured wildlife and natural places at the same time. Through this effort, we will help guides develop new knowledge and skills, and connect the global ecotourism market with amazing birding sites in countries like the Bahamas, Belize, Guatemala and Paraguay. And as the word spreads that these destinations are not only open for business but full of beautiful and unique birds, there will be even greater demand for top-notch birding guides.

Audubon is proud to share the bird guide training curriculum in this manual with you. We have tried to make this a comprehensive guide-training curriculum, covering topics essential to successful guiding, from natural history and taxonomy to business skills. Whether you are a beginner, a more experienced birder, or a trainer of birding guides, I hope that you will find this a useful resource. As guides and trainers of guides, you are at the forefront of the growing bird-based tourism industry in Latin America and the Caribbean. And your work will make a difference for birds and for your communities. Thank you for your passion for birds and nature, and your commitment to conservation. Sincerely,

David Yarnold

Preface National Audubon Society and the Multilateral Investment Fund (MIF), a member of the Inter-American Development Bank group (IDB) have partnered to create a niche, high-value sustainable birding tourism project in the Americas, “Strengthening BirdBased Tourism as a Conservation and Sustainable Development Tool” focused on four countries in Latin America—The Bahamas, Belize, Guatemala and Paraguay. To do this, Audubon and NGO’s in Belize (Belize Audubon Society), Guatemala (Asociación Vivamos Mejor and Wildlife Conservation Society), Paraguay (Guyra Paraguay), and The Bahamas (Bahamas National Trust) are utilizing the bird-watching market to create sustainable jobs in communities while simultaneously protecting biodiversity and natural resources. Together we aim to create a network of community-based birding destinations across the hemisphere that offer skilled local birding guides, improved site interpretation and lodging, food services, and related goods and services tailored to the birding market. In the development of the project one of the major issues identified was the need for more and better trained birding guides. Critical to developing and improving the capacity of good guides is having relevant, up to date and useful training materials. Toward this end, we have produced a basic and advanced regional level bird guide training curriculum—in both English and Spanish—that provides a wide breadth of information that ranges from basic bird identification to business skills

In order to develop the most useful and comprehensive curriculum possible, we: 1. Utilized a team of authors that applied their experiences in teaching ornithology at the college level, leading tours across Latin America, working as field ornithologists, managing small businesses, and interacting with colleagues in the bird-based tourism industry; 2. Carried out a comprehensive review of existing training materials and information employed in various Latin American and Caribbean countries and, in a few instances, we edited and reprinted existing materials that we felt fit this curriculum (For example: Three essays on optics, field sketching and birding photography in Chapter 10 from the American Birding Association’s “Birding Gear” publication.); and 3. Led participatory workshops in all four project countries with key stakeholders including Ministries of Tourism to review, comment and ground truth the curriculum. These workshops were also used to adapt the regional curriculum in the development of specific national level curricula adapted to the local context. Also, based upon the results of these workshops, we made final decisions on what constitutes an advanced vs. basic level curriculum and modified the regional curriculum versions accordingly. 4. Created visual presentations to accompany the curricula content. Finally, as this curriculum is put to use in each country and as trainings take place, we will collect valuable feedback to continue to improve these documents over time. We invite your feedback as you read and use these materials

Acknowledgements We would like to thank the following for their contributions throughout this process: Multilateral Investment Fund of the Inter-American Development Bank, Bahamas National Trust, Belize Audubon Society, Asociación Vivamos Mejor, Wildlife Conservation Society-Guatemala, Guyra Paraguay, Ministry of Tourism of the Bahamas, Belize Tourism Board (BTB), Instituto Guatemalteco de Turismo INGUAT, Secretaría Nacional de Turismo SENATUR, and all those who participated in the curriculum workshops: Name

Workshop Location

Organization/Institution

Eric Carey

Bahamas

Bahamas National Trust (BNT)

Bahamas

BNT

Randolph Burrows (Casper)

Bahamas

Claudine Green

Bahamas

Lynn Gape

Karen Panton

Predensa Moore Leslie Brace

Craig Mortimer

Jacqueline Ramsey Janel Campbell Millie Dawkins Ian Ferguson

Lisa Sorenson

Carolyn Wardle Erika Gates

John Sterling

Dareece Chuc

Amanda Acosta Varsha Clarke Pam Frontino

Dominique Lizama Dirk Francisco Juliet Neal

Xanierre Velasquez Ishmael Quiroz

Bahamas Bahamas Bahamas Bahamas Bahamas Bahamas Bahamas Bahamas Bahamas Bahamas Bahamas

Bahamas, Belize Belize Belize Belize Belize Belize Belize Belize Belize Belize

BNT BNT BNT BNT BNT

Ministry of Tourism of the Bahamas (MOT) MOT MOT MOT MOT

Birds Caribbean Birder, guide

Birder, guide, tour operator curriculum consultant

Belize Audubon Society (BAS) BAS BAS BAS BAS BAS

Belize Tourism Board (BTB) BTB

Inter-American Development Bank IDB- Belize

Lisa Carr-Caceres

Belize

Belize Hotel Association (BHA)

Edilberto Romero

Belize

Programme for Belize

Bill Gette

Mario Teul

Lascelle Tillett Roni Martinez Rudy Burgos Luz Hunter

Michael Somerville Philip Balderamos

Israel Manzanero Jr Gilroy Alfaro

Peter Herrera

Doug Thompson Lea Itzab

Ricky Manzanero Marlon Calderon Marcial Cordova Juan Rivera

Ramiro Tejada

Bidcar Herrera Frily Galvez

Lucila Perez

Julio Madrid

Adira Castillo

Alvaro Jaramillo Pablo Alarcon

Claudia Burgos

Maximiliano Sigui Bitty Ramirez

Maynor Ovando

Irene Rodriguez

Belize Belize Belize Belize Belize Belize Belize Belize Belize Belize Belize Belize Belize Belize

Guatemala Guatemala Guatemala Guatemala Guatemala Guatemala Guatemala Guatemala Guatemala Guatemala Guatemala Guatemala Guatemala Guatemala Guatemala Guatemala

Massachusetts Audubon Society

Bird guide, Curriculum consultantBelize S&L Travel and Tours Bird guide Bird guide Bird guide Birder

Birder, guide Birder, guide Birder

Birder, guide

Black Orchid Resort, Belize Tourism Industry Association BTIA, BHA Chaa Creek Resort Chaa Creek Resort

Asociacion Vivamos Mejor

Wildlife Conservation Society- WCS Instituto Guatemalteco de Turismo INGUAT Instituto Técnico de Capacitación y Productividad (INTECAP) INTECAP

Consejo Nacional de Áreas Protegidas (CONAP) CONAP

CONAP- Petén

Asociación Nacional de Aviturismo (ANA) curriculum consultant

curriculum consultant- Guatemala Centro de Estudios Conservacionistas (CECON)

Guatemala- Aventura sin Limites Guatemala Nature Tours Martsam Travel

Operador Latino

Claire Dailles

Guatemala

Universidad del Valle de Guatemala

Rosa Duarte

Paraguay

SENATUR

Raquel Cardozo Aldo Insfrán

Jazmín Escobar

Nathalia Aguilar Dávalos Alberto Yanosky

Hugo del Castillo Lorena Sforza

Nazario Acosta

Ana María Garay

Reinaldo Viveros

Mariano Santacruz Narciso Acosta Paul Smith

Floyd Hayes

Oscar Rodríguez Andrea Ferreira Rob Clay

Paraguay Paraguay Paraguay Paraguay Paraguay Paraguay Paraguay Paraguay Paraguay Paraguay Paraguay Paraguay Paraguay Paraguay Paraguay Paraguay Paraguay

Secretaria Nacional de Turismo (SENATUR) SENATUR SENATUR

Guyra Paraguay Guyra Paraguay Guyra Paraguay Guyra Paraguay

Asociación Paraguaya de Guías de Turismo (APGT) APGT APGT APGT APGT

Curriculum Consultant- Paraguay; Fauna Paraguay curriculum consultant DTP Tour Operador

Andrea Ferreira-Fotografía Bird guide, Manomet

Audubon mentions or links to several products or services in the Bird Guide Training Curriculum. These references are provided solely for your convenience and are not meant to be an advertisement or endorsement of any single product or service

Table of Contents Introduction............................................................................................................................... 1 1

Bird Biology........................................................................................................................ 2 1.1 Introduction......................................................................................................................................... 2 1.2 The Origin of Birds (slide 2–5)...................................................................................................... 2 1.2.1 Ancestors of Birds (slide 2)......................................................................................................................... 2 1.2.2 Early Birds (slides 3–5)................................................................................................................................. 3 1.3 Anatomy and Physiology (slides 6–32)....................................................................................... 3 1.3.1 Bills (slides 6-7)................................................................................................................................................ 3 1.3.2 Wings (slides 8-9)............................................................................................................................................ 3 1.3.3 Bones (slides 10–19)...................................................................................................................................... 4 1.3.4 Feathers (slides 20–25)................................................................................................................................. 5 1.3.5 Respiratory and Circulatory Systems (slides 26–27)....................................................................... 6 1.3.6 Digestive System (slides 28–32)................................................................................................................ 7 1.4 Reproduction (slides 33–58).......................................................................................................... 7 1.4.1 Mating Systems (slides 33–38).................................................................................................................. 7 1.4.2 Breeding Season (slides 39–42)................................................................................................................ 7 1.4.3 Copulation (slides 43–44)............................................................................................................................ 8 1.4.4 Nests (slides 45–48)....................................................................................................................................... 8 1.4.5 Eggs (slides 49–52)......................................................................................................................................... 9 1.4.6 Parental Care (slides 53–56)....................................................................................................................... 9 1.5 Migration (slides 57–68)................................................................................................................. 9 1.6 Study Exercises..................................................................................................................................11

2

Bird Diversity and Taxonomy.....................................................................................12 2.1 Introduction (slide 2).....................................................................................................................12 2.2 Scientific Classification and Taxonomy (slides 3–5).............................................................12 2.2.1 Bird Names (slides 6–7)..............................................................................................................................12 2.2.2 Species (slides 8–11)....................................................................................................................................12 2.2.3 Subspecies (slides 12–13)..........................................................................................................................14 2.2.4 Species Richness (slides 14–16)..............................................................................................................14 2.3 Neotropical Bird Diversity (slides 17–120).............................................................................15 2.4 Glossary...............................................................................................................................................44 2.5 Study Questions................................................................................................................................46

3

Bird Conservation...........................................................................................................47 3.1 Introduction (slide 2)....................................................................................................................47 3.2 Bird Extinctions (slides 3–7)........................................................................................................47 3.3 Threats to Birds (slides 8–40).....................................................................................................48 3.3.1 Introduced Species (slides 10–15).........................................................................................................48 3.3.2 Overexploitation (slides 16–20)..............................................................................................................49 3.3.3 Habitat Loss (slides 21–25).......................................................................................................................50 3.3.4 Pollution (slides 26–34)..............................................................................................................................51

Bird Guide Training Curriculum | Basic Level

3.3.5 Climate Change (slides 35–40).................................................................................................................52 3.3.6 Synergies Among Multiple Threats (slide 41)...................................................................................52 3.4 Species Conservation (slides 42–55).........................................................................................52 3.5 Ecosystem Conservation (slides 56–63)...................................................................................53 3.6 Important Bird Areas (slides 64–65).........................................................................................53 3.7 Migration (slide 66).........................................................................................................................54 3.8 Bird-based Tourism as a Conservation Strategy....................................................................54 3.9 A Call to Action (slide 67)..............................................................................................................55 3.10 Study Questions................................................................................................................................55

4

Bird Identification..........................................................................................................56 4.1 Introduction (slide 2).....................................................................................................................56 4.2 Bird identification using comparisons (slide 3)....................................................................56 4.3 Identification to family level (slide 4).......................................................................................57 4.4 Bird identification basics (slides 5–10)....................................................................................58 4.4.1 Studying a bird (slide 5) .............................................................................................................................58 4.4.2 Understanding field marks (slide 6) .....................................................................................................59 4.4.3 Looking at the face (slide 7) .....................................................................................................................59 4.4.4 Noticing structure (slide 8) .......................................................................................................................59 4.4.5 Assessing lighting effects (slide 9) .........................................................................................................60 4.4.6 Using habitat and behavior in identification (slide 10) ................................................................60 4.5 Recognition vs identification (slide 11)...................................................................................61 4.6 Communicating field marks.........................................................................................................61 4.7 Molt and Plumage Variations (slides 12–15)..........................................................................61 4.7.1 Molt (slide 12) ................................................................................................................................................61 4.7.2 Male/Female Plumages (slide 13) .........................................................................................................62 4.7.3 Immature Plumages (slide 14) ................................................................................................................63 4.7.4 Geographic variation (slide 15) ..............................................................................................................65 4.8 Little brown and green birds (slide 16)....................................................................................65 4.9 Special considerations: raptors (slide 17)..............................................................................66 4.10 Special considerations: shorebirds (slide 18).......................................................................66 4.11 Special considerations: seabirds, gulls, terns (slide 20)....................................................67 4.13 Importance of bird sounds in identification (slide 22).......................................................67 4.14 Special considerations: species that differ largely by voice (slide 22)...........................67 4.15 Special considerations: endemics and regional specialties (slide 23)...........................68 4.16 Exercises..............................................................................................................................................68

5

Basic Guiding Skills........................................................................................................69 5.1 Introduction (slide 1).....................................................................................................................69 5.2 Education............................................................................................................................................70 5.3 Understanding your personality (slide 2)...............................................................................70 5.3.1 Knowing your strengths and weaknesses ..........................................................................................70 5.3.2 Ego .......................................................................................................................................................................70 5.3.3 Professionalism (slide 4)............................................................................................................................71


5.4 Communication (slide 5)...............................................................................................................72 5.4.1 Communication ..............................................................................................................................................72 5.4.2 Pointing out a bird in the environment. ..............................................................................................72 5.4.3 Trip protocols..................................................................................................................................................73 5.5 Logistics (slide 6).............................................................................................................................73 5.5.1 Achieving expectations................................................................................................................................73 5.5.2 Planning the day.............................................................................................................................................74 5.5.3 Keeping mental notes of birds seen and adjusting itinerary based on birding results....74 5.5.4 Making sure everyone is seeing everything........................................................................................74 5.5.5 Using the spotting scope.............................................................................................................................75 5.5.6 Safety...................................................................................................................................................................75 5.5.7 The bird list.......................................................................................................................................................76 5.5.8 Specific day to day logistical considerations......................................................................................76 5.6 Rhythm and Flow of Tour (slide 7).............................................................................................77 5.6.1 Tours are like a good story.........................................................................................................................77 5.6.2 Have fun..............................................................................................................................................................78 5.6.3 Ending each day and the trip on a high note......................................................................................78 5.7 Improving and Self-Reflection (slide 8)....................................................................................79 5.8 Exercises..............................................................................................................................................79

6

Group Management .......................................................................................................80 6.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................................80 6.2 Expectations (slide 2).....................................................................................................................80 6.3 Leadership (slide 5)........................................................................................................................81 6.3.1 First impressions...........................................................................................................................................81 6.3.2 Maintaining communication through a trip (slide 6).....................................................................81 6.3.3 Nonverbal communication ........................................................................................................................82 6.3.4 Maintaining focus of the participants (slide 7).................................................................................82 6.3.5 Maintaining personal focus and energy (slide 8).............................................................................83 6.4 Basic protocols for keeping order (slide 11)..........................................................................83 6.4.1 Bus rotation......................................................................................................................................................83 6.4.2 Trail rotation....................................................................................................................................................83 6.4.3 Using the scope...............................................................................................................................................83 6.4.4 Photography.....................................................................................................................................................84 6.5 Logistics (slide 10)...........................................................................................................................84 6.5.1 Time management.........................................................................................................................................84 6.5.2 Adjusting itinerary on the go (slide 12)...............................................................................................84 6.6 Empathy and sensitivity (slide 13).............................................................................................85 6.6.1 Understanding cultural differences .......................................................................................................85 6.6.2 Sensitivity to clients .....................................................................................................................................85 6.6.3 Sensitivity to local culture..........................................................................................................................85 6.7 Professionalism (slide 14)............................................................................................................86 6.7.1 “The customer is always right”.................................................................................................................86 6.7.2 Maintaining a professional distance from group participants...................................................86


6.7.3 Interpersonal relationships - Avoiding picking “favorites” .........................................................86 6.8 Teamwork (slide 15).......................................................................................................................86 6.8.1 Working with other guides and international guides.....................................................................86 6.8.2 Vehicle Drivers.................................................................................................................................................87 6.8.3 Building group spirit.....................................................................................................................................87 6.9 Post-tour analysis (slide 16).........................................................................................................88 6.10 Exercises..............................................................................................................................................88

7

Business Skills.................................................................................................................89 7.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................................................89 7.2 Building Great Birding and Ecotourism Destinations..........................................................89 7.2.1 Panama Canal Zone—A case study (slide 3)......................................................................................89 7.2.2 Elements of a great birding destination ..............................................................................................90 7.2.3 Diversity and quality of bird species (slide 4)...................................................................................90 7.2.4 Accessible, high quality habitat (slide 6).............................................................................................90 7.2.5 Infrastructure—roads, hotels, transportation (slide 6)................................................................91 7.2.6 Interdependencies—lodging and birding localities .......................................................................91 7.2.7 High quality birding guides (slide 6).....................................................................................................92 7.2.8 Bird checklists, information on birds to be found at the site (slide 7)....................................92 7.2.9 High quality field guide book (slide 7)..................................................................................................92 7.2.10 Information on birding finding, trails and parks for independent travelers (slide 7).....93 7.2.11 Safety for the traveler (slide 5)................................................................................................................93 7.2.12 Culture, scenery, food, weather etc. (slide 5).....................................................................................93 7.2.13 Marketing your location (slide 8)............................................................................................................93 7.3 Understanding the Birding Ecotourism Market (slides 8 to 9).........................................93 7.3.1 Numbers of birders (slide 9).....................................................................................................................93 7.3.2 Demographics of birders (slide 9)..........................................................................................................94 7.3.3 Birders are not a uniform group (slide 9)...........................................................................................94 7.3.4 Economic impact of birders.......................................................................................................................94 7.4 Developing and growing your business ...................................................................................95 7.4.1 Identifying your product (slide 10)........................................................................................................95 7.4.2 Itineraries and descriptions of service ................................................................................................95 7.4.3 Pricing ................................................................................................................................................................95 7.4.4 Payments............................................................................................................................................................95 7.4.5 Liability and insurance ...............................................................................................................................96 7.4.6 Common problems in marketing (slide 18)........................................................................................96 7.5 Working Together to Share Success...........................................................................................97 7.5.1 Joining a birding tourism working group (slide 19).......................................................................97 7.5.2 Importance of regional reputation and cooperative competition (slide 21).......................97 7.6 Literature Cited.................................................................................................................................98 7.7 Exercises..............................................................................................................................................98

8

Birder’s English...............................................................................................................99 8.1

Introduction. (slide 2)....................................................................................................................99


8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7

Why English and not another language? .................................................................................99 Understanding English bird names (slide 4)..........................................................................99 Pronunciation apps ..................................................................................................................... 100 Common vocabulary to describe plumage and identification details (slide 5)........ 100 Common vocabulary to describe habitats, and locations (slide 6)............................... 101 Common vocabulary to describe behaviors, migration, status/abundance, and distribution (slide 7)........................................................................................................... 101 8.8 Common vocabulary to communicate the location of a bird to clients (slide 8)...... 102 8.9 Exercises........................................................................................................................................... 103

9

Citizen Science.............................................................................................................. 104 9.1 Introduction (slides 2–3)............................................................................................................ 104 9.2 eBird (slides 4–19)....................................................................................................................... 104 9.2.1 What is eBird?...............................................................................................................................................104 9.2.2 Regional Editors and Quality Control.................................................................................................105 9.2.3 Why is eBird Important to Guides?.....................................................................................................105 9.2.4 eBird Caribbean and eBird Central America ..................................................................................105 9.2.5 Hot Spots.........................................................................................................................................................108 9.2.6 Species Maps.................................................................................................................................................111 9.2.7 Comparing Species Abundance Using Charts.................................................................................115 9.2.8 eBird Apps: BirdLog and BirdsEye......................................................................................................116 9.2.9 How are Scientists using the Data?......................................................................................................116 9.3 Great Backyard Bird Count (slide 20).................................................................................... 116 9.4 Christmas Bird Counts (slides 21–30).................................................................................... 117 9.4.1 Creating a new Christmas Bird Count................................................................................................118 9.5 Nest Monitoring (slide 31)......................................................................................................... 118 9.6 Breeding Bird Atlas (slide 32)................................................................................................... 119 9.7 Photography, Video and Bird Vocalization Recording Archives (slides 33–35)....... 119 9.8 Bird Surveys (slides 36–38)....................................................................................................... 120 9.9 Mistnetting/Banding/Molt Studies (slides 39–45)............................................................ 120 9.10 Exercises........................................................................................................................................... 121

10 Tools of the Trade ....................................................................................................... 122 10.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................................... 122 10.2 Binoculars (slides 2–8)................................................................................................................ 122 10.2.1 Care and cleaning........................................................................................................................................123 10.2.2 Brands..............................................................................................................................................................123 10.3 Spotting Scopes and Tripods (slides 9–10).......................................................................... 123 10.3.1 Brands..............................................................................................................................................................124 10.3.2 Angled vs straight-through scopes......................................................................................................124 10.3.3 Tripods.............................................................................................................................................................124 10.4 Photography (slide 11–16)........................................................................................................ 125 10.4.1 Birding photography..................................................................................................................................125 10.4.2 Digiscoping.....................................................................................................................................................125 10.4.3 Phone-scoping.............................................................................................................................................126


10.5 Laser Pointer (slide 17).............................................................................................................. 127 10.6 Smart Phone Applications (slides 18-26)............................................................................. 127 10.6.1 Field guide apps...........................................................................................................................................127 10.6.2 Weather forecast apps...............................................................................................................................127 10.6.3 Sound recording apps................................................................................................................................128 10.6.4 Camera apps..................................................................................................................................................128 10.6.5 eBird apps .....................................................................................................................................................128 10.6.6 eBird data entry—BirdLog......................................................................................................................128 10.7 Field Sketching (slides 27–31).................................................................................................. 129 10.8 Online References (slides 32–54)............................................................................................ 130 10.8.1 Images..............................................................................................................................................................130 10.8.2 Vocalizations.................................................................................................................................................130 10.9 Books (slides 55-74).................................................................................................................... 135 10.10 Exercises........................................................................................................................................... 137

11 Ethics and Safety.......................................................................................................... 138 11.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................................... 138 11.2 Birding Ethics (slides 3-5).......................................................................................................... 138 11.2.1 Promote the welfare of birds and their environment..................................................................138 11.2.2 Respect the law, and the rights of others..........................................................................................139 11.2.3 Ensure that feeders, nest structures, and other artificial bird environments are safe.. 139 11.2.4 Group birding, whether organized or impromptu, requires special care...........................139 11.3 Guiding Ethics (slides 6–7)......................................................................................................... 139 11.3.1 Ethics on attracting birds for viewing................................................................................................139 11.4 Client Safety (slides 9–13).......................................................................................................... 141 11.4.1 Communicate about potential hazards..............................................................................................141 11.4.2 First aid (slides 14–16).............................................................................................................................141 11.5 Liability Insurance for Guides (slides 17–18)..................................................................... 142 11.6 Exercises........................................................................................................................................... 142

12 Organizations................................................................................................................ 143 12.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................................... 143 12.2 Birding.............................................................................................................................................. 143 12.3 Ornithology..................................................................................................................................... 143 12.4 Conservation................................................................................................................................... 145 12.5 Tourism and Guiding.................................................................................................................... 146


INTRODUCTION

John Sterling

This curriculum (presented in 2 volumes: Basic and Advanced) can be used to train and, in some cases, certify birding guides in the Caribbean and Latin America. Due to its complexity and detail, the curriculum is designed to be used as a teacher’s manual. Thus, it is incumbent upon each organization to choose qualified instructors with excellent interpretive and knowledge transfer skills. The basic level is intended for individuals with little to no experience in bird identification and guiding and who are being trained to guide primarily in a single location near their community for casual birders. The advanced level is intended for those with birding and guiding experience that want to advance their careers and be trained to lead multi-day tours to diverse locations to all levels of birders.

Both Basic and Advanced Curriculums are divided into two sections. The first section (chapters 1–3) covers bird biology, bird diversity, and conservation that help potential or existing bird guides to better understand bird biology and behavior for the purpose of locating birds, interpreting them, and educating others. The second section (chapters 4–12) covers relevant skills and information for working as a bird guide, such as how to identify birds, manage a group, and run a business. 1 Bird Guide Training Curriculum | Basic Level

Other important information on equipment, technology, ethics, citizen science and relevant reference material completes the section. Each chapter includes learning outcomes, relevant content, photos and illustrations, and concludes with a list of suggested exercises; some chapters have a glossary. Slide numbers refer to supplemental visual training materials and serve as reference points for the benefit of the instructor. Note: not every slide number is listed Throughout the course, training staff should provide country and site-specific examples, citing personal experience and reference materials. This curriculum does not include chapter or final assessments; the criteria for evaluating and certifying guides varies by country. Each country should develop its own assessments. Those offering training for the basic or advanced levels should determine the appropriate number of classroom hours and field instruction, based on the level of prior understanding of the trainees, site conditions, and avian diversity. The following table shows suggested number of instruction hours for each chapter of the Basic Level. Enhancing skills, especially bird identification, requires continuous training beyond the length of this course.

Chapter #

Topics

Classroom (hours)

1

Biology

2–4

Field Instruction (hours)

2

Bird Diversity and Taxonomy

2–4

4

Bird Identification

8–16

80

2–4

8

3 5 6 7 8 9

10 11 12

Approximate Totals

Conservation

Basic Guiding Skills

Group Management Business Skills

Birder’s English Citizen Science

Tools of the Trade Ethics and Safety Organizations

2–4 2–4 3–6

40

2–4

4–12 2–4 1–2 1–2

30–60 hours (10 weeks evening sessions or 1 week intensive)

16 field days

Bird Guide Training Curriculum | Basic Level 2

1 BIRD BIOLOGY

LEARNING OUTCOMES 1. Understand scientific evidence for the origin of birds.

2. Identify anatomical and physiological adaptations of birds. 3. Be familiar with the reproductive adaptations of birds. 4. Identify the migratory adaptations of birds.

5. Recognize how seasonal changes in weather affect bird behavior.

1.1 Introduction

Birds are fascinating organisms with many unique adaptations for survival. People who enjoy watching birds often ask questions about their biology, such as where did birds come from, how do they fly, when do they nest, and why do they migrate? An understanding of basic bird biology is essential for a guide to be able to answer questions from clients and can be helpful in understanding where and when to search for birds.

1.2 The Origin of Birds (slide 2–5) 1.2.1 Ancestors of Birds (slide 2) Because birds share more traits with reptiles than with any other class of vertebrates, birds are believed to have evolved from a reptilian ancestor. Among the potential reptilian ancestors, most scientists believe that birds evolved from a specialized group of theropod dinosaurs, which shared several traits with birds. Theropod dinosaurs, which include Tyrannosaurus rex, first appeared about 230

Fig. 1-1. Birds are believed to have evolved from bird-like theropod dinosaurs resembling Compsognathus. Source: Wikipedia.

3 Bird Guide Training Curriculum | Basic Level

million years ago (mya) during the Triassic period and became extinct along with all other dinosaurs about 66 mya at the end of the Cretaceous period. Birds are thought to have

evolved at least 150 mya during the Jurassic period.

1.2.2 Early Birds (slides 3–5)

The oldest well-known bird is Archaeopteryx, an extinct genus of at least two species living in Germany about 150 mya during the late Jurassic period. Archaeopteryx possessed a mixture of avian and reptilian traits. Its reptilian traits included teeth, claws on the wings, and a tail with many free vertebrae. Several other groups of early birds also possessed teeth. More modern birds with a beak rather than teeth, belonging to the genus Confuciusornis, first appeared about 125 mya during the early Cretaceous period in China. Beaked birds eventually replaced toothed birds, which became extinct along with the dinosaurs at the end of the Cretaceous period.

1.3 Anatomy and Physiology (slides 6–32) Fig. 1-2. Archaeopteryx, the earliest well-known bird, exhibits of mosaic of reptile and bird traits. Source: Wikipedia.

Birds are highly adapted for flight by having reduced body weight, hollow bones, wings, feathers, and enlarged flight muscles, surfaces of the breastbone for muscle attachment, and extremely efficient respiration and circulation.

1.3.1 Bills (slides 6–7)

The lightweight jaws (mandibles) of a bird are referred to as a beak or bill. A thin, horny sheath covers it. Most species have a pair of nostrils on the upper mandible, through which birds breathe.

The shape of a bill is highly variable, depending on a bird’s diet and method of capturing food. For example, it tends to be strongly hooked in birds that eat meat, thin in birds that eat insects, large and thick in birds that eat seeds, and long and thin in birds that probe for food.

1.3.2 Wings (slides 8–10) Fig. 1-3. Confuciusornis, the first beaked bird known from the fossil record. Source: Wikipedia.

All birds have wings, which are modified arms used primarily for flight. Wings may


Fig. 1-4. An example of how a bird’s bill shape varies with diet. Source: www.sciencepartners.info.

also be used for swimming, controlling body temperature, and in behavioral displays. Some species can hover in one position. Hummingbirds can fly backwards. The shape of a wing is highly variable, depending upon the manner of locomotion and habitat in which it lives. Flightless species, such as rheas and penguins, have very short wings; in the case of penguins, they are paddle-shaped for swimming.

1.3.3 Bones (slides 11–19)

Fig. 1-5. The cross-section of a bird’s wing illustrating how air flowing across curved surfaces generates lift. Source: Floyd Hayes.


Many of birds’ bones are hollow with crisscrossing struts to provide strength, yet remain lightweight. Another adaptation is the fusing of bones into a single bone structure, which makes the skeleton lighter and more rigid; as a consequence, birds have fewer bones than other vertebrates. The furcula or wishbone strengthens the chest. The sternum

have webbed or lobed toes for swimming. Raptors have thick toes with sharp claws for grasping prey. Parrots use their thick toes to manipulate food and other objects. Fig. 1-6. The cross section of a bird’s bone illustrating the hollow interior with crisscrossing struts. Source: OpenStax College, cnx.org.

1.3.4 Feathers (slides 20–25)

All birds have feathers, which cover most of the body and serve many functions such as flight, temperature regulation, communication, camouflage, swimming, and sound production. Vaned feathers cover the exterior surface of the body. Each consists of a central shaft, which divides the feather into two vanes. The central shaft has a complex set of branches and hooks. The largest feathers of the wings and tail are asymmetrical in shape, which makes them more aerodynamically stable for flight. The smaller feathers tend to be symmetrical in shape. Birds have several other types of feathers that are less conspicuous than vaned feathers, such as down feathers, which are small, soft, and fluffy, and provide thermal insulation. Other types of feathers are intermediate in size and shape.

Fig. 1-7. The skeleton of a bird. Source: D. G. Mackean, www. biology-resources.com.

or breastbone is greatly enlarged and shaped like the keel of a boat to provide a large surface area for the attachment of flight muscles. Bird legs are highly variable. Swifts, hummingbirds, and swallows have very small legs and feet that are only used for perching. The ankle is located well above the ground. Birds walk on their toes. Most birds have four toes, but some (especially flightless species) have only three or two. Aquatic species often

Fig. 1-8. The structure of a contour feather. Source: Cornell Lab of Ornithology, biology.allaboutbirds.org.


Fig. 1-9. Variation in the structure of bird feathers. Source: Cornell Lab of Ornithology, biology.allaboutbirds.org.

Birds invest a considerable amount of time grooming their feathers with their bill, which is called preening. To help maintain the quality of feathers, birds secrete waxy oil from a gland on the rump and use their bills to apply it to their feathers while preening.

Feathers eventually become frayed and tattered with age and must be replaced periodically by new ones through a complicated process referred to as molt, which usually takes place after the reproductive and migratory seasons. Nearly all birds molt at least once a year. Many birds molt twice each year.

1.3.5 Respiratory and Circulatory Systems (slides 26–27)

Because the physical exertion of flight requires a high metabolic rate and a high oxygen demand, birds have developed highly efficient 7 Bird Guide Training Curriculum | Basic Level

Fig. 1-10. The respiratory system of birds. Source: sunandshield.wordpress.com/tag/air-sacs.

respiratory and circulatory systems. Birds possess two lungs and a unique system of 7-12 air sacs, which can even extend into the hollow spaces of bones in the wings and legs. Like mammals and crocodilian reptiles, birds have a four-chambered heart that is more efficient in delivering oxygen throughout the body than the three-chambered heart of most reptiles. Birds create vocalizations with their syrinx, a unique organ located at the base of the trachea where it forks toward the lungs. Sounds are produced by vibration of air as it passes through the syrinx, which is capable of making two different sounds simultaneously. Vocalizations are important for species recognition and for communication between individuals of the same species.

1.3.6 Digestive System (slides 28–32) The digestive system of birds includes several unique modifications for efficiently digesting food. Many birds have an expanded throat pouch (crop) that stores and softens food before it enters the two chambers of the stomach. The posterior portion of the stomach often contains small stones as grit. Most birds drink water by filling their mouths and raising their heads, allowing gravity to drain the water

downward. Some seabirds have special glands in tube-shaped nostrils that remove salt from seawater.

