Breaking Boundaries 2014

Breaking Boundaries 2014 First Annual Professional Research Practice Conference breakingboundaries2014.blogspot.co.uk Nottingham Trent University 15th May 2014

Edited by A. Bilal, A. Ratnayaka, A. Zobenbuller, C. Cointot, D. Harbidge, D. Whatman, E. Mbise, F. Alhashimi, G. Martínez-Arellano, G. Rogers, I. Gostautas, J. Taylor, K. Trytko, L. Piscicelli, M. Ahmed, M. Alashab, M. Mahmood, S. Wilson, T. Elfayez and Y. Liao

Conference Key Note Speaker: Turnbull, Neil. Organising Committee: A. Bilal, A. Ratnayaka, A. Zobenbuller, C. Cointot, D. Harbidge, D. Whatman, E. Mbise, F. Alhashimi, G. Martinez, G. Rogers, I. Gostautas, J. Taylor, K. Trytko, L. Piscicelli, M. Ahmed, M. Alashab, M. Mahmood, S. Wilson, T. Elfayez and Y. Liao. Conference Visual Identity and Cover Design: Piscicelli, Laura and Rogers, Gavin. Copyright © the authors 2014. Published by Nottingham Trent University: Graduate School. The publisher made every effort to ensure copyright holders are acknowledged. If proper acknowledgement has not been made we ask the copyright holders to contact the individual authors. The editors and Nottingham Trent University take no responsibility for the individual judgements and arguments therein. All rights reserved. No part of the publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior consent of the publisher. ISBN 978-0-9929957-0-6

Table of Contents

CONTENTS

KEYNOTE SPEAKER

1

Neil Turnbull

QUESTIONING VISIBLE AND INVISIBLE BOUNDARIES

THE INVISIBLE MONUMENTS OF WALLED NICOSIA: EXPLORING THE GRADUAL DISAPPEARANCE OF BUILT HERITAGE AFTER THE 1974 WAR

4

Christina Pieri RESEARCHING UNDER-STUDIED TOPIC: MEN WITHIN INFERTILITY TREATMENT AND MALE INFERTILITY

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Eva Prikkrylova

BEYOND TRANSNATIONAL BOUNDARIES

AN ANALYSIS OF INTERNATIONAL LAW OF CONFLICT MANAGEMENT: BANGLADESH’S TERRITORIAL DISPUTES MANAGEMENT

16

Humayra Morsheda Mishu OBSTACLES TO CROSS-BORDER INSOLVENCY AND EMPLOYMENT PROTECTION COORDINATION IN THE EUROPEAN UNION

22

Jennifer L. L. Gant COMPARATIVE LAW APPROACH TO PROPOSED LEGISLATIVE FRAMEWORK TO PROTECT DIGITAL COPYRIGHT ON THE INTERNET IN THAILAND 27 Mr. Prasert Jarunratanasri BREAKING BOUNDARIES: A REFLECTION ON ARMS CONTROL NEGOTIATIONS Tegg Westbrook

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Table of Contents

OVERCOMING BOUNDARIES

BREAKING CONSTRUCTION BOUNDARIES THROUGH THE USE OF A NOVEL DEPLOYABLE BRIDGE

38

Osahon Joshua Umweni THE FUTURE OF URBAN SPACES: THE ROLE OF SUSTAINABLE URBANISM IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

46

Job Momoh HOW IS CONTEXT BIASING IN VERB PROCESSING AFFECTED BY RELATIONAL INFORMATION

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Alex Day SOCIAL SUSTAINABILITY: A TOOL FOR URBAN DEVELOPMENT AND PRACTICE IN ABUJA, NIGERIA

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Segun A. Ogunsola

CROSSING DISCIPLINARY BOUNDARIES

FASHIONING AGE: INTERPRETATIVE PHENOMENOLOGICAL ANALYSIS (IPA) AS A DESIGN METHODOLOGY

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Anna Maria Sadkowska LEGAL EDUCATION FOR INTERNATIONAL LAWYERS IN CHINA

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Yingxiang Long DEVELOPMENT AND VALIDATION OF AN INSTRUMENT TO DETERMINE TRAINEE COMPUTER SCIENCE TEACHERS’S PERCEPTIONS OF COMPUTATIONAL THINKING Andrew Csizmadia

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EXPLORING BOUNDARIES: OLD AND NEW

FAMILY ADAPTIBILITY AND COHESION SCALE (FACES), DEVELOPMENT, PART OF THE IMPACT OF INTERNET USAGE ON FAMILY COHESION PROJECT

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Sami Alzhrany MEDEA’S RHIZOME: AN ANALYSIS OF MYTHOLOFICAL WOMEN’S GENDER ROLES THROUGH A DELUZIAN LENS 93 Victoria Oldham EXTENDING THE BOUNDARIES OF KNOWLEDGE: SOCIAL MISBEHAVIOUR IN NOTINGHAM AND THE ARCHDEACONRY COURT 1580-1640 98 Helen Drew KURDISH ONLINE JOURNALISM: SHIFTING BOUNDARIES OF PRIVACY RIGHTS DURING THE COVERAGE OF THE 2014 GENERAL ELECTION CAMPAIGNS

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Shwan Adam W. Aivas

CHALLENGING EXISTING BOUNDARIES TO CREATE NEW MARKETS

CO-CREATING ENGAGING EXPERIENCES IN THE CHINESE RESTAURANT SECTOR

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Tengfei Ma DISTRIBUTED TRAFFIC SIMULATION MODELS AND TRAFFIC PREDICTION MODEL BASED ON THE WIRELESS AD-HOC NETWORKS Qiming Zhang and Dr. Evtim Peytchev

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CUSTOMER PERCEIVED VALUE ANALYSIS ON MOBILE CHANNEL SERVICE

124

Kai Zhu

SHIFTING BOUNDARIES

THE SUPPORT NETWORK OF MIGRANT WORKERS’ OLDER PARENTS IN RURAL CHINA

130

Yuandong Liu THE RE-STRUCTURING OF BROADCASTING METHODS AND PREFERENCES DURING THE NORTH AFRICAN INSURGENCIES OF 2011

135

Ayman Alrehaili THE ROLE OF ISLAMIC CULTURES IN MALAYSIAN POLITICS AND SOCIETY

141

Wan Norshira Binti Wan Mohd Ghazali

MAKING AN IMPACT OUTSIDE ACADEMIA

THE ROLE OF HUMAN RESOURCE PROCESS ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HUMAN RESOURCE PRACTICES AND PERFORMANCE CONTROLLED BY TENURE: A MULTILEVEL MODELING ANALYSIS

146

Indrayanti INVESTIGATING THE ROLE OF LANGUAGE LEARNING STRATEGIES IN PROMOTING BETTER LEARNING AND CREATING BETTER LEARNERS Jumana Ghannam

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AN ANALYSIS OF ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS AT THE MIDSTREAM PETROLEUM OPERATIONS

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Ammar Irhoma ANALYSING THE IMPACT OF DOUBLE SKIN FAÇADE ON BUILDING ENERGY PERFORMANCE 168 Maryam Ahmadi

Contents

Breaking Boundaries First Annual Professional Research Practice Conference 2014 Nottingham Trent University

KEYNOTE SPEAKER Neil Turnbull Principle Lecturer College of Arts and Science, School of Arts & Humanities Email:[email protected]

Dr Turnbull is currently the Subject Leader of the Philosophy subject team, located at the Clifton campus, and has published numerous academic articles, book chapters, interviews and review chapters, on the philosophies of Wittgenstein, Heidegger, world philosophy and the politics of religion. He has worked as an editor on the academic journals Theory, Culture and Society and Body and Society and he set up, designed, launched and edited the radical theology journal Radical Orthodoxy: Theology, Philosophy, Politics that is now resident in the United States. He is still editor of the Radical Orthodoxy annual review book series. Neil has also edited the popular book series Manifestos and has written an introductory text for first year philosophers, Get a Grip on Philosophy, that is now in its second edition. Neil teaches all areas of Philosophy; but has a specific interest in the Philosophy of Science and Technology, Philosophy of Religion, Philosophy of Mind and World Philosophy.

Publications TURNBULL, N., 2006. The ontological consequences of Copernicus: global being in the planetary world. Theory Culture & Society, 23 (1), pp. 125-139.

TURNBULL, N., 2004. Thinking and the art of furniture. Space and Culture, 7 (2), pp. 156-172.

TURNBULL, N., 2003. Post-theory: theory and 'the Folk'. New Formations, (51), pp. 99-112.

Book Chapters

TURNBULL, N., 2007. Wittgenstein's Leben: philosophy and the authority of the everyday. In: P. CHANDLER and C. CUNNINGHAM, eds., Belief and metaphysics. London: SCM Press, 2007, pp. 374-392.

Keynote Speaker

1

KEYNOTE Economics in the First Instance: The Academic Value of Online Financial Journalism Neil Turnbull

Since the cultural turn in the 1980s and the rejection of the basic assumptions behind classical Marxism the Humanities have lacked a theoretical framework that recognises the centrality of distal economic processes in relation to the patterns and processes of human life. Although it is still widely recognised that social reality is governed by ‘economic processes’ in last instance, especially the power of ‘the market’ to commoditise important aspects of the social, the precise nature of markets and economic processes remains opaque and little understood. Today economics is seen as the domain of the social sciences that has little to say about the domain of meanings and representations that has become the sine qua non of all forms of intellectual inquiry in the humanities. In this paper I will explore the way in which on line financial journalism can help humanities researchers construct a working model of contemporary global capitalism in a way that partially rehabilitates some of Marx’s key economic insights. The paper will go on to examine the way in which on-line financial journalism offers significant advantages to popular economics texts in this regard as it provides a ‘real time’ historical context that allows for an understanding of the dynamics of contemporary capitalism in situ.

Keynote Speaker

2

QUESTIONING VISIBLE AND INVISIBLE BOUNDARIES

Breaking Boundaries First Annual Professional Research Practice Conference 2014

Nottingham Trent University

THE INVISIBLE MONUMENTS OF WALLED NICOSIA: EXPLORING THE GRADUAL DISAPPEARANCE OF BUILT HERITAGE AFTER THE 1974 WAR CHRISTINA PIERI N0179825 E-mail: [email protected] Keywords: Nicosia, conflict, invisibility, power, heritage, misinterpretation Abstract This paper examines the monuments of Walled Nicosia, which are being neglected and becoming invisible to their surrounding community. The reason for this is dual: they are taken for granted and there is lack of commitment to a past that has proven to be uncertain and unstable. The 1974 war between the Greek and Turkish Cypriot communities remains the basis for this attitude towards built heritage and decaying cultural values, as its continuing impact reflects mistrust and fragmentation between the two bi-communal collective. However, the abandonment of significant architectural inheritance has now developed into a norm amongst local residents, who mainly renovate for temporary use or cheap rental accommodation. Lack of commitment and acceptance of the on-going conflict has resulted in the gradual disappearance of built heritage and monumentality, both physically and mentally, dragging with shared values, identities and truths. Now disregarded by the majority of the public’s perception, the built heritage of Walled Nicosia weathers away, concealing the sore memories of war. Amnesia, suppression of painful recollections, as well as fear of conflict are the only vivid remains which drag place and identity further apart, resulting in a decaying social realm. Knowing one’s truthful cultural identity through built heritage is an imperative endeavour of this paper; examining the Cypriots’ possible fear of commitment to their own inheritance and the gradual invisibility of disintegrated architecture, naively now taken for granted.

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The Invisible Monuments of Walled Nicosia

1. INTRODUCTION A prevailing matter that has historically concerned Cypriot society relates to the topics of power, dominance and cultural conflict. Since the late sixteenth century, the constant attempts for the legitimization of authority and the subordination of the weak has resulted in the continuous disagreements between the two prominent cultures situated on the island. After the 1974 Greek and Turkish Cypriot conflict and definite division of Cyprus, the attempts of the Greek and Turkish states to mark their supremacy and truthful belonging reflects on the treatment of architectural heritage and monumentality, an issue currently dominating the future of Cypriot architectural heritage. According to Walsh (2005: 1), a grim consequence of this conflict is that the shared cultural heritage of the island has become neglected, or used as a politically motivated pawn indiscriminately played and often sacrificed in a Machiavellian propaganda war between north and south. As a consequence, the exposure of each culture’s ‘authentic’ past materializes towards the widespread rejection of the other and the continual eradication of their sorrowful memories. Considering the above, the overlong accumulated monumentality of Walled Nicosia gradually becomes neglected and invisible to its surrounding community, either because it is taken for granted by or due to the lack of commitment to a past that has proven to be uncertain and unstable. This paper is a brief exploration of the current state of the problems emerging out of the 1974 division of Cyprus, including Nicosia’s historic headquarters and the treatment of heritage by the Turkish and Greek Cypriot communities. The lack of private and municipal administration and acceptance of the on-going conflict, resulting in the disappearance of the tangible and intangible heritage, emerge as principal topics of concern. The outcome reflects loss of public values, identities and truths. Now, by being considerably overlooked by the public, Walled Nicosia’s built heritage weathers away, concealing the sore memories of war. Dragging place and identity further apart are the vivid remains of painful recollections, as well as the fear of conflict, resulting in a decaying social and architectural realm. Heritage neglect, selective restoration and consequently gradual heritage invisibility, therefore, emerge as the vital concerns of this paper.

2. BEING UNCONSCIOUS ABOUT THE FUTURE A first topic of concern is the lack of awareness amongst the public, as well as the oblivious attitude towards the decaying architecture and monumentality of Walled Nicosia. According to Doratli (2004: 337), the lack of understanding and consciousness at the community level, results in the importance of “historic areas” and “conservation” neither being appreciated nor comprehended by the majority of the public. With reference to Nicosia, Doratli criticizes the “top-down” approach of the authorities towards the protection of cultural heritage, as it restricts the understanding and participation of the population in recognizing the relevance of authentic heritage preservation. Owing to the existence of the buffer zone and consequently to the public hostility towards the opposing other, new residential developments tend to expand more rapidly outside the walls of the city and away from the partitioned environment, leaving the historic centre in the fate of commercialization. Moreover, due to the anticipation for future reunification, the land owners tend to rent their properties rather than sell them. Potential for future economic prosperity therefore prevents current sales, leading to the low cost rental of un-restored properties to foreigners, with little or no element of care for the becoming of the city’s architectural heritage. This is a phenomenon which contributes to the gradual disintegration of heritage due to impending problematic expectations (Charalambous et al. 2011). Neglecting to restore due to the traumatic experiences of war, while ‘wishing’ for traces of conflict to be erased, increases the risk of losing significant authentic historical remnants. Furthermore, inadequate acceptance of the current division, raises concerns for potential restoration approaches, as any attempts to eradicate the authentic traces of the past (including the 1974 war) appear alarmingly plausible, considering current attitudes towards the historic urban core. Girne Avenue and Asklipiou Street are located within Walled Nicosia. Both examples bear traces of heritage loss, either due to uninformed restoration or because of gradual heritage invisibility, owing to

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selective restoration and preservation of heritage. The first example reflects how selective restoration results in the fragmentation of segments within the historic headquarters, consequently interrupting the integrity of the whole; whereas the latter example displays how heritage invisibility due to neglect allows for the detrimental obsolescence, rather than natural weathering, of Nicosia’s built heritage.

3. EXPLORING THE CASE STUDIES OF GIRNE (KYRENIA) AVENUE AND ASKLIPIOU STREET Since 1989, the historic urban core of Nicosia has been declared a “conservation area”. However, despite the declaration, the Walled City has been experiencing “only a limited level of changes in practical terms as well as in attitudes towards conservation and development,” (Doratli et al. 2004: 336). The rationale of this trend against the treatment of heritage and monumentality associates with the ongoing inter-communal conflict of Cyprus and, the continuous struggle for cultural prevalence against the other. Girne Avenue (including Kyrenia Gate) is a prominent example located in North Nicosia reflecting the wide disregard for heritage preservation and authentic urban fabric continuity, as many historically significant buildings in the area have been replaced by contemporary structures. Due to the great attention given to this particular area, the contrast with the less developed parts of the walled city is highly noticeable. This results in an acceleration of physical decay and obsolescence, with significantly lower rent and inappropriate utilization of vacant buildings according to revitalization policies (Doratli 2004: 339). Figure 1: Panoramic View of Kyrenia Gate

(Pieri, 2012) Figure 2: Panoramic View of Kyrenia Avenue

(Pieri, 2012) While the destruction of Kyrenia Gate dates back to 1931, the demolition of sections of the Venetian walls to ease traffic flow in and out of the city (al-Asad 2007:1) demonstrates the enduring eradication of architectural heritage within the historic headquarters. Furthermore, due to the great attention paid to specific segments of the walled capital, the attachment of the demographic appears to favour the more visually and functionally enhanced areas, at the expense of the adjoining hidden historical fragments, which are forgotten. Christina Pieri

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Awareness of place history intensifies place attachment (Lewicka 2008: 211). Kyrenia Avenue incorporates a multiplicity of historical and cultural representations, as well as a strong sense of identity through the embodiment of nationally renowned figures and buildings of national importance. Despite the fact that a large amount of Girne Avenue’s historic fabric has been reconstructed or in-authentically restored, the reinforced attention and power given to the area continues to capture public awareness and development of place attachment.

*** In many other districts, due to the effect of time and poor maintenance, the building fabric deteriorates, reflecting little attention to structural maintenance of commercially or monumentally independent areas. Asklipiou Street, located in the Greek Cypriot zone of Nicosia is a projecting case exhibiting the hierarchically selective restoration of walled Nicosia’s built heritage. With the physical condition of the majority of structures remaining intact for the last 40 years, the disregard of the general public ensues from the visual and structural deterioration of the area. In addition, obsolescence emerges as one of the underlying concepts threatening the historic headquarters of the site, thus reinforcing the deterioration of architecturally significant areas within the walls. Figure 3: Image of Asklipiou Street

Figure 4: Image of Asklipiou Str.

(Pieri, 2012)

(Pieri, 2012)

According to Leatherbarrow and Mostafavi (1993: 112), weathering brings the virtual future of a building into dialogue with its actual present, as both are entangled in its past. On the other hand, visual obsolescence and physical obsolescence arise as protruding contributors in the deterioration, neglect and invisibility of the architectural heritage of Asklipiou Street; a phenomenon reinforced by the lack of coordination between the services (and ideologies) involving the north and south. The unintended juxtaposition of the street with the buffer zone, as well as the existing military use of historically relevant structures, enhances the potential threat to the structural integrity of most surrounding buildings. The dissection of the city, flanked by the two communities, therefore emerges as the chief factor against the preservation of Nicosia’s heritage, caused by the uncoordinated management of the built environment and the continuous political and public pondering over the island’s rightful possession. The current, declining state of some areas and borders within the walled city has led to the relocation of its inhabitants and uses to the newly developing districts of Nicosia, thus contributing to the accelerating physical and functional decay within the historic quarters. As a result, decline linked to cultural heritage and monumentality continues to develop over time. A further issue of concern emerging from current heritage management practice, mainly in areas which are signified for their conservation status, relates to local planning policies and governmental

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positions. Doratli (2004) argues that the existing heritage management framework insufficiencies relate to the weak governmental treatment, the numerous legislative gaps, the lack of internal coordination and operation, as well as the authoritative instability between the heritage management departments. Along with the above issues emerges the lack of provisional basis for the establishment of conservation policies, considering the conditions of the 1975 Amsterdam declaration on the protection of European architectural heritage. It can likewise be argued that the hierarchical protection of heritage structures stands as a strategically promising approach, as it could potentially enhance the more culturally and religiously influential buildings signifying the two communities. Nevertheless, the growing lack of interest in the less architecturally or religiously ‘powerful’ buildings could conceivably jeopardize the historical integrity of the entire historic urban core by promoting the imperceptibility of buildings of less political or religious magnitude. The reason for this attitude presumably relates to the desire of the two communities to expose their truthful belonging to and ownership of the capital after the 1974 definite division.