1.4 Reproduction (slides 33–58) 1.4.1 Mating Systems (slides 33–38)

Most species of birds are considered to be monogamous, meaning that a male and a female form a pair bond during the breeding season. Often a different mate is selected during the subsequent breeding season (serial monogamy), but in some species, especially the larger and long-lived species such as albatrosses and geese, a pair typically remain bonded together for many years (mate-for-life monogamy).

Many species exhibit polygyny, which occurs when a male mates with multiple females. Some polygynous species, such as hermit hummingbirds and manakins, form leks in which two or more males form small mating territories within a small area and display conspicuously to females, which visit a lek only to mate with a high-ranking male and do not form pair bonds. Males are often notably larger, more colorful, and more aggressive than females.

A few species, such as phalaropes and jacanas, exhibit polyandry, which occurs when a female mates with multiple males. In polyandrous species the typical sex roles are reversed. Males incubate the eggs and a female may even smash the eggs of another female to induce the male to mate with her and incubate her own eggs. Females of these species tend to be larger, more colorful, and more aggressive.

1.4.2 Breeding Season (slides 39–42)

Fig. 1-11. The digestive system of a bird. Source: agsciencelc. blogspot.com/2013/06/digestive-systems.html.

Most birds nest when food is most abundant and available. In temperate regions it usually occurs during spring; in tropical regions it is more variable, and depends on the diet.


The breeding season is generally shorter in regions where temperature or rainfall is highly seasonal, and more prolonged in regions where annual variation in temperature or rainfall are more uniform. Most species breed every year; some large and long-lived species breed only once every two or three years.

1.4.3 Copulation (slides 43–44)

Most birds lack external genitalia. Mating typically occurs when a male mounts a female and quickly transfers sperm to the female during a brief period of cloacal contact.

1.4.4 Nests (slides 45–47)

Fig. 1-12. The breeding season of land birds is more prolonged in a tropical locality (Amazonian Brazil) than in a temperate locality (Sapucái, Paraguay). Source: Floyd Hayes.

Nearly all birds construct a nest for depositing their eggs. A few species such a cowbirds simply lay their eggs in the nest of another species. Nests generally provide safety

Fig. 1-13. Bird nests vary greatly in design, with infinite variations of four basic types. Source: Floyd Hayes.


from predators by being inaccessible or inconspicuous.

Nests are highly variable in shape and size. Most species build a cup-shaped nest, which is placed within vegetation, such as on the branch of a tree. Some species build complex enclosed structures; others construct a flimsy nest of a few twigs. Many species nest within the cavity of a tree or dirt bank, or directly on the ground.

1.4.5 Eggs (slides 48–52)

All birds lay eggs, which are the most elaborate reproductive cells of any vertebrate. Eggs are usually fertilized within a few days of mating and develop within the reproductive tract of a female for a few days before they are laid. The hard outer shell is formed of calcium carbonate. Most eggs are pointed at one end; some are spherical or pointed at both ends. Eggs vary in coloration and are usually camouflaged to match the background. The number of eggs laid varies greatly among species, ranging from one in long-lived species

such as albatrosses to 26 in ground-nesting species such as quail. Birds that live in colder and more arid regions tend to lay more eggs than those that live in warmer and more humid regions.

1.4.6 Parental Care (slides 53–56)

Nearly all birds incubate their eggs. Some species simply dump their eggs in the nests of other species. Both parents usually incubate the eggs but in many species only one parent, usually the female, incubates. Some species nest communally with more than one female laying eggs in a nest. The incubation period varies greatly, ranging from about 11–85 days.

1.5 Migration (slides 57–68)

Because of their ability to fly long distances, many species of birds travel annually to highly seasonal environments where they find abundant food and vacant territories with fewer competitors. When the food supply dwindles, they return to areas with more favorable environmental conditions. Such annual, round-trip, long-distance movements are referred to as migration. Some species migrate short distances, such as up and down a mountain; others migrate incredibly long distances between northern and southern hemispheres.

Migration is a risky endeavor. Migrants expend an enormous amount of energy, are exposed to physical hazards such as storms, collisions with objects, getting lost, drowning at sea, etc., and are more vulnerable to predators. As a consequence, migrants do not live as long as non-migrants and fewer survive each year.

Fig. 1-14. The eggs of ground-nesting birds, such as this Southern Lapwing (Vanellus chilensis), tend to be camouflaged. Source: Floyd Hayes.

Research is slowly unraveling the mystery of migration. The timing and route of a bird’s migration appear to be genetically programmed but may be modified by environmental influences. Birds use sophisticated sensory systems to navigate


Fig. 1-15. Migratory paths of the Sooty Shearwater (Puffinus griseus). Source: Shaffer et al. 2006, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 103: 12799–12802.

with remarkable precision. Many birds return annually to the same breeding and wintering territories, which may be thousands of miles apart. Birds navigate by a variety of cues, including the sun and stars, magnetic fields, visual landmarks, and possibly olfactory and audio cues. Migrating birds are fueled by body fat reserves, which are stored prior to migration, and even portions of organ tissues. Some birds can fly several thousand kilometers for several days without resting. There are three major patterns of bird migration in the New World.

1. The most conspicuous and best known pattern is exhibited by many species of northern migrants, which breed in 11 Bird Guide Training Curriculum | Basic Level

Canada and the United States and migrate southward to spend the boreal winter (October to March) in the tropics. Some species, especially shorebirds, migrate as far south as Chile and Argentina.

2. The second pattern consists of intratropical migrants that breed within the tropics but regularly migrate back and forth from one tropical area to another. Unfortunately, little is known about the routes and distances traveled by these migrants, but ongoing research reveals that some species migrate within the tropics. Many waterbirds and seed-eating finches, for example, move between different regions during the wet season and dry

directions in search of food or a defendable territory. Migration is a more specialized form of dispersal defined by annual roundtrip movements between breeding and non‐ breeding areas.

1.6 Study Exercises

1. From what group of dinosaurs are birds thought to have evolved? Fig. 1-18. A subspecies of the Fork-tailed Flycatcher (Tyrannus savana) breeds in southern South America and migrates to northern South America. Source: Floyd Hayes.

season, and many nectar- and fruit-eating species move up and down mountains.

3. The third pattern consists of austral migrants, which breed in temperate areas of South America and migrate northward to spend the austral winter (roughly April to September) in the tropics. Only some pelagic seabirds migrate regularly as far north as North America. There are far fewer species of austral migrants than northern migrants, presumably because there is less land area in temperate latitudes of South America compared with North America, the distance to the tropics is shorter, and winters are milder. Not all birds migrate. Many species are relatively sedentary with individuals remaining year‐round within a defended territory, although some individuals may disperse variable distances in random

2. Describe three examples of how beak shape varies with diet. 3. Give three functions of wings.

4. Why do birds have hollow bones?

5. Why do most birds have a keeled sternum? 6. Give three functions of feathers.

7. Name and describe two types of feathers.

8. How do birds maintain the quality of their feathers? 9. What is molt?

10. What is a syrinx?

11. With what does the breeding season of birds typically coincide?

12. Name and describe three mating systems of birds. 13. Describe four types of bird nests.

14. Describe three types of cues used by birds to navigate.

15. Describe three major patterns of bird migration and name several bird species in your area that migrate in these patterns. 16. When is the primary breeding season in your area? How is it affected by weather patterns?


2 BIRD DIVERSITY AND TAXONOMY

LEARNING OUTCOMES 1. Understand the classification hierarchy.

2. Understand species and subspecies concepts.

3. Identify variables that affect species richness.

4. Name and describe birds in different families and orders.

2.1 Introduction (slide 2)

Bird diversity is the basis of birding. Birders want to see as many species as possible, especially “endemic” species, which have a small geographical range and occur nowhere else in the world. Many birders are obsessed with seeing life birds (species that they have never seen before, referred to as “lifers”) and tallying as high a list of species as possible. A good bird guide must be familiar with as many species as possible within his or her region and be able to help visiting birders find them as well as be familiar with how biologists name and classify birds.

2.2 Scientific Classification and Taxonomy (slides 3–5)

Biologists have grouped living organisms into a classification system. At the upper levels of classification, birds belong to the domain Eukarya (organisms with nucleated cells), kingdom Animalia (all animals), phylum Chordata (animals with a backbone), and class Aves (all birds), respectively. At the lower levels, birds are grouped into orders, families, and genera, respectively. An order comprises one or more families, a family comprises one or more genera, and a genus includes one or more species (Table 2.1).

2.2.1 Bird Names (slides 6–7)

Biologists assign each species a scientific name, usually in Latin (in italics), consisting of two words: (1) the genus, which begins with an


Table 2.1. Example of the scientific classification of a Barn Owl (Tyto alba) (photo on pg 42). Domain Kingdom Phylum

Class Order Family Genus + specific epithet (species)

Eukarya (nucleated cells) Animalia (all animals) Chordata (animals with a notochord or backbone) Aves (all birds) Strigiformes (all owls) Tytonidae (barn owls) Tyto alba (Barn Owl)

upper case letter, and (2) the specific epithet, which begins with a lower case letter. Each species has a unique scientific name that is internationally recognized, but it may change whenever new information is acquired about its relationship with other species.

Because scientific names are relatively difficult to remember and pronounce, common names are frequently used instead. Common names vary by location; often there are multiple common names for the same bird. Several contending references have compiled “official” names in English and other languages. Most birders use English names and expect guides to make an effort to learn them.

2.2.2 Species (slides 8–11)

Because populations of birds are often in the process of diverging as they adapt to

Fig. 2-1. Variation in the Striated Heron (Butorides striata; upper left) and Green Heron (Butorides. virescens; lower right) along the Chagres River in central Panama. Most individuals were either graynecked or rufous-necked, suggesting they prefer to mate with their own type and belong to different species, even though some hybridize. Source: Floyd Hayes, North American Birds 67:4-8, 2013.

Fig. 2-2. Variation within a single colony of Sandwich Terns (Thalasseus sandvicensis) in the US Virgin Islands. Notice the change in bill color from black with a yellow tip in the North American subspecies (T. s. acuflavidus; upper left) to all yellow of the South American subspecies (T. s. eurygnathus; lower right). Dark-billed and yellow-billed birds appear to mate randomly, suggesting they belong to the same species. Source: Floyd Hayes, North American Birds 57:566-572, 2004.


local environments, it may be difficult to determine whether two slightly different populations belong to one or two species. Most ornithologists embrace the biological species concept, which defines a species as a group of freely interbreeding natural populations that is essentially—but not necessarily completely— reproductively isolated from other such groups.

2.2.3 Subspecies (slides 12–13)

two or more populations within a species. When subspecies are described, a third word—the subspecific epithet—is added to the scientific name. For example, Tyrannus savana is the scientific name of the Fork-tailed Flycatcher, and Tyrannus savanna savanna is the subspecies of the Fork-tailed Flycatcher inhabiting southern South America.

Species are often subdivided into subspecies, also referred to as races, based on consistently observable morphological differences among

Species richness, which refers to the number of species present in an area, is the simplest measure of biodiversity. Species richness varies

Comparative element all continents

Less rich

within a continent

2.2.4 Species Richness (slides 14–16)

continental peninsula, such as Baja California or Florida continent vs. island island islands small island far from a continent. latitude polar latitudes where the climate is harsh and less predictable structure of habitat structurally simple habitats, such as tropical savannas topography flat, lowland areas precipitation

More rich

South American continent due to its long period of isolation from other continents main part of a continent

continent large island near a continent tropical latitudes where the climate is relatively mild and predictable structurally diverse habitats, such as tropical rainforest topographically diverse areas with mountains and valleys, especially at intermediate elevations dry areas with less plant diversity humid areas with more plant diversity

Fig. 2-3. Global bird species richness, illustrating the highest number of species in tropical South America. Source: Hawkins et al., American Naturalist 170:S16-S27, 2007.


Fig 2-3b. Source: http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/images/worldmap.2001.jpg

geographically in predictable patterns, based on opportunities for speciation (the formation of new species) and dispersal (individuals colonizing new areas).

2.3 Neotropical Bird Diversity (slides 17–120)

In this subsection we will review the major groups of birds in the Neotropical region, which includes most of Mexico, and all of Central America, the Caribbean, and South America. For unfamiliar terms that appear in the descriptions of families, see glossary, Section 2.4.

Order Rheiformes (slide 18)

■ Family Rheidae.—Rheas belong to a group of very large, usually flightless, grounddwelling land birds called ratites (superorder Paleognathae), which occur only on southern continents. Rheas have a long neck, vestigial wings, and long legs with three toes. Several females lay eggs, which are incubated by a

Fig. 2-4. Lesser Rhea (Rhea pennata). Source: Floyd Hayes.

male, in a communal nest on the ground. They are endemic to southern South America Neotropics, with two species occurring in the grasslands.

Order Tinamiformes (slide 19)

■ Family Tinamidae.—Tinamous are small to medium-sized, chicken-like, ground-dwelling land birds that are weak fliers. They are the


Fig. 2-4. Red-winged Tinamou (Rhynochotus rufescens). Source: Alvaro Jaramillo.

Fig. 2-6. White-cheeked Pintail (Anas bahamensis). Source: Floyd Hayes.

Fig. 2-5. Southern Screamer (Chauna torquata). Source: John Sterling.

Fig. 2-7. Great Curassow (Crax rubra). Source John Sterling.

only ratite that can fly. They have four toes. In some species, their vocalizations are loud and easily imitated. They lay a large clutch of glossy, unicolored, round eggs on the ground and, as is typical of ratites, the male incubates and cares for the young. They are endemic to Latin America.

Order Anseriformes (slides 20–21)

■ Family Anhimidae.—Screamers are large birds with a small head, short neck, long legs, and partially webbed feet. They have large claw-like spurs on their wings, which are used in fights. They lack uncinate processes (a hook like process on each vertebra). Their vocalizations are extremely loud. They are endemic to South America, with three species occurring in grasslands and marshes.


■ Family Anatidae.—Ducks, geese, and swans are medium to large waterbirds with a long neck and webbed feet. Most species have a broad and flattened bill for eating vegetation. Anatidae are divided into divers and dabblers: divers swim underwater to feed and dabblers reach downward from the surface to feed. A few (mergansers) have a narrow and serrated bill for capturing fish. Most temperate species are highly migratory, whereas one genus, the steamerducks (Tachyeres), includes flightless species.

Order Galliformes (slides 22–24)

■ Family Cracidae.—Guans, curassows and chachalacas are large, turkey-like landbirds with a small head, long neck, long legs, and a long tail. Many species have colorful head

Fig. 2-10. Least Grebe (Tachybaptus dominicus). Source: Floyd Hayes.

ornaments. Most species are arboreal. The chicks are precocial.

■ Family Odontophoridae.—Quail are small, ground-dwelling land birds that are weak fliers. A large clutch of eggs is laid on the ground. The chicks are precocial. They are found only in the New World, although the name quail comes from an Old World species of another family. Fig. 2-8. California Quail (Callipepla californica) and Rufousbreasted Wood-Quail (Odontophorus speciosus). Source: John Sterling, Alvaro Jaramillo.

■ Family Phasianidae.—Turkeys are large, ground-dwelling land birds with a small head, long neck, long legs, and a long tail. A fleshy wattle hangs from the top of the bill. The chicks are precocial. In Latin America, two species occur in Mexico and one in Guatemala and Belize.

Order Podicipediformes (slide 25)

Fig. 2.9. Ocellated Turkey (Meleagris ocellata). Source: John Sterling.

■ Family Podicipedidae.—Grebes are small to medium waterbirds with a pointed bill, long neck, short legs placed far back on the body, and large feet with lobed toes. They forage for fish and aquatic invertebrates by diving from the surface and rarely climb up on land. Some species perform elaborate courtship rituals. Feathers are often ingested and even fed to their young. Their nests are floating platforms. The striped young are precocial and can swim immediately after hatching.


Fig. 2-11. American Flamingo (Phoenicopterus ruber). Source: John Sterling.

Order Phoenicopteriformes (slide 26) ■ Family Phoenicopteridae.—Flamingos are large waterbirds with a thick, downwardbent bill, a long neck, and very long legs with webbed feet. They inhabit shallow, hypersaline bodies of water, and forage on brine shrimp and cyanobacteria, which are filtered through the bill with special sieve like structures while the head is held upside down. Their pinkish or reddish hues are obtained from beta-carotene pigments in their food. They nest in colonies and make nests with mud.

Order Sphenisciformes (slide 27)

■ Family Spheniscidae.—Penguins are medium to large seabirds restricted to the colder latitudes of the Southern Hemisphere, although one species occurs at the Equator in the Galapagos Islands. They are flightless with vestigial wings modified into flippers, which propel them while swimming and diving. Their plumage is strongly counter shaded with black above and white below, which provides camouflage in water. The short thick legs and webbed feet are used for waddling or hopping on land, and they toboggan across snow and ice on their bellies. They nest in colonies and lay one or two eggs which are incubated on the feet in some species. The northern species nest in burrows, while the southern ones nest above ground.


Fig. 2-12. Magellanic Penguin (Spheniscus magellanicus). Source: John Sterling.

Order Procellariiformes (slides 28–31)

Tubenoses are highly pelagic seabirds with a hooked bill, long wings, short legs with webbed feet, and tube-like nares on their bills which excrete salt. They come ashore only to breed, usually in colonies on small, isolated islands. Only one egg is laid. They have very long incubation and fledging periods. ■ Family Diomedeidae.—Albatrosses are large seabirds. The wingspan, up to 12 ft. (3.7 m) in Wandering and Royal albatrosses, is the longest of any bird. They are extremely efficient fliers, covering great distances just above the surface of the ocean with little effort and usually forage from the surface but occasionally dive a short distance below. They

Fig. 2-13. Black-browed Albatross (Thalassarche melanophrys). Source: John Sterling

Fig. 2-15. Peruvian Diving-Petrel (Pelecanoides gamotii). Source: Alvaro Jaramillo.

Fig. 2-16. Wilson’s Storm-Petrel (Oceanites oceanicus). Source: John Sterling.

Fig. 2-14. White-chinned Petrel (Procellaria aequinoctialis). Source: John Sterling.

wander long distances to find food, even while nesting. ■ Family Procellariidae.—Shearwaters and petrels resemble albatrosses but they are smaller with a smaller bill. They pursue prey by diving up to 70 m (230 ft.) deep in some species while others feed entirely at the surface. Some species migrate extraordinarily long distances, exceeding 64,000 km (40,000 mi) in a single year.

■ Family Pelecanoididae.—Diving-Petrels are small, auk-like seabirds which forage by pursuit diving. They occur only in the Southern Hemisphere in colder waters, and all species are quite difficult to identify. They nest in colonies, usually on islands and use burrows for nests. ■ Family Hydrobatidae.—Storm-Petrels are small, short-billed seabirds with a fluttering flight, dark plumage and sometimes a white rump. They typically forage while hovering at the surface of the ocean. Some have distinctive foraging styles, usually involving the feet. They are colonial, and nest in burrows. Nest visitation is commonly nocturnal.


Fig. 2-17: Maguari Stork (Ciconia maguari). Source: Floyd Hayes.

Order Ciconiiformes (slide 32)

Fig. 2-18. Magnificent Frigatebird (Fregata magnificens). Source: John Sterling

■ Family Ciconiidae.—Storks are large waterbirds with long and stout bill, long necks, and long legs. Because they lack a syrinx, they cannot vocalize; instead, they communicate by bill clattering. Some species migrate long distances. Their nests are large and bulky.

Order Suliformes (slides 33–36)

■ Family Fregatidae.—Frigatebirds are large seabirds with a thin and strongly hooked bill, extremely long and narrow wings, very short legs with small feet, and a deeply forked tail. Males have a bright red gular pouch that is inflated during courtship. They are excellent at soaring and are considered to have the lowest weight to flying surface ratio of any bird. They snatch fish from the surface of the ocean and frequently steal food from other seabirds (called kleptoparasitism). They nest in colonies on small, isolated islands in the tropics.


Fig. 2-19. Nazca Booby (Sula granti). Source: Floyd Hayes

■ Family Sulidae.—Boobies are large seabirds with a pointed bill, long wings, and webbed feet, some of which are brightlycolored. They forage for fish by aerial diving and nest in colonies on small, isolated islands. Most nest on the ground, whereas the Redfooted Booby nests in shrubs or trees.

Fig. 2-20. Neotropic Cormorant (Phalacrocorax brasilianus). Source: Floyd Hayes.

Fig. 2-22. Brown Pelican (Pelecanus occidentalis). Source: John Sterling.

Fig. 2-21. Anhinga (Anhinga anhinga). Source: Floyd Hayes.

Fig. 2-23. Snowy Egret (Egretta thula). Source: Floyd Hayes.

■ Family Phalacrocoracidae.—Cormorants are large waterbirds with a thin and strongly hooked bill, long neck, long narrow tail, and webbed feet. Many species have brightly colored facial skin. They forage for fish by diving from the surface, and frequently perch on branches with outstretched wings. They nest in colonies in trees or cliffs. ■ Family Anhingidae.—Anhingas are large waterbirds with a spear-shaped bill, a very long and thin neck, webbed feet, and a long tail. They often swim with only the neck above the surface and spear prey while diving. They frequently perch on branches with outstretched wings to dry their wings in the sun.

Order Pelecaniformes (slides 37–40) ■ Family Pelecanidae.—Pelicans are large and bulky waterbirds with a long bill, enormous gular pouch, and webbed feet. The gular pouch is used to scoop up prey while aerial diving or swimming at the surface. They often forage cooperatively in groups and nest in colonies. There are three species in the Americas.

■ Family Ardeidae.—Herons, egrets, and bitterns are small to large waterbirds with a spear-shaped bill, a long neck, and long legs. The neck is held in an S-shaped curve during flight. They forage by stalking prey and usually nest in colonies. Facial skin coloration and leg


Fig. 2-24. White-faced Ibis (Plegadis chihi). Source: Floyd Hayes.

Fig. 2-26. Osprey (Pandion haliaetus). Source: Floyd Hayes.

Fig. 2-25. Turkey Vulture (Cathartes aura). Source: Floyd Hayes.

coloration usually become bold and bright for a short period early in the nesting season. ■ Family Threskiornithidae.—Ibises and spoonbills are large waterbirds. Ibises have a long, down-curved bill, a long neck, and long legs. Spoonbills have a long, spoon-shaped bill, a long neck, and long legs. They probe mud for food and often feed in flocks. They are colonial when nesting.

Order Cathartiformes (slide 41)

■ Family Cathartidae.—Vultures and condors are large landbirds with a strongly hooked bill, a featherless head, and broad wings adapted for soaring flight. The feed mostly on carrion (dead animals) that they


find through a highly developed sense of smell (except in the Black Vulture). The featherless head prevents bacteria from destroying feathers and exposes the skin to the sanitizing effects of sunlight. Eggs are placed on the ground.

Order Accipitriformes (slides 42–43) Raptors are carnivorous birds of prey, characterized by a strongly hooked bill, a fleshy cere at the base of the bill, and thick feet with large, strongly curved claws. Bulky nests are constructed in trees.

■ Family Pandionidae.—The Osprey catches fish with its feet, which are specialized for grasping slippery prey. A reversible outer toe allows a fish to be grasped on each side by two claws, and bumps called spicules on the underside of the toes provide a better grip. This single-species family breeds in the Nearctic and Caribbean but migrates long distances to the south. ■ Family Accipitridae.—Hawks, eagles, and kites are small to large raptors. Some species have crests or raise crown feathers

Fig. 2-28. Limpkin (Aramus guarauna). Source: Floyd Hayes.

Fig. 2-27. Roadside Hawk (Rupornis magnirostris). Source: John Sterling.

for signaling. Unlike most birds, females are usually larger than males. They use a highly developed vision to find prey. Some species migrate long distances. Wing shape and tail length vary greatly, from wide and rounded winged species, to sharp and pointed winged species.

Order Gruiformes (slides 44–47)

■ Family Aramidae.—The Limpkin is a large waterbird with a long bill, long, neck, and long legs and toes. It is nocturnal or crepuscular, forages primarily on snails, has a butterflylike flight, and gives a loud call. This is singlespecies family endemic to the Neotropics, including southern Florida.

■ Family Psophiidae.—Trumpeters are large, chicken-like landbirds with a long neck, long legs, and hunched posture. Flocks forage for fallen fruits on the ground and they roost in

Fig. 2-29. Gray-winged Trumpeter (Psophia crepitans). Source: Wikipedia Dick Daniels (http://carolinabirds.org/)

trees. Their trumpeting calls are loud. They are endemic to the Neotropics, occurring only in South America.

■ Family Rallidae.—Rails, crakes, gallinules, and coots are small to medium-sized, chickenlike birds with long legs and toes. Some species have a long bill and neck. A few species have a frontal shield, which is a fleshy extension of the upper bill onto the forehead. Most species inhabit thick vegetation near water. Many Bird Guide Training Curriculum | Basic Level 24

Fig. 2-31. Sungrebe (Heliornis fulica). Source: Arthur Grosset.

Fig. 2-32. Sunbittern (Eurypygia helias). Source: John Sterling. Fig. 2-30. Grey-necked Wood-Rail (Aramides cajanea) and Common Moorhen (Gallinula galeata). Sources: John Sterling and Floyd Hayes.

species are nocturnal. Individuals of some species may disperse long distances.

■ Family Heliornithidae.—Sungrebes and finfoots are small, grebe-like waterbirds with a long bill and lobed toes. They are accomplished swimmers and divers and can climb up on low perches. Males carry chicks within skin pouches underneath the wings. Only one species lives in the Neotropics.

Order Eurypygiformes (slide 48)

■ Family Eurypygidae.—The Sunbittern is a large land bird with a long bill, long neck, long legs, and long tail. It forages mostly on the ground near water and seldom enters water. It often waves its tail from side to side. This single-species family is endemic to the Neotropics.


Fig. 2-33. Southern Lapwing (Vanellus chilensis). Source: Floyd Hayes.

Order Charadriiformes (slides 49–62) ■ Family Charadriidae.—Plovers and lapwings are small to medium-sized shorebirds with a short bill, short neck, compact body, long legs, and short toes. Lapwings have a spur (vestigial claw) at

the bend of the wing. Most species occur near water. They hunt by sight using a runand-pause technique. Breeding adults use a distraction display to lure potential predators away from the nest, which is placed on the ground. Many species migrate long distances.

Fig. 2-34. American Oystercatcher (Haematopus palliatus). Source: Floyd Hayes.

■ Family Haematopodidae.—Oystercatchers are medium-sized shorebirds with a long, stout bill and long legs. The bill is always bright orange or red. They forage mostly on mollusks, which are smashed or pried open by the bill. Unlike most birds, females are larger than males. ■ Family Recurvirostridae.—Avocets and stilts are medium-sized shorebirds with an elegantly long and slender bill, neck, and legs. Avocets have an upturned bill, which is swept from side to side while foraging. Stilts have a straight bill, and the longest legs relative to body size in any bird. They feed in shallow water and breed in loose colonies.

Fig. 2-35. American Avocet (Recurvirostra americana). Source: John Sterling

Fig. 2-36. Peruvian Thick-knee (Burhinus superciliaris). Source: Alvaro Jaramillo.

■ Family Burhinidae.—Thick-knees are medium-sized land birds with a stout bill, large owl-like eyes, and long legs with a knob around the knee. They are mostly nocturnal and inhabit arid or semiarid grasslands. ■ Family Chionidae.—Sheathbills are medium-sized, pigeon-like shorebirds with an upright posture, bare facial skin and a spur

Fig. 2-37. Snowy Sheathbill (Chionis albus). Source: John Sterling.


(vestigial claw) at the bend of the wing. They forage while walking on the ground or ice. They breed only in the Antarctic region; one species migrates to Patagonia in southern South America. ■ Family Pluvianellidae.—The Magellanic Plover is a small shorebird resembling plovers, but it is more closely related to sheathbills. It is the only shorebird that feeds its chicks by regurgitating food stored in its crops. This single-species family is endemic to the Neotropics, occurring only in southernmost South America.

■ Family Scolopacidae.—Sandpipers are a large, diverse family including curlews, godwits, phalaropes, etc. They are small to medium-sized shorebirds with great variation in the length of the bill, neck, and legs. Most species eat small invertebrates from mud or soil. Many species migrate long distances. Some species have a polyandrous breeding system, while some are polygynous. The young are precocial. Only the snipes breed in the Neotropics, all others are non-breeding visitors from the north. ■ Family Thinocoridae.—Seedsnipes are plump land birds with a small bill and short legs. Two species are smaller and quail-like, while the other two are larger and ptarmigan like. They are herbivorous, but do not eat seeds

Fig. 2-38. Magellanic Plover (Pluvianellus socialis). Source: Alvaro Jaramillo


as their name implies. They are endemic to the Neotropics, occurring in the Andes and Patagonia of South America.

Fig. 2-39. Hudsonian Godwit (Limosa haemastica). Source: John Sterling.

Fig. 2-40. Sanderling (Calidris alba). Source: Floyd Hayes.

Fig. 2-41. White-bellied Seedsnipe (Attagis malouinus). Source: John Sterling.

■ Family Jacanidae.—Jacanas are mediumsized shorebirds with a short bill, long neck, long legs, and very long toes and claws which enable them to walk on floating vegetation. The face has a fleshy head shield and wattle on each side. A spur (vestigial claw) occurs at the bend of the wing; and the primaries are bright yellow and often not visible when perched. Their breeding system is polyandrous. Fig. 2-42. Wattled Jacana (Jacana jacana). Source: John Sterling.

Fig. 2-43. South American Painted-Snipe (Nycticryphes semicollaris). Source: Mariano Fernandez, The Internet Bird Collection.

Fig. 2-44. Long-tailed Jaegar (Stercorarius longicaudus). Source: John Sterling.

■ Family Rostratulidae.—Painted-snipes are small shorebirds with a long, decurved bill and webbed feet. Females are more brightly colored than males. Only males provide parental care. One species occurs in the Neotropics, in southern South America. ■ Family Stercorariidae.—Skuas and jaegers are medium-sized, gull-like seabirds with a short, hooked bill, dark plumage, and white markings at the base of the primaries. One species has a very long tail during the breeding season. They breed in sub polar regions and migrate long distances. They frequently steal food from other seabirds (called kleptoparasitism) and feed on carrion (dead animals) but are predatory during the breeding season.

■ Family Laridae.—Gulls and terns are small to medium-sized waterbirds, usually grey above and white below. Most species of gulls have a thick and hooked bill, rounded wingtips,

Fig. 2-45. Laughing Gull (Leucophaeus atricilla). Source: Floyd Hayes.


Fig. 2-46. Forster’s Tern (Sterna forsteri). Source: Floyd Hayes.

Fig. 2-48. Eared Dove (Zenaida auriculata). Source: Floyd Hayes.

Fig. 2-47. Black Skimmer (Rynchops niger). Source: Floyd Hayes.

Fig. 2-49. Hoatzin (Opisthocomus hoatzin). Source: Jose Formenti, The Internet Bird Collection.

and a short tail. Most species of terns have a thin and pointed bill, pointed wingtips, and a strongly forked tail. Gulls often rest on the water, but terns seldom do. Terns forage by diving into the water, which gulls seldom do. Some species migrate long distances.

■ Family Rynchopidae.—Skimmers are medium-sized, tern-like waterbirds with the upper bill being much shorter than the lower bill. The plumage is black above and white below. They use this special bill to “skim” across the surface of the water in flight with the lower bill to capture fish. Only one species occurs in the Neotropics. 29 Bird Guide Training Curriculum | Basic Level

Order Columbiformes (slide 63)

■ Family Columbidae.—Pigeons and doves are small to large land birds with a short bill, small head, short neck, plump body, and short legs. A fleshy cere is present at the base of the bill. Only one or two eggs are laid in a flimsy nest. The young are fed “pigeon’s milk,” which is secreted from the large crop of both parents. Voices tend to include low pitched hoots.

Order Opisthocomiformes (slide 64) ■ Family Opisthocomidae.—The Hoatzin is a large, cuckoo-like land bird with a crest on its head and a long neck and tail. It is herbivorous with a unique digestive system comprising an enormous, multi-chambered

Fig. 2-50. Guira Cuckoo (Guira guira). Source: Floyd Hayes.

crop used for bacterial fermentation. The chicks have two claws on each wing, which are used for climbing in thick vegetation near the nest. This single-species family is endemic to the Neotropics, occurring in northern South America.

Order Cuculiformes (slide 65)

Fig. 2-51. Common Barn Owl (Tyto alba). Source: John Sterling.

■ Family Cuculidae.—Cuckoos and anis are slender, medium-sized land birds with a long tail. Some species migrate long distances. Some species, such as the Striped and Pheasant cuckoos, lay their eggs in the nest of another species, which is called brood parasitism. Several species lay eggs in communal nests.

Order Strigiformes (slides 66–67)

Owls are birds of prey with a strongly hooked bill, large head with large eyes, thick feet with large, strongly curved claws, and a short tail. Feathers of the facial discs around the eyes are arranged to enhance hearing, which is superb. Most species are nocturnal with cryptic plumage. Many species regurgitate the hair, feathers, and bones of vertebrate prey as compacted pellets.

■ Family Tytonidae.—Consisting of its own family, barn owls are pale, medium-sized owls with heart-shaped faces and long legs. They inhabit open spaces. Two species occur in the Neotropics.

Fig. 2-52. Spectacled Owl (Pulsatrix perspicillata). Source: John Sterling.

■ Family Strigidae.—Owls are small to large birds of prey with large and forward facing eyes. Many species have ear tufts, which are thought to provide camouflage by disrupting the body’s outline. Some species are diurnal. Bird Guide Training Curriculum | Basic Level 30

Fig. 2-53. Oilbird (Steatornis carpensis). Source: Alvaro Jaramillo.

Order Caprimulgiformes (slides 68– 70) ■ Family Steatornithidae.—The Oilbird is a medium-sized, nightjar-like land bird with a hooked bill, long wings, very short legs, and a long tail. It is nocturnal, roosting in caves during the day and foraging at night on fruits. Although it can navigate by echolocation, it forages by sight. This single-species family is endemic to the Neotropics, occurring in northern South America.

Fig. 2-54. Common Potoo (Nyctibius griseus). Source: John Sterling.

■ Family Nyctibiidae.—Potoos are mediumsized, nightjar-like land birds with a short bill, large head, long wings, short legs, and long tail. They are nocturnal, perching upright on a tree trunk during the day, looking very much like a dead broken off stick, and foraging aerially on insects at night. They are endemic to the Neotropics.

■ Family Caprimulgidae.—Nightjars and nighthawks are medium-sized land birds with a short and wide bill with stiff hair-like feathers at the base, long wings, and a long tail. They are nocturnal, perching on the ground or a branch during the day and foraging aerially on insects at night.


Fig. 2-55. Nacunda Nighthawk (Chordeiles nacunda). Source: Floyd Hayes.

Order Apodiformes (slides 71–72) Swifts and hummingbirds share long and narrow wings with short and stout humerus bones, an ability to rotate their wings at the base, and small legs and feet.

Fig. 2-56. White-collared Swift (Streptoprocne zonaris). Source: John Sterling.

Fig. 2-57. Snowy-bellied Hummingbird (Amazilia edward). Source: John Sterling.

■ Family Apodidae.—Swifts are small, fastflying land birds with a short bill and wide gape with stiff hair-like feathers at the base, a streamlined body, and long wings that are slender and pointed. Many species have a claw on the wing. Tail shape is variable: in some species, it is short and stubby; in others it is long and forked. They fly extremely fast, capturing insects in the air. Some cave-dwelling species can navigate by echolocation. The nest is glued to a rock surface of a cliff or cave with saliva. Some species migrate long distances.

■ Family Trochilidae.—Hummingbirds are the smallest birds in the world. Bill shape varies greatly. A grooved tongue extracts nectar from flowers. Some species have a very long tail. Hummingbirds often hover in mid-air and fly backward with a very fast wing beat, possibly up to 200 beats per second. Because they have the highest metabolic rate per unit of body mass of any animal, they reduce their body temperature, heart rate, and breathing rate at night, which is called torpor, to prevent starvation. Females always lay two eggs. Only females provide parental care. Some species migrate long distances. They occur only in the New World.

Order Trogoniformes (slide 73)

Fig. 2-58. Orange-bellied Trogon (Trogon aurantius). Source: John Sterling.

■ Family Trogonidae.—Trogons and quetzals are medium-sized land birds with a short and thick bill, short neck, plump body with an upright posture, short legs, and a long tail. They nest in cavities. They sit quietly, usually in forested areas, only moving their heads slowly, so even though colorful they can be difficult to see. Bird Guide Training Curriculum | Basic Level 32

Order Coraciiformes (slides 74–76) ■ Family Alcedinidae.—Kingfishers are small to medium-sized land birds with a long, dagger-shaped bill, massive head, small legs, and a stubby tail. They often hover while foraging and feed mostly on fish, which are captured by diving into the water. They nest in cavities, often in dirt banks. Fig. 2-59. Ringed Kingfisher (Megaceryle torquata). Source: Floyd Hayes.

Fig. 2-60. Puerto Rican Tody (Todus mexicanus). Source: John Sterling.

Fig. 2-61. Turquoise-browed Motmot (Eumomota superciliosa). Source: John Sterling.


■ Family Todidae.—Todies are small land birds with a long, flattened bill, short legs, and small feet. They are colorful with loud vocalizations. Their wings produce a rattle in flight. They are endemic to the Neotropics, occurring only in the Greater Antilles. They are cavity nesters, usually in a dirt bank. ■ Family Momotidae.—Motmots are medium-sized land birds with a stout bill. Most species have a long tail with a racketshaped tip, which is wagged sideways when a predator is detected to signal that it has detected the predator. They feed on insects and small vertebrates. They are endemic to the Neotropics.

Order Galbuliformes (slides 77–78)

■ Family Galbulidae.—Jacamars are small to medium-sized land birds with a very long bill, short legs, and a long tail; they have a largely

Fig. 2-62. Rufous-tailed Jacamar (Galbula ruficauda). Source: Alvaro Jaramillo.

iridescent body plumage. They feed on insects, capturing them in the air. They are endemic to the Neotropics.

■ Family Bucconidae.—Puffbirds are small to medium-sized land birds with a hooked and flattened bill, large head, plump body, and short legs. They are endemic to the Neotropics.

Order Piciformes (slides 79–82) Fig. 2-63. Barred Puffbird (Nystalus radiates). Source: John Sterling.

■ Family Capitonidae.—American barbets are medium-sized land birds with a fairly large bill with stiff hair-like feathers at the base, a large head, and a short neck. They are endemic to the Neotropics; barbets from Asia and Africa are closely related but in two different families.

■ Family Semnornithidae.—Toucan-barbets resemble barbets. The two species are endemic to the Neotropics. ■ Family Ramphastidae.—Toucans, toucanets and aracaris are large land birds with an enormous down curved bill, which is often colorful. A unique ball-and-socket joint in the lowermost vertebrae enables the tail to Fig. 2-64. Red-headed Barbet (Eubucco bourcierii). Source: John Sterling.

Fig. 2-65. Toucan Barbet (Semnornis ramphastinus). Source: Alvaro Jaramillo.

Fig. 2-66. Collared Aracari (Pteroglossus torquatus). Source: John Sterling.


be snapped forward until it touches the head. They are mostly frugivorous but eat a variety of other foods, including vertebrates. They are endemic to the Neotropics.

Fig. 2-67. Pale-crested Woodpecker (Celeus lugubris). Source: Floyd Hayes.

■ Family Picidae.—Woodpeckers and piculets are small to large land birds with a stout, chisel-shaped bill, short and thick legs, and a stiff tail. The bill is used to drill holes in trees; several physiological adaptations protect the brain and other structures from damage. A long tongue with bristles extracts insects deep within cavities. Some species live in family groups and breed cooperatively. They excavate and nest in cavities, which are used by various other species in subsequent seasons.

Order Cariamiformes (slide 83)

■ Family Cariamidae.—Seriemas are large, ground-dwelling land birds with a long neck, short wings, long legs, and a long tail. The two species are endemic to the Neotropics, inhabiting tropical savannas and the Chaco of central and eastern South America.

Order Falconiformes (slide 84)

Fig. 2-68. Red-legged Seriema (Cariama cristata). Source: Alvaro Jaramillo.

■ Family Falconidae.—Falcons and caracaras are medium-sized to large birds of prey with a strongly hooked bill, and thick

Fig. 2-69. Bat Falcon (Falco rufigularis) and Southern Crested Caracara (Caracara plancus). Sources: John Sterling and Floyd Hayes.


feet with large, strongly curved claws. They use their highly developed vision to hunt prey. When hunting, falcons can dive at speeds of up to 320 kilometers per hour- the fastest of any animal.

Order Psittaciformes (slide 85)

Fig. 2-70. Monk Parakeet (Myiopsitta monachus). Source: John Sterling.

■ Family Psittacidae.—Parrots, parakeets, and macaws are small to large land birds with a strongly curved bill (massive in macaws), thick tongue, and thick feet with long claws. They feed mostly on seed and fruits. They are highly intelligent and some species are renowned for mimicking human speech. Most nest in cavities or broken off stumps.

Order Passeriformes (slides 86–120) Songbirds or perching birds include more than half of all bird species. They have adaptations for perching, including three toes forward and one backward. One group, the oscine passerines, has the best control of the syrinx, producing a wide variety of vocalizations. Fig. 2-71. Sapayoa (Sapayoa aenigma). Source: Nick Athanas, The Internet Bird Collection.

■ Family Sapayoidae.—The Sapayoa is a small songbird with a thick bill, resembling a female manakin. This single-species family is endemic to the Neotropics, occurring in eastern Panama and northwestern South America.

■ Family Thamnophilidae.—Antbirds, antshrikes, and antwrens are small to medium-sized songbirds with a relatively heavy bill that is hooked at the tip. Most species inhabit the forest understory. Many species join mixed-species flocks. Some species specialize in following columns of army ants, eating the invertebrates flushed by the ants. They are endemic to the Neotropics.

Fig. 2-72. Ocellated Antbird (Phaenostictus mcleannani). Source: John Sterling.

■ Family Melanopareiidae.—Crescentchests are small songbirds with a dark band across the chest and a long tail. They forage mostly on


Fig. 2-73. Collared Crescentchest (Melanopareia torquata). Source: Arthur Grosset.

Fig. 2-75. Streak-chested Antpitta (Hylopezus perspicillatus). Source: John Sterling.

Fig. 2-74. Rufous Gnateater (Conopophaga lineata). Source: Arthur Grosset.

the ground for insects. They are endemic to the Neotropics.

■ Family Conopophagidae.—Gnateaters are small songbirds with a plump body, upright posture, long legs, and a short tail. They inhabit the forest understory and forage mostly on the ground for insects. They are endemic to the Neotropics. ■ Family Grallariidae.—Antpittas are small to medium-sized songbirds with a plump body, upright posture, long legs, and a short tail. They forage mostly on the ground of the forest understory, following columns of army ants


Fig. 2-76. ? Dusky Tapaculo (Scytalopus fuscus). Source: Alvaro Jaramillo.

and eating insects flushed by the ants. They are endemic to the Neotropics. ■ Family Rhinocryptidae.—Tapaculos are small songbirds with a cocked tail pointed toward the head. They have a bony sheath that covers their nostrils. They forage mostly on the ground for insects, usually in thick undergrowth. They are endemic to the Neotropics.

Fig. 2-77. Rufous-capped Antthrush (Formicarius colma). Source: Arthur Grosset.

Fig. 2-79. Yellow-belled Elaenia (Elaenia flavogaster). Source: Floyd Hayes.

■ Family Formicariidae.—Antthrushes are small songbirds with long legs and cocked tail. They forage mostly on the ground of the forest understory; some may follow columns of army ants and eating insects flushed by the ants. They are endemic to the Neotropics. ■ Family Furnariidae.—Ovenbirds or furnariids is a large family including woodcreepers, spinetails, foliage-gleaners, treehunters, leaftossers, etc. They are small to medium-sized songbirds that vary greatly in size and shape. Almost all are plumaged in shades of brown, cinnamon or rust color. Many species build bulky nests of twigs; some species build oven-like nests of clay and some species nest in burrows. Woodcreepers resemble woodpeckers, but do not drill holes. They are endemic to the Neotropics.

Fig. 2-78. Streak-headed Woodcreeper (Lepidocolaptes souleyeti) and Streaked Xenops (Xenops rutilans). Source: John Sterling.

■ Family Tyrannidae.—Tyrant flycatchers are small to medium-sized songbirds with a slightly hooked tip to the bill. It is the largest family of birds, with more than 400 species, varying greatly in size and shape. Most species forage primarily on flying insects, flying from a perch to capture an insect and returning to the same perch. Some species migrate long distances.


Fig. 2-80. Sharpbill (Oxyruncus cristatus). Source: Arthur Grosset.

Fig. 2-82. Red-capped Manakin (Ceratopipra mentalis). Source: John Sterling.

Fig. 2-81. Purple-throated Fruitcrow (Querula purpurata). Source: John Sterling

Fig. 2-83. Masked Tityra (Tityra semifasciata). Source: John Sterling.

■ Family Cotingidae.—Cotingas are small to large songbirds, varying greatly in size and shape, with a broad bill with a hooked tip; they tend to be frugivorous. The males of most species are brightly colored, often with a crest, plume, or throat wattle. Most species are polygynous with males displaying in small groups, called leks. Only females provide parental care. Many species lay a single egg in a flimsy nest. They are endemic to the Neotropics.

■ Family Tityridae.—Tityras and becards are medium-sized songbirds with mostly black and white plumage. Their calls are grunts or buzzes. They feed mostly on fruits. Nests

■ Family Oxyruncidae.—The Sharpbill is a small songbird with a pointed bill. It feeds mostly on fruit in the forest canopy. This singlespecies family is endemic to the Neotropics.


■ Family Pipridae.—Manakins are small songbirds with a short and wide bill, a large head, rounded wings, and a short tail. Some species have an erectile crest or throat, or long tail streamers. Most species are sexually dichromatic: adult males are often colorful and females are drab in color. They feed mostly on fruits. Most species are polygynous with males displaying in small groups, called leks. Only females provide parental care. They are endemic to the Neotropics.

Fig. 2-84. Yellow-green Vireo (Vireo flavoviridis). Source: John Sterling.

Fig. 2-87. Cave Swallow (Petrochelidon fulva). Source: John Sterling.

are built in cavities. They are endemic to the Neotropics.

■ Family Vireonidae.—Vireos, greenlets, and peppershrikes are small to mediumsized songbirds resembling wood-warblers, but they have a slightly thicker bill and are more sluggish in their movements. The songs of most species are relatively simple and monotonous but continuous. Some species migrate long distances.

Fig. 2-85. Black-chested Jay (Cyanocorax affinis). Source: John Sterling.

■ Family Corvidae.—Jays are medium-sized songbirds that tend to be colorful, noisy, and social. Some species have erectile crown feathers. Crows, restricted to Mexico and a few Caribbean Islands in the region, are larger, black, and often social as well. They are omnivorous and are considered to be highly intelligent. ■ Family Alaudidae.—Larks are small, ground-dwelling land birds. The Horned Lark, which is the only species occurring in the Neotropics, has two small tufts on the crown and a striking black-and-yellow facial pattern. It inhabits open areas, foraging mostly on insects, and nests on the ground.

Fig. 2-86. Horned Lark (Eremophila alpestris). Source: John Sterling.

■ Family Hirundinidae.—Swallows and martins are small songbirds with a short bill and wide gape, a streamlined body, and long wings that are narrow and pointed. Some


Fig. 2-88. White-breasted Nuthatch (Sitta carolinensis). Source: John Sterling.

Fig. 2-90. Masked Gnatcatcher (Polioptila dumicola). Source: Floyd Hayes.

Fig. 2-89. Plain Wren (Cantorchilus modestus). Source: John Sterling.

Fig. 2-91. Black-capped Donacobius (Donacobius atricapilla). Source: Arthur Grosset.

■ Family Sittidae.—Nuthatches are small songbirds with a thin and pointed bill, short wings and legs, long toes, and a short tail. They forage for insects and seeds along the trunks and branches of trees, often descending head-first and hanging upside down. Only four species found within the Neotropics: three in Mexico and one on Grand Bahama Island.

■ Family Polioptilidae.—Gnatcatchers are small songbirds with a thin bill and long tail that is often cocked upward. Many gnatcatchers are associated with scrubby forest and some live in white sand habitats in South America. They forage hyperactively for insects in vegetation.

species have a long, strongly forked tail. They are swift flyers inhabiting open country, foraging on flying insects. Some species are long-distance migrants; two Nearctic migrants recently colonized southern South America. They nest in cavities, burrows, or nests made of mud, some are colonial.


■ Family Troglodytidae.—Wrens are small songbirds with a thin bill, short wings, and a tail that is usually cocked upward. The songs are usually loud and complex. Most species skulk in dense vegetation. They feed mostly on insects. The highest diversity of wrens is in Mexico.

■ Family Donacobiidae.—The Black-capped Donacobius is a medium-sized songbird resembling a mockingbird in size and shape.

Fig. 2-92. Rufous-throated Dipper (Cinclus schulzi). Source: Floyd Hayes.

Fig. 2-95. Palmchat (Dulus dominicus). Source: Mitch Walters, The Internet Bird Collection.

It skulks in thick vegetation near water. This single-species family is endemic to the Neotropics.

■ Family Cinclidae.—Dippers are small, semiaquatic songbirds with a plump body, short wings, long legs and toes with sharp claws, and a short tail. They occur at the edge of fast-flowing streams and often walk or swim underwater. Special adaptations enhance underwater vision and prevent water from entering the nostrils. There are three species in the Neotropics. Fig. 2-93. Cedar Waxwing (Bombycilla cedronum). Source: John Sterling.

■ Family Bombycillidae.—Waxwings are small songbirds with a fairly thick bill, a crest on the head, and sleek plumage. Only one species occurs in the Neotropics, as a northern migrant.

■ Family Ptiliogonatidae.—Silky-flycatchers are small and relatively slender songbirds with a sleek plumage. Most species have a crest. Endemic to the Neotropics, four species occur in Central America.

Fig. 2-94. Black-and-yellow Silky-Flycatcher (Phainoptila melanoxantha). Source: Alvaro Jaramillo.

■ Family Dulidae.—The Palmchat is a thrush-like songbird. It is highly social and noisy. They breed communally in large, bulky nests. This single-species family is endemic to Hispaniola.


Fig. 2-96. Olive Warbler (Peucedramus taeniatus). Source: Ron Knight, eBirdr.com.

■ Family Peucedramidae.—The Olive Warbler is a small warbler-like songbird with a short and thin bill. This single-species family, endemic to North America, occurs in Mexico and Central America.

Fig. 2-97. Black-billed Thrush (Turdus ignobilis). Source: Floyd Hayes.

■ Family Turdidae.—Thrushes and solitaires are small to medium-sized songbirds with a fairly thick bill. They forage mostly on insects, usually on the ground. Some species are highly migratory. Most have beautiful songs.

■ Family Mimidae.—Mockingbirds and thrashers are medium-sized songbirds with a relatively thin bill, long legs, and long tail. Mockingbirds have shorter bills; thrashers have longer, decurved bills. They forage mostly on insects but also small vertebrates. Some species mimic the sounds of other species of birds and amphibians. The highest diversity is in Mexico and the Caribbean. ■ Family Motacillidae.—Pipits are small songbirds with a thin bill, long legs with long toes and claws, and a long tail that is often pumped up and down. They are terrestrial, foraging mostly on the ground for insects. Some species are migratory. The highest diversity of pipits occurs in Central and southern South America.


Fig. 2-98. Tropical Mockingbird (Mimus gilvus). Source: Floyd Hayes.

Fig. 2-99. Short-billed Pipit (Anthus furcatus). Source: Alvaro Jaramillo.

Fig. 2-100. Flame-rumped Tanager (Ramphocelus flammigerus). Source: John Sterling.

Fig. 2-101. Purple Honeycreeper (Cyanerpes caeruleus). Source: Floyd Hayes.

Fig. 2-103. Black-faced Grosbeak (Caryothraustes poliogaster). Source: John Sterling.

■ Family Thraupidae.—This diverse family of small to medium-sized songbirds includes tanagers, cardinals, honeycreepers, conebills, flowerpiercers, finches, seedeaters, grassquits, and some grosbeaks. Most species have a fairly thick bill for frugivory or omnivory, but some species have a long and thin bill for nectarivory. Some species are highly migratory. Many are incredibly colorful. ■ Family Emberizidae.—Sparrows, brushfinches, and chloropinguses are small to medium-sized songbirds with a thick bill used to crush seeds (granivorous). Many species have distinctive head patterns. Some species are highly migratory.

■ Family Cardinalidae.—Cardinal grosbeaks are small to medium-sized songbirds with a thick bill used to crush seeds (granivorous), although the chats are smaller billed. Most species are sexually dimorphic. Some species are highly migratory. Fig. 2-102. Yellow-browed Sparrow (Ammodramus aurifrons). Source: Floyd Hayes.

■ Family Parulidae.—Wood-warblers are small, often colorful songbirds with a short and thin bill. They forage hyperactively for insects in vegetation. Most species are


sexually dimorphic. Many Nearctic species are highly migratory, wintering in the northern Neotropics.

Fig. 2-104. Rufous-capped Warbler (Basileuterus rufifrons). Source: John Sterling.

■ Family Icteridae.—Blackbirds, which include orioles, oropendolas, caciques, cowbirds, and meadowlarks, are small to medium-sized songbirds with a spike-like bill for omnivory and most have predominantly black plumage. Special muscles allow them to poke the bill into something and open it with force to pry things open. Most species are sexually dimorphic. Some species are highly migratory. Many species weave pendulous, basket-shaped nests. Cowbirds lay their eggs in the nests of other species. ■ Family Fringillidae.—Finches, which include siskins, goldfinches, euphonias, and chlorophonias, are small songbirds, usually with a thick and stubby bill used to crush seeds. Most species are sexually dimorphic. Some species are highly migratory.

2.4 Glossary Fig. 2-105. Scarlet-headed Blackbird (Amblyramphus holosericeus). Source: Floyd Hayes.

Fig. 2-106. Thick-billed Euphonia (Euphonia laniirostris). Source: John Sterling.


Altricial young: young that are relatively helpless and naked at birth, requiring more parental care than precocial young. American Ornithologists’ Union: a professional society of ornithologists based in the United States of America. Biological species concept: one of many different definitions of a species, which is considered to be a group of freely interbreeding natural populations that is reproductively isolated from other such groups. Brood parasite: a species of animal, which deposits its eggs in the nest of another species, which cares for its offspring. Carnivorous: the behavior of eating meat. Carrion: dead animals. Caudal vertebrae: the lowermost vertebrae. Cere: a fleshy, featherless membrane covering the base of the bill.

Class: the fourth highest taxonomic level, below the level of phylum and above the level of order. Colonial breeding: the behavior of breeding in groups. Communal breeding: the behavior of multiple females laying eggs in a single nest. Crepuscular: the behavior of being active at dawn or dusk. Crop: an expanded portion of the esophagus, above the two-chambered stomach of a bird. Dispersal: the movement of individuals from their birthplace, rarely into new areas which expand the distribution of a species. Domain: the highest taxonomic level, above the level of Kingdom. Echolocation: the behavior of navigating by sound. Endemic: a term used for a species or higher taxonomic group whose distribution is restricted to a given region. Family: the sixth highest taxonomic level, below the level of order and above the level of genus. Frugivorous: the behavior of feeding on fruits. Genus: the seventh highest taxonomic level, below the level of family and above the level of species. Granivorous: the behavior of eating seeds. Gular pouch: a throat pouch with featherless skin that can be inflated. Herbivorous: the behavior of eating vegetation. Invertebrates: animals which lack a backbone. Kingdom: the second highest taxonomic level, below the level of domain and above the level of phylum. Kleptoparasitism: the behavior of stealing food from another individual. Landbirds: birds which live mostly on land rather than in water. Lek: a mating territory in which two or more males display to each other and to females, which visit the lek only to mate.

Migratory: annual, round-trip, long-distance movements, usually between a breeding area and a non-breeding area. Nectarivorous: the behavior of feeding on nectar. Nearctic: a biogeographical region extending from northern Mexico and the United States through Canada and Greenland. Neotropical: referring to the Neotropics (see definition). Neotropics: a biogeographical region extending from Mexico and southern Florida southward through Central America, the Caribbean, and all of South America. New World: the continents of North America and South America. Nocturnal: the behavior of being active at night. Old World: the continents of Eurasia, Africa and Australia. Omnivorous: the behavior of eating both plants and animals. Order: the fifth highest taxonomic level, below the level of class and above the level of family. Phylum: the third highest taxonomic level, below the level of Kingdom and above the level of class. Polyandry: a mating system in which a female mates with multiple males. Polygyny: a mating system in which a male mates with multiple females. Precocial young: young that are relatively independent with downy feathers at birth, requiring less parental care than altricial young. Rictal bristles: stiff hair-like feathers at the base of the bill. Scientific name: the official name of a species, consisting of the genus name and the specific epithet (two words). Seabirds: birds that live mostly in the ocean rather than in freshwater or on land. Bird Guide Training Curriculum | Basic Level 46

Sexual dimorphic: males and females appear different (size, color and/or shape. Shared inherited trait: a morphological or behavioral character that is recently derived and shared between species or higher taxonomic categories. Shared primitive trait: a morphological or behavioral character that was derived in distant ancestors and shared between species or higher taxonomic categories. Songbird: birds belonging to the order Passeriformes, also called perching birds or passerines. Speciation: the evolution or formation of new species. Species: often defined as a group of freely interbreeding natural populations that is essentially—but not necessarily completely—reproductively isolated from other such groups. Species richness: the number of species occurring in a given area, which is the most frequently used measure of biodiversity. Specific epithet: the second word of a scientific name. Subspecies: a named and described subset of species with consistently observable morphological differences from one or more other populations of a species. Subspecific epithet: the third word of the scientific name of a subspecies. Syrinx: an organ used by birds to produce vocalizations, located at the base of the trachea where it forks toward the lungs.


Uncinate process: a hook-like projection on each rib of birds, which strengthens the ribcage. Unique inherited trait: a morphological or behavioral character that evolved and is unique for a species or higher taxonomic category. Vernacular name: a commonly used local name for a species that differs from the scientific name. Vertebrates: animals that have a cranium and vertebrae. Vestigial: a trait that has lost most or all of its original function, such as the small wings of flightless birds. Waterbirds: birds that live mostly in freshwater or along the coast rather than on land.

2.5 Study Questions

1. What are the eight levels of classification used by biologists?

2. How is a scientific name properly written? 3. What is a species?

4. Describe three patterns of geographic variation in species richness.

5. Explain terms: sexual dimorphism, sexual dichromatism, brood parasitism, etc. 6. Using a map, describe the geographic ranges of some bird families in your area. 7. Which families of birds are in your area?

3 BIRD CONSERVATION

LEARNING OUTCOMES 1. Understand broad historical patterns of extinctions caused by humans.

2. Explain how habitat loss, introduced species, overexploitation, pollution, climate change, and synergies among these can threaten birds with extinction. 3. Describe a process for conserving target species of birds.

4. Discuss the relative merits of focusing on conserving ecosystems versus conserving a target species.


A good bird guide should become familiar with the variety of factors that cause bird populations to decline and should be an active participant in supporting local conservative initiatives. Tourists may ask about conservation problems as well as local solutions, so it is important for a guide to be able to address these local issues such as endangered species and the causes of their decline, conservation areas, conservation groups and their programs, problems and causes of habitat loss and degradation, and environmental education initiatives.

3.2 Bird Extinctions (slides 3–7)

During the past few millennia, considerable evidence indicates that human activities have been the major cause of extinctions, including many species of birds. An extinction occurs when all individuals of a species have died.

Fossil discoveries reveal that the first wave of extinctions occurred during prehistoric times as humans dispersed to previously uninhabited areas where animals that had not previously encountered humans quickly succumbed to overhunting. A second wave of extinctions began during the Middle Ages when Europeans

Fig. 3-1. Locations of extinctions since 1850. Source: Source: Szabo et al. PLoS ONE 7(10):e47080, 2012.


Fig. 3-2. Bird extinctions since 1850. Source: Szabo et al. PLoS ONE 7(10):e47080, 2012.

colonized and subjugated much of the planet. Many birds succumbed to introduced predators, invasive plants, habitat destruction, and overhunting. In recent decades an ongoing third wave of extinctions has coincided with the overpopulation and globalization of humans, increasing the introduction of species and diseases to new places where native species succumb to competition, predation, parasitism, and disease. Since 1500, 141 species of birds have gone extinct, all caused by human activities. Bird extinctions peaked in the early 1800s and then fell until the mid-1900s, when extinctions began to accelerate again. Only by understanding the causes of extinction and learning how we can reduce the threats to biodiversity can we hope to slow down the extinction rate.


3.3 Threats to Birds (slides 8–40)

Human population growth is the greatest threat to birds, although indirectly, because it increases the demand for natural resources which birds also need. Birds are directly threatened by a variety of human activities, especially by habitat loss, introduced species, overexploitation, pollution, and climate change.

3.3.1 Introduced Species (slides 10–15)

The recent globalization of transportation and trade has dramatically increased the rate at which species are introduced to new areas where they did not previously exist. Most introduced species become absorbed into the local food web without major disruptions. However, about 10–20% of successfully introduced species become invasive pests, which disrupt natural ecosystems. Their

Oceanic island ecosystems are especially vulnerable to introduced species. Isolated from the continental mainland, such islands have fewer native species. These species evolved in the relative absence of competitors, predators, parasites, and pathogens, and thus are less capable of competing with and defending themselves against introduced species from continents. Almost 80% of species extinctions since 1500 have occurred on oceanic islands. Fig. 3-3. The Rock Pigeon (Columba livia), a widely introduced species. Source: Floyd Hayes.

Fortunately, due to an increased awareness, governments have cracked down on the transportation of plants and animals across borders, and conservationists have implemented programs to eradicate invasive species. For example, in recent years there have been several successful campaigns at eliminating invasive predatory mammals from islands and reintroduction of populations that had become extirpated (locally extinct) on islands.

3.3.2 Overexploitation (slides 16–20)

Fig. 3-4. The Brown Rat (Rattus norvegicus) is a widely introduced species that preys upon seabirds on islands. Source: Wikipedia.

population growth is often explosive because they may lack natural predators, competitors, parasites, or pathogens, and they may outcompete, prey upon, parasitize, or spread diseases to native species, which lack natural defenses.

Humans traditionally relied on hunting, fishing, trapping, and gathering to obtain their nutritional needs. Around half of extinctions since 1500 were due to overhunting. Game species of birds collected for food or shot merely for sport are particularly vulnerable to overhunting. A notorious example is the Passenger Pigeon (Ectopistes migratorius), which was probably the most abundant species of bird in the world, yet it was hunted mercilessly with the last individual dying in captivity in 1914. Today, the international pet trade threatens many species of birds, especially doves, parrots, and finches. For example, about a third of parrot species are directly threatened with extinction by the pet trade. Most birds die while being transported and those who do survive usually do not fare well. Pet birds retain their instincts for surviving in the wild,


Fig. 3-5. Seed-eating finches are popular in many countries for their colors and songs, such as this Chestnut-bellied Seed-Finch (Oryzoborus angolensis) in Trinidad. Source: Floyd Hayes.

Fig. 3-6. Deforestation in Guyana. Source: Floyd Hayes.

and when confined to a small enclosure, they suffer mentally and physically, often exhibiting abnormal behaviors. Fortunately, governments have reacted to the overexploitation of biodiversity by enacting laws restricting or prohibiting the harvesting of commercially valuable species. Cultural practices have changed as well; for example, feathers are no longer fashionable attire and raising poultry for protein is easier than hunting wild birds. Finally, concerns about avian influenza have led to a decline in the international bird pet trade.

3.3.3 Habitat Loss (slides 21–25)

Humans destroy, degrade, or fragment natural habitats by clearing forests, damming rivers and streams, draining wetlands, facilitating livestock grazing, mining, and setting fires. Nearly a quarter of the global land area has been substantially converted to humandominated activities. Habitat loss is most extensive in tropical and temperate forests, temperate grasslands, and tropical savannas.

Habitat loss increases the probability of extinction by reducing the size of a population, disrupting the movements of individuals between populations, and increasing the


Fig. 3-7. Humid forest habitat flooded by the Itaipu Hydroelectric Dam in Paraguay. Source: Floyd Hayes.

probability of inbreeding as populations become smaller. Populations that are small and isolated are especially vulnerable to habitat loss.

Recognizing the need to protect biodiversity, some governments now require environmental impact studies prior to any development project resulting in the loss of or significant change to habitat. The purpose of such studies is to identify sensitive species and to recommend actions that minimize the disturbance to sensitive species. Many nongovernment organizations are purchasing land for protection.

Fig. 3-9. A Brown Pelican (Pelecanus occidentalis) covered with oil in the Gulf of Mexico. Source: Wikipedia.

combustion of fossil fuels, which increases the acidity of rainwater and freshwater ecosystems, potentially harming living organisms.

Fig. 3-8. Hazardous chemicals stored in Panama and solid waste pollution along a stream in Paraguay. Source: Floyd Hayes.

3.3.4 Pollution (slides 26–34)

Pollution results from any addition to air, water, land, or food that threatens the activities, health, or survival of living organisms. Pollutants may contaminate habitats, disrupt the behavior and physiology of birds, and injure or even kill birds. Freshwater and marine ecosystems are particularly vulnerable to pollution because they are subject to runoff with nutrients or toxins from terrestrial ecosystems. Excessive nutrients from fertilizers and sewage accumulate in bodies of water, resulting in algal blooms, potentially harming living organisms. Acid rain is caused by excessive emissions of sulphur and nitrogen, mostly from the

Oil spills are notoriously harmful to birds. Oil coats the feathers of birds, destroying the insulating effects of feathers and potentially causing death by hypothermia. Heavily oiled birds are unable to fly and they often ingest fatal amounts of oil when preening their feathers.

Many toxins becoming increasingly concentrated in the tissues of animals as they move up the food chain, a process referred to as biomagnification, with increasingly toxic effects. Two additional forms of pollution, light and noise, may adversely affect living organisms in ways that we are just beginning to understand. Fortunately, society is less tolerant of pollution than in the past, and many governments have enacted laws to reduce pollution. For example, many governments banned the use of DDT (a chemical pesticide) due to an increased public awareness of the negative impact of DDT on fish-eating birds.


3.3.6 Synergies Among Multiple Threats (slide 41)

Fig. 3-10. Global temperatures, 1880-2013. Source: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, data.giss.nasa.gov/ gistemp.

3.3.5 Climate Change (slides 35–40)

Climate is affected by many factors, including natural causes and human activities. The scientific evidence strongly indicates that human activities, especially the combustion of fossil fuels and deforestation, have a warming effect on climate, which has contributed significantly to the current warming trend, a hypothesis referred to as anthropogenic global warming.

Unless human activities that are contributing substantially to climate change are curtailed, the long-term impacts on biodiversity may be catastrophic. Although some species will adapt to climate change, extinctions are inevitable. Climate change may eventually become the leading cause of extinction.