4. CONCLUSION: EMBRACING THE FRAGMENTS Even though the Greek and Turkish Cypriot communities have agreed on a collaborative approach towards the treatment of heritage and monumentality of walled Nicosia since 1979, the attitudes of the two prevailing communities remains fragmented and partly uncoordinated. The examples of Kyrenia Gate and Asklipiou Street reflect this phenomenon. This multifaceted fragmentation is closely associated with the mental invisibility of various segments within the historic headquarters, encouraging their general obsolescence. In his essay Disorientation and Disclosure (2010: 93), referring to the conditioning of a building by its orientation, David Leatherbarrow argues that both the building and its interior are codetermined by the wider landscape that envelopes them. Likewise, with consideration to Walled Nicosia, a fragmented and decaying urban landscape could equally set the grounds for the physical fragmentation (i.e. invisibility and decay) of long forgotten buildings. Nicosia’s treatment of its historic headquarters consequently emerges as a demanding and largely complicated task, principally due to the planning obsolescence between the north and south and the “mismatch between the services offered by the fabric and the contemporary needs” (Lichtfield 1988: in Walsh 2005: 331). The inevitable doubling of resources due to the partitioning of the capital therefore manifests itself as a counterproductive outcome of aesthetic eclecticism and uncoordinated physical renewal, consequently giving rise to the eradication of Nicosia’s authentic historic past. Undeniably, the complete physical assets of Nicosia are essential in unveiling the authentic historical narrative of the city, and of the island as a whole. Vesely too argues for the presence of a highly articulated world, “in which even the smallest element could send reverberations through the continuum of pre-existing references,” each fragment needs to be experienced as part of the whole (Vesely 2006: 321). With numerous eminent and monumental structures, with buildings of architectural, artistic and environmental value, with its morphological characteristics and date palms, “the Walled City as a whole has both cultural identity and scarcity value” (Doratli 2004: 337). This continuum of pre-existing references is what appears to contribute to the establishment of a coherently articulated contemporary environment, where the consideration of the past points towards the communication of contemporary conditions, when the historical process of the formation of the fragment points towards the articulated whole, “or at least a promise of the whole” (Vesely 2006: 323). Accordingly, in the representation of monumentality, truthful reference to preceding fragments can potentially lead towards the creation of a well-articulated continuum, where the embodiment of the past responds to the contemporary contextual conditions. On the contrary, the fragmentation of heritage through selective restoration and concealment of historically significant segments of the city can potentially encourage invisibility and decay, furthering the loss of Nicosia’s architectural heritage. The difficulty lies not purely in the physically dichotomized state of the urban fabric, but also in the on-going inter-communal conflict between the two prevailing communities, which seemingly generates a dual approach to heritage, and prohibits the unveiling of the authentic past of the city.

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5. REFERENCES AL-ASAD, M., (2007), Rehabilitation of Chrustaliniotissa and Arab Ahmet, The Aga Khan Award for Architecture (AKAA) DORATLI, N., HOSKARA, S.O. and FASLI, M., (2004). An analytical methodology for revitalization strategies in historic urban quarters: a case study of the Walled City of Nicosia, North Cyprus. Cities, 21(4), pp. 329-348. FOUCAULT, M., (1995), Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison. New York: Vintage Books. HEIDEGGER, M. (1962) Being and Time. Transl. J. Macquarrie and E. Robinson. Blackwell, Oxford. KOSKELA, J. Truth as Unconcealment in Heidegger’s Being and Time, Minerva - An Internet Journal of Philosophy 16 (2012): 116-128 LEATHERBARROW, D., MOSTAFAVI, M., (1993). On weathering: the life of buildings in time. Cambridge, Mass: Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press. LEATHERBARROW, D., (2010), Disorientation and Disclosure, Interstices Vol.12: 93-103. Print. LEWICKA, M., (2008). Place attachment, place identity, and place memory: Restoring the forgotten city past. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 28(3), pp. 209-231. NEOPHYTOU, A., C., (2005), 1974 Turkish Invasion against Cyprus, Occupied Cyprus, Available at: http://www.kypros.org/Occupied_Cyprus/cyprus1974/turkish_invasion.htm, last accessed: 20/12/2013 UNDP, (2012), Nicosia Master Plan, Available at: http://www.undppff.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=80&Itemid=140, Last accessed: 18/10/2013 VESELY, D., (2006), Architecture in the age of divided representation: the question of creativity in the shadow of production. Cambridge, Mass.; London: Cambridge, Mass.; London: MIT. WALSH, M., 2005, A Gothic masterpiece in the Levant. Saint Nicholas Cathedral, Famagusta, North Cyprus. Journal of Cultural Heritage, 6(1), pp. 1-6. YEOH, B.S., (1997), Forms of dominance: On the architecture and urbanism of the colonial enterprise AlSayyad, N.

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RESEARCHING UNDER-STUDIED TOPIC: MEN WITHIN INFERTILITY TREATMENT AND MALE INFERTILITY EVA PRIKKRYLOVA N0191178 [email protected] Keywords: Infertility, Male infertility, Infertility treatment, Gender, Masculinity Abstract Male infertility and men within infertility treatment is still seen as an insufficiently researched subject. In the UK alone about one in seven couples are impacted by infertility problems when causes of infertility are evenly spread between both sexes. However, psychological research focuses mostly on women. Research on men and infertility demonstrates difficulties with basic definitions, design flaws, inconsistent results and competing strands of research. Two research traditions are reflected in the definition of infertility. Medically, infertility is defined as a treatable illness when the object of most medical interventions is the woman (regardless of the causes of infertility). Psychological research focusing on men is mostly quantitative using psychometric measures to assess infertility distress in infertility patients. Various measures are applied at various times of the treatment, are self-reported and do not distinguish between distress caused by infertility and infertility treatment. The studies use cross sectional designs with non-representative samples and different groups of controls. Qualitative studies define infertility as socially constructed, when its meaning is culturally dependent. Infertility is demonstrated by the missing presence of a child. Existing research is rooted in gender studies specifically in theories of masculinity and femininity. Infertility is seen as a direct assault on masculinity and is reflected in the way men behave throughout the treatment. The research is interested in infertility across different cultures and is based on a clinical and non-clinical population. Under-studied topics offer the opportunity of new exciting research, but poses additional obstacles in its realisation.

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Researching under-studied topic: male infertility

1. INTRODUCTION Studying a new or under-researched topic offers exciting ways to broaden existing research. However it entails a number of difficulties. This paper is part of wider psychological research investigating the impact gender identity has on the ways men and women behave and interact within infertility consultations. Gender identity is in this research specified as socially constructed, when every society has prescriptive ideals (roles) of behaviour of men and women. These include family and childrearing. The research will also investigate the impact infertility and its treatment have on close relationships. This paper is specifically focusing on male infertility and male experience with infertility. This topic is still considered to be under-researched within the psychological infertility literature and therefore its studying entails specific research problems. We will look at basic issues researchers need to deal with when studying such a topic. These will be supported by existing psychological literature on the subject. We will critically comment on the research and establish gaps and inconsistencies. Finally we will discuss the main benefits and drawbacks of researching an under-studied topic. Since infertility is a specialised area, basic terminology used in this article needs to be clarified. The term ‘infertility treatment’ covers medical techniques which assist women to have children. These include: IVF (in vitro fertilisation), ICSI (intra-cytoplasmic sperm injection – when a single sperm is injected into the egg) and DI (donor insemination – when sperm from a donor is delivered into a woman’s uterus) (HFEA).

2. DEFINITION OF INFERTILITY Defining basic terms in the researched topic positions the conducted research within the framework of existing knowledge. This is especially true for subjects where clear definitions seem to be problematic, are non-existent due to the novelty of the topic or where multiple definitions exist. Infertility is one such topic. 2.1

Infertility as a medical condition: quantitative research

With the advance of medical science, infertility has been medicalised and is seen as a treatable medical condition. Since the female body is the main object of medical procedures (regardless of the type of infertility), the woman is identified as a patient with a defective body which needs to be treated (Letherby, 2002; Todorova & Kotzeva, 2006). Conversely, the ideal patient is a healthy fertile woman in her twenties (Throsby, 2004). The medicalised definition of infertility is traditionally employed by quantitative research. The main focus of this tradition is on the psychosocial impact of infertility or infertility treatment. The research however yields uncertain conclusions which are often caused by methodological inconsistencies across studies. Most of the studies use psychometric designs, when varied psychometric measures are employed. Questionnaires are distributed at different times of the treatment, are mostly self-reported and they do not allow separation of the impact of infertility and infertility treatment (Henning at al. 2000). Fisher and Hammarberg (2012) in their literature review of 73 studies concluded that “infertile men have low prevalence of clinically significant psychological symptoms compared to general population” (p.124) apart from acute and situation specific anxiety (Fisher and Hammarberg, 2012). Nachtingal et al. (1992) concluded that if a male factor is present, men have the same negative reaction to infertility as women and more negative reaction compared to men with other factors. However, other studies reported a mild to moderate negative impact (Drosdol & Skrzypulex, 2009). Holter et al. (2007) suggest that the negative impact of male infertility has been greatly reduced by the introduction of ICSI. This procedure allows severely infertile men to use their own sperm in treatment (rather than a donor’s) and gives them the possibility of having a biological child (Holter et al. 2007). Literature comparing gender differences in distress mostly report higher distress in women (Verhaak et al. 2005; Holter et al.2006). This is often explained by the impact of gender roles (women are socially more pressured to have children). However Throsby (2004) suggests that this is because the woman undergoes most of the medical procedures which is stressful.

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Existing research is inconsistent. As suggested, methodological flows hinder results of many studies. Technological advances in the treatment, such as ICSI need to be accounted for (Holter et al., 2007). The context of the treatment should be considered, when infertility treatment is specific by its medical focus on women (regardless on type of infertility) (Throsby, 2004). 2.2

Infertility as socially constructed: qualitative research

Infertility has been within this tradition defined as socially constructed, when the condition is demonstrated by the missing presence of a child and impacts a couple rather than a single person (Greil et al.2010; Throsby, 2004). This definition includes the wider social context people live in (Throsby, 2004). The research following this definition is mostly qualitative and is placed within the framework of gender studies (masculinity and femininity) or investigates the meaning of infertility within different cultures (crosscultural research). Theories of masculinity suggest that male fertility within society is often linked to virility and sexual performance. Infertility is therefore perceived as a direct threat to masculinity. This is part of popular beliefs and the backdrop for male behaviour within infertility treatment (Thorsby & Gill 2004, Gannona et al. 2004). While women usually initiate the treatment, search for information and make decisions, men just go along and distance themselves from the situation (Throsby & Gill, 2004; Throsby, 2004). They do not participate in decision making, they do not like to discuss the treatment and they are not very compliant if lifestyle changes are required to improve their fertility (e.g. smoking, drinking) (Throsby, 2004). Since every society endorses different ideals of masculinity and femininity, the meaning of infertility varies across cultures and religions. Infertility is traditionally ostracised and procreation is highly valued in the Muslim world. Masturbation is prohibited which poses difficulties with semen samples, donor semen, etc. (Inhorn, 2007). Only women can be infertile and male infertility is seen as nonexistent in some African locations (Umeora et al. 2008). Infertility is linked to superstitious believes of witchcraft, dirty womb or immorality and is highly stigmatised. Traditional healers are usually the first to be contacted (Dhont, 2010; Dyer, 2004). Research following constructivists definition of infertility recognizes the impact of the wider context (e.g. workplace, family, particular society) the infertile person lives in and wide variations in the perception of infertility. Cross-cultural research is especially scarce and brings new insights into the subject, since most of the traditional research deals with middleclass, well educated and white participants from Western societies.

3. PARTICIPANTS Psychological infertility research also yields inconsistency when it comes to participants. The issue stems from the specific character of the condition which obscures definition of an infertile person. Moreover the social stigma of infertility hinders recruitment of infertile men. 3.1

Definition of an infertile person: participants

Within the medical model of infertility an infertile person should be somebody suffering reproductive problems which lead to the inability to produce a child. However, it becomes less clear in unexplained or mixed factor (since with a different partner, there is the likelihood of pregnancy). Therefore infertility impacts, by its character, both partners (Throsby, 2004). This poses another issue for the research. The couple can be infertile due to female infertility (female factor), male infertility (male factor), both factors or due to unexplained infertility. Since the whole couple is specified as infertile, some studies do not distinguish between infertility factors. Therefore there could be in the same sample group of “infertile men” men with male factor, men infertile by proxy (female factor) or from couples with unexplained infertility. The sample would be therefore unrepresentative and the results conflicting. For example Peronace et al. (2007) reported increased levels of distress, while others did not find any difference to the control group (Monga et al. 2004). There is also inconsistency in control groups, where women (in treatment – fertile or infertile), men with another infertility factor or fertile men are employed (Christensen, 2000).

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Since infertility is a hidden condition without any other demonstration than the missing presence of a child (Throsby, 2004), statistics are based on the clinical population attending infertility treatment. Only people who view their infertility as problematic seek infertility treatment. The infertile population which does not seek infertility treatment is hence virtually invisible. Therefore infertility cannot be precisely estimated and existing research deals mostly with infertility patients (Greil et al. 2010). This severely skews research findings, since infertility patients see their infertility as problematic and value its impact on their lives as negative (Greil A. L., 1997). Furthermore, certain studies investigating the psychosocial impact of infertility do not distinguish between distress caused by infertility only or by the infertility treatment, since they deal with the clinical population. This also creates discrepancies in results (Henning at al. 2000). 3.2 Primary focus on women Infertility procedures within infertility treatment are almost exclusively aimed at women and their bodies (regardless of the infertility factor). Current knowledge does not offer any treatments enhancing the quantity or quality of sperm, hence men are within the treatment identified just as sperm providers and are valued by the quality of their sperm (Todorova & Kotzeva, 2006). Consequently, women are the main object of most infertility research. As a result, men often feel excluded from the treatment. Since male infertility is wrongly associated with sexual impotency and directly assaults masculinity, an infertile man can become an object of nasty jokes and humiliating remarks (Todorova & Kotzeva, 2006). Infertile men are therefore very secretive about their condition, and often unwilling to participate in any research (Throsby & Gill, 2004; Webb & Daniluk, 1999). This poses another obstacle in researching male infertility.

4. CONCLUSION Studying an under-researched topic, such as male infertility and men within infertility treatment, poses basic issues with key definitions within the subject; theoretical positioning of the research or recruitment of participants. There are currently two strands of existing research which follow different definition of infertility and divides the research into qualitative and quantitative camps, which are in discord and do not co-operate. Quantitative research is rooted in the medical definition of infertility and is interested in improvements of provided services, mostly on infertility distress (Grail et al. 2010). The studies often suffer from methodological flaws also caused by the difficulties with definition of infertile person. These regard the use of various psychometric measures, employment of unrepresentative samples and control groups and investigation of clinical population only (Henning at al. 2000). Qualitative research on the other hand defines infertility as socially constructed and acknowledges the impact of society and culture. It investigates the experience of infertility or infertility treatment and often builds on gender studies and theories of gender identity (Throsby, 2004). Clinical and nonclinical populations are employed (Grail et al. 2010). The deficiency in existing research offers opportunities for future studies. There is still a gap in literature. The under-researched topics include male experience with infertility (especially in a non-clinical population), male experience with treatment, witnessing their partner in procedures, decision making within the treatment, infertility in different cultures (Fisher & Hammarberg, 2012). Quantitative clinical research should be interested in improving their designs so conclusive findings can be reported (Grail et al. 2010) As demonstrated, under-studied topics offer opportunities for new and exciting research which can move the boundaries of existing knowledge. However one has to be prepared to deal with difficulties such as inconsistent knowledge, inconsistent results and competing strands of research. Extra care has to be taken when designing the study, deciding on the positioning of the research within existing knowledge and even when using basic terminology.

5. REFERENCES Dhont M., Luchters S., Ombelet W., Vyankandondera J, Gasarabwe A. et al.(2010) Gender differences and factors associated with treatment-seeking behaviour for infertility in Rwanda. Hum Reprod; 25, 2024–30.