Fortunately many governments, businesses, and organizations are working together to reduce emissions of greenhouse gas and exploit greener sources of energy, which may slow down and perhaps even reverse the planet’s warming trend. And many informed consumers are making better choices to reduce their use of energy.


A single cause is seldom responsible for the demise of a species; instead, multiple causes tend to threaten species in such a manner that the simultaneous actions of separate processes have a greater effect than the sum of individual effects alone. For example, habitat loss may reduce the population of a species, which then becomes more vulnerable to competition, predation, parasitism, or a disease from an introduced species. Alternatively, habitat loss of a species may also increase access to hunters, reduce or eliminate its prey, increase its exposure to pollutants, or increase inbreeding. Such interactions among threats must be recognized when considering the causes of biodiversity loss.

3.4 Species Conservation (slides 42–55)

Biological conservation refers to protecting and managing biodiversity. Species conservation focuses on saving individual species and requires both research and action. Five steps may be taken to conserve individual species of birds, which may be done sequentially or simultaneously: 1. Document what species exist.

2. Document where each species lives.

3. Document the abundance of each species, ideally by estimating how many individuals exist for each species. 4. Study the biology of the most endangered species that have been targeted for conservation action based on a small or rapidly declining population and identify the specific threats that are reducing populations.

5. Plan for the recovery of endangered species or populations targeted for conservation action.

variation, captive breeding, or reintroducing species to its native area or an alternative area.

3.5 Ecosystem Conservation (slides 56–63)

Fig. 3-12. The Trinidad Piping-Guan (Aburria pipile), endemic to the island of Trinidad, is critically endangered by hunting. Source: Floyd Hayes.

An ecosystem refers to the biotic (living) community and its abiotic (non-living) environment functioning as a system. All organisms depend on both living and nonliving components of their environment. Focusing on the conservation of target species isn’t enough to prevent extinctions if the ecosystems in which they live become increasingly degraded. It is important to preserve entire ecosystems, which protects all species within it as well as all natural life-support processes. Ideally, every possible habitat and species should be protected in more than one geographical area to protect against catastrophe. Large protected areas are more likely to preserve the natural processes of an ecosystem as well as more species and larger populations of each species than smaller areas. As with species conservation, ecosystem conservation requires research, planning, legislation, public support, and law enforcement in order to succeed.

3.6 Important Bird Areas (slides 64–65) Fig. 3-13. Effective species conservation often includes capturing and marking individuals for subsequent study, such as this Gray-fronted Dove (Leptotila rufaxilla) being outfitted with a leg band. Source: Floyd Hayes.

Successful species conservation requires research, planning, legislation, public support, and law enforcement. Specific conservation actions may include preserving and limiting human access to the remaining habitat, managing or enhancing remaining habitat, regulating or prohibiting hunting or collecting, removing competing or harmful species, enhancing breeding success, increasing genetic

In recent years conservationists have focused on identifying and preserving areas that are of crucial importance to birds. An area is selected as an Important Bird Area (IBA) if it hosts a population of a globally threatened species or a range-restricted species, or if it hosts a significant congregation of one or more species. Because not all IBAs are legally protected, it is important to support any efforts at providing legal protection for such areas. Increasing the number of birders who visit an IBA may generate favorable publicity toward legal protection. Bird Guide Training Curriculum | Basic Level 54

Case Study: Piping Plovers The Piping Plover, a federally threatened and endangered shorebird, inhabits wide, open beaches, shorelines, and dry lakebeds in North America. The global population of these sparrow-sized birds is only about 8,000 adults. It breeds primarily along the Atlantic coast from eastern Canada to North Carolina, on the shores of the Great Lakes, and along rivers, lakes, and wetlands of the northern Great Plains.

Fig. 3-14. Important bird areas of the Neotropics. Source: BirdLife International, www.birdlife.org/datazone.

3.7 Migration (slide 66)

Many species of birds migrate annually between a breeding area and a non-breeding area. Such species are especially vulnerable to disturbance by human activities because even if a species is adequately protected in one part of its range it cannot thrive if it is threatened in another part of its range. And while migrating, many species often stop to rest and forage in certain areas rich in food resources. Therefore, it is important to minimize threats to migratory species in both its breeding and non-breeding areas, and in important migratory stopover areas. This level of protection requires coordination across international borders.


In the winter, Piping Plovers flock to the sandy beaches and mudflats of the Gulf of Mexico and Atlantic coasts where they dine on worms, tiny crustaceans, and other marine animals. While many conservation efforts have focused on safeguarding the birds’ breeding habitat, we now know that plovers spend nearly two-thirds of the year outside these areas. And research shows that even a small drop in the number of birds that survive the winter can threaten the recovery of the species. Working to conserve healthy winter habitats, Audubon partnered with the Bahamas National Trust to increase conservation and protection efforts and help build local awareness about these threatened birds. http://www. audubon.org/plover#sthash.VTMXbU3a. dpuf

3.8 Bird-based Tourism as a Conservation Strategy

Birds attract a large subset of tourists, called birders, who are interested in nature and biodiversity. Birders are especially eager to visit IBAs, which may or may not be legally protected, to observe a high diversity of birds, especially range‐restricted species. Local residents are more supportive of protecting IBAs if there is an economic incentive to do so, such as attracting visiting birders who

contribute to the local economy. Because birders are more likely to visit an area and spend money if it is relatively safe, comfortable, and convenient, developing an area for bird‐ based tourism can contribute to conservation by providing alternative livelihoods and incentives for communities to sustainably preserve birds and their habitats.

3.9 A Call to Action (slide 67)

A bird guide should be an exemplary conservationist who supports local efforts to protect habitats and threatened species. Discussing local conservation issues with visiting birders, who are often eager to help in any way that they can, may stimulate increased public awareness and activities that strengthen conservation initiatives. A bird guide should also adopt a lifestyle that is consistent with

minimizing, to a reasonable degree, his or her negative impact on the environment.

3.10 Study Questions

1. How did the first, second and third waves of bird extinctions occur? 2. Why is the population growth of introduced species often explosive? 3. Why are the birds of oceanic islands more vulnerable to introduced species than continents? 4. How do oil spills affect birds?

5. What are the merits of species conservation vs. ecosystem conservation? 6. What is the role of a bird guide in bird conservation?

7. What bird species are threatened in your area and why?


4 BIRD IDENTIFICATION

LEARNING OUTCOMES 1. Recognize the importance of correct bird identification by sight and sound.

2. Learn bird family identification and recognition to help with learning species identification. 3. Explain the basic concepts for identifying birds.

4. Understand how plumage variation can change a bird’s appearance.

5. Understand the importance of knowing endemic species and other regionally important birds.


Proper bird identification is critically important during a tour. Birders travel to see different species of birds. If the participants see a new species that they have never seen before (referred to as a life bird or “lifer”), they will want to make sure of the correct identification, so that they can put it on their life list. The number of lifers can be very important to many participants on your tour. Yet the methods of keeping track of birds and lifers differ among birders. Some birders are incredibly diligent, and maintain a list of what they have seen at every location. Others are very casual and do not maintain lists. There are others who only count a lifer when they have taken a decent photograph of it. So there are various ways that people will assess a view, a photo, or an experience. Your primary job as a guide is to show everyone in your group the birds and identify them correctly. The complicated issue occurs when some participants in the group did not see a particular bird. Each participant will assess whether he/she feels that the view he/ she had was adequate enough to identify the bird. Some clients will ask you to describe the main field marks for a species and then will judge whether they saw it well enough to identify it themselves. Others will be content


with a poor look as long as the guide was certain of the identification. Identification matters a lot to clients, so it should not be taken lightly.

4.2 Bird Identification using Comparisons (slide 3)

One of the ways that birders understand how to identify a bird is by comparing its size, shape, song, behavior, family, etc. to a familiar species from their home environment. As most bird tour participants will come from North America, providing a comparison with a North American bird is a useful practice. Good species for comparison are those that are common and widespread throughout North America. Comparisons are often made using size, shape or color. The American Robin serves as a good comparison as it is common in many people’s backyards, so they know its shape and its size. Various thrushes of the genus Turdus will remind people of the robin. But other species that are entirely unrelated, such as cotingas, or brush-finches, can be compared to a robin’s size. Many cotingas are American Robinsized or even larger, while brush-finches are obviously smaller. Reviewing North American field guides for common birds to use for comparisons is a good idea.

Fig. 4-1. The American Robin (Turdus migratorius), familiar to all North American birders, and a Rufous-bellied Thrush (Turdus rufiventris) from Argentina. Both are closely related in the genus Turdus that has many species in the Neotropical region. Source: John Sterling.

The following set of common North American species is useful for comparison ranging from small to large: Yellow Warbler, House Sparrow, American Robin, Rock Pigeon, and American Crow. You should look at a North American guide and gain a sense for the size of those birds and their general shape. Birders also use size and shape comparisons for raptors. With hawks, a series of common North American species in increasing order of size are: American Kestrel, Cooper’s Hawk, Red-tailed Hawk, and Bald Eagle. These serve as good models to compare overall size, lengths, or wingspans with raptors in your area. Relationships of birds by taxonomy can be useful. For instance, a strange and exotic bird (for a North American) such as a Yellowrumped Cacique is a member of the blackbird family, the Icteridae, and therefore, a relative of the Red-winged Blackbird and Common Grackle!

4.3 Identification to Family Level (slide 4) As you gain more experience in birding and guiding, you will learn to identify more species and more ways to separate them from each

other. But to make sense of identification, it is important that you know to which taxonomic family a bird belongs. A family is a group of related species with common features. Using the Yellow-rumped Cacique as an example:

Class: Aves = birds Order: Passeriformes = the perching birds Family: Icteridae = blackbirds, meadowlarks, grackles, orioles, caciques and oropendolas. Genus: Cacicus = the caciques Species: Cacicus cela = Yellow-rumped Cacique

The family level includes a variety of species with common features. As a guide, telling your participants what makes a bird part of a particular family is helpful. Look up the various families in your region and learn what distinguishes them. In your field observations, think about the family not just the species of the bird. For example, you could say “a Tawnythroated Leaftosser is part of the Furnariidae family (Ovenbirds or Furnariids). This family does not exist north of the US – Mexico border; it is made up of mainly brown, chestnut and earth-colored birds. Many of them have specialized bills, and some are ground dwellers. Furnariids do not learn songs, so they have


considerable field experience. There are several tools one can use to advance the learning process, such as field guides or field sketching. One of them is to take a note pad or paper in the field and write down what you are seeing.

Fig. 4-2. The Common Miner shows moderate geographic variation in appearance, this one is from Uruguay. However, in voice the geographic variation is great, and knowing that voice is hard wired in the family Furnariidae it is almost certain that these different voices equate to separate as yet unrecognized species. Source: Alvaro Jaramillo.

genetically inherited voices that show little to no geographic variation.”

For some large, complex families, knowing what genus a bird is in is a great way to learn bird identification. Birds in one genus can have very different shapes and behaviors compared to a closely related genus in the same family such as in the Scolopacidae, Psittacidae, Furnariidae and Tyrannidae families. This will help you to see differences in the field.

It is very important to look at the introduction in your field guide and learn the names for all of the parts of the bird. Keep in mind that different birds such as gulls, shorebirds, and songbirds will have different diagrams in your field guide- each stressing different parts of the bird that are important for identification. When discussing identification of birds with participants, you will refer to those field marks.

When you see a bird well, look at it from head to tail. For each feature, look at the coloration, size or shape, especially of the bill and tail (which vary in shape and length), and proportion to the body of the bird and the effect the proportion has on the general view of the bird. Two similarly sized and shaped birds can differ in how long their tail is and you will find that the longer tailed one will look much

4.4 Bird Identification Basics (slides 5–10) 4.4.1 Studying a bird (slide 5)

The most basic part of identification is looking carefully at a bird: from tip of bill to tail, taking mental note of the individual features as well as the whole shape and the size of the bird. The more times you see the same species, the more easily you will recall what it is and the simpler the identification process will be. But keep in mind that there are always rare birds that you have not seen and even plumages (such as immatures) that may be new to you even after


Fig. 4-3. The Swainson’s Hawk (Buteo swainsoni) is a longtailed hawk, this along with the long wings makes it look much slimmer than similarly sized hawks. Source: Alvaro Jaramillo.

slimmer, even though the body is the same size as the shorter tailed bird! Bills can be long or short, thick or thin, curved or peg like. Each bill type is particularly adept at capturing and eating a specific type(s) of food. Sometimes related species will differ in bill shape, as this ecological difference (they feed on separate types of food) is part of how they became separate species. As you look at the bird, ask yourself questions such as: • Is there a dark eyeline or paler eyebrow?

• Are there stripes on the throat or bordering the throat? • Is the head colored the same as the back? • Are there streaks on the back and/or underparts?

• Are there wingbars, and are these white or another color?

• Are the wings long, and do the wingtips extend dramatically past the folded tertials? • Are there bold white patches anywhere?

• Is the tail tip notched, rounded or another shape? The questions force you to carefully observe the details of each part of the bird.

It is also important to look at the size and shape of the entire bird and not just its parts. Think about whether it looks stocky, slim, thick, tall, fat, long, or other aspect of shape that you notice. Birds can have a mixed set of features, such as bulky body and very long wings as is the case for many gulls. Other birds, such as many migratory warblers can be relatively slim and long winged, but very short tailed, as is the case with a Cape May Warbler. When you start identifying shorebirds (plovers, sandpipers and relatives), the various shapes, bill types, body bulk, length of wings vary tremendously.

4.4.2 Understanding Field Marks (slide 6) Field marks are a diagnostic set of characteristics that allow you to identify the species are what the field guides suggest you focus on in order to identify a bird. (Take a look at the beginning of any field guide for a diagram of these and then see how they are highlighted for a particular species.) They can be very obvious, such as the red rump of a Subtropical Cacique, or incredibly subtle such as the third wing bar on a Small-billed Elaenia. Field guide authors organize their books by highlighting the set of field marks that allow you to most easily identify the species.

While on a bird tour, you may be calling out the field marks that support your identification of a bird that you are showing to the participants. So while you may not always be using field marks specifically in making your identification, it is important that you know them in order to communicate them to others.

4.4.3 Looking at the Face (slide 7)

Facial features such as eye rings, eye lines, eyebrows, masks and eye color create entirely different facial expressions depending on their presence or absence. Curiously, most field marks noted in the books are not on the face, but are colors or patterns found elsewhere on the body. However, focusing on facial recognition can be very useful to becoming skilled at field identification.

4.4.4 Noticing Structure (slide 8)

Accurate field identification is a mix of experience, luck, cooperation by the bird, and good reference books. Experienced birders tend to be good observers, both looking at a variety of features and remembering those well, in addition to being able to assess these features in a short amount of time. Bird Guide Training Curriculum | Basic Level 60

such as bill shape, head shape, length of legs, length of wings, bulk of body, etc.

4.4.5 Assessing Lighting Effects (slide 9)

Fig. 4-4. A Magellanic Woodpecker (Campephilus magellanicus), found only in temperate old-growth rainforests in southern Chile and Tierra del Fuego. It is a high priority species for clients on tours and is unmistakable in that region. Source: John Sterling.

Experienced observers are quick to look first at the shape of a bird before getting to the details of plumage features. For example, to properly identify a bird as a Magellanic Woodpecker, you need to know its size, that it has broad and rounded wings, that it has a long stiff tail that is used to brace itself on a trunk of a tree, that it has a long chisel-shaped bill etc. These features are structural, and you use them to make your identifications, despite the most brilliantly colorful or unmistakable field marks such as its brilliant red head, black body and white wing stripe. A good observation of structure may be more important than plumage features to help you make your identification. For example, an experienced birder would be able to separate a Laughing Gull from a Royal Tern based solely on a silhouette, by paying attention to aspects


The quality of light is highly relevant in the way colors look in the field. Lighting conditions can change from minute to minute. It takes experience to evaluate how field conditions are affecting the visual impression you are getting of an individual bird. There are effects of harsh light (usually due to high overhead sun, strong sun, with strong shadows) and diffuse light (through the clouds, more gentle and with little or no shadows). Diffuse light allows one to see plumage features, face patterns and the colors of the back, face, and underparts more crisply. A typical diffuse light situation is an overcast but bright day. It is perhaps the best lighting you can have while out enjoying birds. In contrast, harsh light creates washed out colors, harsher shadows on the underparts, and less distinct face patterns. Morning and evening light is warm and can make birds appear more red or orange. Mid-day light is harsh and bleaches colors out. The background behind the bird also affects the way it looks. A bird against a pale or whitish background will be silhouetted. Backlighting works in the same way: details are lost, as the bird becomes a silhouette. On the other hand, a bird against a neutral blue (ocean) or neutral green (forest) shows much more detail.

4.4.6 Using Habitat and Behavior in Identification (slide 10)

Birds differ in habitat and behavior, even closely related species. Although habitat and behavior are important factors in bird identification, they are variable and not reliable as ‘field marks’ but serve as useful pointers. For example, some antbirds or tapaculos are almost always associated with bamboo. Some water birds are found in fresh water, but seldom seawater. There are species that wag

their tail in a certain manner, or stay very still on a branch as they hunt, while others move vigorously and fly out to catch an insect. These clues take time and experience to master.

4.5 Recognition vs Identification (slide 11)

As you become more proficient at bird identification, the more instinctual it becomes. You begin by looking carefully at a bird, compiling a mental checklist of field marks and deriving an answer to the identification. As you do this over and over again, you eventually automate the mental process and it becomes instant. You see the bird and you know what it is. This is what occurs when you arrive at the recognition stage of field identification. What is interesting as a guide is that when you see something quickly and call out the species name, it seems like magic to the participants. They will ask you how you knew it was a Chestnut-backed Antbird. You will then refer to field marks that are used to identify that bird and carefully explain these to your tour participants.

Making the jump from laborious identification to instant recognition is a long struggle, only possible after spending many hours in the field. Describing the field marks of the bird will help the clients to learn the birds.

4.6 Communicating FieldMmarks How you describe what you are observing in the field is dependent upon the level of interest and experience of the participants. With highly experienced hard-core birders you may want to provide very detailed information, including all field marks that distinguish the bird from similar species. Yet for casual birders, natural history travelers, and families, you should provide much more general information; they may only be interested in learning birds to the level of group (trogon, toucan, parakeet, parrot,

antbird). Either way, it is to your benefit to talk about the bird, describe what you see, what you may be using to identify it to its family level. Habitat, conservation and behavior may also be of interest but you should start with identification. Begin with the “who” and the “why” before you get into the “what and where” (natural history) of the species. In describing a bird that you are observing, start with the overall look, size, and shape of the species. Guide the clients as they observe the bird through binoculars or a scope. Usually features of size, bulk, structure, and length, and bill structure allow you to identify a bird to a family or group. Then discuss the most important field marks, the main ones that separate it from other similar species. At that point you have solidified the identification. If the bird leaves before everyone has seen it in the scope, but all saw it in their binoculars, take some time to finish up thoughts on the identification, sex and age of the bird even though it is no longer there. This will reinforce the brief view the clients had, and they are more likely to feel satisfied with the identification.

4.7 Molt and Plumage Variations (slides 12–15) Sometimes a bird will not look like the picture in the field guide. It is important to understand that while you may know a species from a few encounters, you need to be aware of how different a species can look due to molt or variation due to sex, age and geography.

4.7.1 Molt (slide 12)

Because feathers are fragile and affected by wear and tear over the course of the seasons and year, all birds regularly grow replacement feathers in a process call molt. An old feather drops off and a new one grows in in its place. The photograph below is of a second-year male American Redstart molting into adult


plumage. Note the lack of tail feathers- lost but not yet replaced- and the black adult feathers appearing on the wings, back and head. Quite simply, be aware that a familiar species may not look familiar at certain times of year due to molt.

Fig. 4-‐5. Immature male American Redstart (Setophaga ruticilla) molting into adult plumage. Source: Don Roberson.

Fig. 4-6. Slaty-capped Flycatcher (Leptopogon supercilliaris) growing outer tail feathers. Source: John Sterling.

Fig. 4-7. Immature Little Blue Heron (Egretta caerulea) molting from white juvenile plumage to dark blue adult plumage. Source: John Sterling.


Molt is a very complex topic and describing the various molt strategies is beyond the scope of this basic level guide training curriculum. However, “Molt in North American Birds” by Steve Howell, published in 2010 in the Peterson Reference Guides series, is available for those who wish to learn more about this topic.

4.7.2 Male/Female Plumages (slide 13)

There are many families of birds where male and female plumages are identical or nearly so, including owls, Furnariids, woodpeckers, shorebirds, gulls and terns, motmots, flycatchers, tapaculos and many others. However, sexual differences are pronounced in many but not all antbirds, tanagers, warblers, waterfowl, hummingbirds, and trogons, to name just a few examples. Often adult female plumages are similar to juvenile plumages, but that is not always the case. When birders first learn new species, they start with adult males as they are strikingly colored and easily identified. They tend to avoid the female plumages until they learn the identification of the males. But it is important as a guide to quickly learn the female identification as you’ll encounter them often along a trail and your clients will be interested in learning their field marks.

For some species, such as Red-legged Honeycreeper, Scarlet Tanager, many migratory warblers and others, adult males have bright, colorful plumage during the breeding season, then undergo molt into drab green

Fig. 4-8. Male and female Barred Antshrike (Thamnophilus doliatus) showing differences in plumage— male is black-and-white, female brown with no barring. Source: John Sterling.

Fig. 4-9. Male Red-legged Honeycreeper (Cyanerpes cyaneus) in breeding plumage, female that looks similar to male in non-breeding plumage, but male has brighter orange legs and slightly darker wings. Source: John Sterling.

non-breeding plumage similar to the female plumage of their species.

4.7.3 Immature Plumages (slide 14)

Fig. 4-10. Bright yellow male and duller female Black-chinned Siskins (Sporagra barbata). For many species, males are more brightly colored than females. Source: John Sterling.

Immature (juvenile) birds look similar to their parents in size and shape, but often have very different plumage coloration. They have duller colors, often have buff or white edges on their feathers, and some tend to have streaks. If a bird is very young, it will have a featherless gape at the edge of the mouth that is often brightly colored skin. Since they usually travel with their parents in family groups, you can identify immature birds by association and sometimes by behavior. They often beg for food from parents and call loudly. However,


Fig. 4-11. Adult Pale-breasted Spinetail (Synallaxis albescens) and an immature with no black or chestnut. Source: John Sterling.

Fig. 4-12. Adult Bare-throated Tiger-Heron (Tigrisoma mexicanum) and brown striped immature. Source: John Sterling.

Fig. 4-13. Adult Loggerhead Kingbird (Tyrannus caudifasciatus) and immature with bold, bright edges on wing coverts. Source: John Sterling.

that is not always the case, as immatures of some species such as raptors and herons take a long time to reach adult plumage and may have left their family groups long before you


see them. Some field guides do a good job of illustrating immature birds, but others do not. Not surprisingly, most immature birds are seen shortly after the end of the breeding season,

Fig. 4-14. Adult Black-necked Stilt (Himantopus mexicanus) from Argentina compared to one from North America. Source: John Sterling.

Fig. 4-15. A Rufous-collared Sparrow (Zonotrichia capensis) from Buenos Aires compared to one from Tierra del Fuego. This species is found from southern Mexico to the tip of South America and has many subspecies with geographic variation in plumage and song. Source: John Sterling.

so during that time you’ll see quite a few of these odd looking birds. In some areas where breeding can occur at any month, you can encounter an immature bird at any time.

4.7.4 Geographic Variation (slide 15) There are species with widespread ranges, often covering many countries, which have regional differences in plumage, size or other features. Geographical boundaries, such as mountain ranges or large rivers that are barriers to birds mixing from different populations, lead to slight evolutionary changes as a population becomes more isolated from its neighbors, yielding subspecies.

Modern research methods have included genetic and vocalization analyses to discover major differences between some subspecies— differences large enough to warrant reclassifying a subspecies as a new species.

4.8 Little Brown and Green Birds (slide 16) There are several families of birds that are predominately brown or green with very few distinguishing field marks between closely related species. Often, there are several lookalike species in a region, so it is important to learn their differences in habitat, behavior and vocalizations as well as geographic ranges.


Among the many groups of difficult to identify birds are female and drab male hummingbirds, Furnariids, antbirds and flycatchers.

4.9 Special Considerations: Raptors (slide 17)

Most birders love raptors and seeing them is a high priority, especially the rare species. It is important to know how to identify raptors in flight. All or nearly all field guides have pages illustrating the differences in size and shape of flying raptors together for close comparison. Many raptor species have easily identified calls, so learning their calls will help you differentiate them.

4.10 Special Considerations: Shorebirds (slide 18–19)

Ask clients from North America if they are interested in seeing shorebirds before

developing an itinerary that includes time looking for them. Many will be interested, but some will not, as most species are readily seen in North America. However, clients from other regions in the world will likely be particularly interested in shorebirds and will want to visit mudflats, ponds, beaches, marshes and other locations where shorebirds congregate. Although there is a great deal of variation in size and shape of the many species of shorebirds, there are also many that are very similar to each other. You will need to take extra practice in learning shape, size, leg color, and calls along with small differences in plumage. Overall size, length of legs and bill as well as plumage and vocalizations are important characteristics to learn. Most shorebirds are highly migratory, and only a few species are year-round residents of an area. Many species

Fig. 4-16. Here are six species of shorebirds together on a mud flat. Source: John Sterling.


Most birders that go to the tropics are there to see colorful tanagers, toucans and hummingbirds and may be less interested to see gulls and terns. Still, it is important to know these birds, and be able to identify them if you are guiding on the coast. The importance of seabirds, gulls and terns to the regional avifauna greatly increases as you head south.

well before they are seen, and many species are best and most easily identified by their vocalizations. Many species that are visually difficult to identify or view are often readily identified vocally, such as owls and nightjars. When you are learning to identify birds in the field, pay close attention to their sounds. Learning them can be difficult for some people, easy for others, but most often takes time, practice and a lot of repetition. Try to track down unfamiliar sounds, and after a while, you’ll begin to learn the common birds in your area. By learning the sounds of common birds, you’ll be able to recognize when an unusual bird is in the area.

4.13 Importance of Bird Sounds in Identification (slide 22)

4.14 Special Considerations: Species that Differ Largely by Voice (slide 22)

have strikingly different breeding, winter and immature plumages. It is important to know these plumage differences in order to help you simplify your species identification process.

4.11 Special Considerations: Seabirds, Gulls, Terns (slide 20–21)

The key to identifying gulls and terns is to look at their shape and size—their structure. Look at how bulky they are, length of wings, length of legs, size and shape of bills, and for patterns of molt. Particularly useful is that gulls and terns are seldom alone; they are almost always in flocks. This gives you the ability to compare species side-by-side. It is extremely important for a guide to learn bird songs and calls. Most birds are heard

In practical terms, as a guide, you will locate most of the birds by their sounds. This skill is greatly valued by clients, foreign tour leaders and scientists, so learning as many of the sounds as possible will enhance your reputation and your business as well as your success in seeing more birds!

In Central and South America and the Caribbean, there are many examples of species

Fig. 4-17. A Couch’s Kingbird (Tyrannus couchii) on the left was considered a subspecies of the more widespread Tropical Kingbird (Tyrannus melancholicus) on the right, until scientists using modern techniques found that it was a distinct species. It is identified in the field primarily by voice. Source: John Sterling.


that look very much alike, if not exactly alike, and differ only by voice. The families where this is particularly common are in the flycatchers, antbirds, tapaculos, Furnariids, nightjars and owls.

4.15 Special Considerations: Endemics and Regional Specialties (slide 23) Endemic birds and regional specialties are a special set of species and often help market your region to birders. These birds are often also of conservation concern.

A single Horned Guan sighting may be one of the top highlights of a traveling birder’s entire set of lifetime observations! So it is particularly important that you have good identification skills on the endemics and regional rarities in your area. You want to study and gain experience with these birds on your own time. Clients hire you because they want to see these birds. Learn all of the plumages and voices of these birds, think carefully about the habitat you see them in, and any particular tricks to finding

them. Have the field marks and thoughts on identification at the forefront of your mind so you can clearly identify these birds for the group.

4.16 Exercises

1. Review the introductory chapter of the local field guide of your country or region. 2. Review and learn the names of the parts of a bird from the field guide. 3. Review photographs of birds, identify to family level and discuss why it is in that family.

4. Practice locating a species in the field guide without using the index. Have a contest with a timer to see how fast participants can find the species. 5. Review a field guide for at least 10 minutes per day throughout the length of the course. Pay attention to habitat, range and identification field marks. 6. Make a list of endemic and other special bird species for your region or country and learn them well by sight and sound.

7. Review photographs of birds in a slide show and discuss as a class how to identify each species. 8. Listen to recordings of birds in your area and discuss differences between them.

9. Create a list of difficult to identify species; practice identifying them from photographs as an oral presentation to the class. Discuss the steps in your thought process of how you reached your conclusion of identification. Fig. 4-18. A Falkland Steamer Duck that is endemic to the Falkland Islands. Like all island endemics, this species is a high priority for clients on tours. Source: John Sterling.


10. Go in the field as much as possible on your own or with an experienced birder. Pay attention to flight, foraging behavior, bird songs and calls.

5 BASIC GUIDING SKILLS

LEARNING OUTCOMES 1. List critical skills that guides must possess.

2. Understand how your personality affects the type of guide you will be.

3. Realize the importance of carrying yourself and performing your work in a professional manner. 4. Recognize the importance of clear and frequent communication. 5. Learn strategies on achieving expectations by the group.

6. Learn elements of logistics, day planning, and keeping track of birding progress. 7. Become aware of the importance of rhythm and flow of a tour.

8. Understand the importance of self-reflection and improvement post tour.


Successful and experienced guides have a variety of skills that allow them to consistently complete birding tours where clients are happy, satisfied, and left wanting for more. They are professional, good communicators and understand the role of expectations. Day to day, they employ protocols and rules that promote good interactions between participants. They understand the rhythm of a tour and use it to their advantage. This chapter explains the aspects of being a good guide. Much of this curriculum deals with building skills, including bird identification,

Fig. 5-1. Guiding requires a multi-faceted set of skills--keeping people happy, seeing birds, and managing logistics-- and can be a formidable task. Source: Alvaro Jaramillo.

communication, and group management, among others. It is extremely rare for a person to naturally have all of the skills necessary to be a great birding guide. Skills are acquired and improved over time and learning never ceases. Bird guiding skills fall into three categories: 1) birding skills; 2) people skills; and 3) business skills. This chapter covers a mix of birding and people skills, which are particularly important in successful guiding. It is important that a birding guide knows birds; if a serious group of birders hires you to find them a set of difficult birds and you cannot do it, they will be disappointed and you will have failed at being a good guide for that group. Guides with less detailed birding knowledge should guide for general interest groups rather than groups of serious, hard-core birders. As you progress in bird guiding, what becomes clear is that people skills are also important to becoming a great guide. These two sets of skills must be combined to create a successful guide, so focus working on your skills as a host, leader, and communicator as much as your birding skills. A basic understanding of necessary business skills is a third skill set and will be discussed in chapter 7. In depth knowledge of the business


aspects of guiding is especially important for independent guides.

5.2 Education

You do not need to have a university education to be a good bird guide. Regardless of your formal education, the key is to be curious! Curiosity, interest in information, and the concern for and love of learning are what will advance your career in the guiding world. Wanting to know why things happen, how they happen, and where they happen will put you on a journey to answering questions. As a birding guide you are the primary respondent to birders’ questions on a tour, especially regarding species identification.

No matter how well educated visitors may be, they will not have the consistent experience, ability, or time to experience the birds and habitats as you do, throughout the year. You can improve your bird knowledge if you are thorough in your observations, maintain a notebook of what you see and then put these observations into perspective and discuss them with others. When scientists and highly trained guides come to your region, learn from them, and discuss what projects might be available for you. Taking part in your own little research projects or citizen science activities is the best education outside of a classroom and will definitely help you become a better guide. The key is to be curious and keep an open mind, eyes and ears!

5.3 Understanding your Personality (slide 2–3)

Some people are skilled at some aspects of a job; others are more skilled at other aspects. Bird guiding is a unique situation in that you must possess observational, technical and social skills. 71 Bird Guide Training Curriculum | Basic Level

Ask yourself: Are you outgoing or shy? Quiet or loud? How would you describe your personality? This is an important question as it may identify relatively clearly your strengths and weakness as a tour guide. It may identify which types of clients are best for you such as beginning birders, nature enthusiasts, families or hard-core and dedicated birders. All are possible markets, and the better matched you are to your clients, the more success you will have.

5.3.1 Knowing your Strengths and Weaknesses

Aspects of your personality, your experience, your interests and other factors reveal certain strengths and weaknesses in guiding birding tours. Sometimes you can avoid a weakness, such as not knowing every call and every single species in your region by matching yourself with clients that are not seeking that level of knowledge, i.e. casual birders, families with an interest in nature, or nature enthusiasts. If your strength is that you are intense in your focus on finding birds and you know your area’s birds with great detail, then you are well matched to a hard-core birding clientele.

Some guides are very good at adapting to different groups to make people happy whereas others are not. Sometimes by understanding your personality you can determine which weaknesses need to be improved through training and learning and which will be harder to change based on your personality traits. If at all possible, try to match your personality to the type of tour or client base that matches your personality.

5.3.2 Ego

Being a birding guide is a type of activity that lends itself to inflating your ego. You stand at the front of the group as the authority figure, the one who manages the day, and the center of everyone’s attention. However, you need to

put the needs of the clients above your own as you aid their enjoyment and their learning. You should also be clear and honest when you have misidentified a bird. Be humble, open, sensitive, and empathetic at all times.