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Dyer S. J., Mokoena N., Maritz J., van der Spuy Z. (2008) Motives for parenthood among couples attending a level 3 infertility clinic in the public health sector in South Africa. Hum Reprod; 23, 353–7 Dyer S.J., Abrahams N., Mokoena N.E., van der Spuy Z.M. (2004) You are a man because you have children: experiences, reproductive health knowledge and treatment seeking behaviour among men suffering from couple infertility in South Africa. Hum Reprod; 19, 960–7. Fisher J.R.V., Hammarberg K. (2012) Psychological and social aspects of infertility in men: an overview of the evidence and implications for psychologically informed clinical care and future research, Asian Journal of Andrology 14, 121–129 Gannona, K., Gloverb, L., Abelc, P., (2004) Masculinity, infertility, stigma and media reports, Social Science & Medicine, 59, 1169–1175 Greil A.L., Slauson-Blevins K., McQuillan J. (2010) The experience of infertility: a review of recent literature. Sociol Health Illn; 32, 140–62. Greil A.L. (1997) Infertility and psychological distress: a critical review of the literature. Soc Sci Med; 45: 1679–704. Henning, K., Strauss, B. and Strauss, B. (2002) Psychological and Psychosomatic Aspects of Involuntary Childlessness: State of Research at the End of the 1990s. Ashland, OH: Hogrefe and Huber. Holter H., Anderheim L., Bergh C., Mo¨ ller A. (2007) The psychological influence of gender infertility diagnoses among men about to start IVF or ICSI treatment using their own sperm. Hum Reprod; 22, 2559–65. Inhorn M.C. (2007) Masturbation, semen collection and men’s IVF experiences: anxieties in the Muslim world. Body Soc; 13, 37–53. Monga, M., Alexandrescu, B., Katz, S., Stein, M., et al. (2004) Impact of infertility on quality of life, marital adjustment, and sexual function, Urology, 63, 1, 126–30. Nachtigall R.D., Becker G., Wozny M. (1992) The effect of gender-specific diagnosis on men’s and women’s response to infertility. Fertil Steril., 57, 113–21. Peronace L.A., Boivin J., Schmidt L. (2007) Patterns of suffering and social interactions in infertile men: 12 months after unsuccessful treatment. J Psychosom Obstet Gynecol., 28, 105–14. Throsby, K. (2004) When IVF Fails: feminism, infertility and the negotiation of normality, first edition, Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke, United Kingdom Throsby, K., Gill, R., (2004) It’s Different for Men Masculinity and IVF, Men and Masculinities, 6, 4, 330348 Todorova, I. L. G., Kotzeva, T. (2006) Contextual shifts in Bulgarian women’s identity in the face of infertility, Psychology and Health, 21,1, 123–141 Umeora O.U., Ejikeme B.N., Sunday-Adeoye I, Umeora M.C. (2008) Sociocultural impediments to male factor infertility evaluation in rural South-east Nigeria. J Obstet Gynaecol., 28, 323–6. Verhaak, C.M., Smeenk, J.M.J., van Minnen, A., Kremer, J.A.M., et al. (2005) A longitudinal, prospective study on emotional adjustment before, during and after consecutive fertility treatment cycles, Human Reproduction, 20, 8, 2253–60. Webb, R. E., Daniluk, J. C., (1999) The End of the Line: Infertile Men’s Experiences of Being Unable to Produce a Child, Men and Masculinities, 2, 6, 6-25 Human Fertilisation and Embryology Authority, 2012,http://www.hfea.gov.uk 12.02.2014

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BEYOND TRANSNATIONAL BOUNDARIES


AN ANALYSIS OF INTERNATIONAL LAW OF CONFLICT MANAGEMENT: EVALUATION OF BANGLADESH’S TERRITORIAL DISPUTES MANAGEMENT HUMAYRA MORSHEDA MISHU N0409509 E-mail: [email protected] Keywords: International law, Conflict management, International Relations, Territorial Disputes, Interpretivist methodology Abstract This paper represents the aim, background, methodology and methods of the ongoing research of the writer. The represented research aims to provide analysis based on a version of critical theory and evaluation as to the practice of Bangladesh and its neighbouring state, India, in respect of settlements as to the border disputes in the context of the principles and political practices of international law of territorial disputes. The research goes on to evaluate the effects of such settlements on the relations of Bangladesh and India. The case study in the research is the land boundary and maritime disputes between “Bangladesh and India”. The research particularly intends to evaluate the effectiveness of the current legal enforcement as to territorial disputes from the perspectives of both human rights related to international law and the extent of political influence over the legitimacy of international law. The research will contribute to literature about the development of Bangladesh’s territories and the evolution of its boundaries, potentially helping other researchers on boundary questions: to understand the basic factors that are responsible for land and maritime boundary disputes more generally and how such disputes can be managed; to understand this complex issue from the perspective of international law and international relations; the development of critical theory in relation to the politics of disputes settlement. This study will have practical relevance as a source of information and evaluation with respect to effective peaceful methods recommended to be applied in order to settle land and maritime boundary disputes more effectively.

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An analysis of Int’l law of conflict management: Evaluation of Bangladesh’s territorial disputes management.

1.

INTRODUCTION Borders often become regions of conflict between states. Recently international border disputes

have been flaring up all over the world, especially in Asia and Africa (Mandel, 1980). Approximately one quarter of the world’s borders is unstable and two thirds of maritime borders are yet to be settled (Anderson, 1996). The people living near the disputed border area often suffer a lot because of serious violations of their human rights. In some cases, disputing countries do not care about existing norms and rules of international law. Focusing on the case study, Bangladesh’s border dispute with India, the research intends to evaluate the effectiveness of current legal enforcement as to territorial disputes from the perspectives of both human rights related to international law and the extent of political influence over the legitimacy of international law .It will also evaluates the effect of all of these aspects in shaping relations between India and Bangladesh.

2.

AIMS The aims of the research are: i. To analyse and assess the practice of Bangladesh and its neighbouring state with regard to the

settlement of boundary disputes in the light of the principles and political practice of international law. ii. To explore how the regulation and management of border disputes can be explained, with special respect to Bangladesh’s external relations with India, drawing on Martti Koskenniemi’s (2005, 2007) version of the critical theory of the politics of international law; iii. To critically evaluate the effectiveness of the management of these disputes and to suggest possible ways in which weaknesses can be explained and (a secondary objective) how that management might be improved.

3.

JUSTIFICATION OF LINKING TWO ACADEMIC DISCIPLINES The research will contribute to the literature about the development of Bangladesh’s territories

and the evolution of its boundaries, potentially helping other researchers on boundary questions to understand the basic factors that are responsible for land boundary disputes more generally, how such disputes can be managed and to understand this complex issue from the perspective of international law and international relations;

the development of critical theory in relation to the politics of disputes

settlement. This study will have practical relevance as a source of information and evaluation with respect to effective peaceful methods recommended to be applied in order to settle boundaries more effectively. In doing so and fulfilling its aims, it needs to link international law and international relations together as boundary disputes are not only a subject of international law, but also of international relations. International law and international relations are complimentary to each other. “Without international relations, we would not be able to expose instances when international law is an instrument of might or to advocate what needs to be done to reaffirm the principal right not might” (Dias, 2007 p279). “The time is ripe for new thinking about collaboration between international law and international relations” (Finnemore, 2007 p266). Nowadays both disciplines have opened themselves up to new thinking and new standpoints

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An analysis of Int’l law of conflict management: Evaluation of Bangladesh’s territorial disputes management. and both of them are interested in state actors, non-state actors, international actors, sub-state actors, transnational advocacy groups, etc (Finnemore, 2007 p266). The ability to develop new international law strategies is limited without international relations. Therefore, the study links international law and international relations for better understanding of the underlying facts, to assess from both perspectives.

4.

BACKGROUND India and Bangladesh share a 4,098 km long border (Ahmed, 2013). These borders are i

demarcated and un-demarcated borders, enclaves and 6,500 acres of adversely possessed land (Ahmed, 1

2013). There are 111 Indian enclaves in Bangladesh and 51 Bangladeshi enclaves in India (Das and Raju, 2013), which include some counter enclaves and counter-counter enclaves. The residents are neither enjoying basic rights nor rights of refuge. Moreover, there have been 1,000 innocent Bangladeshis killed, 1000 Bangladeshis tortured by BSF (Border Safeguard Force, India), 974 abductions, 107 missing from the border, 14 rapes, 71 lootings and 313 illegal entries into Bangladesh in the last 10 years (Ahmed, 2013). In the Beriberi border clash in 2000, BGD (Bangladesh Border Guard force) and 16 BSF (Border Security Force, India) men died (Ahmed, 2013) and that lead to a war-type situation between India and Bangladesh. According to the United Nations’ Basic Principles on the use of Force and Firearms, “nonviolence means before resorting to the use of force and firearms” (Rashid, 2010, p. 15). Even in terms of self-defence, use of force is only permitted when strictly unavoidable in order to protect life. This abuse of the legal rules of international law has lead to a number of deaths on the Border. According to the land boundary agreement of 1974 and the protocol of 2011, India and Bangladesh were to exchange their enclaves, but it has not happened. Due to veto of the opposition party, India hasn’t ratified the protocol yet. On the other hand, India-Bangladesh maritime disputes have been pending in the Court of Justice since 2001. In addition, India has embarked upon a border fencing project which goes against the 1974 Land Boundary Agreement. These conflicts affect India-Bangladesh relations negatively. If they could be resolved, both of the countries would benefit economically and politically, with Bangladesh-India trade three times higher than the current level (Rashid, 2010).

5.

THEORETICAL UNDERPINNING The study will use critical legal theory, particularly Martti Koskenniemi’s (2005) ‘the politics of

international law’. This argues that, contrary to common perceptions, legal rules do not completely determine the outcome of legal disputes; or, to put it differently, the law may well impose many significant constraints on the adjudicators in the form of substantive rules, but, in the final analysis, this may often not be enough to bind them to come to a particular decision in a given particular case. Koskenniemi (2005) argues that: “International law, meanwhile, is a through-and-through practical discourse aiming to be objectively different from both the self-serving spin of power politics and the transcendental nonsense of the moral discourse” (p 24).

1

Territories lacking geographical contiguity forming parts of one state sometimes results in some parts

being surrounded by the territory of another state.

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An analysis of Int’l law of conflict management: Evaluation of Bangladesh’s territorial disputes management. Koskenniemi says that the problem with the traditional strategy of international law is that it does not work in reality because of the problem of explaining compliance (or the lack of compliance). At the same time, “in the absence of a centralized political order, states and other actors frequently tend to ignore existing international legal regimes” (Rasulov, 2006 p583). Majinge, (2012) argued that: “It has also been shown that despite the central role of the court in resolving disputes, it has no enforcement mechanism to implement its decisions, which means that full implementation will depend on the good will parties to fulfil their obligations.”(p 42) Moreover, the effectiveness of territorial dispute settlement is influenced in many cases by the politics of conflicting domestic parties. Parmar (2011) argued that: “Territorial disputes are usually highly salient to domestic political audiences, regardless of strategic or economic value of land in question. Leaders’ inefficiency in deriving mutually acceptable solution and sometimes, unwillingness to do so, accompanied by ego-clashes, create a strong incentive for many leaders to refrain from compromise of any form” (p 1). Sometimes the leaders of disputing countries become very reluctant to sign a treaty to solve such disputes; e.g. although Bangladesh and India signed a land border treaty in 1974, it is still pending because India has not ratified it yet. Koskenniemi’s later work “The Politics of International Law’ (2011) is more significant in terms of this study, pointing out the contradiction between “pure fact” and “legal” approaches. He argued that: “The same structure can be detected in all territorial disputes. In each, the “pure fact” and “legal” approaches dissolve into each other in a way which makes it impossible for the court or tribunal to solve the case by merely choosing one over the other” (Koskenniemi, 2011, p. 47). The India-Bangladesh border is defined by river features which move with every flood or monsoon, which is a pure fact, but in the legal rules of international law it is assumed that rivers should remained unchanged and they judge any dispute regarding this on the basis of this assumption. Similarly, in solving the maritime boundary dispute between India and Bangladesh, which is now proceeding in the International Court of Justice, India is claiming the disputed area on the basis of ‘equidistance’, whereas Bangladesh is claiming on the basis of ‘equity’. Both are right in their own context and in international law. In discussing human rights he pointed out a generic conflict between “right-as-freedom” and “right to security”. (Koskenneimi, 2011, p142). Bangladeshi nationals are being killed by India’s border forces, a violation of the Geneva Convention: “violence to life and person, in particular murder of all kinds, mutilation, cruel treatment and torture will remain prohibited at any time and in any place” (see Rashid, 2010, p 15). The Indian government argues that because of their national security, they have to protect their border. People who live in the Bangladeshi enclaves surrounded by India have the right to enter Bangladeshi territory by passing through Indian Territory by their ‘right-as freedom’, but on the other hand India can protest this according to their “right-to-security”.

6.

METHODOLOGY The research uses an interpretivist methodology based on a critical theoretical epistemology and

ontology consistent with Koskenniemi’s approach. The logic of this approach is rooted in a critique of positivist or realist approaches to international political relations and a critique of general theorising which leads to a focus on particular cases and particular causes and conflicts, which underpins the choice of a ‘critical interpretive case study approach’. The research needs to use a ‘post-positivist’ epistemology because it needs to be considered underlying facts of huge violation of rules and norms of International

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An analysis of Int’l law of conflict management: Evaluation of Bangladesh’s territorial disputes management. law, India-Bangladesh relations and interpret the fact. This constructivist approach implies a particular approach to the values of research and to the role of the researcher which is, again, consistent with the critical theoretical approach adopted throughout. The research will use critical interpretive case study approach. In the case study, the research will use qualitative methods based on primary and secondary sources, including content analysis of speeches and press releases, which allow development of a preliminary understanding of the topics and analysis and uncovering of the underlying factors, such as the effect of domestic and international politics, which could affect the decision-making process of conflict management and the understanding of different perspectives in India-Bangladesh relations. At the same time, it will make limited use of some quantitative data where relevant.

7.

CONCLUSION Using interpretivist methodology, ‘critical legal theory’ and ‘critical interpretive case study

methods’, the study is trying to evaluate the major compliances of legal rules of the international law of conflict management and apply them in India-Bangladesh boundary dispute management. Linking two academic disciplines; international law and international relations; the author argues that international law and international relations are basically designed for human beings, but there are some minor traditional contradictions and political influences which prevent them from working effectively. In the particular case of India and Bangladesh, there is some inconsistency and contradiction between law and fact and political influence over legitimacy of international law. Sometimes unwillingness of political leaders is remained the issue which affects their relations negatively. Amendment of theoretical contradictions in the legal rules of conflict management, creating a central authorising power to enforce the rules and to bind the states to follow court decisions and signing of a treaty between them could make the process of conflict management more effective. In terms of political influences, some issues which are related to the international legal rules, such as boundary disputes, could be handled by diplomats rather than political leaders, which could make this easier to resolve.

8.

REFERENCES

AHMED,A.,2013.India-Bangladesh Land Dispute. The Daily Star.26 August p 5, ANDERSON, E.W; 1996.International Boundaries and the Law: Some Considerations. Jane’s Defence, The world in conflict. IDR, 1996 p 105-107,109 DAS,R & RAJU,D.,2013.A settlement long overdue. The Hindu.13 August.[online] Available at: http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/lead/a-settlement-long-overdue/article5016349.ece

(accessed

on

25

August 2013) DIAS,C,J.,2007.International relations and international law :from competition to complementary. In THOMAS, J.et al. (eds).International law and International relations Bridging theory and practice. London and New York: Routledge.p279 FINNEMORE,M;2007.New directions, new collaborations for international law and international relations. In THOMAS, J.et al. (eds).International law and International relations Bridging theory and practice. London and New York: Routledge.p 266 KOSKENNIEMI, M.,2011.The Politics of International Law. Oxford: Hart Publishing Ltd. p 47,142-167.

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An analysis of Int’l law of conflict management: Evaluation of Bangladesh’s territorial disputes management. KOSKENNIEMI, M.,2005. From Apology to Utopia .The Structure of International Legal Argument. Reissue with New Epilogue. New York: Cambridge University Press. P 24, 40-50 MANDEL, R;1980.Roots of the Modern Interstate Border Dispute. The Journal of Conflict Resolution. 24(3). p.427-454. [Online] Available at: http://jcr.sagepub.com/content/24/3/427.full.pdf (Accessed on 12 September 2013) MAJINGE,C.R.,2012.Emergence of new states in Africa and territorial dispute resolution: The role of the International Court of Justice. Melbourne Journal of International Law.13 (1) p 42 [Online] Available at: https://www.law.unimelb.edu.au/files/dmfile/downloadea461.pdf (Accessed on 15 January 2014). PARMAR,S,S.,2011.International Law Promoting Pacific Settlement of Disputes-A study of Territorial Conflict. Bilingual journal of humanities & Social Sciences.2(1,2) (joint issue). P 1[Online] Available at: http://www.shodh.net/index.php?option=com_phocadownload&view=category&download=85:21international-law-promoting-pafic-settlement-of-disputes

–par

mar

&id=36:vol2-issue-1-a-2&Itemid=31

(Accessed on 15 January 2014) RASULOV,A.,2006.From Apology to Utopia .The Structure of International Legal Argument. Law & Politics book

review.16(8).(August,

2006)

p.583-591.

[Online]

Available

at:

http://www.bsos.umd.edu/gvpt/lpbr/subpages/reviews/koskenniemi0806.htm (Accessed on 15 August 2012) RASHID,H;2010.Bangladesh-India Relations : Living With a Big Neighbour. Dhaka: A.H Development Publishing House. p 15

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OBSTACLES TO CROSS-BORDER INSOLVENCY AND EMPLOYMENT PROTECTION COORDINATION IN THE EUROPEAN UNION JENNIFER L L GANT N0361533 E-mail: [email protected] Keywords: cross border insolvency, corporate rescue, labour regulation, social policy, EU law Abstract The EU Insolvency Regulation (“EIR”) is one of many attempts by the EU to coordinate the way in which member states work together on commercial matters in cross border business relationships. While the EIR has set out rules through which cross border insolvencies can be managed, gaps remain between the individual insolvency systems of the member states which make it more difficult to correlate insolvency procedures than if they were more closely aligned. There are a number of complex facets of social and political history of the member states which have affected the development of the law. These idiosyncrasies can be attributed to the differences between legal systems. Nowhere is the complexity of diverse legal development more clear than in the social policies of member states and their application to labour regulation. Social policy also affects the purpose given to insolvency procedures, the weight of protection given to creditors or other stakeholders such as employees, and the overall format of insolvency. This paper uses comparative legal and historical analysis in order to explore the origin of the differences between legal systems and investigate whether the social, political, cultural and historical obstacles can be overcome in order to draw the legal systems of member states into closer alignment. It is envisaged that an EU with more closely aligned laws affecting cross border business transactions will have the potential to increase the effectiveness of business activities.

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Obstacles to cross border insolvency and employment protection coordination in the EU

1. INTRODUCTION The coordination of legal systems is a concept that has occupied the minds of legislators, political leaders and legal academics for centuries, particularly with a view towards facilitating business across borders. Within the European Union, coordination has been achieved to some extent in those legal areas which deal with the free movement of goods and capital in pursuit of free trade within the Common Market. The EU Insolvency Regulation (Council Regulation (EC) No 1346/2000 (the “EIR”)) is one of many attempts to coordinate how member states work together on commercial matters in cross border business relationships. While it has set out rules through which cross border insolvencies can be managed, there remain gaps between the individual insolvency systems of the member states which make it more difficult to coordinate insolvency procedures than if they were more closely aligned. Definitions, derogations, procedural purpose and even the fundamental aims of insolvency remain divergent among the legal systems of the EU. This disparity between the aims of insolvency is one obstacle to cross border cooperation but the disparities themselves are influenced by factors endemic to the jurisdictions within which they are found. There are complex factors which exist within the social histories of each member state which contribute to the diversity of aims of legal regulation, among which are the concept of freedom of contract, industrialisation and collectivism, economics, politics and human rights. The combination of functional legal factors in juxtaposition with extra legal characteristics has been little explored in the area of insolvency and employment protection. For the purpose of this paper, focus will be applied to the complexity of diverse legal development in the social policies and regulation of member states, which has an effect on the aims of insolvency law in the weight of protection given to creditors or other stakeholders such as employees.

2. INSOLVENCY AND SOCIAL POLICY IN THE EUROPEAN UNION Social policy has had an influence on the aims of regulation throughout Europe particularly since the end of the Second World War. The individual character of social policy issues is evident in the handsoff approach of EU social policy legislation, which has had consequences for the implementation of any legislation having a social consideration. Insolvency is one of those areas where social considerations arise as the outcomes of insolvency procedures will impact individuals, small businesses and communities (Cork 1982). The EU requirement for member states to meet only minimum standards allows a disparity to exist between the level of protection afforded to the various stakeholders of an insolvent company depending on the state. This creates an environment of mistrust owing to perceived unfairness between insolvency systems; however, the imposition of procedural norms is not yet possible owing to the individual character of regulatory aims of member states. Given the protection of social policy issues afforded by EU legislative methods (Bieback 1991), the fate of employment contracts are left to the determination of the law of each member state (van Galen, et al 2012), leaving an important factor affecting the success of insolvency uncoordinated. Diverse social policy regulation among member states is an obstacle to regulatory coordination in the EU. Reforms undertaken in the 1980s have a fundamental social impulse: to protect a business rather than allowing the vagaries of the market to dictate business success or failure (Finch 2009). Rehabilitative procedures are now used as a priority throughout the EU; however some insolvency practitioners have expressed their disillusionment with them in practice. In the UK, focus has been redirected to some extent to the needs of employees and unsecured creditors in insolvency which has led to changes to priority in distribution; however, the emphasis of practitioners continues to be in favour of wealth maximisation as far as the law allows (van Galen et al 2012). In France, insolvency is a collective procedure designed to distribute loss among all stakeholders in a company, subject to a hierarchy of distribution where employees are often privileged over creditors (Omar 2004). Although the UK system exhibits similar characteristics, the French system has redistributional tendencies that coincide with characteristics endemic to its version of social democracy. At times compromises are made between social and financial objectives in business transfers (Stevens

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2009). The social objectives of employment protection and the costs of employee liabilities reduce the value of a business being sold and thereby reduce the distributions available to creditors, but this is often the outcome due to an emphasis on workers’ rights. The fundamental aims of insolvency in the UK and France differ in respect of the influence of social policy objectives. Though similar terms to describe elements of procedure may be used, the ideologies and policies informing the objectives of those procedures result in an asynchronous meaning, creating a barrier to mutual understanding and an obstacle to coordinated action. In discovering the influences on the aims of socially oriented regulation it may be possible to identify areas where coordination and perhaps convergence may be realistically attempted and to work around those areas in which the different social aims make such convergence difficult.

3. FUNDAMENTAL INFLUENCES ON AIMS OF SOCIAL REGULATION 3.1

Regulatory style

While the common law or civil law origins of a country have been shown to influence regulatory style and interventionism (la Porta et al 1998), it is the stylistic qualities themselves that are the important factors in understanding the differences in legal systems (Deakin et al 2007). One of the most important factors is the view of contractual relationships. While freedom of contract is a fundamental constitutional value upon which the UK system is built, its nature is not viewed as inviolable in France. While true that the UK legal system allows interference in consumer and employment contracts in order to address an imbalance in bargaining power, French judges have been known to intervene to control unfair or abusive contractual terms, which constitutes a formal constraint on the contractual autonomy of the parties (Deakin et al 2007). In employment contracts, additional protections exist, although in the United Kingdom some legal provisions regulating the employment relationship may be avoided though the use of standard contractual terms. “Contracting out” is possible to a lesser extent in France as the employment relationship is subject to stricter rules. The differences in treatment of employment contracts reveal the existence of deeply ingrained assumptions about the role of law in regulating economic relationships. These assumptions as well as social and economic ideologies shape substantive rules of law (see Deakin et al 2007) and in so doing, influence the aims of corporate regulation such as insolvency. 3.2

Historical influences

One of the prime differences affecting the approach taken by France and the UK toward labour regulation is the progress and timing of industrialisation (Hepple 1986). By the time industrialisation occurred, Britain had already conquered its markets and was largely devoid of any external competitive pressures. Because of Britain’s early arrival in the industrial age the modern business enterprise emerged before the legal system could develop the institutions required to manage it (Price 1986). In France, private law codes dealing with institutions such as the employment contract and companies limited by share capital had been introduced decades before large scale industrialisation occurred. In France, industrialisation had to be forced and to some extent managed by the state in order to protect it against the imperialism of Britain’s free trade (Hepple 1986). These differences had profound implications for both legal and economic development (Deakin et al 2007) The late appearance of an equitably constituted employment relationship in the UK had the effect of institutionalising the conception of the enterprise as the employer’s unencumbered property, provided to his employees with which to perform the services for which they were paid. The employee became wholly dependent upon the industrial employer for most of life’s necessities (Hepple 1986). Continental European labour policy imposed a juridical equality between worker and employer embodied in the legal codes. The employer’s control over employees was tempered by mandatory social legislation (Deakin et al 2007).

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3.3

Politics, economics and cultural values

The modern cultural and social values in France have led to a protective labour law code which gives a great role to the freedom of association and union activities, encourages social dialogue and fights against discrimination (Despax et al 2011). British labour regulation; however; was instituted only after labour interests had grown to the point that they were able to wield genuine political power. Labour regulation was introduced with an economic aim to replace the power of labour interests in order to take control of the labour economy and later to meet only the minimum limits set by EU law. The implementation of labour law is not, therefore, constitutive of the factors of production but a reflection of the economic and social structures of a jurisdiction (Hepple 1986). Labour policy has become a tool of political power. As political and economic goals have changed over time so has the approach to labour regulation, making the area of employment law one of the least reliable and most changeable in the UK legal system. Similarly in France, as socialism became popular, labour reforms became increasingly protective. (Deakin et al 2007). In the UK, an emphasis has remained on the importance of free market capitalism, while France has steadily drawn away from these ideas toward the social democracy which is characteristic of modern France. France has manifested a certain reserve about the market economy and capitalism through its political and economic policies (Despax et al 2011). Because the French system values social protections, considerations of the social impact of any legislation affect the balance struck between the goals of the market and the individual. 3.4

Human rights

In France, the existence of human rights has been recognised since the Declaration of Rights of Man and the Citizen in 1789 (Seignobos 1933). As the political and economic nature of France changed through numerous constitutions, changes in political leadership and perceptions of the duties of the state to its citizens, protective labour legislation changed from bourgeois charity to a right owed to the working classes. A right to work was eventually recognised, which had the effect of committing the state to provide work. As early as the middle of the nineteenth century a steady move toward a more socially oriented democracy can be observed (Hepple 1986). In Britain, the capitalist mode of production remained dominant and dictated different responses to social ills. A right to work could not be guaranteed in such a system; however, the right to the protection of collective interests went some way to satisfying the need to cure some social ills.

4. CONCLUSION A number of themes have arisen out of the examination of the different factors affecting the aims of regulation. The value placed on the inviolability of contracts in the UK in contrast with the French aims of justice and fairness for individuals affects willingness to intervene in private legal relationships. Views on workers’ rights, individual dignity and the redistribution of rights, as a means of attaining justice and equality, justifies the extent of interference in the labour market. Given the different ways in which both systems evolved, French social policy became an endogenous factor of regulation; whereas, social policy in the UK is an imposition. Social policy is an important part of the UK political scene; however, there is frequent debate in relation to how far social protections should go before they become overly burdensome to the economy. The question of social policy in France is more about how far it can go without being a detriment to itself. With fundamental differences that derive from opposing views of social policy it must be queried how these seemingly insurmountable obstacles can be overcome to draw the legal systems into closer alignment in relation to cross border insolvency and the effect of employment protection on its efficiency. In order to find a common ground between the UK and France, it will be necessary address the UK desire to promote business and the free market while considering the French requirement to protect employment interests. This would require a complete rethinking of the approach to legal reform: a paradigm shift on the aims of particular social policy rules when juxtaposed with the aims of corporate regulation. Instead of a political or economic approach, an approach which takes an external view of the cross jurisdictional and cross field aims of particular legal rules may be called for.

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Bibliography

Bieback, K.-J., (1991) “Harmonisation of social policy in the European Community” Les Cahiers de Droit 32(4) pp. 916 Cork, Sir Kenneth, Chairman, (1982) Insolvency Law and Practice Report of the Review Committee Cmnd. 8558 (London: Her Majesty’s Stationery Office

Davies, P. and M. Freedland, (1993) Labour Legislation and Public Policy (New York: Oxford University Press) Deakin, S. and F. Wilkinson, (2005) The Law of the Labour Market (New York: Oxford University Press) Deakin, S., P. Lele and M. Siems, (2007) “The evolution of labour law: Calibrating and comparing regulatory regimes” International Labour Review 146(3-4) Despax, M., J. Rojot and J.-P. Laborde, (2011) Labour law in France (The Netherlands: Kluwer Law International) Finch, V., (2009) Corporate Insolvency Law: Perspectives and Principles. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press van Galen, R., M. Andre, D. Fritz, V. Gladel, F. van Koppen, D. Marks QC and N. Wouters, (2012) Revision of the European Insolvency Regulation: Proposals by INSOL Europe. Nottingham: INSOL Europe Hepple, B., (1986) The Making of Labour Law in Europe (London: Hart Publishing) Kahn-Freund, O., (1978) “Labour law” in Selected Writings of O Kahn-Freund (New Jersey: Stevens Publishing Omar, P., (2004) European Insolvency Law (London: Ashgate Publishing Limited)

Seignobos, C. translated from French by C A Phillips, (1933) A History of the French People (Paris: Jonathan Cape Limited) Stevens, R., (2009) “Comments and Discussion Report” in W-G Ringe, L Gullifer and P Thery, eds., Current Issues in European Financial and insolvency Law (London: Hart Publishing)

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COMPARATIVE LAW APPROACH TO PROPOSED LEGISLATIVE FRAMEWORK TO PROTECT DIGITAL COPYRIGHT ON THE INTERNET IN THAILAND MR. PRASERT JARUNRATANASRI N0471612 E-mail: [email protected] Keywords: Comparative approach, Digital, Copyright, Internet Protection, Thailand Legislation Abstract This thesis essentially is the product of an attempt to protect digital copyright in Thailand. The author chooses ‘notice and takedown’ of the US. and ‘graduated response’ of France as modelled systems because they proved relatively effective in their own countries. A comparative legal approach is employed to conceptualise and to illuminate the enforcing systems. The experiences of the U.S. and France are compared and contrasted, both against each other, and against WIPO international treaties which are WCT and WPPT. The disruptive potential of discretion left to states by international copyright instruments is assessed. The result shows that generally-accepted concept is that optimum copyright protection does not deter, but encourage, economic prosperity, societal development and technological progress. The optimum protection can be made to balance competing interest between public’s and privates’. Digital protection follows the concepts. The thesis suggests that Thailand take into consideration four notions. First, it should categorise copyrighted works into entertainment works and non-entertainment works. Secondly, it should categorise users into business and non-business. Thirdly, it should categorise usage or users’ purpose into personal use and educational use. Finally, it should categorise rights themselves into reproduction, and communication to public rights; and adaptation (derivative) rights. The thesis suggests some revision which is penalty and authority to impose the penalties.

1. INTRODUCTION Thailand, along with many other states, has difficulty preventing digital copyright infringement (U.S. Trade Representative (USTR), 2012, p.39). Thailand’s copyright law, especially enforcement prong, is ineffective and not in line with technological developments (European Commission, 2013, p.18). Since the emergence of internet infringement, Thailand has had no provision concerning copyright protection in cyber platforms. It is the aim of this thesis to find-- proposed legislative framework to protect copyright against digital infringement. There are two major kinds of potential risks to digital copyright content -- peer-to-peer file-sharing and user-posting activities. While the situation of digital piracy is very much the same worldwide, legislation are different in the scope of protection. Globally, there are two main enforcing mechanisms for protection from digital copyright infringement -- ‘notice and takedown’ system of the U.S. and “graduated response”, of France. Notice and takedown system was designed to cope with posting content on publicly accessible sites by users. ‘Graduated response’ is to deter peer-to-peer file sharers. Therefore, the first two parts of this thesis discuss the two systems’ advantages and disadvantages.

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The last part is Thailand legislation. There are two points that consider relevant Thailand legislation. First, a substantive part shows rights and infringement. Second, a procedural part demarcates scope of enforcement. For the enforcement prong, procedure laws allow copyright holders to pursue infringers in both civil and criminal lawsuit. For the civil lawsuit, the thesis discusses CA 1994 ‘interim injunction’ section 65 procedure which is closely analogous to ‘notice and takedown’. Apart from this, there is no legislation or practice like France’s ‘graduated response’ in Thailand. For criminal purpose, Criminal Procedure Code B.E.2477 (1934) (hereinafter CRPC 1934) basically provides criminal proceedings provisions for all kinds of criminal cases unless legislations specifically state otherwise. CA 1994 does not have specific proceedings; therefore needed to follow CRPC 1934’s rules. CRPC 1934 is analysed if its criminal proceedings suit cyber infringement cases.

2. NOTICE AND TAKEDOWN SYSTEM U.S. Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA) 1998 Section 202 (or 17 USC Section 512); and the EU E-Commerce Directive (2000/31) Section 4) entails providing legal notice to concerned parties such as ISPs to ‘take down’ allegedly infringing content from their hosted websites (DMCA 1998 Section 202 or 17 USC Section 512(c)).

3. GRADUATED RESPONSE SYSTEM The second legislative method is the “graduated response”, as used in parts of the EU, e.g., France (Creation and Internet Law 2009). “Graduated response” sanctions internet accounts on which peer-to-peer infringements occur, even though the account holder may not be the person downloading infringing content (Geiger, 2012, p. 396, and Geiger, 2011, p.457)). 4.

THAILAND LEGISLATION

Copyright Act 2537(B.E.) (1994) (hereinafter CA 1994) is the only Thai substantive copyright law. The law basically prescribes acquisition of right, copyrighted works, right protected, infringement, exception etc. Different kinds of copyrighted works such as literary, artistic, musical works or audio-visual works are all defined in the CA 1994 section 4. ‘Copyright means the exclusive right to do any act according to this Act [CA 1994] with respect to the work created by the author’. (CA 1994 section 4) With regard to digital copyright, a question is raised if copyrighted works in digital form is protectable under CA 1994. CA 1994 section 4 provides no rules regarding formats of the work eligible to protection. For example, ‘musical work means a work which is composed for playing or singing whether with rhythm and lyrics or rhythm only, including arranged and transcribed musical notes or musical diagrams’. In addition, ‘audio-visual work means a work which consists of a sequence of visual images recorded on any kind of medium and which is capable of being replayed with equipment suitable for such medium, including the sound track of such work, if any’. A digital format is highly likely protected at the same levels as that of analogue or physical objects. Rather, the question is whether rights conferred are well-protected. Basically, copyright confers exclusive rights on its holder. The rights vary in nature of the works and their commercialisation. Reproduction, adaptation and communication to the public rights are mainly affected. In relation to the variation, CA 1994 categorises two kinds of violation: primary and secondary infringement. Primary infringement (section 27-30) is an act of, e.g., reproduction, adaptation and communication to the public, of copyrighted work. Secondary infringement (section 31) is the acting onto the infringing copies, e.g., selling, occupying for sale or offering for sale etc.


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Comparative Law Approach to Proposed Legislative Framework to Protect Digital Copyright on the Internet in Thailand

Reproduction is ‘any material method of copying’ from an original in ‘substantial part’ which does not create a new work whether in whole or in part. (CA 1994 section 4) Adaptation right is the right that always comes along with reproduction right. It prohibits others from changing the work; no matter the work has been changed to the same category or not, for example, translating a literary work from one language to others, or transforming the literary work to cinematographic work. (Thailand Supreme Court case no.2572/2548(B.E.) (2005)) CA 1994 Section 4 paragraph 15 “Communication to the public” means making a work available to the public by means of performing, lecturing, preaching, playing music, causing the perception by sound or image, constructing, distributing or by any other means. The question is whether primary and secondary infringements cover digital infringement. In other words, upload, download and share fall within any infringement categories or not. This does not seem to be clear cut whether those definitive statements include digital practice. For example, the reproduction clause ‘any material method of copying’ may cover copying from analogue to digital formats and vice versa. This may also be true with adaptation when the work was transformed into one form or another. However, the one from communication to the public ‘making a work available to the public by performing…distributing…’ seems to be understood as playing or showing the work in front of audience. Therefore, the following ‘…by any other means’ may not be fitted in the digital environment where the work does not display in front of audience simultaneously. The question remains in what categories these activities fall. A user could be primarily infringing copyright if he uploads the content from the original source, e.g., legitimate musical CD. However, if he does so from the illegal copies, e.g., files in computer hard drive, it could be secondary infringement. The line of demarcation is determined by the fact that it is the originals or infringing copies that is used. Other reproduction issue perhaps arises from the words ‘in substantial part’. Copy of the work may not attract infringement if it does not do so substantially from the part the author created (originality). As to the enforcement legislation, the thesis is divided into three parts-- civil, criminal and administrative. For the civil part, CA 1994 section 65 allows right holders to apply for an injunction to deter infringing acts. Under ‘Provisional Measures of Protection Prior to Instituting an Action’ of Rules 12 to 19 for intellectual property and International Trades Cases B.E.2540 (1997) (hereinafter Rules for IPIT Cases), the provisional measures (or interim injunctions) provide that the court’s grant of an injunction enjoins the prospective defendant immediately. Where the measure is permitted, the prospective defendant may file a counter application to nullify or modify the measure. (Rule 17 of Rules for IPIT Cases) The court may nullify or modify its decision and may direct the applicant to compensate the prospective defendant’s damages. (Rule 16 paragraph 2 of Rules for IPIT Cases) The applicant must commence his action within 15 days from the day on which his application for an injunction was granted or within the period specified by the court, if different. If the applicant does not do so, the injunction lapses. (Rule 17 of Rules for IPIT Cases) In contrast, if the law suit is pursued, the enforcement of a provisional measure is extended. (Rule 18 of Rules for IPIT Cases) In application to the digital infringement, it is perhaps unclear whether ‘a person’ in section 65 has to be ‘the infringer’ or whether it could be a third person. There is no ‘safe harbour’ protection for ISPs who co-operate the right owners by taking down offending content. ISPs could therefore be at risk both from interim injunctions, and civil and criminal liability. The civil injunction is likely to cause problem more than solution. For criminal purpose, under CRPC 1934, the right owners can directly file criminal cases to the court in private prosecution. The right owners must proceed to preliminary examination. “Preliminary examination” is defined under Criminal Procedure Code 2477(B.E.) (1934) (hereinafter CRPC 1934) section 2(12) as “the proceedings conducted by a court with a view to finding a prima facie case against the accused”. The right owners can also initiate public prosecution from inquiry official through inquiry process to the court. The traditional Thailand criminal justice system does not seem to fit digital copyright infringement cases. This is because it takes time and this is not quick enough to deter widespread damage in the internet. Moreover, criminal cases have higher standard of proof than civil cases. Finally, criminal sanctions may not be proportionate to nature of copyright offence.


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5. CONCLUSION The thesis suggests that Thailand take into consideration four notions. First, categorisation of copyrighted works -- entertainment works and non-entertainment works -- is introduced to serve the ultimate purpose of knowledge progression. Non-entertainment such as history, documentary or academic books, should be encouraged to more free use. In contrast, entertainment such as novels, movies or musical work, deserves more restriction. Secondly, categorisation of users -- business and non-business - is introduced to benefit the right holders by acquiring monetary return from precise sectors. Business which uses the work for profit should share it with the work’s creators. Thirdly, categorisation of usage or users’ purpose -- personal use and educational use -- is introduced to make fine tune for those business which may use the work for non-commercialise societal purpose. In contrast, if a non-business individual distributes the work in the way that damages the owner’s rights advantage, the individual should be barred from doing so. Finally, categorization of the rights themselves -- reproduction, and communication to public rights; and adaptation (derivative) rights -- is probably the finest tune of the regime. It is designed to balance users’ and creators’ interests. The users could be allowed to adapt the works but must acquire a licence to reproduce the new, adapted works. The notions could be implemented to legislation by using ‘graduated response’ as the main path. For conceptual implementation, Thailand should adopt all kinds of possible measures to ensure efficient and effective protection. For the legal measures, the thesis proposes “graduated response” mechanism with some alterations. The level of sanctions should determine steps of legal proceedings. The lightest, lowering internet speeds, should not need to be considered by the court. The sanctions from the middle, termination of internet account, to the hardest, criminal penalties, should be imposed by the court.