5.3.3 Professionalism (slide 4)

Being a birding tour guide is a fantastic occupation: you make people happy, you see birds, you play an important part in conservation, you can make friends with people for whom you are working, and where you are also a great ambassador for your region and nation. While it is a relaxed and generally casual occupation, this is serious work and professionalism is important. This extends from your general appearance, how you talk to people, and how you relate to the participants. As a local guide trying to gain experience in this career, you should look clean, and have a professional and organized appearance. Looking well groomed and nicely dressed (perhaps with a shirt or uniform of the lodge you work for or from your small company or guide organization) is important as you only get one chance to make a first impression.

You also have to talk to people in a professional manner, be polite, and speak clearly. Different nations have different traditions of formality with group settings: birders from the United States, Canada and Holland may be more likely to quickly have an informal manner with other birders and guides than birders from Great Britain, Asia or Germany. Especially during the first few days of a tour, assume a formal manner with your clients. Always be polite, make eye contact with your clients, try and smile every once in a while, avoid use of any profanity, and certainly try to avoid conversational topics that are controversial or divisive, including religion, sex and politics. Some people on the tours are

interested in learning about a country’s local or national politics. In these cases, try to be unbiased while describing how politics work in your country and avoid becoming judgmental about specific political parties. Maintain your professionalism.

In your country, there may be specific topics that come up which may be divisive from your point of view. Yet to a foreigner they may not understand the subtleties of exactly what they are asking and that it may be a sensitive issue. They are just being curious. These topics may relate to past political conflicts, dictators in the country’s history, gay rights issues, etc. If there is a recurring, divisive issue in the conversation, particularly if it is something you are sensitive about, think about giving a basic answer that satisfies their curiosity, but be clear that this is a sensitive topic and that is not pleasant for you to talk about. Alcohol is a special issue. Often tour participants will want to relax with a beer or a drink at the end of the day when you review the bird list or at dinner. During the bird list review and dinner, you are—in fact— working. Follow the rules of your guide organization, tourism board of your region, lodge or employer. It is very important to never drink if you are going out later in the night and you will be driving. Finally, you should never be inebriated on a tour. Something could happen at night, someone may fall, someone may need assistance and you need to be present and able to help! Romantic relationships are another special issue. If you feel a romantic relationship with a client starting—be professional. Communicate with the person, and if something is serious, it can develop after the tour is over. Lodges, hotels and guide cooperatives may have strict and clear rules regarding this issue.


5.4 Communication (slide 5) 5.4.1 Communication Perhaps the most important skill is your ability to communicate. You could be the most amazing bird identification professional in the world, but if you can’t communicate that information to others, the strength of that skill is greatly diminished. You have to speak clearly, be understood, and know when you have not been understood, so you can repeat yourself or clarify. If English is not your first language, speak slowly and clearly, so that your accent will not make it difficult for participants to understand what you are saying. Sometimes you have to be quiet on the trail, and birders understand this. But when a bird is found, make sure that you speak directly to your clients (i.e. facing them) and that everyone hears you; if you don’t want to scare the bird, pass the word down the line along the trail in soft voices.

A guide should read nonverbal communication clues from participants. Sometimes it is clear that everyone is having a good time, but other times there may be a frown or negative comment. Talk to the participant to understand what is happening. Sometimes the person is just tired or hungry, but other times it may be a real concern. Perhaps they are not seeing the birds or hearing the bird names. Good communication will allow you to understand any issues that may be happening and to react to them and hopefully correct them as you go along. Good communication involves listening and being sensitive to what others are trying to tell you. Part of your job as a guide is not only to communicate the location and names of the birds and relate daily logistics but to interpret the natural world to the clients. Environmental interpretation is more than environmental education, because it explains and puts


observations into context. There are various books on environmental interpretation and a society devoted to interpretation which offers webinars and other resources: http://www. interpnet.com/

5.4.2 Pointing out a Bird in the Environment

The exercise of pointing out a bird’s location to participants, termed “getting people on the bird,” requires a moderate amount of practice and feedback. The clock method, using points of reference, and using a laser pointer are common methods to get people on the bird. People may not see a bird because they are blocked by a branch or leaf. They may have a different angle to the bird depending on their relative position to you including their height. If someone is having a hard time seeing something, bend down to their eye level and make sure they can see the bird from that position. A key to getting people to see a bird is to give detailed directions slowly and repeatedly, so that participants can follow them. Often the guide and participants are excited when a particularly rare or unusual bird is present. Keep calm and help the clients keep calm and focused to increase the likelihood that everyone sees the bird.

First, the clock method is easy to understand and use in the field. When looking at a tree, imagine the outline of that tree as a face of the clock. Describe the bird’s location by the hour hand, such that 12 o’clock is at the top of the tree in the center, 3 o’clock is half way up the right side of the tree, etc. Similarly, a bird might be “half way from the center to the edge at 4 o’clock”, in other words not at the perimeter of the tree this time, but inside and in the lower right quadrant.

Second, find a reference point, such as a colorful leaf, a particularly thick branch, a bromeliad, or a white spot on the bark of a tree, something that attracts attention, but that does not require floristic knowledge (i.e. the names of the trees or flowers). Once you have identified a reference point and all in the group are focused on it, you can guide them through a set of directions to get them on the bird, or you may choose to use the clock method from the reference point. If you guide with directions, it might sound something like this “from the white spot on the large trunk in front of us, go up two feet and you will see a crooked dark branch going to the right. Follow this branch for 3 feet to the right and there is a small bromeliad there. The bird is a few inches above the bromeliad.” It is important to give a clear description that the participants can confidently follow. Consider that most birders from U.S. do not know the metric system, so you should learn to describe distances in feet. Finally, guides are now using green laser pointers to show birds’ locations to groups. These work well in many circumstances, but not when the bird is too distant and only when the guide uses the pointer properly. (See section 10.5 for detailed description of laser pointers).

5.4.3 Trip Protocols

Like any well-organized activity, a birding tour has to have its set of rules that you follow to keep things organized, under control, and fair for the participants. These could include bird checklist sessions every evening before dinner, rotating seats in the bus daily, so that the same people does not take the front seats each time, or that people should not get ahead of you on a forest trail. Make sure that you communicate these rules at the beginning of the tour. Don’t assume that everyone automatically knows how a birding tour works.

5.5 Logistics (slide 6) 5.5.1 Achieving Expectations In section 6.1, we will discuss that one of the best ways to achieve success on a trip is to create realistic or sometimes even low expectations. These expectations may be in the quality of hotels or buses, as well as in the type or rarity of birds that are going to be seen. The trip itinerary should serve as the primary set of expectations. This is essentially “what they paid for” and you should try hard to achieve those goals, whether it is the sites that are visited or seeing the birds that were mentioned. It is important to communicate the expectations to the participants and make sure that you achieve or surpass these expectations.

Sometimes you have to change the itinerary due to various reasons, such as weather, accessibility or recent bird sightings. Make sure you always communicate clearly when you are making one of these changes, explain why it is happening, and try to address the concerns that people may have by not going to the site mentioned in the itinerary. If luck is on your side, you can replace it with a similar or better site, but unforeseen circumstances do occur. People may be disappointed, but they will understand if you explain the issue to them. If you work for a hotel or lodge, and are not involved in booking the clients for the trip, it is important to review the description of the tour that the hotel gives to the participants. Make sure the tour follows the itinerary, and make suggestions to the hotel/lodge about updating or improving the itinerary based upon your field experience.

A well-balanced trip itinerary will include a mix of common and widespread birds, regionally important, endemic, rare and/or otherwise special birds. As you go through the trip, make sure you look at the birds mentioned in the Bird Guide Training Curriculum | Basic Level 74

itinerary and that you are meeting expectations with respect to the more common birds.

5.5.2 Planning the Day

Planning the day’s schedule is important, and you need to consider the length of the day, times of dawn and sunset, sites you need to visit, travel time to the birding, meals, bathroom stops and the energy of the group. Bird activity is almost always best in the early morning shortly after sunrise. Particularly in tropical or hot areas, most bird activity has quieted down substantially by 11 am. There is another peak of activity in the afternoon, but it seldom becomes as active as in the morning. Therefore, it is important that you plan for a good amount of birding in the morning hours. You will have to determine the group’s needs and consider also the itinerary. Apart from other scheduled events such as meal times, it is important to schedule rest stops for the bathroom. Depending on where you are these will be easy or difficult to manage. Sometimes a bathroom stop has to be in the woods or behind a large bush or tree alongside a road. You need to make sure that they are aware that proper bathroom facilities may not always be available. You may schedule an evening trip to look for owls and nightjars (called “owling”). Try to schedule an earlier dinner that day, so that you can start owling at dusk. The owling trip should be relatively short. Owls can be very frustrating, and some days they are not responsive to calls. Don’t waste too much time trying to find an owl.

of the species that have been seen already and which are still missing from the list, and then adapt the itinerary to increase your chances of seeing species that are missing from the list. When planning the day, take into account the itinerary, trip participants’ expectations and their general level of interest in birding. Flexibility is crucial to success.

5.5.4 Making Sure Everyone is Seeing Everything Inevitably in a group of birders, there will be some who see the birds easily (based on skill, luck, strength of eyesight, etc.) and others who do not. You may try your best to describe where a bird is, and you may not be successful all the time with everyone you guide on a trip. Getting birds in the scope is always a good strategy, but it takes time to set up the scope. It is important that you keep a mental note of who in the group has not seen particular birds. When you have a second or third chance at a species, you can show it to the participants who missed it previously. They will be grateful that you have been sensitive to their individual needs. However, if it takes too long to refind a bird that most people in the group have already seen, some in your group may become annoyed.

5.5.3 Keeping Mental Notes of Birds Seen and Adjusting Itinerary Based on Birding Results One of the skills a guide has to develop is a good memory, not only for bird identification cues and people’s names, but also to keep track 75 Bird Guide Training Curriculum | Basic Level

Fig. 5-2. Looking for difficult and skulking birds, such as this group searching for the elusive Zapata Wren in Cuba, can be a trip highlight if it is successful. Source: Alvaro Jaramillo.

After guiding a specific trip several times, you will come to realize that some species are very unusual and you really have only one chance on a trip to see them. If a “once a trip” bird is missed by part of the group, you need to realize that it will be nearly impossible to get a second chance of seeing that bird. You have to be sensitive to the disappointment of those that missed the bird and also make it clear that they may not have a second chance.

5.5.5 Using the Spotting Scope

It is typical for at least one of the guides to carry a spotting scope on any outing, including into forested habitats. (See chapter 10 for description of scopes.) When birding on your own, it is good to take your scope and practice getting birds quickly in view. This skill will be useful when you have participants by your side. As noted in the above section, some people have a harder time seeing birds than others and using a scope will facilitate not only a close

up view for details but also a general view for those with poor eyesight. If you can, while verbally describing the bird’s location, put the scope on the bird. This can really reduce the time it takes to get all the participants to see the bird with their binoculars. Despite being a heavy load to carry around, the scope may make the difference between a successful bird day and just an OK day and may result in larger tips.

Scope etiquette is important. On the first day of the trip when you are using a scope, make sure you instruct people on what you expect with the use of the communal scope. Have people line up and come in from one side, perhaps the right, and exit on the left and clearing the exit area allowing for a fluid movement of participants to the scope. Make sure you let them know that they are free to focus and get a good but short look. Remind them that others are waiting in line. Some people will return in line for a second look or to take pictures (digiscoping—see chapter 10).

5.5.6 Safety

Communicate safety issues to your participants, i.e. the use of seat belts, life jackets, etc. Before the use of a special mode of transportation, such as a canoe or motorboat, make sure you go over specific safety concerns on those modes of transportation and the recommended behaviors that will keep your passengers safe.

Fig. 5-3. Even a small child can use an angled eyepiece scope. It is a versatile tool. Source: Alvaro Jaramillo.

A professional guide uses good judgment when out in the field. Sometimes a guide has certain information, such as the presence of a dangerous animal or news of an unknown and suspicious person in the area, or knowledge of change in trail conditions. Whatever it might be, use this information to avoid certain areas or to be more alert to danger or possible safety issues. There are various situations that may put your clients into a slightly uncomfortable Bird Guide Training Curriculum | Basic Level 76

situation in order to get to a good spot for birds. Keep in mind that your clients are often older, less fit and not used to being on trails daily, and may live in very safe areas with little crime. For example, a steep, muddy trail might be fine and seemingly safe for some, but perhaps not for all of the participants in your group. You will have to decide if you avoid the area altogether or you help some of the clients directly to get through the area. A good guide not only understands and follows safety procedures while guiding, but will also prepare and inform the participants of safety issues and help to keep them safe. For more on safety, see Chapter 11.

5.5.7 The Bird List

People on a birding tour come primarily to enjoy the world through an appreciation of birds. In particular, they are interested in keeping track of the diversity and particular species of birds seen on a trip. A tradition for a bird tour is to review the day’s list of birds as a group at night. Usually before or after dinner, the guide will read the names of species viewed (and sometimes heard only) during that day in the order in which the bird name appears on a printed bird list provided by the tour organizers or lodge. For a single day tour, the guide may review at the end of the tour, regardless of the hour. The list should be accurate and complete. Reviewing the day’s birds should be a fun yet expeditious process; people are tired after a day of birding.

5.5.8 Specific Day to Day Logistical Considerations

The following are common issues related to logistics and etiquette:

5.5.8.1 You are the guide

Make sure that people are clear that they will see more birds and get better looks if one of the 77 Bird Guide Training Curriculum | Basic Level

guides is at the front of the group on trails or sitting in the front seats in the vehicles.

5.5.8.2 Preparing people for the day

On a multi-day tour, you should have a pretty good idea of the following day’s plan for birding. Immediately after doing the bird list or during dinner, you should give a summary of the plan for the following day. However, it is still very important to review that plan again at breakfast with information on trails, safety, weather conditions, driving time, walking distances, lunch, afternoon, dinner and postdinner schedule.

5.5.8.3 Preparing people for a walk

Your day may start at a specific trail that you walk to or drive to in the bus, so you need to prepare people for this walk in two ways. First of all make sure you reconfirm what they should bring, such as water if it is going to be hot and any special foot wear or rain wear depending on the trail’s condition or the weather forecast. If it is a rough trail, you may suggest a walking stick for those who brought one. Let people know how long you will be out on the trail. Once at the trail, give a general summary of trail conditions, the habitat types, and mention several birds you will be looking for. The birds you mention should include at least a few that you are almost certain to see as well as some specialties or rarities that may be tougher to see, so that people feel that the walk was a success.

5.5.8.4 Playback preparation

Sometimes song playback is used to lure a bird out of the vegetation so everyone can see it. Some of these birds are easier to see, and you need only focus the attention to the direction you expect the bird to come from and let participants know how high up the bird may be. However, some species can be extremely difficult to see. In these cases, pick a good site with some visibility, organize the group around that site, shorter people in front, and tell them

to stay still and quiet. (See also Chapter 11 on ethics regarding use of playback.)

5.5.8.5 Trail etiquette

Some trails are wide, but forest trails in particular can be relatively narrow. This makes it more difficult for the last people in the line to see the birds the guide has found and also for verbal information to be passed back to them. Establish a rule for information to be passed from the front to the back of the line. Also make sure that an adequate rotation is happening, so no one gets stuck in the back of the line for the whole day.

5.5.8.6 Bus etiquette

Make sure that people rotate from front to back of the bus, so no one is stuck in the back or sitting in the front for too long. You may rotate daily on a long trip or rotate after lunch on shorter trips.

5.5.8.7 Owling

Whenever possible, have owling trips be optional, so that anyone who is particularly tired or satisfied with the day can skip the trip. If at all possible, locate and keep track of day roosting owls and incorporate these into your day of birding. With enough day roosting owls, you may be able to skip or limit the need for nighttime owling.

5.5.8.8 Trip summary

A trip summary should occur at the end of the tour. As a guide for a lodge or hotel you may not be expected to do this, but if you are the only guide for a group, then write a summary including a description of locations and highlights and post to a public site and/ or email to trip participants. It will help attract clients.

5.6 Rhythm and Flow of Tour (slide 7)

Understanding and managing the rhythm of a tour will allow you to increase the chance that you will have an exceptionally good trip. Tours that do not flow smoothly will need to be re-evaluated: often a change in the order of locations on the itinerary will improve a tour. You may not need to add or subtract experiences, just order them in a different way!

5.6.1 Tours are Like a Good Story

Fig. 5-4. Sometimes you need to bird along narrow, constraining forest trails. It is particularly important to maintain trail etiquette and rotate people in the group from front to back at appropriate intervals. Source: Alvaro Jaramillo.

A good tour is like a good story, a good book, or a good movie. There are distinct parts to a great tour, regardless of the length of the tour, including an introduction, a good plot (the itinerary), the climax and a nice ending. One of the vital parts of creating a great story with a tour is having a good itinerary: one that begins


Fig. 5-5. At the end of the day, you are looking for smiles from the group. Build camaraderie through the trip, take care to make the tour tell a story, and end on a high note. Source: Red de Observadores de Aves de Chile.

slowly, builds through the trip, and hopefully culminates in a great location with some special birds. The beginning of the tour should be to less special areas where you have an opportunity to see a lot of common birds. You can also start at a great location with special birds, but be sure to schedule some of the best locations for last.

5.6.2 Have Fun

There are so many things to worry about when you are leading a trip. It is important to stop worrying every once in a while and enjoy the trip!! It is an amazing situation to be paid to show people wonderful birds and amazing places. While the worries are real, make sure you take care of them behind the scenes, and resolve problems so that you can be as stress free as possible while maintaining a smile on your face. You will be a better educator, a more engaging communicator and more effective if you are having fun while leading. Having fun


and a positive attitude during your touring will actually ease your potential problems and concerns while leading the tour.

5.6.3 Ending Each Day and the Trip on a High Note With the thought of a trip being like a story, the day is like a chapter within that story. A day of birding organized with a nice pace and rhythm will be a good day. End the day on a high note as the participants will remember it as a great day. Similarly, you can end a trip on a high note. The key is to schedule a tour highlight for the end of the trip such as a relatively predictable and exceptionally productive location. As well, planning for a great ending is a great way to finish a tour.

Case Study: Trinidad & Tobago Scarlet Ibis Show As an example, tours to Trinidad will have several days of great birding with a visit to an Oilbird cave, and great tropical forest and savanna birding, but all tours end at the Caroni Swamp. The Caroni Swamp is a boat trip out to a wonderful mangrove area, where thousands of Scarlet Ibis come in to roost, in a massive flock, painting a set of trees red as they fill the branches with color. It is a once in a lifetime highlight. It is a great idea to structure a tour to Trinidad in this manner, as people recall Trinidad as a wonderful experience. The first thing they think about was where they ended, in a fantastic natural spectacle!

5.7 Improving and Self-reflection (slide 7–11) Self-reflection is easy in theory but difficult to do. After a tour, ask yourself what you did well, what you did that needs improvement, what situations arose that were new to you, and what you could have handled differently if it comes up again. Many situations on a tour will happen again, so you should be prepared for the next time. So in the effort to becoming a better guide, it is important to identify areas for improvement with honesty.

If you work for a hotel, lodge or with a guide organization, your employer may send a questionnaire to the tour participants in which they will be asked about your performance. If negative comments appear, talk through the issues, be honest with them, accept criticism of your shortcomings, and offer a plan to improve the situation.

5.8 Exercises

1. Brainstorm elements of what constitutes a professional attitude and behavior by a guide. 2. Create a checklist of items and actions required for each day.

3. Construct a 1-day itinerary for a site you know in your area and explain your reasoning to the group on how you planned the itinerary. Have a group discussion on possible improvements. 4. In the field, discuss and role play daily protocols such as trail rotation as well as scope use and protocols.

5. In the field, take turns being “the primary guide” and having other trainees act as participants. Add complexity by creating challenging scenarios. Then discuss among the group what the guide could have done in a more effective manner. Have fun with this, but also be realistic to challenge the guide.


6 GROUP MANAGEMENT

LEARNING OUTCOMES 1. Understand the role of clients’ expectations, and how to manage expectations. 2. Learn the importance of effective leadership and communication.

3. Understand basic protocols for maintaining order and flow in the group. 4. Understand the importance of time management.

5. Recognize cultural differences between you and North American and European Tourists. 6. Describe professional behavior.

6.1 Introduction

Group management includes many elements, such as managing expectations, being effective as a leader, dealing with various and sometimes difficult personalities, invoking protocols for maintaining order and happiness in the group, sensitivity and empathy, as well as conducting yourself in a professional manner with respect to interpersonal relationships. Underlying all of these seemingly unrelated topics is that people like predictability, they like being listened to and respected, and they want guidelines and structure. The more that you as a guide can provide this predictable, friendly and empathetic structure, the more likely that your group will be happy and satisfied.

6.2 Expectations (slide 2–4)

In Chapter 5, Section 5.5.1, we discussed meeting expectations, and that expectations are primarily set by the itinerary or trip plan. An accurate and realistic itinerary is the first step in having a set of expectations that are possible to meet. In managing expectations on a tour, the key is to lower expectations any time you can, as this increases the likelihood of meeting them. If a species is very common and abundant, you can mention the possibility of sightings. When talking about specialties, rarities, and other birds that are high on 81 Bird Guide Training Curriculum | Basic Level

Case Study: Roosting Owls and Meeting Expectations Consider that you know of a very reliable day roost of Spectacled Owls, a species most travelers greatly enjoy seeing. You can tell them about the roost and that they are almost surely going to get great looks at the owls. But what have you done? You have greatly increased expectations; people will believe that they will see Spectacled Owls! So what happens if the owls have been scared away or they have shifted to another roost? You will not see the owls and your group will be greatly disappointed. (Slide 6-3) A better approach is to avoid raising expectations so if and when you see the owl people will feel that they are part of a fortunate few who were able to see the owl up close. people’s personal lists, you need to be very cautious.

(Slide 6-4) With regard to food or hotels, be accurate and truthful in your literature and any information you give while on the tour. If there are challenges or issues, note them before the clients arrive. Make sure that participants’ expectations are realistic and informed, so that they are not unpleasantly surprised.

Case Study: Sample Introduction Consider you are meeting your group at the hotel lobby for the first time. You shake hands, make eye contact, learn people’s names and take mental inventory to make sure all in the group are there. Then it would be appropriate to make a short selfintroduction:

Fig. 6-1. Tropical Screech-Owls (Megascops choliba) at a day roost. Keep information like this secret then surprise the group with a day roosting owl. Source: Alvaro Jaramillo.

People like accurate and complete information. Participants will more readily accept lower quality in accommodations, food, etc. if they know in advance and are prepared. Manage the expectations so that you are in a position to succeed rather than fail.

6.3 Leadership (slide 5) 6.3.1 First Impressions

Asserting your leadership is important for making a good first impression. When you meet your group, be friendly, confident, shake hands, make eye contact and get people to begin to trust you right away. Don’t underestimate the power of confident body language, including the confident manner in which you talk to people and the outward appearance that you are in control. When you meet the group, have a short orientation session, tell them a bit about yourself and how you became a bird guide. You may want to introduce the driver, key hotel staff, and others who may be present that are

“Hello and welcome to my beautiful country of Belize. My name is Gustavo Gomez and I come from the Orange Walk District in the north but have strong ties to Guatemala as my parents were raised there. I am bilingual, and have traveled extensively in the region. My interest in birds began as a child, and currently I find that I am birding nearly every day of my life; it has been my passion for much of my life. I am hoping that with the help of Ignacio, our driver, we will be able to show you not only a great selection of our birds, but that you will come to love Belize as I do.”

An introduction should not be too long, yet it should give people a bit of your background and anything else that you feel you want to mention to them. Try to keep it upbeat and have it be something that will leave people feeling good and positive about you.

working to make the tour safe and enjoyable. You may want to talk about your style of birding and some of the aspects of birds that interest you.

6.3.2 Maintaining Communication Through a Trip (slide 6)

Good and timely communication with tour participants is important. Nothing makes people feel more frustrated than not knowing what is happening. Always let people know


what the plan is, how long you will be out, which trail you will be taking, how long you will be on the bus, essentially anything that makes a person feel prepared and allows them to follow the plan.

Keeping people informed is key to maintaining control of a group and keeping everyone happy. This is particularly the case when something goes wrong, such as a bus breakdown, a washed-out bridge or road, or an adjustment to the itinerary. Participants will feel frustrated or annoyed if they do not get a plan for the day, information on the bus, information before going on the trail, or information on what birds may be found. It is amazing how much more calm everyone waiting feels if they have timely updates and reassurances regarding any problem that may arise and that you are addressing. It is also particularly important on a very good morning to review some of the highlight species that were seen or common species that were seen particularly well. A review really helps participants learn. A participant can feel overwhelmed after a morning of 80 species or more, particularly if new at birding, or from an area where diversity is not that high. A nice review not only informs participants, but it highlights how well things are going!

6.3.4 Maintaining Focus of the Participants (slide 7) There are times when you are clearly in control of a group and other times when you are not. Perhaps people are wandering around or they are hungry or tired and lose focus on the birds. It happens every so often; it is completely natural, and for the most part it is nothing to worry about. Remind them that you are still looking for birds and everyone needs to focus and stay in the group. If you are close to lunchtime or the end of the day, it is a sign to finish the outing and head back to base. But whatever you do, make sure you take control of the group and schedule. To get people’s attention, you may want to tell a story about some aspect of natural history or conservation. Find a log, rock or hillside where you can be facing and hopefully slightly elevated from the group. You will immediately command attention, and if the group has been straying, this is a great way to regain control of the group. It is also a great opportunity to inform and teach something to the group. Have a few fun facts, stories or mini-lectures to use at these moments.

6.3.3 Nonverbal Communication

As a guide, you not only need to be a good teacher but also a good listener that is sensitive to the participants. Pay attention to them as much as you are to the birds. Be aware of what participants are telling you by their behavior, whether it is in a clear and bold discussion, or disruptive or cranky behavior, or body language such as a frown. You will be able to figure out where there are issues, work on them and fix problems before they become larger problems. 83 Bird Guide Training Curriculum | Basic Level

Fig. 6-2. Birders on a tour can become unfocused. When a specialty bird comes into view, you have to be ready to get people in focus, and quickly and efficiently “get them on the bird.” Source: Alvaro Jaramillo.

6.3.5 Maintaining Personal Focus and Energy (slide 8–9) After several days of leading a tour, you will find that you can get very tired after a day of relatively easy walking and eating well. The reason is that you are performing for your group. While you are in front of the group you need to be the happy version of yourself. Being attentive to needs of others, concerned about the welfare and enjoyment of the group, and finding and identifying birds is part of guiding as a professional. The performance aspect of guiding is one of the main reasons that you can be so tired at the end of a day and at the end of the tour. It takes a lot of mental energy to maintain a positive frame of mind, attentive, aware and paying attention at all times to birds and to the participants. Every once in a while, particularly on a longer trip, take some time alone, with a guide or colleague to relax.

6.4 Basic Protocols for Keeping Order (slide 10) Some of these issues were noted in Chapter 5, but we repeat them here because of their importance.

6.4.1 Bus Rotation

People find it unfair if some people always sit in the front seats on the bus or vehicle. Therefore, it is important that you suggest a rotation system. Usually people are mature enough that if you mention it daily, you will get people to move to the satisfaction of the entire group.

6.4.2 Trail Rotation

Rotation on the trail is similar to bus rotation described above as it is a question of fairness. Particularly on narrow trails in the forest, the participants in the front of the group hear everything and have a higher chance of seeing the birds spotted by the guide than the people at the back of the group. So you need to mention before every trail walk that you want a good rotation and etiquette during the walk.

Fig. 6-3. Clear communication and reinforcement of protocols and etiquette while on tour is a sure way to succeed in making it a memorable experience for all. Source: Alvaro Jaramillo.

Make sure that everyone gets a chance to be in the front of the group.

6.4.3 Using the Scope

As mentioned in Chapter 5, Section 5.4.5, a spotting scope is an amazingly good tool for getting all participants to see a bird that is stationary, even in the deep forest! If you become good at sighting the bird in the scope and you carry it on all walks, then you will see the benefits of having a scope.

It is important to manage your group around the scope. You may want to have people arrive at the scope from the left and exit to the right, make sure that people leave the immediate vicinity to make room for others to move through. You want to make sure that people have a few seconds at the scope, have a chance to focus and look, then move on so the next participant in line can see the bird. Remind people to be careful not to kick or move the scope while they are looking. While the bird is in the scope, keep describing the location of the bird so that the participants in line may be able to see it in their binoculars. Once everyone has had a turn, offer a second view, which can be more leisurely. If someone is a digiscoper and they want to take a photo through the


scope, but they have not brought their own scope, then have them try this after everyone is finished with their views.

6.4.4 Photography

Photography is another way to enjoy birds. The number of birders traveling with good or excellent camera gear is increasing. The birderphotographer segment may be the fastest growing in the traveling birder population. Photography should be encouraged while on a birding tour; however, conflicts can develop between photographers and nonphotographers. Photographers want to get close to the bird, and this may not be possible in a group setting. Often, they see the bird and focus on it through the camera, so they are not always noticing what is going on around them. This conflict is becoming less of an issue in recent years as a greater proportion of traveling birders are bringing cameras along on their trips. But there are going to be conflicts of

interests as cameras with big lenses may get in the way of non-photographer observers.

Conflicts arise with overzealous photographers who step in front of others when watching or taking pictures, etc. You need to communicate clearly that while taking photos on the tour is great, the photographers have to be sensitive to the birders on the tour if it is advertised as a birding trip and not a photography trip! If it is a birding trip, and advertised as such, birding should be the main focus of the trip.

6.5 Logistics (slide 11) 6.5.1 Time Management

Proper time management is essential. On any trip, on any particular day, morning or hour you have various tasks you need to do in order to keep a trip on schedule and on target. You must always be aware of your schedule. Make decisions wisely and recall that you have some elements with more or less set times or frequency on the trip such as finding bathrooms, and having breakfast, lunch and dinner.

A vital issue to keep in mind is travel time. In particular, travel time in a van or bus can be slower than if you travel that same road in a private automobile. Travel time can involve the potential for slow traffic, accidents, roads in disrepair, or various other issues that can slow you down. Ensure that you have adequate time to move from one birding location to another.

6.5.2 Adjusting Itinerary on the Go (slide 12)

Fig. 6-4. Birding and photography can conflict or complement each other, depending on the tour focus and the guide’s management of expectations and etiquette. Source: Alvaro Jaramillo.


As noted in other sections, the itinerary is a key part of a tour, but sometimes you need to make a change. Often the reason is to eliminate a site when a rare bird has already been spotted at a different location earlier in the trip and everyone is satisfied. There are other common adjustments to itineraries due to unavoidable

road closures, flooded bridges, or any other type of inconvenience.

It is important to mention what is going on and keep people informed of the reasons for the change and what the new site may have to offer. In essence, you should shift the itinerary in order to increase the diversity of the birds to view or to adjust to some unforeseen circumstance.

6.6 Empathy and Sensitivity (slide 13) 6.6.1 Understanding Cultural Differences

If your clients are North Americans or Europeans and you are not, there are key cultural differences that are particularly important to consider while leading tours. Northern cultures tend to focus on the future: preparing for what is going to come, organizing and planning for their benefit. Often Latin American and Caribbean cultures focus on the present: have fun today and worry about the repercussions tomorrow. As you can imagine, these different cultural differences can create a clash of cultures. So if you are a Latin American or Caribbean guide, keep this in mind, and try to think like your clients. The better you are at doing this, the easier it will be to manage the group. Time and schedule: Always be on time or earlier than the agreed upon time. Nothing infuriates clients more than a guide who is late. To them, being late is a sign of someone who can’t manage time, can’t plan, and has disrespect for others. They will be mad and annoyed. Keep a buffer of time in your planning, so you are there earlier than scheduled.

Language: If you are bilingual and deal with other bilingual hotel staff or people, speak in

English while the clients are there, so they will feel included, regardless of how mundane the topic.

Greetings: Northern clients first greet each other with a handshake, but don’t expect a daily handshake. Although many Latin Americans greet friends with a hug, or even a kiss, you should hold off on this traditional greeting until the end of the trip when your participants know you well. Many North Americans will be stunned if you give them a great big hug or a kiss when you first meet them. Northerners come in all types of personalities, ranging from very warm to very cool. Getting to know the various personalities as well as the regional differences within North America or European countries will be part of the fun of being a guide. Enjoy the cultural journey.

6.6.2 Sensitivity to Clients

Part of being a guide is to be part biologist, part entertainer and part psychologist among the various skills that you need to succeed. The psychology part is where you try to understand people’s behaviors and guide in a manner that reduces potential for problems. One skill is to be a good listener and sensitive to the participants. The key is to be watching, talking to, maybe asking questions of and being sensitive and empathetic to your clients. If you are paying attention to them as much as you are to the birds, you will be doing well. You will be able to figure out where there are issues, work on them, and fix problems before they become larger problems.

6.6.3 Sensitivity to Local Culture

As a guide, you are a cultural (and sometime linguistic) interpreter or liaison. Beyond the tips described in 5.3.3 on professionalism, a guide should anticipate and interpret any Bird Guide Training Curriculum | Basic Level 86

are in a guide-client relationship; there has been a financial transaction at the onset of the tour. The guide’s contract is that you will do your best to make the trip a great and safe experience, that you will show them a great variety of birds, and that you will have the best interests of the group in mind as you do your job. In order to do this well, you should not become best friends with everyone and should avoid romantic relationships with participants while on tour. After a tour ends, you are free to interact with the participants as informally as you would like. Fig. 6-5. This Cuban woman in Havana poses for tourists. Sensitivity by visitors to national and regional cultures, ethnicities and traditions of the places they visit is important; the guide may need to serve as a cultural liaison. Source: Alvaro Jaramillo.

cultural interactions that may occur between clients and local people as needed.

6.7 Professionalism (slide 14–15) 6.7.1 “The Customer is Always Right” There are many situations where the participants may be critical or have an opinion different from that of the guide. Essentially, you need to listen and respond, but clearly communicate to the participants that you have heard them. Communicate and explain in a calm, sensitive manner why you believe your option is a good one. Interactions will more than likely be positive if you assume that the participants have a valid point from the outset.

6.7.2 Maintaining a Professional Distance from Group Participants

Tours bring people together, and if there is a good group of compatible participants, then you can become friends. Nevertheless, you need to maintain a professional distance from clients, because you are still doing a job and are responsible for most decisions. You


6.7.3 Interpersonal Relationships— Avoiding Picking “Favorites”

Among the different types of participants, some are fun, others are shy, while others can be annoying. It is vital that you do not always spend your time with and sit at the dinner table with the fun participants. You do not want to pick favorites as this causes a split in the group, group spirit breaks down, and any difficult people on the trip will likely become be more difficult. The rule is to know your role as a guide and make sure that your behavior does not cause any harm to group spirit. You should be making the decisions that increase group spirit and create a fun situation for all involved.

6.8 Teamwork (slide 16)

6.8.1 Working with Other Guides and International Guides Typically, when the group grows to a certain size (usually more than 8), two guides will work together to maintain a relatively low participant to guide ratio; this ratio varies depending on the habitat and the policies of the hotel/lodge. For many tour companies, a second professional guide who works for an international tour company will accompany the tour. These international guides are usually highly experienced guides who work in various places in the world, so they tend to know the

birds, but may have less detailed experience with birds in a particular locality than a local guide.

It is important to keep in mind that working with an international guide is a collaborative, team effort. Given that the international tour company usually hires the local guide or pays the hotel/lodge including guides, there is an understanding that the primary guide is the international guide and, as such, will be the primary person dealing with the clients. The local guide will focus more on spotting birds and handling logistics.

6.8.2 Vehicle Drivers

The invisible but important team members of a birding tour are the vehicle drivers. Drivers do not have direct contact with the clients in the same way as a guide, because they are not often knowledgeable about the birds but their role in maintaining the safety of the group is extremely important. This is not only while driving, but also in maintaining the vehicle and keeping valuables in the vehicle safe while everyone else is in the field. They have a day where they work diligently for some time, and then have a great deal of down time while the group is out birding. As such they have time to work on some aspects of the vehicle while everyone is away. They may choose to wash the windows, clean the inside, and maybe do some minor maintenance. It is important that you work with the drivers as team members, letting them know when windows need washing and when there are issues with the vehicle that require maintenance (particularly if the vehicle has a toilet). Some drivers maintain the beverage cooler, helping to dispense cold water or other tasks to assist the guide. These tasks can be discussed with the drivers, so that they are sharing the duties of the trip. The more involvement the drivers have with the clients, the more likely they will get good tips, so this is an incentive!

Drivers should not only drive safely but also try to drive in a similar way to the expectation of a European or North American birder: close to the speed limit, passing only where safe to do so (not on curves), and keeping a safe distance behind other traffic. Anything that is perceived as being unsafe by the birders will reflect poorly on the entire tour. Remember, the number one priority is keeping the clients happy and safe.

6.8.3 Building Group Spirit

Building a good group spirit can be difficult or easy, depending upon the natural dynamics of the group. Do they all are get along or are there difficult personalities that do not integrate well with the group? As a guide, you need to help people enjoy each other’s company. You have to do your best to minimize any conflicts and increase team building. Do anything that you can to make people feel part of a team. The greater the group spirit the greater the chance for a successful tour.

Fig. 6-6. Celebrating after finding a rare albatross offshore. Shared positive experiences are a great way of building camaraderie on a trip. Nothing works as well as a special bird, seen well by all! Source: Alvaro Jaramillo.


6.9 Post-tour Analysis (slide 17)

After a tour, you should take some time to analyze what you thought went well and what could have been done differently. Think about the trails you went on, what you achieved with each morning’s outing, and potential changes to the itinerary. Do you need to reorganize the itinerary or change the logistics such as the lodge or the driver? You should examine whether meals were good, whether bathroom breaks were suitable, whether the travel schedule was followed, as well as every other aspect of the tour. Make a short note on what you learned from the trip and share with key partners.

6.10 Exercises (slides 18–19) 1. Create and practice a short selfintroduction that you would give to clients. 2. Practice first meetings, introductions and taking leadership. Do this in breakout sessions, including friendly critique by the others in the group.

3. Role play difficult situations and disruptive personalities on tour and work through how to manage them, while trying not to upset the rest of the group. 4. Create an itinerary for a place you know.

5. Work through time management plan for someone else’s itinerary and try to find if there are any issues with feasibility with regards to tasks and time. 6. Design a short “mini lecture” lasting less than 5 minutes and give in front of the group either in the field or classroom. Critique others in your class.


7 BUSINESS SKILLS

LEARNING OUTCOMES 1. Characterize the current birding tourist market and growth of the market. 2. List the elements of a great birding destination.

3. Describe your client base and what services you can provide for them. 4. Learn the common pitfalls in marketing in the birding tour industry. 5. Identify business goals and evaluate your progress toward them.

6. Learn the basics of describing your product, pricing, and payments. 7. Discuss the importance of collaboration in marketing.


A basic understanding of the guiding business is vital for all levels of guides regardless of whether you work for a lodge or tour operator or independently. There are many stakeholders in the birding tourism business, each with their own concerns. They range from tour companies, hotels, restaurants, guides, drivers, official or private protected areas, transportation companies, book publishers, taxi drivers, etc. This chapter considers the birding business mainly from the viewpoint of a birding guide.

Fig. 7-1. Panama’s Canal Zone offers a wide variety of birds, birding-oriented hotels (such as the Canopy Tower pictured here), safety, and easy logistics. It is a model for understanding the elements that make a great birding destination. Source: Alvaro Jaramillo.

7.2 Building Great Birding and Ecotourism Destinations 7.2.1 Panama Canal Zone—A Case Study (slide 3) Case Study: Panama Canal Zone Thousands of traveling birders visit the Panama Canal Zone each year. But what makes Panama and particularly the Canal Zone such a great birding destination? Is it the birds, the habitat, the guides, or all of the above? Panama has several great attributes that make it a great birding destination. Panama has over 970 species of birds, more than 600 of which can be seen in the Panama Canal Zone, including many beautiful, rare, exceptional species such as the Rufous‐vented Ground Cuckoo, Blue Cotinga and Ocellated Antbird. In short, there are plenty of birds, including some nice specialties, but few endemics. Within less than an hour from the international airport or the city center, there are various roads and trails that gain access to various parts of the canal’s forested buffer zone. Famous sites within the Canal Zone, such as Pipeline Road, Ammo Dump Ponds, Summit Park, and Bird Guide Training Curriculum | Basic Level 90

Semaphore Hill are within a short drive of each other with varying habitats and bird life.

In the canal area, there is a range of accommodations in style and price that cater to birders. Many of these lodges have vans or other transportation that they include in packages for birders, so that you may be able to visit other sites in the area.

There are many birding guides in Panama, most of whom work for a specific lodge or hotel. Some are freelance guides and some of them organize and run their own tours in the country. Many of the guides are fantastic birders with excellent English language skills. Several of the guides travel internationally to promote their lodges and birding in Panama and have become well known internationally as birders and guides. Written material on Panama includes two high quality field guides, a bird finding book, information available on the Internet, and eBird data. So what makes the Canal Zone such a great birding destination? It is a mix of diversity of birds, great access to good forests, varied and birder‐oriented lodging, fantastic world class guides with superior English skills, field guides and bird‐finding information, simple logistics to get from the city and airport, low crime, US dollars for currency, and the Panama Canal itself as an additional attraction. However, the Canal Zone’s bird list does not have as many endemics or regional specialties as you may find in some other Latin American and Caribbean countries. Panama today seems like the perfect destination. However, this was not always the case, and it was developed slowly over a long period of time. Think about your region and what it can offer today, as well as what can be developed over time.


7.2.2 Elements of a Great Birding Destination The definition of a great birding destination is subjective and no place will have every element, but some can be developed over time. In the case of the Canal Zone, great birding lodges and easy access to habitats offset the lack of many endemic birds. The following sections describe several elements that enhance a birder’s perception of a locality.

7.2.3 Diversity and Quality of Bird Species (slide 4)

The overall bird list of your locality is a primary component of a great birding destination. The larger and more well-rounded the list, the greater the chance that birders will choose to spend a longer time at your site. Unique birding destinations usually, but not always, include endemic or “high quality” birds. One of the clearest ways you can distinguish yourself from other birding localities is through endemics. Endemic birds are species found only in your country or region and nowhere else on Earth; they represent a major attraction for the birder, especially for the hard core birder. High quality bird species include spectacular species like the Ocellated Turkey, for example, as well as rare and unique species like Horned Guan. To compile a list of “high quality” birds, you would need to survey birders and guides. These should be rare, but if they are not they should at least make a birder excited! Toucans, trogons, and larger parrots are always exciting to see although not always rare.

7.2.4 Accessible, High Quality Habitat (slide 5) The key to seeing birds is having good or exceptional habitat that is accessible or viewable to birders from a trail, road, or boat. A good birding location will have a selection

of accessible places. If your destination is still being developed, evaluate the current and potential access to good habitats. Keep in mind that sensitive areas or species should be protected; wise placement of trails will benefit not only the birders, but also the birds. Leaving some land with no access is a benefit to the overall strategy that will benefit birds and therefore birders. At lodges or hotels, two additional possibilities should be examined, including feeders and towers. Feeders bring a wide assortment of birds to a lodge, aiding observation and enjoyment by visiting birders. Maintenance and cleanliness is key; you do not want to harm local birds by an improperly managed set of feeders. Canopy towers give access to birds that are difficult to see from the ground. Although a big investment, towers can set your locality apart from others. Towers are best in tall lowland tropical forests and provide less benefit in short (dry) forests. Considerations include placement, safety, construction and cost.

7.2.5 Infrastructure—Roads, Hotels, Transportation (slide 6)

in their offerings). There is no shame in offering a less expensive and more basic product to a different subset of the birding market; the key is to do it well with attention to detail and quality in the birding experience.

7.2.6 Interdependencies—Lodging and Birding Localities

It is clear that no matter how amazing and wonderful a birding locality may be, if it does not have adequate or comfortable lodging, the potential for that birding locality will be minimal. Peak birding nearly always occurs in the morning, sometimes very early in the morning. So if you have a multiple-hour drive to arrive at the birding destination each day, you will need to wake travelers up very early, and this can make for a rather unrelaxed day, perhaps only acceptable for hard core birders. No matter how high the quality of the birding, if the day is horrendous with many hours in a vehicle, birders will be discouraged. If there is an area of immense birding interest but currently lacking in adequate lodging, it can be identified as a potential

While you are birding in an area, you and your clients need to be able to travel, sleep comfortably, and eat well. Sometimes a high quality and superbly comfortable birding lodge in good habitat could more than make up for a deficit in another aspect of infrastructure, such as bad roads. Private and public sectors interested in marketing a region should seek to improve overall infrastructure for the benefit of all businesses. See Section 7.4 (Working Together). As a tour operator, hotel owner, or transportation company, if you allow your infrastructure to deteriorate, you may not attract as many tourists (unless you charge noticeably less than those with higher quality

Fig. 7-2. This simple hotel in the highlands of Chile is clean, comfortable, and has heated rooms. What it lacks in amenities is counteracted by the fact that it offers great birding within walking distance, and a nice hearty breakfast. Source: Alvaro Jaramillo.


development project. Perhaps a local business entity, government body, conservation or international entity can fund a birding lodge in the area with local support and potential for local employment. Identifying where there is a mismatch between birding quality and available lodging is a first step to increasing the potential of birding tourism in your region.

7.2.7 High Quality Birding Guides (slide 6)

This document’s purpose is to educate and train local guides. There may be limits to the number of species or improvements in condition to be made to the local infrastructure in the short term, but guides can be created, trained, improved and coached to be world class. Other than the natural environment of your region, the guide has the greatest impact on the overall birding tour experience and can help bring your area to the world stage of birding. Great guides will get great advertising by social media from happy clients. For these reasons, all of those involved in the birding industry should be training or promoting high quality birding guides.

7.2.8 Bird Checklists, Information on Birds to be Found at the Site (slide 7)

South American Classification Committee (SACC) http://www.museum.lsu. edu/~Remsen/SACCBaseline.htm North American Classification Committee (NACC) – includes Caribbean and Central America. http://checklist.aou.org/

High quality checklists include relative abundance (rare, common, abundant, vagrant, etc.), and seasonal occurrence (because many species are migratory even in the tropics). In the future, eBird will serve as a great source for the creation of updated checklists.

7.2.9 High quality Field Guide Book (slide 7)

A field guide is a book that provides information on the identification and distribution of birds in a region. Even an excellent tour guide does not replace the need for the book. Even if a bird is being pointed out to birders by a guide, birders will instinctively want to review the images and maps of the book to reinforce their memory and also to learn from it. For more information on field guide books, see chapter 10.

Visitors’ expectations based on the checklist are a major factor in decision-making when choosing a birding destination. Checklists need to be accurate and flexible. Keep in mind it takes a lot of time observing birds in an area to have enough observations to create a high quality checklist. The basic checklist is a list of birds, organized taxonomically by evolutionary relationships. Taxonomic authorities: The authoritative taxonomic lists for the Latin America and Caribbean region are the American Ornithologists’ Union’s (AOU) lists:


Fig. 7-3. Nothing makes your job easier as a birding guide than having adequate field guides and written material that tour participants can use. Source: Alvaro Jaramillo.

7.2.10 Information on Bird Finding, Trails and Parks for Independent Travelers (slide 7) Bird finding information was traditionally delivered through bird-finding guidebooks. These are becoming scarcer now, as the Internet essentially replaces their role in informing the traveling birder. Independent travelers, particularly hard-core birders, also rely on trip reports created by birders who visited the sites previously. These reports are useful, but they vary in their quality and completeness. In the last few years, eBird (see Section 9.1 in Chapter 9 Citizen Science) has been used for finding bird information, either by location or species.

7.2.11 Safety for the Traveler (slide 5)

You cannot change certain aspects of the reality of your country or region. However, at the local level, there are multiple ways to address safety. As a local guide, lodge, or tour operator, it is your job to know the risk level of every site on your itinerary. You should avoid sites that are close to villages or areas where trouble has occurred. Similarly, any time you are in the wilderness, there are risks. These could range from venomous snakes, falling limbs, parasites and diseases, to name a few. Many birders prefer areas that are safer and less complicated. Always work to reduce trouble or risk. (See Chapter 11 for more information.)

7.2.12 Culture, Scenery, Food, Weather etc. (slide 5)

Hard-core birders often say they travel to a place solely for the habitat and the birds. However, many birders also enjoy a diverse experience, including great scenery, an excellent meal, ability to share in local culture, and many other activities that are not directly related to birding, but add to the experience. Cultural, culinary, archaeological or geographic

resources add immensely to the birding experience and can help to sell your locality to traveling birders and create memorable experiences.

7.2.13 Marketing Your Location (slide 8)

Marketing your location requires a plan and cooperation among stakeholders in your region or national board of tourism or a similar independent body that has connections and financial and other resources that go beyond what you can do independently.

7.3 Understanding the Birding Ecotourism Market (slides 8 to 9) 7.3.1 Numbers of Birders (slide 9) Statistics on birders are somewhat controversial due to the definition of birdwatching, an activity that can be private (i.e. in a local forest, backyard, national park, etc.) and thus hard to quantify.

In the United States, a high estimate is that there are 73 million birders, of which 40% traveled outside their home to go see birds. A smaller subsection of 5 million traveled outside their country to enjoy nature (Konrad 2006). A smaller estimate is that there were 300,000 dedicated birders in 2001 in the United States; by 2004 the estimate climbed to 500,000. Of these, an estimate of 32% travel between 10 and 25 days each year to watch birds, and 23% between 3 and 10 days (MCF 2006). It is estimated that birders spend $32.6 billion a year on their hobby, of which $8.2 billion is on travel (MCF 2006). Birding provides Costa Rica with $400 million annually, accounting for 42% of their tourism income (MCF 2006). Note that while there is a great discrepancy and argument over the real number of birders in the United States, it is undeniable that their number is growing at a fast rate, and likely at a faster rate than any other outdoor activity


(Cordell and Herbert 2002, Konrad 2006, McMath 1989).

7.3.2 Demographics of Birders (slide 9)

Most North American birders are older than their 40s, with most in their 50s and 60s (MCF 2006). The age distribution of birders likely differs in Europe, where the more hard-core birders tend to be younger and primarily male. In the United States and Canada it is estimated that just over 50% of birders are women. Birders tend to be well educated, over a third of which are university-educated. Their average household salary is $50,000 (Cordell y Herbert 2002), which is roughly in the highest 25% of income earners in the United States (US Census Bureau 2010). According to Sekercioglu (2002). Members of the American Birding Association, often considered the more dedicated subset of the North American Birding public, have an average household salary greater than $60,000 and 80% are university graduates.

7.3.3 Birders are Not a Uniform Group (slide 9) Birders vary in their level of dedication and experience. While the hard-core birders may spend a great deal of time and money on watching birds and may seem like a worthwhile group to target, they comprise a small proportion of the overall birding market. If you want to attract the hard-core birders to your tours, you must offer a large list of birds and the potential to see unusual and rare birds. Hard-core birders may be more willing to stay in very basic accommodation and eat simpler and less elaborate meals, while the greater number of casual birders may be more demanding in terms of quality of food and accommodation. Birders who prefer higher quality experiences are willing to pay more for these comforts. Hard-core birders are often much more demanding regarding the number and quality of bird observations, including spotting “lifers,” making them a more difficult group to please. A faster growing market than hard-core birders, casual birders want to see a nice variety of birds, as well as learn about a region’s ecology, food, culture, etc.

7.3.4 Economic Impact of Birders

Fig. 7-4. Birders are not a uniform group, knowing the different needs they have is key to organizing and running successful birding trips in your area. Source: Alvaro Jaramillo.


While the details of the growing economic impact of birding as a sector are being confirmed and debated, it is interesting to consider the value of a single, charismatic bird at a highly visited birding site. Sekercioglu (2003) estimates that a single macaw that visits a clay lick near a birding oriented lodge in Peru may potentially generate $750 to $4,700 in birding tourism income in a year, and perhaps a range of $22,500 and $165,000 during its lifespan! In addition, traveling birders in the United States are estimated to spend an average of $75 to see a lifer in their home country. In the Caribbean and Latin America, the cost of seeing a lifer can be as low

as $5 per species (Jones and Buckley 2001). Birders are attracted by novelty, seeing new species, new places, and new habitats. If within a reasonable budget and for the right amount of time and new species, they will contemplate traveling outside their home area.

7.4 Developing and Growing Your Business 7.4.1 Identifying your Product (slide 10–13)

Marketing is a balance between identifying the needs and interests of your birding clientele and matching them up to a birding tour that you offer. The more information you have about your clients’ needs and interests, the easier it will be to create an appropriate tour. Either as a region or as an independent guide, hotel, or tour agency, you may want to offer tours that satisfy various needs or, alternatively, specialize in a subset of the potential client base. Trial and error are part of defining your market. You will need to know the resident and migratory birds in your area, available guides, hotels and infrastructure, local scenery and culture. You need to conduct an honest and clear analysis of the possibilities in your region. Maybe you cannot offer a luxury birding tour, due to a lack of high quality hotels, food, or transportation. Maybe transportation to your region is cost prohibitive and/or has few endemics or high quality species. All areas of the world are unique and appeal to a certain sector of birding tourists. Identifying limitations will help you clarify what you can offer. Be aware that you may need some outside help or information to market your tours, including from travelers or international birding tour organizations.

7.4.2 Itineraries and Descriptions of Service The most important aspect of creating a tour itinerary or description of service is to be clear, honest and detailed. For itineraries, clarify what is included in and excluded from the price, i.e. Wi-Fi, internet, tipping, laundry service, personal phone calls, etc. Fewer surprises mean greater likelihood of a positive guest experience and favorable recommendations. At the end of a tour, it is quite likely that some clients may want to give you a tip. Unless your employer has guidelines that do not allow you to be tipped, be gracious and thankful to the people who do tip.

7.4.3 Pricing (slide 14)

Perhaps no other issue causes so much worry for the small business owner as pricing. All businesses want to be profitable, but tour prices should be fair, of good value and published in the literature. Pricing will depend on your level of experience, quality of service, competitors’ prices, popularity of current offerings, etc.

For less experienced guides, pricing yourself lower than more experienced guides will increase the attractiveness to prospective clients. You may also adjust pricing based on demand or other needs and issues as time goes on.

7.4.4 Payments (slide 14)

Local guides may receive payments directly or through a tour operator. If you require prepayment, international transfer of funds for payments can be complicated, but it is getting easier. If you are requesting bank transfers for payment, make it simple by having all the information they will need available in a simple form. Try and create methods for payment that are easy and straightforward for your client (i.e. credit cards or PayPal), so they feel taken care of.


7.4.5 Liability and Insurance (slide 14) This is a complicated but very important issue, especially for those working with large groups or tour companies. A serious business needs to consider worst-case situations and protect itself from lawsuits. You must be aware that when you are dealing with foreign clients, they will have different expectations. Think about negative scenarios that are possible; what could happen to you if one of these happened?

As you work with more clients or foreign companies, they may require some level of liability insurance from you. A lack of insurance may prevent you from securing good and consistent clients. No matter what the situation is in your country or region, find out about insurance prices and available coverage. Think about how an insurance policy may be able to cover more than one guide/individual, so you can share costs.

7.4.6 Common Problems in Marketing (slide 18)

In your marketing efforts, you should appear well informed, professional, honest, clear and enthusiastic.

7.4.6.1 Lack of professionalism

Simple mistakes in marketing materials, including poor spelling or syntax or an informal tone, can make you look unprofessional. Have someone help you edit your writing, especially if you are not an English speaker and you are trying to communicate via printed materials or video to English speakers. Finally, know who you are talking to and write in the appropriate tone.

7.4.6.2 Poor imagery

Poor photography (i.e. out of focus, difficult to interpret, overexposed, or incorrect identification) on a website or in printed materials is unprofessional. You do not need to have the most beautiful photographs, but a certain level of quality and aesthetics will go a


long way in establishing a good first impression of your work or region.

7.4.6.3 Photos of birds not in the area

Birders are well informed on bird distribution. Advertising your area with photos of nice looking birds that are not found in your area will appear ill-informed or dishonest, and you will lose credibility.

7.4.6.4 Unauthorized use of another photographer’s photo

Most online photographs are copyright protected and you must ask the photographer for permission to use them for your commercial marketing purposes. If the photographer finds out that you are using his/ her photograph without permission, then you will have a problem. The photographer may notify other birders, birding organizations, as well as other guides and lodges about your misconduct. To protect your reputation, do not be tempted to use someone else’s photographs without permission. Many photographers are generous with providing photographs for free or for an exchange of services, such as a reduced rate for guide services. Other photographers are not generous and will never allow you to use their photographs. Nevertheless, it is always important to ask for permission.

7.4.6.5 Incorrect species on locality lists

Birders often notice when bird checklists are missing common birds or include species that do not occur in an area. Have checklists double-checked by knowledgeable birders. Be conservative and do not include any undocumented species. With time and effort, your lists will grow and you will have better data. Do not construct lists of birds without positive identifications or proper documentation or you will lose credibility as a guide or service provider.

7.5 Working Together to Share Success 7.5.1 Joining a Birding Tourism Working Group (slide 19–20) Cooperation at any level, often with direct competitors, facilitates marketing and enhances the reputation of your region among potential birding tourists. A key to success is to get tourism boards or government agencies involved in organizing and marketing bird watching tourism in your area, but involvement of government agencies is more likely if you have a formal organization devoted to the issue of birding tourism.

7.5.2 Importance of Regional Reputation and Cooperative Competition (slide 21)

When birders in North America or Europe are making decisions about where to go for their birding or nature-watching holiday, they consider cost, safety, wildlife viewing opportunities, comfort of the lodging, quality of the guides, etc. Perception and reputation also play a role in the selection process. Reputations of guides, birding locations, a country or region are established over time with the help of many people, including your clients and competitors, to name a few. Establishing a reputation and building the client base grows your business and often the business of your competitors. Finally, being friendly with your competition is positive and enhances your personal reputation. Why would you cooperate with your competition? Is there any benefit in joining forces with the very same people or organizations that are competing for your clients? Think about the different levels of competition: local guides who work in the same birding locations and guides across the globe who attract birders to a different continent. Their clients could have been

Case Study: Guatemala and Bird Tourism In Guatemala, there are various privately held areas that have both native habitats as well as a small lodge or house for overnight visitors, many of which are also productive shade coffee farms. Birders are prominent among their clients. The private reserves have organized themselves as a network known as the Asociación de Reservas Naturales Privadas de Guatemala (http:// www.reservasdeguatemala.org/).

These private reserves, together with tour guides, tour operators, scientists, conservationists, and the national tourism board (INGUAT), formed a working group known as the Mesa Nacional de Aviturismo, now termed the “Asociación Nacional de Aviturismo”. Collectively, they have developed a national strategy on birding tourism. The Mesa organized site visits by the press and international birding tour companies, which have greatly increased the prominence of Guatemala as a birding destination in the last few years. The recent offering of Guatemalan birding tours by international tour companies was a direct result of the site visits and contacts made through the process. Cooperation of stakeholders and a well‐designed marketing plan led to success for bird tourism in Guatemala. The Mesa created a marketing plan, including analyses of the potential markets: http://www.birdwatching.com. gt/observacion%20del%20quetzal/ documents /mercadeo_para_destinos.pdf

You may also download pdfs of various documents published in Guatemala, including best practices, developing birding destinations, guide to observing birds,


checklists, etc. These various documents may give you ideas that can be applied to your region. http://www.birdwatching. com.gt/observacion%20de%20aves/ publicaciones. yours. Competition is relative, and sometimes your greatest competitors will be your best allies! With this in mind, be professional and courteous to your local competitors and do not damage relationships. Keep an open mind to collaboration and facilitate team spirit with the colleagues who are doing the same thing as you in the region.

7.6 Literature Cited

Cordell H. K. and N. G. Herbert 2002. The popularity of birding is still growing. Birding 34: 54–59. Jones, D. N. and R. Buckley 2001. Birdwatching in Australia. CRC Sustainable Tourism. Wildlife Tourism Research Report Series No. 10. Status Assessment of Wildlife Tourism in Australia Series. Konrad, P. 2006. Birding defined. North Dakota Tourism Division. North Dakota. U.S.A. 7 pp.


McMath, R. M. 1989. The bird watching boom. Adweek’s Marketing Week 30:32–33. Mindo Cloudforest Foundation (MCF) 2006. Estrategia nacional para el manejo y desarrollo sostenible del aviturismo en Ecuador. Quito. Ecuador. 174 pp. Sekercioglu, Cagan H., 2002. Impacts of birdwatching on human and avian communities. Environmental Conservation 29(3): 282–289

7.7 Exercises (slides 22–25)

1. Describe the current birding market in your location and country.

2. Who is your primary competition and why? How could you make them a partner and/or collaborate with them? 3. Write down the pros and cons of your birding destination. In breakout sessions, brainstorm how to tackle the challenges of your destination and identify the competitive advantages of your product.

4. Looking at the list of common pitfalls in marketing; brainstorm other ineffective and effective marketing tools or strategies.

8 BIRDER’S ENGLISH

LEARNING OUTCOMES 1. Learn basic vocabulary in English used in a typical birding tour.

2. For Spanish Speakers, gain a basic understanding of pronunciation of this basic vocabulary.


The objective of this manual is primarily to train guides who will be interacting with English-speaking foreign tourists interested in birds, whether hard-core or casual birders. This chapter, which is primarily directed to native Spanish speakers, includes sets of the most important vocabulary in English that bird guides will need. If you are not a fluent English speaker, it is important that you learn English to the level at which you will need to interact with travelers. This includes knowing bird names, names of large mammals, habitats, weather situations and vocabulary that will help you point out birds in the field.

8.2 Why English and Not Another Language? (slide 3)

Knowing English will give you the ability to communicate with the widest assortment of the traveling public. Apart from its widespread usefulness internationally, it is also the main language of most residents of the United States and Canada from where we expect the majority of birding tourists to come. In most of Latin America and the Caribbean, the largest number of potential tourists will be English-speaking North Americans. English is understood by a wide variety of European tourists, at least conversationally in a birding or nature tour. English will allow you to communicate with British, as well as most Swedish, Dutch, Finnish and some German tourists. Of course, Australia and New Zealand are English speaking, so

you will have full ability to communicate with tourists from those countries as well.

The most standardized and international set of bird names is the official set of scientific names. Although knowing scientific names is encouraged, as it helps to understand relationships and some aspects of their biology or appearance, scientific names do not function well with tourists. Most traveling birders will know the English names and use field guides with English names. You do not want to be in the situation of having to waste time flipping through the field guide to look up English names of birds during a tour. This will be distracting to the clients and not an efficient use of field time.

8.3 Understanding English Bird Names (slide 4)

Although most English names are universal, there are different organizations with separate criteria that have provided their unique list of standardized names. For this manual, we have chosen to follow the American Ornithologists Union (AOU), which maintains a list for North America including Central America and the Caribbean (NACC committee) and one for South America (SACC committee). The official North American list can be found here: http://checklist.aou.org/

The official South American list can be found here: Bird Guide Training Curriculum | Basic Level 100

http://www.museum.lsu.edu/~Remsen/ SACCBaseline.htm

Most bird names are like the names of people: there is a first name and a last name. Keelbilled Toucan is the English name of the national bird of Belize, the last name “Toucan” tells you that it belongs in the toucan group. The first part of the name can be descriptive (i.e. “Keel-billed” Toucan or “Chestnutmandibled” Toucan) or a patronym (a name honoring a person or a place, i.e. “Swainson’s” Hawk or “Guayaquil” Woodpecker. Remember, in English, all adjectives occur before the noun they describe (i.e. Vermillion Flycatcher, dry forest, etc.)

A unique situation is when a bird has a single word name, and no “last name” (i.e. Hoatzin, Killdeer, Osprey). These names can be unique, based on a local name, or based on the voice (onomatopoetic). Fortunately, there is often meaning behind the name that can be helpful in the field for identification or for remembering the name.

8.4 Pronunciation Apps

There are various tools that you can use to learn how to pronounce English words. Perhaps the easiest and most cost effective are pronunciation checker apps for smart phones. There are various applications to choose fromsome free, others you pay for. Consider looking at: Pronunciation Checker; (How to) Pronounce; Sounds. On the web, Google translate will pronounce the words it has translated by clicking on the icon to the top right of the word. Another website where you can input words and listen to correct pronunciation is www.forvo.com.