6.

REFERENCES

Articles Geiger, C. 2011, "Honourable attempt but (ultimately) disproportionately offensive against peer-to-peer on the internet (HADOPI) - a critical analysis of the recent anti-file-sharing legislation in France", International Review of Intellectual Property and Competition Law, vol. 42, no. 4. Geiger, C. 2012. Counterfeiting and the music industry: Towards a Criminalization of end users? The French ‘HADOPI’ example in Geiger, C., ed., 2012, Criminal Enforcement of Intellectual Property: A Handbook of Contemporary Research, Cheltenham: Edward Elgar. Ch. 19. Legislations Agreement on Trade-related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPs) 1994 Copyright Act B.E.2537 (A.D.1994) Rules for intellectual property and International Trades Cases B.E.2540 (1997)Criminal Procedure Code B.E.2477 (1934) Criminal Procedure Code 2477(B.E.) (1934) Creation and Internet Law (HADOPI 1 and 2) 2009 Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA) 1998 Directive 2000/31/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 8 June 2000 on certain legal aspects of information society services, in particular electronic commerce, in the Internal Market (EU E-Commerce Directive) Other Materials


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European Commission, 2010, IPR Survey 2010. Available at: http://trade.ec.europa.eu/doclib/docs/2013/march/tradoc_150793.pdf[Accessed 24 October 2013]. European Commission, 2013, Commission Staff Working Document: Report on the protection and enforcement of intellectual property rights in third countries. Available at: http://trade.ec.europa.eu/doclib/docs/2013/march/tradoc_150789.pdf[Accessed 18 October 2013]. Office of the United States Trade Representative(USTR), 2012 Special 301 Report.Available at: http://www.ustr.gov/sites/default/files/2012%20Special%20301%20Report_0.pdf[Accessed 18 October 2013].


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BREAKING BOUNDARIES: A REFLECTION ON ARMS CONTROL NEGOTIATIONS TEGG WESTBROOK N0357038 E-mail: [email protected] Keywords: Arms, Control, Negotiations, NGOs, States Abstract Current and past arms control negotiations are trying to break boundaries which are inflicted by distrust and profit. My project, which analyses the role of NGOs in influencing the construction of the Arms Trade Treaty, will appeal to academics across many related disciplines. However, will it impact people’s lives outside academia for the better? Would my experience and my generation of knowledge comply to the profit-seeking consumer world? My paper focuses on unravelling the political and economic factors that might influence state preferences to certain elements in arms control negotiations. I will draw on how local, regional and global risk indices (both quantitative and qualitative) can help organisations, businesses, communities, and states to forecast and understand the future outcomes of their preferences. By drawing on findings from my work so far, I will question how liberal and constructivist theories substantiate some of my arguments. By this, I hope to express more clearly the significance and relevance of my research to the wider world, and suggest ways in which the research can defy boundaries.

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A Reflection on Arms Control Negotiations

1.

INTRODUCTION

Is academia boundary defying or does it create boundaries? Knowledge of theory verses experience in practice, for example, can be a major barrier to acceptance for scholars outside university. Academic thought can only be plausible if it is appealing, and is made appealing, to people outside of university. If this is not part of the objective, then this creates boundaries. Expressing the significance of work through the medium of conferences, publications, social and business enterprises can be one way of disseminating the significance of academic work. In this context, there are economic, political and social barriers between NGOs (including victims of armed violence) and states that create their own barriers to agreement. I, as a 'reflexive' and 'positional' academic, sit between the two. This paper explores these barriers and tries to understand where an academic might sit between the two. It will explore how theory and methodology can help better understand both the preferences and outcomes of states and NGO activity. By drawing on findings from my work so far, I hope to express more clearly the significance and relevance of my research to the wider world, and suggest ways in which the research can defy boundaries. 2. DEFINING AND DISTINGUISHING THE BOUNDARIES IN MY OWN RESEARCH Politically, NGOs can be seen as propagators of liberal hegemonic values, deemed progressive, humanitarian, autonomous, and outspoken. They represent and speak out for the victims of armed violence, conduct research, and publish their findings in order to gain support and increase awareness of a problem. Many larger NGOs have the power and authority to lobby governments and be critical of them without consequences. In the context of the Arms Trade Treaty (ATT), states and arms companies can be seen as working together in the form of economic and security strategic thinking; driven by foreign policy, upholding friendships - which are economically as well as ideologically driven. International law restricts as well as legitimises the arms trade; states have a right to self-defence under the UN Charter, but must also uphold human rights and humanitarian law. Economically, NGOs survive through various forms of funding and donations. In order to survive, NGOs have to be seen as doing something for humanity. Achieving positive outcomes is key to their financial survival, however, being too critical of governments (who sometimes fund them) could be costly in the long-term. States and arms companies are driven by profits, and by upholding friendships, can ensure some form of controlled income and securing investments. These 'friendships' also help protect other business interests abroad (or assets). The arms industry also employs both a civil and privatised specialised work-force. In 2011, the UK alone had approximately 300,000 people employed in the arms industry (Telegraph, 2011). From a sociological perspective, NGOs are similar to their political motivations. They are seen as altruistic, empathetic, representative of the poor and needy. States and arms companies are, in part, driven by reputation based on their human rights records and socio-economic needs. If we were to 'personalise' states, then we can see states as vulnerable to peer-pressure and high and low self-esteem (depending on the issue in hand) and can be affected by their domestic populations or independent organisations. 2.1 My Role as a Researcher in Challenging these Boundaries Where do I, the researcher, sit between two entities explored in my thesis? Politically, researchers are, by proxy, acting as agnostics and critical observers, with the some power in provoking direct and indirect change in what we are studying. We are privileged, in this way, in that we can gain access to people from both sides of the table. As 'professional' researchers, we make sure that we are reflexively aware of our values and our position in the world. We are most likely inclined, politically, to the left because we are emancipated; however this might not represent our theoretical approaches. Unlike journalist and writers, the vast majority of researchers have no direct profitable stake in what they are researching. We may improve our employability and our chances of funding, and gain 'intellectual

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property' by doing such work. From a sociological aspect, researchers can be seen as egotistical; they do their research, in part, to better themselves and to gain respect and recognition. Defining the boundaries between NGOs and States in the context of the ATT from a critical distance can reveal new understandings about 'who influences whom' from a social constructivist approach. Driven by our political, economic and social motivations explained above, we can generate data that can be useful to all actors concerned, including victims of armed violence. Based on the findings from my own research, I will explain how NGOs were successful in defying their own boundaries, and the significance and relevance of my findings to people outside academia. 3. THE FINDINGS AND ITS POTENTIAL TO CHALLENGE OR SUBVERT BOUNDARIES So far, through the method of textual analysis, many causal relationships between NGO activism and policy change have been found. I have used human rights and socio-economic development mapping indexes, and data on existing regional and international law, to try to understand the connections between states' underlying preferences and how these have been changed. NGOs were successful at bringing attention to the issues concerning the globalisation of the arms trade and its uncontrollable effects on communities through a variety of means. Technological developments in the 1990s ensured that NGOs could reach out to difference audiences around the world about the problems of the arms trade. Through the internet, fax and other forms of communications, NGOs were also able to build and coordinate coalitions to speak with a 'louder voice' and have greater influence in policy discussions. Recent successful campaigns enabled NGOs to have more access to future arms control negotiations. States were persuaded to support the ATT through a number of reasons. NGOs provided a legitimate argument about the connection between the arms trade and states' existing international obligations to respect human rights and humanitarian law. Through their own research, NGOs helped states to recognise that their arms exports were being used for serious human rights atrocities, and being diverted to illicit markets. By speaking to victims of armed violence, they were able to frame the issue and provoke wider public support for their cause. NGOs were not campaigning against the arms trade; they were finding ways of making it more 'responsible' and in line with international law. They emphasised how already existing national and regional export controls were inadequate for dealing with the increasing globalisation of the arms trade. Finally, NGOs organised a coalition for which they could promote their ideas to wider audiences. The Control Arms coalition spanned across almost every country in the world. Through the Control Arms campaign, most states which were initially sceptical or reluctant to support the treaty, eventually changed their positions. Using liberal constructivist theory, one can understand how identity and preferences shape the way a state acts in certain situations, even without domestic pressure for change. According to Finnemore and Sikkink's (F&S) life-cycle hypotheses, if a powerful state shows their support for a norm, then this may have a have a contagious effect on other states. In the case of the ATT, after the UK's support the norm, the whole EU – which accounted for more than 40% of all arms exports at that time – swung behind the treaty shortly afterwards. The basic principles that were grounded the treaty-text, such as human rights and humanitarian norms, are ideologically affiliated to the EU's own core principles. Gun-affected regions in Africa and Latin America for example, followed the norm because they saw it as an opportunity to improve national and regional instability. Thus being a member of a particular social category can shape the way states respond to certain norms. In terms of peer pressure, contagion occurs as a way of emulating 'heroes', creating 'praise' for behaviour that conforms to group norms, and 'ridicule' for deviation (F&S, 1998: 902). My work has found that NGOs were very effective at exploiting these social factors, by publicly criticising governments for not supporting the norm and praising them for conformity. Reflecting on the identities of states discussed above, many industrialised states saw the treaty as an opportunity to 'level the playing field' – making the arms trade more 'safe, predicable, and ethical' from a commercial aspect. Using Human Rights Risk (HRR) and Socio-economic Resilience (SER) indexes, existing data on the highest defence budgets, importers, exporters (provided by SIPRI), and by looking at how states'

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identities have been changed by signing and ratifying the Treaty, we can get a deeper understanding of the future prospects for improving the lives of those who are affected by armed conflict. My study supports the idea that if states' rated high on the HRR index they are more likely to support the inclusion of HR parameters in the treaty because they see this as an opportunity to improve their image, and want to be seen as taking measures to improve that image. Equally, such states' might support the inclusion of human rights law because they do not rely on great numbers of arms imports, so therefore such an inclusion would not affect their current practices. States who score low/medium on the HRR index may support many of the elements of the treaty because it is likely that it reflects their ideological beliefs. States with large defence budgets and/or are high importers of arms, and rated high in both HRR and SER indexes, might need to take measures to improve their human rights and socio-economic development records or image. States with high human rights or developmental issues might not support the inclusion of these into the criteria because it might influence their suppliers to look for alternative buyers who are rated low on these parameters. Thus the wider support the ATT receives, even non-signatories will be affected and may change their behaviours. Unlike human rights and humanitarian considerations, development considerations were never incorporated into the Treaty. However, the findings suggest that Malaysia – which is one of the highest importers in the world - were sceptical of the inclusion of brokerage controls, but have since signed the Treaty. The Philippines and the USA, who objected to the control of ammunition, have signed the Treaty. Brazil, Djibouti, Libya, Malaysia and the UAE objected to the inclusion of 'Other Conventional Weapons', yet have so far signed the Treaty. Japan were mildly supportive of the inclusion of armed violence but have signed the Treaty. Brazil – a large importer of arms - were mildly supportive of the inclusion of human rights and international humanitarian law, but have since signed the Treaty. The UAE – a large importer of arms - and Cambodia, were also critical of gender-based violence, but have signed the Treaty. South Korea were mildly supportive of human rights and international humanitarian law, but have since signed. The USA – the largest exporter, a large importer, and with a massive defence budget - have signed despite being only mildly supportive of all parameters. Bahrain, Comoros, Libya, Mauritania, the UAE – with varying, yet negative degrees of HRR and SER reputations – and South Korea, objected to the inclusion human rights but have since signed. 4. THE POTENTIAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE FINDINGS IN BOUNDARY BREAKING The findings above show that despite scepticism to certain rules, states can be persuaded to support norms, despite the economic, political and social barriers. This says a lot about how we can understand boundary breaking, and the methods researchers can use to try to understand both sides of the table. Making those outside academia aware of the significance of research from a critical distance, rather than being affiliated to either side, means that we act as the independent observers. Using theory and methodology, we can understand these boundaries and their significance. Liberal constructivism in particular helps us understand how identities change, and the institutional processes that bring about these changes. What can all actors involved do with this information? NGOs can better understand the outcomes of their strategies and approaches, and make future amendments to build on the strengths and weaknesses of those strategies and approaches. They can reassure their donors that their money is being used to make historical changes on and international scale. Victims of the arms trade can also be reassured that their voices are heard, and understand the power and influence of their stories in influencing states. Governments could use the information to get a better understanding of the impact of their votes (in the context of the ATT), and how this changes behaviours. Furthermore, they can see if the Treaty will give them the 'upper-hand' from a commercial point of view, and critique whether it will make their current practices more 'ethical' and 'responsible'. All the actors can use the example of the ATT negotiations to make predictions about how different actors currently act in certain situations. Dissemination of the findings is in no way restricted, as would be the case, perhaps, if researchers were affiliated to one of these groups. All the actors, including other academics, explained above will have the freedom to use this information following, for example, electronic publication.

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REFERENCES Telegraph, 2011: The UK Defence Industry: in numbers. Online: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/newsbysector/industry/defence/8244152/UK-defence-industry-innumbers.html (Accessed 13/02/2014) Finnemore, M., and Sikkink, K., 1998: International Norm Dynamics and Political Change. International Organization Vol. 52, No. 4, International Organization at Fifty: Exploration and Contestation in the Study of World Politics (Autumn, 1998), pp. 887-917. Published by: The MIT Press. Article Stable URL.

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OVERCOMING BOUNDARIES


BREAKING CONSTRUCTION BOUNDARIES THROUGH THE USE OF A NOVEL DEPLOYABLE BRIDGE

UMWENI, OSAHON JOSHUA N0458860 E-mail: [email protected] Keywords: Deployable structures, flooding, climate change, sustainability, pantographs

Abstract Over the last decade, the occurrence of natural disasters has been on the increase. Most notably has been the increased incidences of flooding in both developed and developing countries. There have also been more earthquakes and hurricanes in the recent times. Most of these occurrences have been blamed on the global temperature change experienced. There are also man-made disasters such as wars or high scale industrial accidents as seen in high rise building failures/collapse or chemical plant explosions. The results of these incidents have led to the loss of lives and properties. Some of these incidences have resulted in people or communities stranded and not able to carry on their daily lives. This brings the need for structures or ways to reduce the impact of the loss of general infrastructures such as bridges by designing readily movable structures that can meet the temporary needs of a community. Deployable structures have mainly been characteristic of their light-weight nature and reduced time frame in erection or deployment. They are generally structures that have the capacity or capability to change geometry from a compact configuration to an operational configuration and still be able to withstand service loads safely. This main characteristic makes it easy to transport and store. They have been employed in various scenarios, especially as solutions for space related problems. However, their applications as solutions to environmental problems seems to be unknown or have not been fully researched into. This present study demonstrates the use of deployable structures in the construction industry. This is in to reaction to the global climate change that has been said to be the cause of most natural disasters in the last decade and to propose ways to overcome these boundaries to improve the sustainability of structures.

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Breaking Construction Boundaries Through The Use Of A Novel Deployable Bridge.

1. INTRODUCTION Global temperature is said to have changed compared to the last 100 years with the last decade alone experiencing an increasing amount of temperature change than any other period in temperature recorded history (Shah, 2013). The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC) defined climate change as the ‘change which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods’. These temperature increases can be argued to be the main reason for the various natural disasters and environmental disaster occurrences in the last decade. One environmental disaster of note is the rise in the water levels that has caused erosions in various parts of the world with devastating effects. These life threatening effects have been experienced in developing countries such as Nigeria and in developed countries like the United Kingdom. Flooding is amongst the world’s most devastating natural disasters of all time and destroying more lives and property than any other phenomena known to man. Erosion has made communities to be cut-off from the rest of the World especially in scenarios where bridges and houses have been washed away by this environmental disaster. There have been different schools of thought about the causative agents of this recent menace of flooding in the last decade on the global scale. The first school of thought sees flooding as a phenomena caused by the increasing rise in global temperatures and climate change resulting in more rainfall and increased amount of runoff. This would imply that the main causative agents of flooding is rain water. However, another school of thought suggests that flooding is a result of abuses to the environments which include but not limited to bad waste management, poor drainage and poor urban planning. Thirdly, it is perceived to be a combination of the global warming and climate change and mismanagement of the environment have caused the high rainfall levels which in turn as resulted in the devastating floods (Dow and Downing, 2006; Kersh and Simon, 2005). In November 2009, the bridges in Cumbria, United Kingdom (Northside Bridge in Workington, Navvies footbridge in Workington, Camerton footbridge in Camerton, Memorial Gardens footbridge in Cockermouth, Low Lorton Bridge, and Little Braitwaite Bridge) were either destroyed or damaged after very intense rainfalls and extreme water loads from the river. As a result, economic activities were hampered and the safety of the people was at risk. However, a temporary bridge was constructed but these took time to construct and most recently the flooding in Somerset, United Kingdom has been declared a ‘Major Incident’. In the United Kingdom, insurers have spent over 4.5 billion pounds to flood victims alone (Ed Ballard, 2011). One in six homes in England is currently at risk of flooding while 500,000 people face a significant flood risk. At the rate the climate continues to change, this could rise to 840,000 people by 2035 in the United Kingdom alone (Francis, 2011). In the case of Nigeria, every year the rivers overflow their banks and flooding communities resulting in the loss of lives. In July, 2012 over 820,000 houses were damaged or destroyed by flooding including critical infrastructure such as roads and bridges. This resulted in the death of over 300 people and displaced about 2.1 million (Reuters, 2012). A case of note are the bridges of Plateau State, Nigeria (Shendam Town Bridge, Langtang Bridge, Lalin Bridge, Dagkeng Bridge, and Lohak Bridge) that were all washed off by erosion just after few hours of torrential rainfall. As also the Kokona Bridge in Nassarawa State, Nigeria and many others that are damaged in dire need of repair (Ezema, 2013). Umweni,Oosahon Joshua

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Figure 1: residents in the Northern Part of Nigeria stranded by the flood (Premiumtimesng.com, 2012)

Figure 2: residents in the Northern Part of Nigeria stranded by the flood (Premiumtimesng.com, 2012)

Figure 3: Residents in the Northern Part of Nigeria trying to find their way through the flood (Premiumtimesng.com, 2012). The economic impact of flooding cannot be overemphasized prompting countries to construct flood defences to reduce its devastating effect. However, these efforts are being defeated due to many factors which are beyond the scope of this paper.


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It is the same scenario for other forms of disasters including man-made disasters (such as wars and conflicts, explosions, fire outbreaks, poor construction methods and designs) causing sudden destruction of the buildings and structures. When these disasters occur, communities can be left stranded or trapped and there is a need to provide a temporary or a long term solution in situations as explained above. And these solutions could be temporary protective covers, relief materials, temporary shelters, temporary storage and other situations. However, temporary measures have been taken in times of disasters but have taken time to construct and available to those in dire need. Therefore, it is imperative that structures which can be quickly and easily constructed or pre-constructed and to meet the needs of people in disaster ravaged communities. Deployable structures seem to be the best solution in disaster ravaged communities especially in situations where infrastructures such as bridges are needed to evacuate people or to reduce the impact of the flood on the economic activities of communities. These are structures can be easily deployed quickly and transportable at the same time. Various terminologies have been used to describe them such as ‘transformable’, ‘foldable’, ‘expandable’, or ‘collapsible’. “Deployable structures can be defined as structures that have the capability to be transformed from a bundle of compact configuration to an enlarged operational configuration that can carry load safely under service loads”. (Umweni, 2011: 9). When deployed into their operational geometry, they can ease storage and/or transportation.