8.5 Common Vocabulary to Describe Plumage and Identification Details (slide 5)

The following are common words to describe parts of a bird, details of plumage, and shape and colors helpful in bird identification: English

Se dice

Español

head

jed

cabeza

neck

crown

bill

throat

superciliary

eye stripe

breast

belly

back

eye

leg

tail

wing

wingbar

forehead

nape

thigh

flank

vent

rump

feathers

crest

brown

black

grey

white

blue

red

green

yellow

orange


nek

craun

bil

zrout

super-ciliari

ai ss-traip

brest

bely

bac

ai

leg

teil

uing

uing bar

for-jed

neip

zaig

flanc

vent

ramp

feders

crest

braun

blac

grei

guait

blu

red

grin

hielou

oranch

cuello

corona

pico

garganta

supercillar, ceja

linea ocular

pecho

vientre, abdomen

dorso, espalda

ojo

pata, tarso

cola

ala

barra alar

frente

nuca

muslo

flancos

subcaudal

rabadilla

plumas

cresta

café

negro

gris

blanco

azúl

rojo

verde

amarillo

naranja, anaranjado

8.6 Common Vocabulary to Describe Habitats and Locations (slide 6)

The following are common words to describe habitats and locations where birds may be found, including aspects of places and features, from hills, valleys, and stream banks to habitats like lowland tropical forest: English

Se dice

Español

forest

for-est

bosque

grove

grouv

arboleda

tropical forest tropical for-est tree leaf

leafy

branch

bough, limb fork

trunk stick snag

stump log

shrub

tri lif

lifi

branch lim

forc

trank

ss-tic

selva

árbol hoja

frondoso rama

ramita, rama pequeña bifurcación tronco palo

ss-nag

tronco vertical

shrab

arbusto

ss-tamp log

tronco bajo

tronco horizontal, leña

brambles

bram-bels

zarza

brush

brash

arbusto, matorral

bushy

thicket

bushi sik-et

vine

vain

weeds

uiids

weedy grass reed field

stone rock hill

ui-di graz rid

fild

ss-toun roc gil

matorral espeso mattoral

enredadera, liana

area con maleza hierbas, malezas pasto

caña, junco campo

piedra roca

cerro, colina

sky

es-cai

cielo

storm

ss-torm

tormenta

cloud rain dry

moist pond river

claud

rayn drai

moist

pond

river

nube

lluvia seco

humedo

charca, laguna rio

river branch

river bransh

brazo del rio

gully

guly

barranca

stream creek

shore

ss-trim cric

shor

estero

arroyo orilla

sandbar

san-bar

barra de arena

inlet

inlet

ensenada

bank

beach

island islet

straight bay sea

banc bich

ailand ailet

ss-trait

bai si

banco, orilla playa isla

isleta

estrecho

bahia mar

8.7 Common Vocabulary to Describe Behaviors, Migration, Status/Abundance, and Distribution (slide 7)

The following are words to describe behavioral aspects of birds, migratory behavior, status, abundance, and distribution: English

Se dice

Español

display

dis-plai

desplegué

singing

sing-ing

cantando

flight display

flit dis-plai

desplegué en el aire

calling

caling

llamando

duetting

du-eting

cantando en dúo

song call

skulking

song cal

skul-kin

canto

llamado arisco


hiding

agitated

jaiding

achi-tai-ted

agitado

gli-nin

cosechando de una hoja

swooping

suu-ping

waiting

wai-tin

hovering gleaning

wagging tail climbing walking roost

colony

copulating

avering

wagin teil claim-in guaking rust

coloni

cop-yu-laitin

wing snapping uing ss-napin diving

daiv-ing

swimming

sui-ming

landing

lan-din

plunging

escondido

plan-gin

en picada

revoloteando

esperando

balanceando la cola escalando

caminando

dormidero colonia

copulando

chasquido alar

sumergiéndose

nadando

tirando en picada

aterrizando

taking off

taikin of

common

comon

endangered

indain-sherd

amenazado

maigratori

migratorio

loucal

distribución puntualizada

harassing abundant

uncommon rare

vagrant

resident

migratory breeding

non-breeding local

breeding plumage

non breeding plumage juvenile

immature

harrazin

abandant

an-comon rair

vai-grent

resi-dant

bri-ding

non bri-ding bri-ding plumash non bri-ding plu-mash jouvenail ima-chur

despegando molestando

abundante común

poco común

raro

errante

residente

nidificante

no nidificante plumaje de reproducción plumaje de reposo juvenil

inmaduro


8.8 Common Vocabulary to Communicate the Location of a Bird to Clients (slide 8)

Finally, and perhaps most importantly, we list words to communicate the location of a bird to others, including directional words. This set of vocabulary will be essential as it can mean the difference between clients seeing a bird or not. English

Se dice

Español

o’clock

ou-clok

hora

little, small

litel, smol

chico, pequeño

thick thin

large

a little a lot

more less

higher lower

to the right to the left stop go

inside

hanging flying from to

above

below

beneath on

under

at the end of behind

in front

overhead

zic

zin

larch

a litel a lot mor les

jaier

louer

tu de rait tu de left ss-top gou

insaid

janging flain

from tu

abob

bilou binit on

ander

at de end of bijaind

in front

overjed

espeso, denso delgado (a) grande poco

mucho más

menos

más alto

más bajo, menos alto a la derecha

a la izquierda ¡pare!

vamos

(por) dentro suspendido volando desde á

sobre, por encima de abajo, bajo debajo de sobre

debajo de al final

detrás, atrás enfrente de

encima, arriba

middle

midel

top

top

edge

bottom here

there near far

this

that (near) that (far)

edch

bottom jir

der nir far

dis

dat

dat

medio, enmedio de, a la mitad de orilla, borde

cumbre, tope, sobre, encima de abajo aquí allí

cerca lejos

8.9 Exercises (slides 8–9) 1. Practice pronouncing each word and check your pronunciation with a live or recorded English speaker. 2. Practice describing a bird to other trainees using English vocabulary.

3. Practice explaining the location of a bird to other trainees using English vocabulary.

este, esta, estos, estas

ese, esa, esos, esas aquel, aquella, aquellos aquellas


9 CITIZEN SCIENCE

LEARNING OUTCOMES 1. Explain the importance of citizen science.

2. Characterize eBird data and how it can be useful to guides. 3. Join and contribute data to eBird.

4. Learn about Christmas Bird Counts and other bird survey methods.

5. Describe how to access online databases of photographs, video and sound recordings. 6. Outline the benefits of nest monitoring, mist netting and banding.

9.1 Introduction (slides 2–3)

Citizen science is a set of programs that rely on the general birding public to assist in collecting information on birds in a coordinated manner. These programs provide important information to scientists studying long-term effects of climate change, habitat quality and distribution, and bird population trends, among other topics. They inform conservation planning and policy including providing land managers with information to assist them in protecting birds. Citizen science is an important way for a guide to develop better bird identification skills and learn natural history while contributing to science and conservation. It is also an important way to engage with other birders, guides and scientists, leading to more work opportunities. Adding field assistant experience to your resume will help market your guiding business as well as potentially add an additional source of employment and income, especially during the low season. Participating in citizen science is a necessary part of your professional life and will help promote your skills and guiding business.

There are a few well-known, established programs that use volunteer birders to collect data that is used for scientific and conservation purposes. However there are many more


opportunities that can appear in your area. Find out about research going on in your area by contacting regional ornithological societies, research stations and universities. The following are Citizen Science examples that are relevant to the entire region of Latin America and the Caribbean. There are many additional local programs such as the Caribbean Waterbird Count, International Plover Survey and others.

9.2 eBird (slides 4–19)

eBird—a real-time, Internet-based checklist program and database—is an increasingly popular and useful Citizen Science program. As the volume of data from around the world has increased dramatically, the value of that data has grown exponentially.

9.2.1 What is eBird?

The Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology and the National Audubon Society started eBird in 2002 in order to provide a tool to collect and distribute information on bird abundance and geographic distribution across time. Birders are encouraged to join, set up a free account (simple and easy to do), and submit their bird sightings based upon checklists for a single location.

Once you have an account on ebird.org, it takes only a few minutes to complete the process of uploading your checklist: 1. click on the “submit observations” tab

2. find your location on a map or enter a new location if no one has previously submitted a checklist 3. select the date and enter other relevant data as prompted

4. go through the list of bird species and place an “x” by each bird’s name to denote an observation or enter the actual quantity you sighted 5. click “submit”.

The program keeps track of your own sightings, providing easy access to your lists and compiles your sightings by month, year, by hotspot (popular birding location), personal location (such as your yard), county, state, country, region, and the world. Furthermore, you can see other birders’ sightings as well. eBird has many features, such as maps, species lists, as well as a list of birders who have been reporting birds at any particular location.

9.2.2 Regional Editors and Quality Control

eBird has many volunteer regional editors who sort out errors as well as review records of

Fig. 9-1. Yellow-faced Grassquit (Tiaris olivaceous) is a common bird in much of the Caribbean and Central America. Source: John Sterling.

noteworthy sightings. If you submit a record that is considered noteworthy, eBird will alert you with the option of adding your photo, written description or sound recording to provide documentation. You may receive an email from the local editor asking for more evidence such as a better description of the bird. This editorial review promotes higher data quality.

9.2.3 Why is eBird Important to Guides?

Guides can explore eBird data to find out where other birders have reported rare or hard-to-find species in their area. As eBird gains in popularity, more birders review sightings from areas where they plan to travel. If you have submitted many checklists, users will see your name associated with those sightings, enhancing your reputation with potential clients. The checklists that you submit ultimately can be used to promote ecotourism in your area, local conservation efforts, scientific research, and benefit birds and your business. After a tour, you can easily share your eBird checklists with your clients via email.

9.2.4 eBird Caribbean and eBird Central America

There are two regional eBird portals or websites. eBird Caribbean’s (ebird.org/ content/Caribbean)and eBird Central America’s (ebird.org/content/camerica) homepages have announcements on news, meetings, contests and other features specific to their regions in Spanish, English, and French. If you have an idea for a group project, eBird is a great location to announce your project and gain support from fellow birders. The homepages also show the number of checklists submitted for the current month for each country within the region, allowing for friendly competition.




9.2.5 Hot Spots “Hot Spots” are important birding locations regularly visited by birders, such as a lodge’s


grounds, trail, wetland, national park, etc. The following is an example of eBird map information for Hot Spots in central Belize.

The following is an example of a Hot Spot webpage with information on the number of species, species list, recent visits and top

birders based upon eBird list submissions for that location.


Each Hot Spot also has a bar chart with relative abundance for each month of the year (see example below). The wider the green bar the higher the numbers of individuals reported. Notice that American Wigeon has been recorded with fewer numbers and on


fewer dates than Blue-winged Teal. The more checklists submitted throughout the seasons for the Hot Spot, the more accurate these bar charts become. You can easily make a bar chart for a geographic region such as country, state, province or county.

9.2.6 Species Maps eBird allows you to view maps by species in a country or other geographical area you select. The following are examples of species maps

from Belize for Orange-breasted Falcon (a rare species) and Olive-throated Parakeet (a common species).



Fig. 9-2. Orange-breasted Falcon (Falco deiroleucus) is a rare, endangered and highly localized species in Central and northern half of South America. Source: John Sterling.

Fig. 9-3. Olive-throated Parakeet (Eupstittula nana) is a common bird in southern Mexico, Central America and Jamaica. Source: John Sterling.



9.2.7 Comparing Species Abundance Using Charts eBird allows you to compare species abundance of up to five species of birds in one

Hot Spot, country, state, etc., over a select time period. The example below shows two species of parrots in one Hot Spot over a 1 year time period.


9.2.8 eBird Apps: BirdLog and BirdsEye BirdLog is a smartphone app that enables you to enter your checklist into eBird while in the field. It is very handy to use and reduces or eliminates the amount of time you would need to enter data into eBird from a computer at the end of the day.

BirdsEye apps come in world or regional versions: Central America and the Caribbean; and South America. BirdsEye reviews the eBird data to provide instant information on locations of birds in your area and has a special feature that focuses on rare and notable species sightings. These apps have been improving over time and now feature photographs and some text on identification for most if not all species.

9.2.9 How are Scientists using the Data?

This section is reprinted and condensed with minor edits and permission from the eBird website: help.ebird.org/customer/portal/ articles/1006803-how-are-scientists-usingthe-data-?b_id=1928.

As more birders join eBird and enter their checklists from specific locations in a complete and accurate manner, the database becomes more useful. Every eBird record is made freely available to the public. Each checklist you submit to eBird provides scientists with an increasingly valuable resource for answering questions about the current distribution and abundance of birds and changes over time in order to protect a species.

9.2.9.1 Documenting Bird Distribution

Your checklists document a species’ presence at a specific time and geographic location. Plotting all of the observations of that species over days, weeks, months, or years allows


eBird users to determine the species’ range, including movement patterns and changes in distribution. Each species’ seasonal movements become evident when comparing its distribution from various times throughout the year. By comparing a bird’s range among different years, scientists can keep track of changes in distribution. From a scientist’s perspective, knowing if a bird species is absent is equally important as knowing if it is present. For this reason, it is important that you report all of the birds you saw or heard whenever possible, so researchers analyzing your observations will know not only which species you saw, but also which species you didn’t see. Analyzing eBird data helps scientists and the general public understand birds more completely and aid in their conservation.

9.2.9.2 Abundance Trends

When entering data in eBird, whether you submit actual counts for all species or simply note presence, your counts are useful. Comparing how birds’ numbers change over time is especially important in conservation biology and instrumental in helping scientists determine whether populations are increasing, decreasing, or remaining the same. Other longrunning datasets, like the Christmas Bird Count and Breeding Bird Survey, have long provided insight on population trends, but some species are missed by those counts. eBird observations help fill those gaps.

9.3 Great Backyard Bird Count (slide 20)

The National Audubon Society and Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology started the Great Backyard Bird Count in 1998 (http://gbbc. birdcount.org). Over a four-day period in midFebruary each year, birders count all birds in their yard or favorite birding location for at least fifteen minutes each day.

9.4 Christmas Bird Counts (slides 21–30) Established in 1899 and administered by the National Audubon Society, the Christmas Bird Count is one of the oldest and most popular citizen science programs in the world. All birds of every species are counted within an established 15-mile diameter circle during one day only, within a three-week period (December 14 to January 5). The circle area is divided into sections with individuals or small groups spending all day in each section. All counts are coordinated and conducted by volunteer birders, including birding tour participants and guides. The data is sent to the National Audubon Society and incorporated into the database of all counts.

Conservation biologists studying bird population trends use these data. You can find the results of historical counts in your region by accessing the data from the homepage (netapp.

audubon.org/cbcobservation/) or directly from (netapp.audubon.org/CBCObservation/ Historical/ResultsByCount.aspx).

Find out about a local count or start a new one if there is not one in your area by clicking on the “map” link at www.birds.audubon.org/faq/ where-can-i-see-cbc-circles-map and zoom in on your country and area using the interactive online map. Participating is an excellent way to get to know other birders in your region and may be a good way to meet potential clients from other countries. So contact the count compiler about the date and volunteer your time to help count birds for the day. If you have clients scheduled for that date, ask them if they are willing to spend the day with you as their guide on the Christmas Bird Count. The following is a map with circles showing Christmas Bird Count locations (circles) from 2013.


9.4.1 Creating a new Christmas Bird Count If you want to start a new Christmas Bird Count, you must follow the protocol in establishing a new circle that is found at www. birds.audubon.org/faq/compilers#t1416n857 . It is important to have as many knowledgeable birders participate in each count as possible in order to cover the entire survey area and to increase the accuracy of the counts.

9.5 Nest Monitoring (slide 31)

We are unaware of any large-scale, nestmonitoring program in the Caribbean and Latin America, but there are several local nestmonitoring projects scattered throughout the


Neotropics, including several focusing on rare macaws and parrots. “Ornitologia Neotropical” is a scientific, bilingual journal that routinely publishes short papers describing nests of little known species. Tips: When birding, if you find a nest, back away slowly to avoid disturbing the adult on the nest. Take a photograph and write a description of the nest. Draw a simple sketch too. If the adult was accidentally flushed from the nest or if it was not on the nest, then check quickly to see if eggs or young are present and count them. Return to the nest daily to count eggs, nests and to monitor nestling growth. However, try not to get close to the nest or

flush the adult off the nest. You can attach a small mirror at the end of a pole to see inside nests that are too high or to see inside a low nest from a safer distance. Beware that nestling and egg predators such as primates, toucans and others may be watching you. In the tropics, most nests are unsuccessful, so do not add any more stress to the adults.

9.6 Breeding Bird Atlas (slide 32) Breeding Bird Atlas projects are a good way to involve the local birding community in citizen science. They require a long (3-6 year commitment to collect data), large, concerted effort with a project director, data managers, volunteer coordinators, data reviewers, and many volunteer birders. The basic concept is to divide a geographic area into smaller “blocks”—sections that can be easily covered by a single birder or a group. Some cover large areas, but an atlas can cover a relatively small area such as a national park, wildlife reserve, county or other small geographic units. An example of a handbook for an atlas project can be downloaded from the Massachusetts breeding bird atlas website at http://www. massaudubon.org/media/ma-assets/files/ birds-and-birding/bba2/bba2-handbook. An online description of the Florida state atlas project is found at http://legacy.myfwc.com/ bba/chapt1.asp. These are just two examples and an online search can direct you to many more.

9.7 Photography, Video and Bird Vocalization Recording Archives (slides 33–35)

Although not strictly Citizen Science, obtaining good photographs, video and sound recordings of birds and providing public access to them through your own website or another website can not only help you market your business, but also have unexpected rewards such as inquiries for commercial license or educational

use of your material from book authors, conservation organizations, research biologists and other guides and birders (see Chapter 10 Tools of the Trade). There are several archives of bird photographs and videos, including but not limited to:

• VIREO (Visual Resources for Ornithology), based at the Academy of Natural Sciences in Philadelphia, U.S., is an important collection of photographs of birds from around the world (http://vireo.ansp.org) • Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology’s Flickr website bringing together photos of Neotropical birds from many photographers (https://www.flickr.com/ groups/neobirds/pool/) • World Birds collection of multimedia (photos, song recordings, video) from around the world (http://worldbirds.eu) • BirdLife International’s gallery (https:// www.flickr.com/groups/birdlifeinternational/)

• Bird Photos.com gallery (http://www. birdphotos.com)

There are several archives of bird vocalization recordings, including but not limited to: • Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology’s Macaulay Library of Natural Sounds (http://macaulaylibrary.org)

• World Birds collection of multimedia (photos, song recordings, video) from around the world (http://worldbirds.eu)

• Xeno-Canto (http://www.xeno-canto.org)

The archival staff of the above mentioned organizations or sites are always looking for additional material, especially of species that are local to your area or are otherwise rare or difficult to observe, or videos of interesting behavior. The material can be used by conservation and research programs and are often reviewed by birders prior to traveling to


a new area. If you have contributed material, birders will see your name associated with your area. Contributing to these archives can be a great marketing tool for your business.

9.8 Bird Surveys (slides 36–38) There are many techniques to survey birds:

1. Point count, conducted during the most active morning hours. Stand at a spot for five or ten minutes (choose between 5 or 10 minutes as your standard) and record all of the birds that you see or hear within a 50 meter radius circle around you. You can easily conduct 8‐15 point counts in a morning. Each point is at least 200 meters apart. Mark each point on the ground (to easily refine it to for additional surveys), record GPS location, habitat type and conditions around each point. Over time, spot surveys reveal differences in seasonal and habitat distributions among species.

2. Transect survey. Using standard, one‐ kilometer length transects, keep track of all of the birds that you detect along a trail or you can also count birds within distance bands along a longer transect, such as 0‐50 meters, 50‐100 meters and so on. 3. Spot mapping. Using a plot with a grid system, mark each bird’s location on a map of the plot. By accumulating a lot of data, you’ll be able to see patterns that define birds’ territories.

9.9 Mistnetting/Banding/Molt Studies (slides 39–48)

Mist netting and color-banding birds can be used to monitor the age, site fidelity and movements of birds. Also, mist netting studies can be used to monitor and describe molt sequences of birds. These activities require a banding permit, mist nets, poles, bands, measuring equipment and many hours of training with permitted banders, and thus tend to be expensive.


Mist netting in particular is time consuming and expensive. It is best to have a small group of guides/birders to share the costs of these investments. Mist nets are large, finely woven nylon or polyester panels that are suspended between two poles. If placed in the shade, they are invisible to birds that fly into them. Untangling birds and carefully removing them from the nets take many hours of practice.

Mist netting studies can determine the presence or relative abundance of understory birds that are otherwise difficult to census when not vocalizing. Mist nets also capture a disproportionate amount of birds that follow army ant swarms. These birds move through the forest in the early morning, covering large areas while looking for moving ant swarms. Mist nets also capture a disproportionate amount of birds that that move long distances back and forth along an established route to forage in specific locations. Without the use of mist nets, it is difficult to detect or accurately assess the relative abundances of these species.

Banding and measuring is relatively easy once you learn how to properly hold the bird. When you band a bird, you place a small aluminum or plastic band (with a unique number engraved on it) on one leg. Band sizes vary according to leg size. There are established banding stations in many Caribbean and Latin American countries where you can volunteer or get training. For information on potential projects, review the Partners-in-Flight reports on monitoring and research needs (www.partnersinflight. org/pifneeds/) or contact the Institute for Bird Populations about their MoSI: Monitoreo de Sobrevivencia Invernal program (http:// birdpop.org/MoSI/MoSI.htm).

9.10 Exercises

4. Have trainees submit eBird checklist data after they have demonstrated sufficient knowledge of bird identification.

1. Conduct a comprehensive multi-day eBird workshop in a computer lab with demonstrations and hands-on practice with important eBird tools and data entry.

5. Participate in a Christmas Bird Count. If one does not exist locally, create a new count.

3. Brainstorm uses of eBird for guiding and for conservation/biology projects.

7. Invite ornithologists to class to discuss their research projects.

2. Research distribution and abundance of birds in your area using eBird.

6. Have trainees look up particular species in photograph and audio recording archives.

8. As a class, develop and implement a standardized bird survey project for a local park or other birding location.


10 TOOLS OF THE TRADE

LEARNING OUTCOMES 1. Describe the basic parts of and how to use and care for each type of basic birding equipment (binoculars, tripod, scope, etc.). 2. Summarize the many facets of bird photography and determine the right equipment for your needs.

3. Download and try out smart phone apps useful to guides. 4. Explain the importance of field sketching.

5. Locate and research online databases of photographs, video and sound recordings. 6. Identify a useful selection of reference books on birds.

7. Listen to bird song recordings and determine what equipment is useful for your needs. 8. Appraise the role of each type of tool for enhancing your guiding and marketing efforts.

10.1 Introduction

There are many pieces of equipment, books, and online sources of information that can be used to enhance your ability to lead tours as well as promote your businesses. Suitable binoculars and a local field guide are essential and necessary. Spotting scopes with good tripods and green laser pointers are also very valuable. Other tools of the trade discussed below are not essential, but will greatly enhance your birding skills, business marketing, and reputation as well as the enjoyment of guiding. Many items are expensive and/or difficult to obtain in some regions. Birder’s Exchange (www. aba.org/bex) and Optics for Tropics (www. opticsforthetropics.org) are two organizations that provide binoculars and spotting scopes to Latin American and Caribbean birders who are involved in citizen science projects, especially ones that focus on bird conservation.

10.2 Binoculars (slides 2–8)

Binoculars are very personal items that need to fit well in your hands and on your face, feel balanced when looking through them, be easy for you to focus and be comfortable around


your neck for long periods of time. Therefore, it is very important to try out binoculars (and preferably test them outdoors) before you purchase them. Fit and comfort are not always related to price.

Binocular weights vary widely. Very lightweight models and compact or pocket binoculars are too light and too small for birding, and their optics and field of view are not suited for birding conditions. Similarly, very heavy binoculars can be uncomfortable around your neck for extended periods of time. Binoculars are long-term investments, so make sure that you are comfortable using them. Choose binoculars that are nitrogen purged and are highly water resistant (no binocular is water proof, but find out how deep it can be submerged in water), with a lockable diopter. Very good binoculars start at about $250 and the best can top out at over $2,400 (but can last a lifetime). The more expensive binoculars usually hold up to abuse, such as dropping on ground, humidity, etc., but any binocular can break under the right circumstances. Avoid purchasing binoculars for less than $250; their quality will not be sufficient to allow

enjoyable and long-term use. Always ask about warranties and repair time; also ask other birders and guides about their experiences with damage and repairs. Repair time and replacement of damaged binoculars vary widely among optic companies.

Lens pen

10.2.1 Care and Cleaning

It is best to keep binoculars and scopes in dry conditions where possible in order to reduce damage caused by humidity and fungus. When you clean your lenses, use only clean water or special optics cleaning solution (isopropyl alcohol based) that is made for coated lenses. Only use microfiber-cleaning cloths or a lens pen made especially for cleaning lenses. Make sure that your lens cloth is clean. Do not use cleaning solutions made for window glass or eyeglasses such as ammonia, Windex, Glass Plus or other household cleaners as they will damage lens coatings. Avoid touching the lenses directly with your hands to prevent oil from skin transferring to the lenses. Salt water can damage optics, so be sure to clean them after exposure to salt spray from beach and boating excursions on the ocean or salt-water lakes. Do not store binoculars or scopes in direct sunlight or in extreme heat. Do not put sunscreen or insect repellent on binoculars; if you use DEET, avoid putting it on your hands as DEET on your skin can corrode protective covering on binoculars.

If you drop or bump your binoculars, check to ensure that they are not even slightly out of alignment. Your eyes will adjust to this problem to the point where you will not notice a difference. However, this can lead to longterm problems with your eyesight. Do not use binoculars that are out of alignment and get them repaired. A Lens Pen is an inexpensive and excellent cleaning tool.

10.2.2 Brands There are several companies that make expensive, durable and high quality binoculars and scopes. Leica, Swarovski, Zeiss are the leaders in quality with Celestron, Eagle Optics, Kowa, Meopta, Nikon, Opticron, Vixen, and Vortex adding great models to the mid and low price ranges. Go to their company websites to find out more. Also look at reviews published annually by National Audubon Society at http://mag.audubon.org/articles/living/ audubon-guide-binoculars and by Cornell’s Laboratory of Ornithology at http://www. allaboutbirds.org/Page.aspx?pid=2674. There are many other online reviews that are easily found by searching the Internet. Eagle Optics (http://www.eagleoptics.com) and Out of this World Discount Binoculars (http://discountbinoculars.com) have very knowledgeable staff that can help you choose your binoculars and answer questions about repairs and durability of brands and models.

10.3 Spotting Scopes and Tripods (slides 9–10)

Many spotting scopes have interchangeable eyepieces that are sold separately. Some eyepieces have a fixed power such as 25 power (25X). However, it is best to buy a zoom eyepiece (20-60X) that will allow more flexible use. The larger the power, the lesser the quality of image, especially with heat waves, so many birders prefer up to 50X. However, under the right conditions, 60X can be useful. Bird Guide Training Curriculum | Basic Level 124

10.3.3 Tripods Angled

Straight-through

10.3.1 Angled vs Straight-through Scopes Angled scopes are much better for guides than straight-through scopes for several reasons. First, you can set up the scope on a bird and have all of your clients—regardless of their height—view it without readjusting the tripod/ scope height. Second, simply by rotating the scope, one can also change the position of the eyepiece, adding to the flexibility for viewing. Third, angled scopes can be set lower too which helps keep the tripod and scope steadier in windy conditions. Lastly, when viewing a bird perched on top of a large tree, it is far easier to view from an angled scope.

10.3.2 Brands

There are several companies that make expensive, durable and high quality scopes. Kowa, Leica, Nikon, Swarovski, and Zeiss are the leaders in quality with Celestron, Opticron, Vixen, and Vortex adding great models to the mid and low price ranges. There are many online reviews that are easily found by searching the Internet. Eagle Optics (www. eagleoptics.com) and Out of This World Discount Binoculars (www.discountbinoculars. com) have very knowledgeable staff that can help you choose your scopes and tripods and answer questions about repairs and durability of brands and models.


Good tripods are essential for guides with scopes. They need to be easy and quick to setup (compactable for travel), sturdy to reduce vibration, with adjustable and lockable legs. High quality, lightweight tripods are expensive, but they will last a long time and be much more comfortable to carry and to set-up. Carbon fiber tripods do not absorb as much heat as aluminum tripods when exposed to the sun and thus are cooler to the touch. Avoid inexpensive, unsteady, lightweight tripods. Make sure that the tripod will be tall enough for you and can collapse into a short compact size for traveling. Make sure that the legs lock tight and can be easily tightened. Tripod heads, which mount the scope to the tripod, are often sold separately from the legs. Make sure that the head has a quick release plate, which is screwed onto the scope. A quick-release mechanism allows you to easily and quickly remove the scope from the tripod head. The best heads have one or two knobs that can tighten or loosen the head to allow the scope to move smoothly horizontally and vertically. Many birders use heads made for video cameras as they are designed for fluid movement. Gitzo, Manfrotto and Swarovski make the best tripods and heads.

10.4 Photography (slide 11–16)

As a guide, you will want to have photographs of birds to help market your guiding business. As more birders become birding photographers in the digital camera age, knowing a lot about photography will enable you to provide your clients with help beyond the basic guiding services. This will increase your value as a guide, which could lead to higher wages and additional clientele. Getting good photographs will also help you learn more about species identification and plumage characteristics that are difficult to see under most field conditions, especially while guiding. Photography can be expensive, but consider it another investment in your business.

while birding”. Portability is a serious issue, as are time and financial investments.

10.4.2 Digiscoping

Digiscoping is a way to use the scope to your advantage when taking pictures at a distance. This convenient and popular technique uses a point-and-shoot digital camera attached to a standard spotting scope. You can simply hold the camera up to the ocular of your scope with or without an adapter.

10.4.1 Birding Photography

The next 3 subsections are reprinted, condensed and edited from American Birding Association’s “Birding Gear” with permission from author, Derek Lovitch and editor, Michael Retter. (The author, Derek Lovitch, greatly appreciates comments and suggestions offered by Cameron Cox, David La Puma, Jeannette Lovitch, and Clay Taylor on an earlier draft of this article.)

Birding and bird photography are, in many ways, incompatible. To truly focus on birding, whether it is seeing more birds or learning more about birds, it is much better to observe and study birds through binoculars than through a camera’s viewfinder. Bird photography, on the other hand, takes patience, requiring the photographer to remain stationary, focusing on “the photo” and often ignoring all of the other birds. The most dedicated bird photographers often carry a 500-plus-mm lens on a camera mounted on a tripod, which is too heavy for active birding. Let us assume that most birders are not focusing their time, effort, and money on carrying that equipment. Therefore, the discussion is not about “bird photography” but “taking pictures

Without a snug and secure fit on the ocular, digiscoping becomes unnecessarily challenging. However, with a lightweight adapter, you will appreciate the photo quality from stabilizing your photography platform. It’s best to purchase the adapter made specifically for a particular scope and/or a camera. Leica and Nikon make adapters that fit their own cameras and their own scopes, but most other companies produce a digiscoping adapter that works well with a variety of cameras. Manufacturers of scopes that do not make their own cameras strive to have a secure fit on their scopes while accepting a broader range of camera options. Swarovski, for example, has some good adapters that fit a variety of cameras. The costs and benefits of digiscoping are the following:


Money Size Distance Speed

Costs

Benefits

The best adapters are often as expensive as the camera itself.

Good point-and-shoots can be less than $200, and do-it-yourself adapters can be made for pennies.

The point-and-shoot plus the adapter can be more than what you can fit in your pocket.

Shake (and therefore focus) is challenging at high magnifications.

Doesn’t work so well for birds in flight or birds that appear and disappear rapidly, or are otherwise moving quickly.

Smaller and cheaper than a DSLR; less bulky than a traditional telephoto lens.

Performs better at a distance than super-zooms and, under good conditions, can outperform the DSLR most birders carry, at least for documentation-quality photographs.

10.4.3 Phone-scoping The wave of the future is the ultra-lightweight and portable “phone-scoping” technique. Handholding the phone on the scope is an option, but adapters are relatively inexpensive, exceptionally lightweight and easy to use. Homemade options include a cheap phone case and a lens cap (various techniques can be found online). The best adapters fit snugly over specific eyepieces and are made by Novagrade, Meopta (“Meopix”) or Phone Skope. Cost/use Availability

The costs and benefits of phonescoping are the following:

Costs

Benefits

Most adapters cannot be used with protective cases for the phone.

Lightweight and relatively inexpensive; new phone cameras are often better than point-andshoots of an equivalent price range.

Notifications of phone calls, emails, texts, etc. while birding can be distracting.

Image quality The image quality is only as good as a photo with a phone can be; the resolution is fixed; there is no “raw” setting. Phone cameras usually max out at about 5x optical zoom. 127 Bird Guide Training Curriculum | Basic Level

You’re probably already carrying your phone. Photos can be instantly emailed, shared on Facebook, posted to websites and listservs, etc. Photo apps for your phone can let you control focus and exposure.

10.5 Laser Pointer (slide 17)

When it is difficult to describe the location of a bird, usually in a dense forest, a green laser pointer is an ideal tool (red lights are more difficult to see). Guides use them to point out perched birds, usually in dense, forested environments. However, it must be used correctly to ensure safety to birds and people. If shown directly into the eyes of a bird, human or other creature, it will damage those eyes. The rule of laser use is to never point the laser anywhere on a bird, human or other animal but instead close to the object being pointed out. Only the guide should use a laser pointer and shine it just below or next to the bird. In many circumstances when the bird is difficult to see because of dense vegetation, it may be best to point the laser on a viewable reference point close to the object and move the light to guide the clients’ eyes towards the bird.

10.6 Smart Phone Applications (slides 18–26)

New phone apps are being developed constantly, and the most successful existing apps are upgraded frequently. This section is not a comprehensive review of apps for birding guides but a good introduction to the existing apps that may be useful to guides and birders. Many of these apps can be used on smart phones and tablets, but some are designed specifically for one of the two.

10.6.1 Field Guide Apps Of the apps that provide photographs useful for identifying birds, only BirdsEye CA and SA cover the Caribbean and Central America, and South America, respectively. These include bird songs for some species. There are field guide apps for North American birds, such as Sibley eGuide to Birds, National Geographic Birds, Peterson Birds, Audubon Bird and iBird Pro, which are helpful for identifying North American migrant birds. Many of these include bird songs and calls as well are photographs, illustrations and text describing identification field marks.

If you have an Internet connection, you can stream bird recordings from Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology’s Macaulay Library of Natural Sounds (http://macaulaylibrary.org) or from Xeno-Canto (http://www.xeno-canto. org). Both have excellent examples of songs and calls for nearly every species in Latin America and the Caribbean.

10.6.2 Weather Forecast Apps

Dark Sky provides global weather radar maps and weather forecasts for your area.

Intellicast provides weather radar maps, storm tracking and precision weather forecasts based upon your location, or you can select a location by typing in a city and country. Bird Guide Training Curriculum | Basic Level 128

BirdsEye Hotspots uses your iPhone mapping and GIS feature to show you where nearby eBird hotspots are located. You can click on a hotspot on the map to get directions from your location and the local weather forecast.

10.6.3 Sound Recording Apps

Voice memo apps are useful for recording your description of a rare bird while you are observing it, a description of unusual bird behavior, and other notes.

Rode Rec is a great app that boosts the power of your microphone, including options for external microphones. This app allows you to instantly share recordings on an Internet connection via email and social media such as Facebook.

10.6.4 Camera Apps

The following have been highly regarded and proven useful:

Android Phones Fast Burst Camera: for shooting up to 30 frames per second. ProCapture: allows you more control over exposure and other features. Camera Zoom FX: full-featured app iPhones Camera + and Pro Camera 7: are great apps that allow you to control exposure and focus and improve overall quality of images.