2.

GENERAL PRINCIPLE OF PANTOGRAPHS

There are various classes of deployable structures, but this paper will be concerned about the Pantograph deployable structures. Generally a pantograph is a form of deployable structure consisting of scissor-link units also known as duplets which is a combination of two uniplets. Each duplet are beam elements with three nodes on the pin-jointed and rotating on their pivot node having only one degree of freedom. “No torsion is produced in the members, axial forces and bending moments can be developed” (Kaveh & Davaran, 1996).

Pivot

Hinge

a1

Figure 4 A duplet (by author)

Figure 5: A duplet and a Pantograph (direction of deployment) (by author)

In this paper, I will be using the concept of the pantograph to proffer a solution in a disaster situation in the form of a deployable bridge which can be applied in developing countries like Nigeria and other scenarios. As seen in the figure 6 below, pantograph structures are truss like in nature. Therefore, the loads are distributed among the members. In order to have a structure that is stable, form finding of a geometry for


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the structure was imperative. Another consideration was that it has to be easy to construct avoiding huge rotations. There are various forms of translational motions for pantographs but the rectilinear scissors structural mechanism as shown below is easier to construct and large rotations can be avoided. To achieve this configuration, the individual units must be parallel to each other before and after deployment process.

C1

Co l

l A1

y

Θ/2 S/2

D1

l

l

C3 l

l

A2

C4

A3

Θ

l A4

t

t

Θ/2

β

l Θ/2

Bo

t/2

C2

t/2

l

l

l

x

l

B1

s

l

B2

l

B3

S

l B4

Figure 6: Rectilinear Scissors Mechanism (by author) A rectilinear scissors structural mechanism are scissors units that have bars that same length and the hinge is at the midpoint of the bars as shown in Figure 3. A perfect planar surface is achieved by this configuration. Its deployment condition is thus:

……………………….1

=

If (s) is the span of a duplet, (N) is the number of duplets, (θ) is the angle between beams or bars, (S) is the span of the entire pantograph structure, (β) is the deployment angle, (t) is the unit thickness and (L) is the length of beams or bars. To analyse this structural mechanism, at least three of the above variables should be determined. The known variables are L

, S and θ. And by geometry, the angles θ and β are

the same for each Scissors Unit or duplet. Therefore, the span (s) of a duplet can be found using the formula ................................. 2 N can therefore be calculated based on the above equation. In addition using cosine rule of triangles A1B0B1, β can be obtained using the equation below .................................. 3

...........................4 The thickness of a duplet t can be known using the Pythagoras’ theorem of triangles C 1A1D1. Other variables for the Nth duplet units can be known according to origin B0 of the system:


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.................................5

...................................... 6 for nth number of spans in the x-direction

....................................7 for nth number in the y-direction

3.

NOVEL DEPLOYABBLE BRIDGE STRUCTURE

Based on the above equations, a 3-dimensional deployable footbridge (5m long x 1.5m in width x 2m high) structure, has been modelled to meet the above equation for translational scissors units using the ANSYS workbench software as shown below.

Figure 8: 3-D model of Bridge model

Figure 9: Forces applied to structure

Static analysis of the structure was only carried out but thermal behaviour, wind vibration and other secondary effects on bridges were not considered. This is because the model is not intricate enough as analysis of the connections will be needed and more research is to be carried out to produce a three point connection that allows 1-degree of freedom. Loads calculated do not represent the exact loading conditions to be experienced by a footbridge but a preliminary interpretation of the performance of the pantograph structure and analysed in the deployed configuration. Using structural steel as the material, the design load (dead load and live load) was calculated to be 23.967kN/m and used for static structural analysis in ANSYS workbench on 3-D model. Rectangular steel hollow Steel section of 200 x 100 (Young’s modulus of 2e10

11

and Poisson ratio of 0.3) is prescribed

from preliminary member sizing calculation. Geometry, results and configuration from ANSYS analysis calculations can be seen from the following figure below.


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Figure 10: Total Deflection of Novel Deployable Bridge

4.

CONCLUSION AND FURTHER RESEARCH

The purpose of the work presented in this article is to develop a novel concept for deployable bar structures in disaster ravaged situations which is a variation from existing concepts. This will lead to an architectural, sustainable and structurally viable solution for deployable applications. Another objective was to provide designers with the means for deciding on how to cover a space or overcome barriers in a disaster with a rapidly erectable, deployable structure, based on the geometry of pantograph structures. It can be seen that from the static analysis of the pantograph bridge, the maximum deflection (11.958mm) is within acceptable safe limit (less than L/200 for steel beams Eurocode 3 Table NA.1). One clear characteristic of the geometry is that the scissors beams also serves as the girder as seen in conventional footbridges making it safer than other proposed bridge concepts. On this particular analysis, one concern is

the

weight

of

the

structure

of

1.61

tonnes.

This means that more research needs to be carried out for material and structural optimisation with the use of lighter materials such as aluminium and fibre reinforced plastics as deployable structure should be as light and foldable as possible. The number of deployable structures that have been built successfully are very few irrespective of its popularity and numerous advantages. A comprehensive understanding of its intrinsic design constraints, flaws and tolerances is imperative for successful deployment and folding. These issues may include shape of elements, type of material, deployment behaviour, joint connections, structural performance in deployed and folded states, dynamic performance in operation, life cycle analysis should be considered. As a result, deployable structure proposed in this article can be used in disaster scenarios worldwide and also sustainable.


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5. REFERENCES Muhammad

A.

(2012)

Plateau

State

flood

kills

33,

Assessed

on

January

10

2014

http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-19261581 Francis C. (2011), Flooding warnings: nearly 500,000 people may face significant flood risk’ http://www.telegraph.co.uk/earth/earthnews/8257445/Flood-warnings-nearly-500000-people-now-face-asignificant-flood-risk.html Assessed on January 10 2014 Dow, K. and Downing, T. E. (2006) The Atlas of Climate Change: Mapping the World’s Greatest Change. Brighton: Earthscan; pp. 64-67 Ed Ballard (2011), Britons Facing Floodwaters May be left without insurance, Aug 19, 2011. http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2011-08-18/britons-facing-rising-floodwaters-may-be-left-withoutinsurance.html Assessed on January 24th 2014. Kaveh, A & Davaran, A. (1996) Analysis of pantograph foldable structures. Computers & Structures, 59(1), 131-140. Kershi, J and Simon, R. (2005) The Essentials of the Environment. London: Hodder Arnold; pp 30 -39. Major Flood Disasters around Nigeria in 2012, http://premiumtimesng.com/slideshows/major-flooddisasters-around-nigeria-2012 Assessed on January 24th 2014. Nigerian flood kills 363 people and displaces 2.1 million 2012 – Agency. Assessed on January 10, 2014. http://in.reuters.com/article/2012/11/05/nigeria-floods-idINDEE8A40EH20121105 Ezema O. (2013) Flood menace in Nigeria: Plateau state disaster, Nigerian Institute of Civil Engineers NICE, Jos 03/03/2013 Assessed on January 10, 2014 http://www.nice-nigeria.org/component/jumi/newsin-full?id=123 Shah, A. (2013) “Climate Change and Global Warming Introduction.” Global Issues. 11 Nov. 2013. Web. 27 Jan. 2014. . Umweni, O. J. (2011) Folding Techniques of deployable structures using the pantograph system and the novel deployable cable chain structural systems as case studies (Masters Degree), University of Salford, Manchester, United Kingdom; pp.9.


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THE FUTURE OF URBAN SPACES: THE ROLE OF SUSTAINABLE URBANISM IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES JOB MOMOH N0464244 E-mail: [email protected] Keywords: Sustainable Urbanism, Sustainable Development, Urbanisation, Developing Worlds Abstract This document presents the information and Word instructions required to prepare a paper to be included in the proceedings of the First Annual Professional Research Practice Conference 2014. The world is urbanizing rapidly, with cities today concentrating more people than it is used to be prior to urbanization. It is extensively accepted that development and urbanization go hand in hand as the expansion of cities has resulted to both opportunities and challenges. Today it is estimated that more than half of the world's population resides in towns and cities. This population explosion has affected the development in urban areas. Between 2000 and 2015 it is stated that approximately one billion will be added in urban areas in contrast to 125 million who reside in rural areas. Such uncontrolled growth often results in the destruction of arable land vital food production, congestion, pollution, slums and shanty towns. This perspective brings a pressing reality to the necessity to build tomorrow’s world on sustainable principles. To achieve sustainable urbanism, the scale of urbanisation must be accepted and urban development processes guided and managed in a sustainable approach. Sustainable Urbanism, defined as ‘‘walkable and transit-served urbanism served with high buildings and high-performance infrastructure’’ (Farr, 2007) affects a range of developments. This linkage between urbanism and sustainable planning poses beneficial impact for communities and built environment realization. This research paper provides an opportunity to understudy these directions in context and examine how sustainable urbanism can be used in designing liveable future cities.

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The Future of Urban Spaces

1. INTRODUCTION The past 100years have seen a population explosion extraordinary in human history as a result of urbanization. In early 1900, only around 14% of the world’s population or about 200 million lived in cities. At the beginning of 21st century, 50% of people world-wide are city-dwellers and more than 70% of inhabitants of the EU. Most Europeans depends on the urban environment for their everyday living whereas in developing countries urban spaces is where most people strives to settle down and live in. Nevertheless, majority of future urban population increase will be in developing countries as all of this growth will occur in developing countries. Many people that do not reside in towns and cities are increasingly dependent on urban centres in relation to economic, social and political progress (UN-Habitat, 2002). In continents like America, Australia and Europe they have stabilized economy and population growth to a specific level while most countries in Asia, Latin America and Africa are on the verge of grappling the challenge of achieving a decent and adequate livelihood for their citizens. Most especially Africa where there is high rate of population growth, congestion, pollution, inadequate shelter, diseases, slums, high poverty rate and underdevelopment. The speedy rate in urbanization has resulted to lack of improvement in the national economy and welfare of the people. Instead the unmanageable, uncontrolled haphazard unplanned urban growth has caused serious socio economic, cultural and environmental issues (UNCHS, 2007; UNFPA, 2007). This figure below shows an extreme case of urbanization in Lagos Nigeria with an estimated populationof over 20 million people.

Figure 1: Extreme uncontrolled urbanisation in Lagos (Source: USAID's, 2013) Urban growth that is properly managed and controlled could lead to economic enhancement, reduced poverty as well as improve quality of life for every individual. But for planning strategies to be adopted we would have to consider possibilities of addressing this problems and challenges with a sustainable development agenda. The need for sustainability within the built environment has increased the concerns which have led to quite a number of global summits arranged at levels of governmental and international agencies (United Nations). Specific examples are the Brundtland UN report 1987, Millennium Development Goals summit, the 2002 World summit in Johannesburg South Africa and the 2005 LaHavana UN-Sustainable cities programme. The overall goal of each summit is to establish the need for effective governance as a measure in achieving sustainable development in cities and urban spaces (UNFPA, 2007; UN-Habitat, 2007). Without sustainable urbanisation, sustainable development cannot be achieved and without implementing sustainable urbanism as a planning policy other urban design policies might contradict achieving sustainability within the built environment. To achieve sustainable urbanism the scale of urbanisation must be accepted and urban development processes guided and managed in a sustainable approach. To further understand the current planning theory that can address this issues, sustainable urbanism will be defined to understand its implications and applications in current practices.

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2.

SUSTAINABLE URBANISM

The beginning of the 20th century gave rise to emerging planning principles that will address the need for a sustainable built environment for example sustainable urbanism. To define sustainable urbanism is to examine sustainability in relation to urban design. Urban design is derived from related matters such as planning and transportation policy, architectural design, development economics, landscape and engineering. In summary, urban design is about creating a vision for an area and then deploying the skills and resources to realise that vision (Davies, 2007). Sustainability on the other hand ensures that present generation can enjoy a satisfactory quality of life which aims to fulfil current needs without compromising the plans of the future generation. This principle is based on whole life cycle of the building materials, use of raw materials, renewable energy source, minimizing the materials, energy use, raw materials production and recycling of waste (Dominque, 2002; Slone,2008). Combining the two principles has resulted to “Sustainable Urbanism”, which can be defined as a walkable and transit-served urbanism integrated with high-performance buildings and high-performance infrastructure; where compactness (Density) and human access to nature (Biophilia) are core values and where aspects of sustainability, functionality and interconnectivity are more important than design (Farr, 2008). This definition focuses on the form based bias of the current architectural theories and practices for understanding sustainability. Sustainable urbanism is also imagined as a grand unification of architecture, city development and environmental design for a better way of life (Farr, 2007; Dominique, 2002). Sustainable urbanism combines the three main dimensions in sustainability by ensuring that urban spaces are environmentally aware, socially inclusive and economically productive. Most key areas that this theory adapts includes compact forms of residential expansion; mixed use housing, jobs, social services and proximity to retail outlets; also integration of transportation as well as land use and lastly sustainable drainage systems, reduction, re-use and recycling of waste materials. Sustainable Urbanism captivates attention to various opportunities to redesign the built environment in an approach that encourages a higher quality of life and promotes a healthy and sustainable environment (Farr, 2008; Smallwood, 2007). Developed worlds has successfully implemented sustainable urbanism in projects using this theory as a platform in the design and planning of infrastructure key examples are Dockside Green Victoria, British Columbia (Canada), Upton, Northampton (England) and Dongtan, Shanghai, (China).

3.

UPTON NORTHAMPTON UNITED KINGDOM (PILOT CASE STUDY)

3.1

An Overview and background of the Case study project

Population and employment growth has been the main reason why the regional spatial strategy for the east midland has suggested Northampton as a potential region for economic growth. The government’s sustainable communities plan “Sustainable Communities; building for the Future” highlighted Northampton within the Milton Keynes and South Midland growth area. Upton is a sustainable urban extension which is intended to promote good designs and development practices for developers and house designers (ADS,2011). Upton urban development project is a combination of new innovative green building technologies to build forms form embedded in the traditional English countryside. It is stated that about eight phases of the project embrace traditional architecture more than other contemporary architectural designs, even the modern phases integrates touches such as old-world masonry (Farr, 2008). Upton is located amongst the South West borough and is a planned urban extension to the town. It is located between the existing town edge and the highway. The initial plan aims to create 5000 new 2 homes, 280000m of industrial area, a country park open space and other complementary facilities. From inception the site was a farmland but was later acquired by Northampton development cooperation then it was transferred to the commission for Newtown in 1985. But it is now under the management of English partnership which is the government’s national regeneration agency. In 1997 Upton was given a planning permission to develop the following projects 1020 homes, primary schools, Local centre and retail spaces, medical centre, nursery and community facilities (English Partnership, 2005; EST, 2006). A group of consultant agency called EDAW was in charge of supporting the realisations of the new community (English Partnership, 2005). The use of enquiry by design (EBD) and design codes showcases how the partners where able to carry out a viable design process working together with a range of local stakeholder and professionals. The enquiry by design generated a draft master plan for the

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site (Farr,2008). This scheme created a number of features which have been integrated into the master plan which includes 3.2

Projects Highlights/Threshold and Benchmarks 

22 percent housing units are permanently affordable achieving social sustainability



Diverse dwelling types, critical Mass, mix of uses and tenure mix



All homes should meet BREEM Eco homes excellent standards and enhance Local Ecology



Mini-wind Turbines



Local retail shopping centres, medical centre, schools, day care centre



Flexible building designs to reflect local character and styles



Innovative sustainable urban drainage systems and techniques



Every site should initiate or showcase different sustainable technologies



Twice hourly bus service (Farr, 2008)

3.3

Learning outcomes from the practice to date

The Upton urban extension project has been able to achieve the adaptation of green sustainable technologies in a mainstream construction industry. The urban scheme sets a new benchmark in the development of large scale housing projects, giving investors and developers an opportunity to create and envision sustainable communities, energy efficient homes with a mix of modern and traditional architecture (EST, 2006; English Partnership, 2005). ''English Partnerships have used these codes to develop a framework for the public sector, highlighting its potentials for sustainable housing'' (EST,2006 pg.7). The application of design codes helps to create discussions between developers and design team likewise developers and decisions makers. In overall context design codes have been a vital element in accomplishing the sustainability standards required on the urban extension. 3.4

Reasons for its Recognition as best practise by ADS (Architecture and Design Scotland)

The case study has created a best practice status which has been recognized and supported by vast literatures from CABE, energy saving trust, Doug Farr Sustainable Urbanism Urban Design with Nature), Architecture and Design Scotland, Northampton University and so on. The major parameters that has made this successful includes Key Successes 



The initiation of SUD's system to combat flooding has enhanced the urban street form and created play spaces for kids and also provided a clear evidence of increased biodiversity all over the development area which has been researched on by Dr Janet Jackson. Upton has been very successful with the use of participative and engagement led design (Enquiry-by-design). With the collaborative efforts from the prince foundation and EDAW the developed the project using two EDB workshops.



Incorporating range of mix uses and the integration of primary school, community halls and other facilities has created a strong sense of place with regional identity and enhancing community spirit seen in the open spaces, parks and community centres.



About 22% of the buildings are used under tenure system achieving affordably housing



The building achieved a minimum of code three of the BREEAM excellent standards

This figure below shows a composition of various pictures across the site.

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Figure 2: Collage of Case Study, Upton Northampton (Source: Author) 3.5

Barriers and Remaining Challenges

Economic and Government Changes: The project was affected by the start of the recession and by significant changes in government policy (English Partnership, 2005; Noel, 2013). Adherence to the design code: Prince Foundation had a strong responsibility during the Enquiry by Design Phase in comparison to the latter phase. They had strong influence both in the steering group and working group and had an architect in place which coordinated the group. The codes promotes a mixture of architectural expression but only time will tell if the cut down the adherence to the broader interpretation of the code to generate the quality of sense of place although. So far the codes had to be rewritten again to bring in more developers (English Partnership, 2005; Noel, 2013). Social Integration: The parking behind courts at Upton has resulted to the adding gates to the entrances to create a sense of security to the home owners., hence reducing integration between dwellings within the neighbourhood (Noel, 2013).

4.

CONCLUSION

In Developed worlds the perception we have in relation to sustainability is gradually emerging although very little aspects of sustainability has been considered in the planning and design of the built environment. This project was successful in initiating sustainable urbanism and the potential result will be explored as a new trend in developing worlds. The major aim of sustainable urban development is to develop a city that is ‘‘user friendly’’ and resourceful in its relations not only form (design) and energy efficiency, but also its function in regards to a place for living (Eikin et al,1991, p.12) In overall view of the case study the design approach used in Upton generates a more sustainable development in the housing sector that incorporates creative technologies and sustainable interventions. The use of design codes is voluntary although most codes tested are in its trial stage, the use of this mechanism by local authorities can raise standards on all developments. Landowners such as English Partnerships are encouraging developers to incorporate these standards by creating optimization to land values. Other project showcasing the use of sustainable urbanism and design codes are now in construction and will provide further lessons for planners, developers and general public. These lessons will be transferred and tested in developing countries.