10.6.5 eBird Apps

BirdsEye is the only company that works directly with eBird data. These apps for iPhone (Android version coming soon) use eBird data to provide information about locations of birds reported near you. They also include photographs and some information about every species in the region. BirdsEye uses your phone’s GPS to display all recent sightings near 129 Bird Guide Training Curriculum | Basic Level

your current spot to any distance (1-50 km) and local abundance information.

If you use eBird, you can import your eBird year or life lists for the whole world, region, or specific country. You can also manually enter your life list or edit the list imported from eBird. Your lists are automatically backed up online.

BirdsEye Mexico, Central America and the Caribbean (BirdsEye CA) and BirdsEye South America (BirdsEye SA) are simple but powerful tools for birders. BirdsEye CA includes over 2500 species of birds in Central America, Mexico & the Caribbean, including all breeders, regular migrants and most vagrants. BirdsEye SA includes over 3200 species of birds in South America, including all breeders, regular migrants and most vagrants. BirdsEye CA and BirdsEye SA provide essential information on distribution, behavior and habitat to help you find the bird once you get to the right location.

10.6.6 eBird Data Entry—BirdLog

Another app from BirdsEye is BirdLog that includes versions for both iPhone and Android phones. BirdLog is the exclusive mobile data entry tool for eBird available in Worldwide & Regional versions. BirdLog allows a user to:

• Create new personal locations or choose an existing hotspot for your checklist • Create checklists in areas with no cell phone coverage to later submit to eBird • Plot the exact location of your sightings using your phone’s GPS

• Enter birds quickly and easily as you see them

• Keeps a running tally of how many of each species you’ve seen

• Keep track of day and trip lists that you can email to yourself or friends

10.7 Field Sketching (slides 27–31) Shortened version of American Birding Association’s “Birding Gear”, reprinted with permission from author, Sophie Webb and editor, Michael Retter.

When planning a birding trip, whether it’s just for the day or longer, I bring my binoculars, a telescope, my SLR camera and a field notebook. Not only is a notebook useful for keeping track of numbers and species, but it is also handy for writing notes about the plumage and behavior of any interesting bird you may encounter. Although it may seem tedious at times, note taking is invaluable. I have often been surprised at how many times I referred back to a journal or sketchbook from 10 or 20 years ago. It always jogs my memory about the time, the place, and the birds seen there, often far beyond what I am looking for.

I like to have something that is big enough for taking notes—and perhaps doing a small ID sketch—without feeling too confined. If you are in a humid area or are likely to get wet in a rainstorm, Rite in the Rain notebooks are very useful. The paper in these notebooks has a coating that prevents it from becoming soggy

when wet, thus allowing you to write in them with a pencil in any weather.

There are many great, compact tools that make working in the field easier. For adding color, I prefer watercolors, but many artists like colored pencils. Either option travels well. A set of a few pencils with a standard spectrum of colors is lightweight and can produce almost any color needed. Because recording observations through writing and drawing assists in creating strong memories of what you have seen, it helps you to become a more skillful birder. Keeping good field notes and a journal is not only useful as


a future reference, but is also enjoyable and satisfying. Whether for utility or pleasure, sketching with a notebook in the field is an essential activity for all birders and naturalists.

10.8 Online References (slides 32–54) 10.8.1 Images

You can find photographs of nearly every species of bird on the Internet. A Google search for images is the easiest method of finding photographs. However, some are misidentified by the photographer and mislabeled. Furthermore, most are protected by copyright and cannot be used for commercial purposes such as marketing and promoting your business without a use license or other permission from the photographer. For a commercial use license, contact the photographer to find out the price.

If you want to use another photographer’s photograph for a public, educational use such as teaching, it is important to contact the photographer for permission. Most photographers will grant permission for noncommercial uses, but you need to contact them first for permission before you download their image. Some may allow you free use, but only if you ask first. There are many excellent sources of photographs of Neotropical birds on the Internet including the following:

• VIREO (visual resources for ornithology), based at the Academy of Natural Sciences in Philadelphia, U.S., is an important collection of photographs of birds from around the world (http://vireo.ansp.org) • 10,000 Birds has a gallery of images from around the world (http://10000birds.com)

• Monte Taylor’s gallery (http://www.tsurubird.net)


• Nick Athanas’s gallery (http://antpitta. com)

• John Sterling’s gallery (http://sterlingbirds. smugmug.com)

• Dušan Brinkhuizen’s gallery (www.sapayoa. com) • Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology’s flicker website bringing together photos of Neotropical birds from many photographers (https://www.flickr.com/ groups/neobirds/pool/)

• Bird Pix gallery of Neotropical birds (http://www.birdpix.nl/album_cat.php?cat_ id=49) • World Birds collection of multimedia (photos, song recordings, video) from around the world (http://worldbirds.eu) • Arthur Grosset’s gallery (http://www. arthurgrosset.com/sabirds/south%20 american%20index.html),

• BirdLife International’s gallery (https:// www.flickr.com/groups/birdlifeinternational/) • Bird Imagery gallery (http://www. birdimagency.com/?lang=2)

• Bird Photos.com gallery (http://www. birdphotos.com)

10.8.2 Vocalizations

There are two major archives of bird songs and calls, both of which have excellent examples of songs and calls for nearly every species in Latin America and the Caribbean and are invaluable resources: • Macauly Library of Natural Sounds (http:// macaulaylibrary.org), and • Xeno-Canto (http://www.xeno-canto.org).

The following are screen shots of webpages illustrating some of the online resources of the Macauly Library and Xeno-Canto.





10.9 Books (slides 55–73)

New books on Neotropical birds are published annually, and the quality of many books has reached world-class standards. There is growing interest in birds and ornithology throughout the world, especially in the Latin America and Caribbean (LAC) region. The following is a list of books that cover the LAC region or subregions: • Threatened Birds of the Americas: The ICBP/IUCN Red Data Book. 1992. By N. Collar, L. Gonzaga, N. Krabbe, A. Madrono Nieto, L. Naranjo, T. Parker 111, and D. Wege. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington DC and London. Pp. 1,150.

• Key Areas for Threatened Birds in the Neotropics. 1995. By D. Wege and A. Long. Bird Life International, distributed by Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington DC. Pp. 311.

• Neotropical Birds: Ecology and Conservation. 1996. By D. Stotz, J. Fitzpatrick, T. Parker 111 and D. Moskovits. University of Chicago Press. Pp. 481. • Field Guide to the Songbirds of South America. 2009. By R. Ridgely and G. Tudor. University of Texas Press, Austin TX. Pp. 750.

• Birds of South America: Non-passerines— Rheas to Woodpeckers. 2006. By F. Erize, J. Rodriguez Mata and M. Rumboll. Princeton University Press, Princeton NJ and Oxford. Pp. 384. • A Guide to the Birds of Mexico and Northern Central America. 1995. By S. Howell and S. Webb. Oxford University Press, Oxford, New York, Tokyo. Pp. 851.

• A Guide to the Birds of the West Indies. 2003. By H. Raffaele, J. Wiley, O. Garrido, A. Keith, and J. Raffaele. Princeton University Press, Princeton NJ and Oxford. Pp. 511. • Birds of the West Indies. 1998. By H. Raffaele, J. Wiley, O. Garrido, A. Keith, and

J. Raffaele. Princeton University Press, Princeton NJ and Oxford. Pp. 216.

• Birds of Tropical America: A watcher’s introduction to behavior, breeding and diversity. 1994. By S. Hilty. Chapters Publishing, Shelburne, Vermont. Pp. 304.

• A Neotropical Companion: an introduction to the animals, plants, and ecosystems of the New World tropics. 2nd ed., rev. and expanded. 1997. By John Kricher; illustrated by William E. Davis, Jr. Princeton University Press. Pp. 451. The following are books authored by the late Alexander Skutch who wrote detailed natural history observations of Neotropical birds. These books have some of the most comprehensive information for many species.

• Life Histories of Central American Birds I: Families Fringillidae, Thraupidae, Icteridae, Parulidae and Coerebidae. (Pacific Coast Avifauna No.31). 1954. Cooper Ornithological Society: Berkeley. • Life Histories of Central American Birds II: Families Vireonidae, Sylviidae, Turdidae, Troglodytidae, Paridae, Corvidae, Hirundinidae and Tyrannidae. (Pacific Coast Avifauna No.34). 1960. Cooper Ornithological Society: Berkeley.

• Life histories of Central American highland birds. (Publications of the Nuttall Ornithological Club No.7). 1967. Harvard University: Cambridge.

• Life histories of Central American birds III: Families Cotingidae, Pipridae, Formicariidae, Furnariidae, Dendrocolaptidae, and Picidae. (Pacific Coast Avifauna No.35). 1969. Cooper Ornithological Society: Berkeley. • A Naturalist in Costa Rica. 1971. University of Florida Press: Gainesville. • Studies of Tropical American Birds. (Publications of the Nuttall Ornithological


Club No.10). 1972. Harvard University: Cambridge.

• The Life of the Hummingbird. 1973. Crown Publishers: New York.

• Parent Birds and Their Young. 1976. (Corrie Herring Hooks series, No.2). University of Texas Press: Austin. • A Bird Watcher’s Adventures in Tropical America. 1977. (Corrie Herring Hooks series, No.3). University of Texas Press: Austin.

• New Studies of Tropical American Birds. (Illustrated by Dana Gardner). 1981. (Publications of the Nuttall Ornithological Club No.19). Harvard University: Cambridge. • Birds of Tropical America. (Illustrated by Dana Gardner). 1983. (Corrie Herring Hooks series, No.5). University of Texas Press: Austin.

• Nature Through Tropical Windows. 1984. University of California Press.

• Life of the Woodpecker. (Illustrated by Dana Gardner). 1985. Ibis Publishing: Santa Monica.

• Helpers at Birds’ Nests: A Worldwide Survey of Cooperative Breeding and Related Behaviour. (Illustrated by Dana Gardner). 1987. (1st edition). University Of Iowa Press. • A Naturalist Amid Tropical Splendor. (Illustrated by Dana Gardner). 1987. University of Iowa Press.

• A Guide to the Birds of Costa Rica. (With F. Gary Stiles. Illustrated by Dana Gardner). 1989. Comstock Publishing Associates/ Cornell University Press: Ithaca.

• Birds Asleep. 1989. (Corrie Herring Hooks series, No.14). University of Texas Press: Austin. 137 Bird Guide Training Curriculum | Basic Level

• Life of the Tanager. (Illustrated by Dana Gardner). 1989. Comstock Publishing: Ithaca. • Life of the Pigeon. (Illustrated by Dana Gardner). 1991. Comstock Publishing: Ithaca.

• The Origins of Nature’s Beauty. Essays. 1992. (Corrie Herring Hooks series). University of Texas Press: Austin.

• Antbirds and Ovenbirds: their Lives and Homes. (Illustrated by Dana Gardner). 1996. University of Texas Press: Austin.

• Orioles, Blackbirds, and their Kin: A Natural History. (Illustrated by Dana Gardner). 1996. University of Arizona Press. • The Minds of Birds. 1996. (Louise Lindsey Merrick Natural Environment Series, No.23). Texas A&M University Press: College Station. • Life of the Flycatcher. (Illustrated by Dana Gardner). 1997. University of Oklahoma: Norman.

• Helpers at Birds’ Nests: A Worldwide Survey of Cooperative Breeding and Related Behaviour. (Illustrated by Dana Gardner). 1999. (2nd expanded edition). University Of Iowa Press. • Trogons, Laughing Falcons, and Other Neotropical Birds. 1999. (Louise Lindsey Merrick Natural Environment Series). Texas A&M University: College Station. There are other books in several series focused on a single family of birds. Many of these families are found throughout the world. However, several books focus on families of birds that are restricted to the Neotropics, and these can be a great source of value and information: • Cotingas and Manakins. 2011. By G. Kirwan and G. Green. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ. Pp. 624.

• The Tanagers: Natural History, Distribution, and Identification. 1987. By M. and P. Isler. Smithsonian Institution Press. Washington, DC. Pp. 404. • New World Blackbirds: The Icterids. 1999. By A. Jaramillo and P. Burke. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ. Pp. 431.

10.10 Exercises

1. Practice using binoculars and spotting scopes under various conditions in the field. 2. If a small digital camera or smart phone is available, practice using them to take

photographs through a spotting scope, using a special adapter if needed.

3. Practice using a laser pointer to show birds to others in the field. 4. Practice sketching birds in the field and from illustrations in a book.

5. If a smart phone is available, practice using the apps covered in this chapter.

6. Create an eBird checklist using BirdLog.

7. If recording equipment is available, try recording bird songs in the field. Note how background noise can affect recordings.

8. Research images and recordings of some rare and special birds in your area.


11 ETHICS AND SAFETY

LEARNING OUTCOMES 1. Learn birding and guiding ethics.

2. Identify and discuss potential safety hazards.

3. Understand guide’s responsibility for communicating to clients about hazards and taking precautions to avoid hazards. 4. Take first aid training course.

5. Become familiar with liability and insurance issues.


Ethics, safety and insurance are issues that guides may neglect when they are focused on improving birding skills, marketing themselves or their business, or guiding clients. However, they tend to become important at surprising and inconvenient times, i.e. when a client throws a rock to flush a bird for a better view, wanders off onto private property, trips over a rock and breaks his ankle or decides to sue you for negligence. Although these types of incidences are rare, they can ruin a trip for you and your group. The following are codes of conduct and skills that you must know, follow and develop as part of your professional development as a guide, for your legal protection and for the safety and health of your clients and the birds.

11.2 Birding Ethics (slides 3–5)

From the American Birding Association’s “Code of Birding Ethics,” the following are important ethical standards that protect birds and enhance the enjoyment of birding groups. Many birders are sensitive to these ethics and will be disappointed or possibly angry if they witness poor ethical conduct of guides and fellow trip participants.


11.2.1 Promote the Welfare of Birds and their Environment 1(a) Support the protection of important bird habitat.

1(b) To avoid stressing birds or exposing them to danger, exercise restraint and caution during observation, photography, sound recording, or filming.

Limit the use of recordings and other methods of attracting birds, and never use such methods in heavily birded areas, or for attracting any species that is Threatened, Endangered, or of Special Concern, or is rare in your local area;

Keep well back from nests and nesting colonies, roosts, display areas, and important feeding sites. In such sensitive areas, if there is a need for extended observation, photography, filming, or recording, try to use a blind or hide, and take advantage of natural cover. Use artificial light sparingly for filming or photography, especially for close-ups.

1(c) Before advertising the presence of a rare bird, evaluate the potential for disturbance to the bird, its surroundings, and other people in the area, and proceed only if access can be controlled, disturbance minimized, and permission has been obtained from private land-owners. The sites of rare nesting birds should be divulged only to the proper conservation authorities.

1(d) Stay on roads, trails, and paths where they exist; otherwise keep habitat disturbance to a minimum.

11.2.2 Respect the Law, and the Rights of Others 2(a) Do not enter private property without the owner’s explicit permission. 2(b) Follow all laws, rules, and regulations governing use of roads and public areas, both at home and abroad. 2(c) Practice common courtesy in contacts with other people. Your exemplary behavior will generate goodwill with birders and nonbirders alike.

11.2.3 Ensure that Feeders, Nest Structures, and Other Artificial Bird Environments are Safe

3(a) Keep dispensers, water, and food clean, and free of decay or disease. It is important to feed birds continually during harsh weather. 3(b) Maintain and clean nest structures regularly.

3(c) If you are attracting birds to an area, ensure the birds are not exposed to predation from cats and other domestic animals, or dangers posed by artificial hazards.

11.2.4 Group Birding, Whether Organized or Impromptu, Requires Special Care

Each individual in the group, in addition to the obligations spelled out in Items #1 and #2, has responsibilities as a Group Member. 4(a) Respect the interests, rights, and skills of fellow birders, as well as people participating in other legitimate outdoor activities. Freely share your knowledge and experience, except where code 1(c) applies. Be especially helpful to beginning birders.

4(b) If you witness unethical birding behavior, assess the situation, and intervene if you

think it prudent. When interceding, inform the person(s) of the inappropriate action, and attempt, within reason, to have it stopped. If the behavior continues, document it, and notify appropriate individuals or organizations.

11.3 Guiding Ethics (slides 6–7)

From the American Birding Association’s “Code of Birding Ethics”, the following are best practices to implement as a bird guide:

4(c) Be an exemplary ethical role model for the group. Teach through word and example.

4(d) Keep groups to a size that limits impact on the environment, and does not interfere with others using the same area. 4(e) Ensure everyone in the group knows of and practices this code.

4(f) Learn and inform the group of any special circumstances applicable to the areas being visited (e.g. no tape recorders allowed).

4(g) Acknowledge that professional tour companies bear a special responsibility to place the welfare of birds and the benefits of public knowledge ahead of the company’s commercial interests. Ideally, leaders should keep track of tour sightings, document unusual occurrences, and submit records to appropriate organizations.

11.3.1 Ethics on Attracting Birds for Viewing

With the proliferation of audio devices (smartphones, iPods, mp3 players, tapes) and apps that replicate bird calls, there are many questions in the field about the ethics and etiquette of using recorded calls to lure birds. First and foremost, guides must learn local and national regulations (where applicable) concerning vocalization playback, especially for rare or endangered species. U.S. regulations are helpful as a reference for use in areas where there are no guidelines: Bird Guide Training Curriculum | Basic Level 140

• It is against the law to use audio playback to attract any bird protected by the Endangered Species Act.

• It is illegal to play audio of bird calls in any National Wildlife Refuge.

• The National Park Service has strict restrictions on playing audio.

• Many U.S. states restrict or limit the use of audio bird calls. The regional U.S. Fish and Wildlife Office or state fish and wildlife department are good resources to obtain a list of restrictions. In general, use of playback should avoid the following stressors to a bird: • disrupting nesting,

• disrupting active foraging for a long period of time during the nesting season, • increasing exposure (by flushing a bird out into the open) or threat of exposure (using pygmy owl or similar calls) to predators,

• using repetitive playback over time (in the same area and/or for the same species) that makes birds leave an area or remain silent and unresponsive.

The use of audio broadcast devices is permitted on Christmas Bird Counts (CBC) where allowed by law. If judicious use of audio broadcast has been used routinely on a CBC, those methods should be continued to maintain consistent counting data over time. The use of playback on a CBC should be very judicious and never done in a fashion that could affect the behavior of target species in any significant way. Best practices for using playback include:

1. Always ask clients if they are comfortable with use of playback – Many birders don’t like playback.

2. Do not use playback in parks or reserves where prohibited.


Case Study: Example of Site-specific Playback Policy High Island, Houston, Texas Area Audubon Sanctuary Visitor Information

Restrictions No dogs or other domestic animals are allowed at any of the High Island Sanctuaries. The use of laser pointers is prohibited. No pishing or use of playback devices unless special permission is obtained. Drone photography is prohibited.

3. Refrain from consistent or overuse of playback for target species at a site that many birders and guides visit.

4. Do not use very high or low sound levels that will unduly disturb birds. 5. Do not use playback if it disturbs other birders that are not your clients.

6. Use playback sparingly and use only when necessary to attract a bird into view that would otherwise be missed on the tour.

7. When using playback, stop once the group sees the bird.

8. Use playback to minimize disturbance of habitat, i.e. avoid trampling sensitive habitat by staying on the trail and bringing the bird to the group using playback.

The American Birding Association has an excellent set of birding ethics that is comprehensive and effective. Also, Sibley Guides has a comprehensive discussion on the issue and details on current peer-reviewed literature on the use of playback when birding.

11.4 Client Safety (slides 9–13) 11.4.1 Communicate About Potential Hazards For tour participant safety and comfort, guides, lodge and hotel owners and tour operators should communicate all known hazards (including poisonous snakes, plants, insects, rough terrain on trails, etc.) via the itinerary and verbally to tour participants at an acceptable frequency. Each location will have a different set of safety issues, so make sure that you and other guides are fully aware of all known hazards specific to the area you are birding. It is important that all guides working in a location communicate safety issues among themselves and to guides who may be unfamiliar with the area as conditions can rapidly change. Remember that safety is a team effort and is important to the reputation of a locality as much as it is for a guide or lodge. This section cannot list all potential hazards throughout the entire region. These details should be discussed at the local level. The following are basic recommendations applicable to most locations in the region: Prior to the tour:

• Ask participants in private if they have special physical needs and/or take any medications and plan on helping them with these needs. • Have an emergency communication and evacuation (if necessary) plan.

• If traveling through areas with high levels of crime or potential guerilla or gang activity, then contact local police and/or military officials to get an assessment of current safety conditions. Avoid these areas if possible. • If chiggers are in the area, make sure participants take precautions before

entering those areas, such as placing sulphur powder on socks.

• Make sure that participants have appropriate shoes and clothes for the day. During the tour

• Have insect repellant available to repel ticks, mosquitos and other biting insects.

• If ticks are in the area, ask participants to check themselves.

• Tell participants to be aware of poisonous snakes if any are in the area.

• Make sure that there is plenty of water and snacks available for the daily excursion. • If walking on rough terrain or on small footbridges, help participants that are having difficulty walking.

• If a participant becomes ill, arrange for medical attention.

• Analyze risk and proceed accordingly, taking into account the physical limitations of your clients and other factors out which may be out of your control.

11.4.2 First Aid (slides 14–17)

This bird guide curriculum assumes that guides will receive first aid and wilderness training and be certified in CPR prior to leading and being the primary individual responsible for the welfare of a group of clients. Several tour leaders have been sued due to a lack of certification for first aid when clients have been injured in the field. A guide’s knowledge and skills in addressing medical emergencies will limit potential liability in lawsuits. The following are some first aid issues relevant to bird tours that should be addressed during the first aid and wilderness training: • Patient Assessment System

• Evacuation Plans and Emergency Procedures • CPR – adult and child


• Spinal Cord Injuries

• Poisonous snakebite, paraponera (bullet) ant stings, etc. • Shock

• Head Injuries

• Wilderness Wound Management • Dehydration

• Fracture Management • Dislocations

• Cold Injuries • Heat Illness

• Altitude Illness (in some areas) • Lightning

• Anaphylaxis

• Wilderness First Aid Kits

11.5 Liability Insurance for Guides (slides 17–19) Guides should have proper insurance coverage to protect themselves from potential financial damages awarded through lawsuits based on negligence. Guides who work for lodges and tour companies need to make sure that


they are sufficiently covered by insurance. Independent guides should contact guide associations or cooperatives to obtain group insurance. Insurance coverage should consist of: A) bodily injury and property damage (except automobile), B) professional liability, C) personal injury, and D) fire legal liability. Standard coverage is $2,000,000 for each occurrence for A-C and $50,000 for fire.

11.6 Exercises

1. Role-play good and bad ethical birding behavior; discuss ways to prevent bad behavior.

2. Role model good guide ethical behavior and identify best practices. 3. Make a list of potential safety hazards for your locality, region or country.

4. Make a list of actions that reduce the risk of safety hazards.

5. Create an emergency plan for your locality/ region. 6. Discuss insurance and liability issues with legal and/or insurance professionals.

7. Seek training courses for certified CPR and Wilderness First Aid.

12 ORGANIZATIONS 12.1 Introduction

This chapter is a reference section that briefly describes and provides website links to organizations that can provide valuable information on bird biology, natural history, conservation, and opportunities for volunteer work, internships and paid field assistant positions. Most publish magazines that are written either for the general public or specifically for professional biologists. Many of these publications have older editions that can be downloaded for free on the Internet. These organizations may also provide a source of clients for guides, as many members and staff are active ecotourists.

12.2 Birding

These organizations provide information that is most directly relevant to birding in the region. The first two have some conservation component as well as natural history information but are not professional ornithological societies. The checklist committees provide standard names and taxonomy, including recent changes and updates that must be used by every guide.

American Birding Association (ABA)

A U.S.-based birding organization that operates Birders Exchange, that provides equipment and books to local conservationists, educators and scientists in the Caribbean, Central and South America. ABA’s many members frequently travel to this region on guided birding trips. ABA published “A Birder’s Guide to the Bahama Islands” and its magazine “Birding” is focused primarily on North America, but sometimes has articles on birds and locations in the Neotropics. http://aba.org

Neotropical Bird Club This club is based in England, but covers the Caribbean, Central and South America. It publishes “Cotinga” and “Neotropical Birding” magazines with articles for birders and guides written in English, Spanish and Portuguese. The club provides small grants for bird conservation. It also has created a new network for birding lodges throughout the region. http://www.neotropicalbirdclub.org

North American Checklist Committee and South American Checklist Committee

These official committees of the American Ornithologists’ Union create and manage a standard classification of bird names and taxonomy for South America and North America (including Central America and the Caribbean). The committees base their changes to taxonomy on research published in a peer-reviewed scientific journal, and changes require a committee vote. You can download parts or the entirety of the North American Checklist as well as view current and past proposals for changes including committee member comments. North America http://www.aou.org/ committees/nacc/ South America http://www.museum.lsu. edu/~Remsen/SACCBaseline.htm

12.3 Ornithology

Many of these organizations have annual scientific meetings where new scientific research is presented. These meetings are suitable only for highly advanced trainees and professional ornithologists. However, each organization has components that may be valuable to guides. Many of these have both a research and conservation mission.


American Ornithologists’ Union

British Ornithological Society

This society of professional ornithologists publishes “The Auk”, one of the world’s premier scientific journals devoted to birds as well as “Ornithological Monographs” (papers too lengthy for ‘The Auk”). Many of its members conduct research in the Neotropics, and the organization has a listing of opportunities for volunteer and internship as well as paid research assistant positions through the “Ornithological Newsletter”. www.aou.org.

Similar to the American Ornithologists’ Union, the BOS is an organization for advanced trainees and professional ornithologists that publishes the “Ibis” which occasionally has papers on Neotropical birds. http://www.bou. org.uk

Association of Field Ornithologists

This society of field ornithologists publishes the “Journal of Field Ornithology” that serves to link professional and amateur ornithologists. It publishes papers from the Neotropics as well that provide good natural history information for guides. Its website is in English and Spanish: http://www.afonet.org.

BirdLife International

A coalition of many independent bird conservation organizations throughout the world, Birdlife has many programs in the Neotropics that deal with capacity development, climate change, forest protection and reforestation, important bird and biodiversity areas, invasive non-native species, local empowerment, migratory birds, preventing extinctions, and seabird conservation. http://www.birdlife.org/

Birds Caribbean (formerly known as the Society for the Conservation and Study of Caribbean Birds) This organization promotes research and conservation of birds throughout the Caribbean, including ecotourism through its Caribbean Birding Trail. It has an annual birding festival that would be valuable for guides in the Caribbean region to attend. http://www.scscb.org 145 Bird Guide Training Curriculum | Basic Level

Cape May Bird Observatory

This is a very active organization that promotes birding and citizen science along with research and education. The Observatory will be developing partnerships in the Neotropics to promote more citizen science and ecotourism in the region. http://www.njaudubon.org/ SectionCapeMayBirdObservatory/CMBOHome. aspx

Center for the Study of Tropical Birds, Inc.

Current and past research focuses on Neotropical quail and waterfowl. http://www. cstbinc.org

Cooper Ornithological Society

Similar to the American Ornithologists’ Union, COS is an organization for advanced trainees and professional ornithologists that publishes the “The Condor” and “Studies in Avian Biology” which often includes papers on Neotropical birds. http://www.cooper.org

Cornell Lab of Ornithology

Focusing entirely on birds, the Cornell Lab is one of the premier education, conservation and research institutions. It develops and maintains eBird, Neotropical Birds online, and many other programs and publishes “Living Bird” magazine. It has a strong interest in the Neotropical region. http://www.birds.cornell. edu/Page.aspx?pid=1478

Neotropical Raptor Network

This organization promotes “communication and collaboration among biologists,

ornithologists, raptor enthusiasts, and other conservationists working in the Neotropics”. It publishes “Spizaetus: the NRN Newsletter” in English, Spanish and Portuguese, and published an online guide to “NRN Research and Conservation Priorities”. http://www. neotropicalraptors.org/index.i.html

Pacific Seabird Group

This is an advanced professional organization devoted to research and conservation of seabirds in the Pacific Ocean. It publishes “Marine Ornithology”, “Pacific Seabirds”, and “PSG Symposia” and “PSG Technical Publications”. http://www.pacificseabirdgroup. org

Raptor Research Foundation

This is a professional society for research and conservation of raptors throughout the world. It publishes the “Journal of Raptor Research” which often includes papers on Neotropical raptors. http://www. raptorresearchfoundation.org

Smithsonian Institution

This is a huge organization mostly based in or near Washington, D.C. that includes the Conservation Biology Institute, the Migratory Bird Center, the Museum of Natural History, the Environmental Research Center and the Tropical Research Institute. Within each of these programs, there are many research projects throughout the Neotropics. These are good sources for volunteer and internship positions. http://www.si.edu/ResearchCenters and http://nationalzoo.si.edu/scbi/ migratorybirds/

The Waterbird Society

This is a professional organization for research and conservation of waterbirds throughout the world. It publishes the scientific journal “Waterbirds” which often has papers from the Neotropics. http://www.waterbirds.org

Wilson Ornithological Society This is another society that values the role of amateurs in contributing to ornithology. It has an online manual of field and laboratory exercises for ornithology in English and Spanish at http://www.wilsonsociety.org/ wosmanual/index.html. It publishes the “Wilson Journal of Ornithology” which often has papers dealing with birds in the Neotropics. http://www.wilsonsociety.org

12.4 Conservation

These organizations are primarily conservation oriented but conduct some research as well. They may have opportunities for volunteer or internship positions.

American Bird Conservancy (ABC)

ABC focuses on high priority and urgent bird conservation issues and includes an international program partnering on projects with local organizations in many Neotropical countries. http://www.abcbirds.org/ abcprograms/international/index.html

Conservation International

This large organization has projects throughout the world, including the Neotropics. Although not specifically focused on birds, it has bird conservation components within its larger ecosystem and habitat protection projects. http://www.conservation.org/pages/nature. aspx

International Partners-in-Flight

This is a consortium of bird conservation and research institution and governmental agencies from most of the countries of the Western Hemisphere. It has occasional meetings, which are attended by hundreds of participants sharing information from their projects; the results of these meetings are published within a few years. It also develops and publishes conservation plans and reports and its international working group online newsletter,


“La Tangara”. http://www.partnersinflight. org/international.php and http://www. partnersinflight.org

Manomet Center for Conservation Sciences

This Massachusetts-based organization has research and monitoring studies on migratory shorebirds in the Neotropics. https://www. manomet.org

Massachusetts Audubon Society

This state organization runs tours to the Neotropics and has an educational program on Neotropical bird ecology and a Birder’s Certificate Program. http://www. massaudubon.org/learn/nature-wildlife

National Audubon Society

This is a large membership-based organization with general and bird-specific conservation programs, including the International Alliances Program (IAP) working with local organizations in the Neotropics. It promotes citizen science, especially through and its long running Christmas Bird Count program. It members are active birders and many travel to the Neotropics. IAP manages a bird tourism initiative and associated guide training, including this curriculum. http://www. audubon.org

The Nature Conservancy

This large organization has research and conservation projects throughout the world, including the Neotropics. http://www.nature. org

The Peregrine Fund

The organization has projects in several Neotropical regions focused on rare raptors such as Orange-breasted Falcon, Harpy Eagle, Andean Condor and others. It has a strong program in captive breeding and reintroduction along with basic research and 147 Bird Guide Training Curriculum | Basic Level

education. http://www.peregrinefund.org/ projects-complete-neotropics

World Conservation Union

The oldest and largest global conservation group, the World Conservation Union has over 1,200 member organizations from government and non-profit sectors. Although not focused specifically on birds, its mission is to preserve and promote biodiversity. It developed the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. http:// www.iucn.org

World Wildlife Fund

This large organization has research and conservation projects throughout the world, including the Neotropics. Most of their work is general habitat protection and large mammal conservation but few bird-focused projects. http://www.worldwildlife.org

12.5 Tourism and Guiding

These regional or worldwide organizations focus on tourism and guiding.

The United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO)

UNWTO is the United Nations organization charged with promoting sustainable, profitable international tourism, whose members represent 155 countries and others from the private sector, educational institutions, tourism associations and local tourism authorities. www.unwto.org

World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC)

The WTTC is a global authority on the economic and social contribution of travel and tourism whose members include industry leaders representing the world’s foremost travel and tourism companies. www.wttc.org

Adventure Travel Trade Association (ATTA)

The Caribbean Tourism Organization (CTO)

ATTA is an international association of travel agents, tour operators, destination managers, service providers and other travel professionals dedicated to creating sustainable adventure tourism opportunities. www. adventuretravel.biz

As the region’s tourism development agency with over 30 country members and many private sector allied members, the CTO aims to position the Caribbean as the most desirable, year round, warm weather destination. www. onecaribbean.org

NAI is a not-for-profit professional organization dedicated to advancing the profession of interpretation with members from 30 countries who work at parks, museums, nature centers, etc. www.interpret.com

MEA is an alliance of local organizations in Honduras, Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Panama, and Chiapas and Yucatán, Mexico committed to the development and promotion of sustainable tourism as a means for supporting conservation efforts. www. exploremesoamerica.com

The National Association for Interpretation (NAI)

The International Ecotourism Society (TIES) TIES is a nonprofit organization dedicated to promoting ecotourism as a viable tool for conservation, protection of bio-cultural diversity, and sustainable community development. TIES provides guidelines and standards, training, technical assistance, and educational resources. www.ecotourism.org

The Mesoamerican Ecotourism Alliance (MEA)

The Center for Responsible Travel (CREST)

CREST is a non-profit research institute that aims to promote responsible tourism policies and practices so that local communities may thrive and steward their cultural resources and biodiversity. www.responsibletravel.org