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REFERENCES Adhya Anirban, Plowright Philip and Stevens Jim, (2010). ‘‘Defining sustainable urbanism: Towards a responsive urban design’’. Proceeding of the conference on sustainability and the built environment, King Saud University, Saudi Arabia January 3-6, 2010 Architecture + Design Scotland (2011) Upton, ‘’Northampton, England Delivering Better Places: Visual Case Study’’. www.ads.org.uk Cook Mitchell (2010), “Towards a Sustainable Urbanism: Globalization, Urban Planning and New Urban Reality” Davies Llewelyn (2007). “Urban Design Compendium 1” Published by English Partnerships and the Housing Corporation. Dominique Gauzin-Müller, (2002). ‘‘Sustainable architecture and urbanism: concepts, technologies, examples’’.Birkhauser-Publishers of Architecture Bertelsmann Springer Publishing group. Eikin,T., McLaren,D. Hillman,M. (1991) ‘’Reviving the City: Towards Sustainable Urban Developmen’’t, Friends of the Earth, London. Eisen, Joel, (1995) “Toward a sustainable urbanism: lessons from federal regulation of urban storm water” Washington University Journal of Urban and Contemporary LawSummer, 199548 Wash. U. J. Urb. & Contemp. L. 1 English Partnership (2005). Upton Design Code March 2005 Version 2 Farr, D. (2008): ‘‘Sustainable Urbanism. Urban Design with Nature’’. Farr Associates. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey, 2008. Gauzin-Muller Dominique (2002) Sustainable Architecture and Urbanism: Concepts, Technologies and Examples Published by the Bertelsmann Springer Publishing Group Jacobs Jane (1961) ‘‘The Death and Life of American Cities’’ Newyork: Random House, 1961. Noel Isherwood (2013)'' Upton Case-Study'' http:/www.regenwales.org/upload/pdf/110413104138Upton%20Case%20Study.pdf visited 06/02/2014 Slone. D and Goldstein,D.S (2008) ‘‘The Legal guide to Urban and Sustainable Development for Planners, Developers and Architects’’ Published by John Wiley and Sons. Inc, Hoboken New-Jersey. Smallwood Christopher (2007) ‘‘Valuing Sustainable Urbanism’’ The Prince Foundation for the built environment. Printed by the Prince Foundation London United Kingdom United Nations Centre for Human Development (UNHabitat), 23 December 2008 . UN-Habitat, (2007). Milestones in the evolution of human settlements policies. 1976-2006. State of the world cities. Report 2006/2007. The MDGs and urban sustainability. 30 years of shaping the Habitat Agenda. UK. Earthscan UNFPA, (2007). State of the World Population 2007, Unleashing the Potential of Urban Growth, New York. United Nation Population Fund

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HOW IS CONTEXT BIASING IN VERB PROCESSING AFFECTED BY RELATIONAL INFORMATION? ALEX DAY N0218170 [email protected] Keywords: Language, Regular-Verbs, Irregular-Verbs, Dual-Route, Single-Route Abstract Within recent decades, the past-tense production of English verbs has been heavily debated, leading to the development of several prominent accounts of verb processing which seek to systematise the procedures which deal with the production of different verb types. Modern research into verb processing is predominantly informed by two distinct theories. The first of these, the ‘dual-route’ theory, posits the existence of two separate pathways, the ‘word’ and ‘rule’ pathways, which deal differentially with the production of the past-tense forms of regular and irregular verbs (Pinker & Ullman, 2002: 456). It is hypothesised that the ‘word’ pathway deals with the production of irregularly inflected verbs and generates target verbs by matching the full lexical form of the present-tense verb against the corresponding pasttense entry in the mental lexicon. Contrasting this, regular verbs follow predictable, rule-based patterns (jump–jumped) and, because of this, it is hypothesised that the ‘rule’ pathway takes present-tense regular verbs and breaks them down into constituent stems whilst adding a past-tense allomorph (the different phonological endings /d/, /Id/, or /t/) in order to form a regularly inflected past-tense form (Shapiro & Caramazza, 2003: 1193). If regular verbs are formed by a mechanism influenced by sound patterns, requiring individual motor-planning skills, it stands to reason that a process should be embedded as a subroutine in the generation of regular past-tense forms which differentiates between these forms. My research project aims to determine whether the dual-mechanism supportive, contextual bias of regular or irregular verbs is affected by the presence of factors associated with single-route, or connectionist, models such as orthographic, phonological, or semantic relations. Subsequently, I hope to determine what circumstances lead to the preferential activation of such features over dual-route constraints and how the effects of these features could be accounted for by current understandings of dual-route and single-route theories.

Alex Day

52

How is context biasing in verb processing affected by relational information?

1.

INTRODUCTION

1.1 The field of linguistics The field of linguistics is one that encompasses, and infringes upon, a number of domains: biology, child development, cognition, neurology, and psychology. As such, the broad term ‘linguistics’ sits between and links together both areas of scientific study and those occurring within more humanitiesbased backgrounds. Subfields of research including biological analysis, in terms of organ development, child and adult language acquisition, neurological analysis in terms of chemical limitations on language processing, and psychological processing in terms of abstract representations of language organisational models, are mutually informed by each other, despite relying on a wide variety of methods of analysis. For instance, child and adult language acquisition are usually associated with the analysis of language productivity based on performance over a period of time. Neurological analyses using CAT, fMRI and MRI scanning technologies focus on the analysis of specific brain regions in correspondence with language use. Psychological examinations usually test language productivity by performing structured language tests. Although experiments within these disciplines can vary and are not necessarily restricted by specific discipline boundaries, evidence from such studies is usually more effectively backed up by data gathered from similar experimental procedures. My background and rationale is heavily informed by biological and neurological analyses of language processing, as too is the basis for the topic I am currently researching. However, the methodology I am using for my examinations is better associated with psychological analyses and therefore is aiming to cross a boundary within the often separated fields of linguistic analyses. The generation of new and improved data can be effectively created by the supplementation of different experimental techniques from these otherwise separated disciplines. Performing an interdisciplinary approach such as this, one that is informed by often divided areas of research, allows researchers to explore new methods of analyses whilst keeping them grounded in a frame of reference situated between two, or more, areas of study which have a wealth of experimental data for cross comparison.

2.

CONTEXT

2.1 The dual-route theory The ‘dual-route’ theory posits the existence of two separate pathways, the ‘word’ and ‘rule’ pathways, which deal differentially with the production of the past-tense forms of regular and irregular verbs (Pinker & Ullman, 2002: 456). While regular verbs follow predictable, rule-based patterns and rely on the addition of a past-tense allomorph in order to form the past-tense (Shapiro & Caramazza, 2003: 1193), the fact that irregular verbs have unpredictable endings and core elements of their structure undergo alteration during tense transformation (think–thought), it is suspected that irregular forms are acquired and stored as individual entities with the addition of a grammatical feature, such as a ‘past-tense indicator’, incorporated into their lexical entries (Ullman & Pierpont, 2005: 417). 2.2 The single-route theory ‘Single-route’ theories typically assert that a single, integrated mechanism, which processes the combined activation of orthographic, phonological and semantic elements, is capable of generating both regular and irregular verb forms (McClelland & Patterson, 2002: 466). Factors influencing this activation include orthographic priming (i.e., talk priming talked, talk-, -ed, walked, walk-, etc.), phonological priming (i.e., bait priming mate, straight, weight), and semantic priming (i.e., walk priming related forms such as jog, run, sprint) (Seidenberg & McClelland, 1989: 526). Differences in word class processing are hypothesised to be affected by factors such as age of acquisition (Davidoff & Masterson, 1996: 69), imageability (Vigliocco et al., 2011: 411) and strength of semantic relation (Taylor & Regard, 2003: 257). Instances of research into this area primarily focus on child language acquisition and developmental studies (Mätzig et al., 2009: 739), as well as neurological studies relying on the use of fMRI scanning (Del Missier & Crescentini, 2011: 46). While it is believed that word organisation is initially organised in terms of Alex Day

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phonological properties, developmental studies demonstrate that conceptual and semantic organisation becomes more efficient with age (Mätzig et al., 2009: 739). 2.3 Evidence to support the dual-route theory Although authors such as Cohen-Shikora and Balota (2013) have attempted to demonstrate that the effects of verb processing are influenced by dual-route constraints within the processing of normally functioning brains (Cohen-Shikora & Balota, 2013: 397), the greatest amount of data supporting dual-route theories comes from the analysis of patients suffering from disorders affecting the brain (Miozzo, 2003: 101) and, more recently, neurophysiological data (Bakker et al., 2013: 194). It has been argued that grammatical class is centred around the organisational principle that different categories of lexical items are located within different areas of the brain and are likely to be subserved by separate, dedicated neural processors (Shapiro & Caramazza, 2003: 1189). Such an assumption is strengthened by the occurrence of double dissociations in aphasic patients who suffer impairment confined to one grammatical class whilst others remain unhindered (Vinson & Vigliocco, 2002: 318). Research into the verb processing capabilities of patients suffering from a range of disorders from cerebrovascular accidents to neurodegenerative diseases (Ulatowska, 1985: 55) have shown dissociations between the processing of the two verb forms which appear to universally exist amongst patients with comparable disorders. Lesion studies generally indicate that damage to the left frontal/parietal areas causes verb-specific deficits, such as the omission, or misuse of, inflectional morphemes bound to regular verbs (Shapiro & Caramazza, 2003: 1189), whilst left temporal damage causes noun-specific impairments (Del Missier & Crescentini, 2011: 46). Noun-verb priming has been rigorously performed in order to determine the accuracy and speed of verb generation after producing a stimulus noun (De Diego-Balaguer et al., 2005: 313) but less commonly in terms of investigating the effects of long-term priming or spreading activation after filler-gap constructions (Ferretti et al., 2007: 188). Verb priming studies are used in order to determine the accuracy and speed of verb generation after exposure to specific stimuli (De Diego-Balaguer et al., 2005: 313). Cohen-Shikora and Balota’s (2013) methodology alters this format in order to promote dual-route theories by biasing the pathways test subjects use to generate either regular or irregular verbs before attempting to elicit the opposite verb type in order to provoke latency in verb production or incorrect word formation (Cohen-Shikora & Balota, 2013: 397). The occurrence of latency when alternating between the verb types would indicate the supplementation of dual-route processing, and imply that biasing either the ‘rule’ or ‘word’ pathways activation levels would cause inappropriate verb generation of the alternate verb form. 2.4 Rationale Cohen-Shikora and Balota (2013) demonstrate that, within a regular context (a set of verbs predominantly containing regular verb stimuli with irregular verb targets) the conjugation of a regular verb is faster than an irregular verb and vice versa: irregular verbs were also subject to the greatest number of production errors due to regularisations of verb endings (Cohen-Shikora & Balota, 2013: 397). By demonstrating that the past-tense production of verbs can be biased by the regularity of verb cues, causing the detrimental processing of irregular verb targets, Cohen-Shikora and Balota (2013) provide evidence supporting the theory that lexical processing is influenced by dual-route constraints. They reasoned that, from a dual-route perspective, non-words with, or without, ‘-ed’ endings are unlikely to be processed as a ‘word + stem’ and are thus unlikely to engage the past tense pathway and, similarly, are less likely to engage phonological priming (Cohen-Shikora & Balota, 2013: 400). Despite the fact the results of the experiment provided evidence of a regularity effect, the data created by this experiment is flawed due to the fact that it measures one factor, target generation speed, whilst relying on the subject to perform two distinct actions: a lexical decision task when attempting to determine whether the stimulus word is real, and secondly, either of the distinct actions of production or transformation of target forms. Additionally, the fact that the words used in Cohen-Shikora & Balota’s (2013) initial study were not necessarily devoid of morphological, orthographic, phonological or semantic relation means that the results could be influenced by relational factors associated with single-route processing.

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3.

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Evidence to support the dual-route theory I believe it is important to expand and test the aforementioned models’ ability to deal with the processing of stimuli associated with single-route processing models. I will perform four variations of their methodology utilising cues with morphological, phonological and semantic relations, as well as crosscomparing the responses generated by the presentation of both regular and irregular stimuli, in order to determine how stimuli with specific assemblage requirements can influence regular target production. My first study will focus on the ability of participants to produce past-tense forms of regular, present-tense verbs, after the presentation of stimulus which contains either morphological, phonological, or morphophonological relations. The 25 participants gathered for this study (48% male, 52% female) are undergraduate students at Nottingham Trent University, aged between 18-25, all native English speakers, who applied to perform the study through a university “course credit scheme”. My second study will focus on the transformation of both regular and irregular forms sequentially which will allow me to test the paradigm, often demonstrated through neurological data: that distinct areas of the brain, or mechanisms, deal with these forms individually. By performing tasks using this format, I will be taking the operations usually performed in order to exemplify the conceptual operations demonstrated within single-route access theories and adapting them to a comparable format for the analysis of dual-route theories. This step will allow me to bridge the gap between research methods utilised in traditional connectionist approaches which are enforced by data of this nature (Ferretti et al., 2007: 188) as opposed to dual-route theories traditional reliance of data collected from the biological and neurological instances of linguistic research.

4.

DISCUSSION

4.1 Expectancies of results While such occurrences highlight extreme examples of verb processing deficiencies, it remains uncertain as to whether my current research will need to be fine tuned to replicate like-data with normal subjects or whether it is possible to achieve such data. Without the development of results strongly supporting dual-route processing prominence, such as a neutral effect of single-route associated stimuli on the processing of both regular and irregular verb forms, arguments could be made to suggest that single-route methods making use of additional phonological unit processing could garner similar results by mapping between past and present-tense forms based on the influence of shared semantic features. However, such methods have been described as complicated ways of trying to incorporate dual-route supportive constraints, such as those which attempt to explain selective verb impairment, into single-route processing models (Miozzo, 2003: 101). Based on the dual-route theory, the exposure to feature relations between words should not interfere with the production of past-tense verbs because their production is determined by unique processing pathways which deal explicitly with verb-specific transformations. Similarly, priming verbs with particular morphological constructions should incur either beneficial or detrimental processing rates. Results following this trend would allow us to begin to hypothesise how and why factors, such as phonological relation, are superseded by rule-governed or word-to-word assemblage methods. This occurrence would help to tie together psychological and neurological accounts of language generation and allow us to begin to evaluate how abstract language constructs can be grounded in physical instances of processing.

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5.

REFERENCES

Bakker, I., MacGregor, L. J., Pulvermüller, F., and Shtyrov, Y. (2013). ‘Past tense in the brain’s time: Neurophysiological evidence for dual-route processing of past-tense verbs’. NeuroImage, 71 (1), 187–195. Cohen-Shikora, E. R., and Balota, D. A. (2013). ‘Past tense route priming’. Cognition, 126 (3), 397–404. Davidoff, J., and Masterson, J. (1996). ‘The development of picture naming: Differences between verbs and nouns’. Journal of Neurolinguistics, 9 (2), 69–83. De Diego Balaguer, R., Sebastián-Gallés, N., Díaz, B., and Rodríguez-Fornells, A. (2005). ‘Morphological processing in early bilinguals: An ERP study of regular and irregular verb processing’. Cognitive Brain Research, 25 (1), 213–327. Ferretti, T. R., Kutas, M., and McRae, K. (2007). ‘Verb Aspect and the Activation of Event Knowledge’. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 33 (1), 182–196. Joanisse, M .F., and Seidenberg, M. S. (1999). ‘Impairments in verb morphology after brain injury: A connectionist model’. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 96 (13), 7592–7597. McClelland, J. L., and Patterson, K. (2002). ‘Rules or connections in past-tense inflections: what does the evidence rule out?’ Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 6 (11), 465–472. Miozzo, M. (2003). ‘On the processing of regular and irregular forms of verbs and nouns: evidence from neuropsychology’. Cognition, 87 (2), 101–127. Pinker, S. & Ullman, M. T. (2002). ’The past and future of the past tense’. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 6 (11), 456–463. Seidenberg, M. S., and McClelland, J. L. (1989). ‘A Distributed, Developmental Model of Word Recognition and Naming’. Psychological Review, 96 (4), 523–568. Shapiro, K., and Caramazza, A. (2003). ‘Grammatical processing of nouns and verbs in left frontal cortex?’ Neuropsychologia, 41 (9), 1189–1198. Ulatowska, H. K. (1985). The aging brain: communication in the elderly. London: Taylor & Francis. Ullman, M. T., and Pierpont, E. I. (2005). ‘Specific Language Impairment is not Specific to Language: the Procedural Deficit Hypothesis’. Cortex, 41 (3), 399–433. Vigliocco, G., Vinson, D. P., Druks, J., Barber, H., and Cappa, S. F. (2011). ‘Nouns and verbs in the brain: A review of behavioural, electrophysiological, neuropsychological and imaging studies’. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 35 (3), 407–426

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SOCIAL SUSTAINABILITY: A TOOL FOR URBAN DEVELOPMENT AND PRACTICE IN ABUJA, NIGERIA

Segun A. Ogunsola N0454348 Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham UK, Email: [email protected] Keywords: Urban development, social sustainability, urban divide and segregation, spatial form

ABSTRACT In every city, there is much more to explore than what the eyes can see, and the ears can hear. Cities are observed from many viewpoints due to with various ideologies from diverse individuals, groups or institutions; being symbolic of a complex society. In the last 25 years, global sustainable urban development has also become a key theme for many urban development initiatives, most significantly towards finding lasting solutions to numerous challenges which emerged as a result of the world becoming preponderantly urban. However, this paper argues that such concepts of development must be people and community oriented, in relation to economic, environmental and social systems and there should be a constant interaction and integration if the community is to function to the benefit of its inhabitants. Every city or community must be understood beyond its physical form, its inhabitants must be granted the highest priority in- terms of physical planning, participation, well-being, quality of life, liveability, equity and justice. The current urban development situation in developing countries calls for major concern with a particular focus on Nigeria’s capital city of Abuja, a city presently experiencing the lack of social sustainability in urban development. Abuja is experiencing master plan distortion, inequality in the share of infrastructure and services, urban divide and segregation, gentrification and lack of participation, empowerment and access in the developmental planning. However, in response to the urban planning and development practice agenda, there is an important need to integrate the physical and social design of the community, as the physical and environmental components alone cannot achieve a sustainable community.

Segun Ogunsola 2011 (PGR)

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Social Sustainability: A Tool For Urban Development And Practice In Abuja, Nigeria

INTRODUCTION Cities are a locus of human diversity, where people varying in culture, wealth and status share an association within a particular urban boundary. Despite the common geography and sharp social divisions which characterize many cities, high levels of urban and environmental problems bear witness to the difficult challenges of creating socially cohesive and inclusive cities. However, some cities have been more successful than others in creating environment that are conducive to the cohabitation of a diverse population, which can be attributed to factors such as policies, institutions, planning and social processes which have effect on integrating diverse groups and cultural practices (Polèse & Stren, 2000: 4-6).Urban developmental process and practice in many cities across the world tend to give more attention and focus on the physical and economic spheres in their development without considering the link that stimulate economic activities, environmental improvement, social interaction and cultural vitality. This conference paper focuses on the social sustainability oriented approach to urban development and practice, with the concept of “community and neighbourhood” space being the focal point for the delivery of sustainable urban development. Recently, social sustainability has gained increased recognition as a fundamental component of sustainable development especially in developed countries. It has also received political and institutional endorsement, becoming a vibrant issue with many sustainable development agendas and urban regeneration discourse. However, reverse is the case in developing countries especially Africa, with many cities growing rapidly without effective environmental consciousness and long- term sustainable urban development agenda. This simply means that virtually every urban centres in Africa ranging from large cities to metropolitan areas to small towns and a substantial proportion of the population, are at risk of both natural and human induced hazards. Many of these urban areas have fully-fledged and deteriorated rapidly into informal settlement often referred to as slums. Various city stakeholders and government administrations have failed to tackle the problems of urban decay being unable to cater for all the affected parties. This has resulted in many negative outcome including destruction of existing social and community networks (Couch, 1990). Most developed nations in Europe and America have risen to these urban challenges through approaches and strategies being undertaken on the actualization of a more socially sustainable urban development demonstrated through the signing of the “Leipzig Charter on Sustainable European Cities” in May (2007) by 27 European Ministers with an agreed common principle and strategies on urban developmental challenges related to social exclusion, structural change, climate change and mobility (European Parliament, 2007). These ideas and strategies on urban development for integrated area based developmental initiatives, with the combination of economic, social, cultural and environmental aspects being managed through partnership with strong civic and institutional involvement (European Parliament, 2007). Despite these recent commitments in the more developed countries concerning policies and practices of urban development, the understanding of the social dimension of sustainable urban development is still very much limited in developing countries especially in African cities in terms of both assessment and measurement. Identifying a clear need for further research on social sustainability in African cities, with a particular focus on Nigeria’s capital city Abuja. Sustainability and Global Urbanization For the very first time in human history and existence, the world’s population will reside in cities and urban centres with the strongest growth evolving in developing countries of the world (UN, 2007). According to (UN, 2010), some 50% of the world’s population of 3.5 billion live in cities across the globe, and between now and 2025, the world‘s population is expected to increase by 8.4% to about 6.3billion with megacities (settlement with population exceeding 10million) across the world to increase from 21 in 2011 to about 29 in 2025.


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Fig 1: Urban Growth in some of the world largest cities 1950-2020. The Sub-Saharan African Case Population growth in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) seems to be growing more than any other region across the world. The massive population explosion and climate change are speeding up the region’s urban developmental challenges and environmental degradation with its population on the increase from 1 billion to 2.5 billion by 2050 (Mutunga et al, 2012, UN, 2010). However, recent study by the African Institute for Development Policies has shown that despite the strong link between population and sustainable urban development, not much attention has been given to the issue of rapid urbanization and its impacts; which are not also considered as a major priority in the broader development policies and strategies in this part of the world. Researchers such as (Mutunga et al, 2012), have also argued that the inability of many cities in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) to tackle this current global urban challenge can be attributed to;     

Weak coordination and governance mechanism Conflicting policies among various government institutions and structures The lack of technical capacity in government agencies to induce change and achieve developmental goals and design integrated programs Inadequate or lack of funding for the development and implementation of integrated programmes. Lack of collaboration between various stakeholders such as government institutions and private societies, professionals and organisations in achieving an inclusive sustainable society.

A major setback experienced by many African cities is the inability to cope with the rise in the population in relation with the existing infrastructures and the unequal distribution of services and amenities. According to CNN report in August 2012, in Nigeria’s commercial metropolitan Lagos, there are 20,000 people per square kilometre and about 3000 people migrate into the city on a daily basis from within and outside the shores of Nigeria without leaving. This “astronomical growth” experienced in Lagos can be attributed to social-economic advancement without much importance attached to the physical planning by the authorities. However, these has left the Lagos (one of the world’s most crowded city) with about 70 % of its entire population living in informal settlements and slums with many urban developmental challenges ranging from lack of access to basic infrastructure and urban services (Vladimir & Kermeliotis, 2012).


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Fig 3: Informal Settlement and Slum Generation in Lagos, Nigeria. Principles of Sustainability Every community or society, the quality, quantity and balance of their concerns is unique and constantly changing, for this reason sustainability is mostly observed in terms of local actions and decisions which affect the people directly (Hall- smith, 2005). For urban sustainability agenda to be achieved as mention in both Rio and Johannesburg summit of 1992 and 2002, the following has to be considered: 1.

2.

3.

4.

The quality of life for every residence: Supports the effective liveability of human settlement which ranges from access to affordable housing, quality infrastructures and neighbourhood amenities, creating an attractive, safe and well managed urban environment. Each society or community must define and plan the quality of life it desires and believes it can achieve it for the present and sustain it for future generations. Promote social and intergenerational equity: All community resources and opportunities must be available to everyone regardless of their ethnicity, age, gender and religion. Maximizing every individual’s access to the skills and knowledge needed to play a full part of the society, by not depleting its resources and passing along unnecessary hazards to its future generation. Protect and enhance the quality of the environment: The quality of the environment can be influenced negatively by variety of factors such as pollution, badly managed sanitary services, littering, overcrowding and hostile or bad quality building. Such environment impacts negatively on its residents as they are likely to feel a loss of pride of belonging, sense of place and ownership of the environment and are therefore less likely to act on the environmental challenges (Plessis, 1999: 36). Consensus and inclusive participatory process: This is essential in community sustainability due to the fact that it is the process which should engage and represent all individuals who have a stake in the outcome of the decision being contemplated. This encourages the identification of concerns and challenges, promotes the wide generation of ideas for dealing with those concerns and also helps in reaching a consensus agreement towards the solution (Liveable Communities Initiative, 2000).

Social Sustainability Process Social sustainability concerns how individuals, communities and societies live with the aim of achieving the objectives of development models which they have ear-marked for themselves, also taking into account the physical boundaries of the place in which they exist (Colantonio & Dixon, 2009). Social sustainability on a more practical and operational level, focuses on actions from key thematic areas which encompass the social realm of individuals and societies, ranging from capacity building, skills


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development and spatial inequality. In addition, social sustainability also blends traditional social policy areas and principles through the following         

Equity and justice Participation, democratic, empowerment and access Needs and wants Social capital and the economy Employment Housing and environmental health Social integration and cohesion Well-being, quality of life and liveability Preservation of cultural and biological heritage ( Hancock, 1993)

RIEVELO Fig 4: Achieving Social Sustainability as a collective process. Social Sustainability in Nigerian Cities Today’s Nigerian city, according to Mabogunje (2002) is typified by substandard and inadequate housing, slums, lack of infrastructures and services, transportation problems, poverty, urban segregation and disintegration, urban inequality and gentrification and many other challenges that infringe on urban development. Urban development challenges in relation to social sustainability in Nigerian cities could be viewed from socio-economic, political, and environmental perspective. Aina (1990) described the urban developmental challenges in Nigerian cities as evidence from the inability to adequately manage the cities even as their population continue to increase resulting in the proliferation of slums and informal peri urban development otherwise known as shantytowns. However it is important to note, that this case of urban menace does not apply to every neighbourhood in Nigerian cities, while the majority live in a very unhealthy and hazardous environment; some have adequate and more than enough services and infrastructures provided to ensure a quality life. The idea of separation of some certain groups within the urban space seems to be on the increase in African cities most importantly in the case of Nigeria with a larger concentration of a social group in a certain city area. Social Sustainability in Abuja (Study Area) Abuja city was created with the concept of “equal citizenship”, which provides a sense of place for every Nigerian in respective of their tribe and status in the society, creating a city that would integrate and serve as a symbol of unity and greatness with sustainable urban development as its watchword (Jubril, 2006). The city of Abuja today is growing with two main types of contrasting development in the same city, one which is characterized by large, peri-urban areas with informal and illegal patterns of land use facilities and basic amenities. Examples of such neighbourhoods are Lugbe, Karu, Yanya with little or


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no adequate infrastructures and can be described as an unhealthy and hazardous environment (Okoye, 2013).While the other form of suburban sprawl like Maitama, Asokoro, Gwarimpa in the same city are residential zones for high and middle class groups with highly valued real estates and retail complex that

is well connected to its residence with more than enough public infrastructure to support the wellbeing of its resident(Okoye, 2013). However, a society cannot be termed sustainable and harmonious if a large of its population are deprived and marginalized while very minute section lives in opulence (UN HABITAT, 2008/2009).

Fig 6: Complete contrast in the neighbourhood character in Abuja, Nigeria The study of sustainable urban development and practice beckons on the role of the state and institutions in developmental practice in creating more than just a geographic space, but one that link the economic, social and political fabric of the city while ensuring a more balanced society (Pugh, 2000 :2). Conclusion The current urban challenges in the city of Abuja and the inability to provide an effective liveability for human settlements ranging from affordable housing, public infrastructures and services for every citizen and also promote social and intergenerational equity. Investigation also show from the empirical process that a larger percentage of the urban resident of Abuja such as neighbourhoods of Chika, Paduma, Lugbe are condemned to an unhealthy and unpleasant neighbourhood, urban segregation, eviction and lack of an inclusive and participatory process. These can also be attributed to the inability of the government to plan and engage in an envision process with consideration of human progress and needs from a long-term perspective for all interest group in the society. However, the connection between an urban space and its occupants cannot be overemphasised as social sustainability needs to be brought to the localities in Abuja city where communal and physical interaction occurs with the development of a framework that would enhance the social sustainability culture and also develop an assessment tool for its measurement. REFERENCES Aina T., 1990. “The Shanty Town Economy”, Third World Industrialization: Reappraisals and Perspectives Uppsala: Ord & Form. Couch C. (1990) Urban Renewal Theory and Practice, London: Macmillan Education Ltd. Colantorio A., Dixon T., 2009. Measuring Socially Sustainable Urban Regeneration in Europe. Oxford Institute For Sustainable Development (OISD), School of the Built Environment Oxford Brookes University.


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European Parliament, 2007. The Possibilities For Sustainable Community Approach and Its Implementation, European Study Directorate-General for Internal Policy Department. Hancock Trevor 1993. Social Sustainability. Social Sustainability. http://newcity.ca/pages/social sustainability.html. Hallsmith, G. 2005. The Key to Sustainable Cities: meeting human needs, transforming community systems. Gabrioala Island, BC: New Society Publisher. Hancock T., 1993. “Social Sustainability”. Founding Member of the Canadian Green Party and Principal Exponent of the Healthy Communities Movement in North America. http://newcity.ca/page/social sustainability.html Jibril, U. (2006) Resettlement issues, Squatter Settlement and Problems of Land Administration in Abuja, Nigeria. Liveable Community Initiative, 2000. Principle of Sustainability. Colorado Education. Publication. www.colorado.edu/hazard/publication. Mabogunje A., 2002. Re-constructing the Nigerian City: The New Policy on Urban Development and Housing, Paper Presented at a National Conference on the City in Nigeria, Ile- Ife 2002. Mutunga C, Zulu E.,Souza R. 2012. Population Dynamics Climate Change and Sustainable Development in Africa. African Institute for Development Policy.:6 Okoye C., 2013. Urbanization and Developing Sustainable Cities: Abuja a Case Study. Global Environmental Issues. Plessis C., 1999. The Links Between Crime Prevention and Sustainable Development, Open House International, Vol.24 No. 1, 1999. London, Development Planning Unit, UCL, Pages 33-40 Polèse M., Stren R., 2000. The Social Sustainability of Cities: Diversity and the Management of Change.:vii Pugh C., 2000. Sustainable Cities in Developing Countries : Theory and Practice at the Millennium. London: Earthscan Publication Ltd. UN-Habitat, 2007. Sustainable Cities Programme: History and Context. Retrieved From :http://www.unhabitat.org/programmes/sustainabilities/history.asp UN Habitat, 2008. States of the World’s Harmonious Cities 2008/2009. London: Published by Earth scan. th

UNDP, 2010. Human Development Report 2010. 20 Anniversary Edition. The Real Wealth of Nations: Pathway to Human Development, UNDP. New-York Vladimir D., Kermeliotis T., 2012. Lagos of the Future: Megacity’s Ambitious Plans. CNN Report August 22, 2012 (Market Place Africa)edition.cnn.com/2012/08/22/business/lagos-urbanizationregeneration-infrastructure.


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CROSSING DISCIPLINARY BOUNDARIES


FASHIONING AGE: INTERPRETATIVE PHENOMONOLOGICAL ANALYSIS (IPA) AS DESIGN METHODOLOGY ANNA MARIA SADKOWSKA N0471321 E-mail: [email protected] Keywords: Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA), triple hermeneutics, conceptual fashion, interviews, personal inventories Abstract This paper discusses the strengths of adapting Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis, commonly used in healthcare research, as a fashion design methodology in the author’s doctoral research project. This research explores the experience of ageing through the lens of fashion and clothing based on the tensions and contradictions displayed by the male participants during semi-structured and in-depth interviews. My epistemological position sits somewhere between critical realist and contextual constructivist, which corresponds to the IPA ontological stand point acknowledging individuals as being the ‘meaning makers’ of their experiences, but recognising also the role of the researcher in the process of knowledge co-construction (Smith at al., 2009). This is best captured in the ideas of the ‘double hermeneutics’ and the ‘hermeneutic circle’, in which the researcher’s experience of trying to understand the participants’ accounts is as important as the actual experience that participants try to make sense of. They also recognise the “dynamic relationship between the part and the whole” and “the relationship between the interpreter and that object of interpretation” (Smith, 2007, p. 5). In this paper I argue for the possibility to build on the concepts of the ‘double hermeneutics’ and the ‘hermeneutic circle’, and move on to that of the ‘triple-hermeneutics’ by adding another level of the possible understandings and interpretations. In this case, that of the viewers and wearers of the fashion artefacts designed and produced by the author in response to the conducted interviews.

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Fashioning Age: Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis as Design Methodology

1. INTRODUCTION This article draws on my practice-based PhD project, which aims to discover how the sample of older men have experienced fashion and clothing and how they negotiate their ageing identities through those mediums. The main aim of this research is to push the boundaries of fashion practice by enabling the design processes to be stimulated by the interpretation of the socio-cultural phenomena under investigation and establishing the role of the researcher-practitioner-interpreter in this process. My design concept draws upon the idea of triple hermeneutics and my vision of fashion design as a conceptual, creative and iterative process of constant interpretation and reflexivity. The methodology has been heavily influenced by the Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) but it is not limited or constrained by it. Instead, it builds on it, extending the possibility of interpreting to actively engaging with objects, materials and techniques. This allows me to create conditions for more empathic understanding of my participant’s lived experiences of fashion and ageing and to develop my interpretations of these through the design of fashion. In this paper I will present the IPA as a research methodology and discuss the strengths of adapting it for the purpose of fashion practice.

2. IPA THEORETICAL UNDERPINNINGS Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) is a qualitative approach to research concerned with participants’ personal lived experience, developed by Jonathan Smith as an alternative to descriptive psychology (Smith, 1996). Finlay (2011, p. 140) identifies three “touchstones” of IPA: a reflective focus on subjective accounts of personal experience, an idiographic sensibility and the commitment to a hermeneutic approach. The philosophical foundations of IPA lie in phenomenology: Husserlian focus on experience and its perception, but also in the understanding of embodiment of each individual immersed in a complex world of Heidegger, Merleau-Ponty and Sartre. Smith et al. (2009, p. 37) argues that “without the phenomenology, there would be nothing to interpret; without the hermeneutics, the phenomenology would not be seen”. Therefore, from the theoretical point of view it also draws on the work of the hermeneutic phenomenologists such as Schleiermacher and Gadamer. But IPA is also and idiographic methodology, allowing me to focus on a particular experience of particular individuals. This, as Smith et al. (2009) notice can be somehow problematic, especially when compared to nomothetic approaches that allow the generalising of its claims to the group or population. However Harre (1979) claims that idiography does not make generalisations impossible, but imposes them differently. In this project idiographic commitment to particular allows identifying particular convergences and divergences and drawing cautious generalisations of the potential richness of the ageing phenomenon. 2.1

Hermeneutics and the hermeneutic circle

Hermeneutics is the theory of text interpretation, rooted in the renaissance interpretations of the biblical and ancient texts. In IPA, the key point of analysis is interpretation. The central assumption in hermeneutics is that “the meaning of a part can only be understood if it is related to the whole” (Alvesson and Skoldberg, 2009, p. 92), best illustrated by the idea of the hermeneutic circle. The dynamic relationship between part and whole in IPA is represented by various relations such as: single wordsentence; single extract – complete text; particular text - the complete works; interview-research project or single episode – complete life. A significant factor in this process is the acknowledgment and reflection of the researcher’s pre-conceptions, perceptions and processes (Smith et al. 2009). The hermeneutic circle in IPA can be illustrated as the constant movement between part and whole, interpretation and reinterpretation of gathered information influenced by the unfolding understanding of the phenomenon under investigation, which allows the researcher to get closer and closer to the participant’s personal world (Smith, 1996).


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2.2

Double hermeneutics

The idea of double hermeneutics is widely used in postmodern social science and can be best described as the researcher interpreting the participant’s interpretation of the phenomenon under study. Smith et al, (2009, p. 35) notices that this explains the dual character of the researcher in the research process: “as both like and unlike the participant”. On the one hand the researcher plays an active role in the unfolding interpretations, becoming a filter and a lens to produced knowledge. Nevertheless the process of knowledge production can only be catalysed by the participant’s understanding of the phenomenon reported to the researcher in the first place. As a researcher and practitioner I recognise the convergences between IPA and my own practice as a fashion designer: the focus on lived experience, iterative processes of analysis, continuous interpretation leading to generating researcher’s response, and acknowledge it as being the result of my epistemological stance sitting between critical realist and contextual constructivist. By merging disciplines of phenomenological psychology and fashion practice my aim is to broaden empirical, theoretical and reflective approaches in the field of cultural gerontology.

3.

IPA AS A FASHION DESIGN METHODOLOGY

Biggs (2002) questions wherever “[we] have (…) somehow conspired to arrange matters so that knowledge is always what we say about something rather than what we show about it”, while Scardi (2010, p.14) argues that “by withdrawing clothing from the fashion circus (…) artists root their own creative activity in everyday life, infusing it with commitment and critical sympathy”. By adapting the IPA methodology this research aims to explore the nature of this “critical sympathy” by questioning the role of designer’s interpretation in the process of phenomenological understanding of the older men’s experience of clothing. Additionally, it seeks to explore clothing’s potential to expose the produced interpretations. Embracing the position of the researcher-practitioner allows me to embody both roles through the medium of the hermeneutic circle, which Snodgrass and Coyne (2006, p. 37) describe as “(…) a cycle of constant anticipation and revision”. For the purpose of my study I propose the concept of triple hermeneutics (fig. 3.1), where the researcher’s interpretation of participants lived experiences becomes a catalyst for the creation of new experience for those exposed to it.

Figure 3.1 Triple hermeneutics (model) (Sadkowska 2013) 3.1

From methodology to methods

The final elements of methodology are the methods selected as the means to conduct the research. My choices of the research methods are the results of the methodological considerations


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presented above. In this section I will discuss the chosen methods of collecting data: semi-structured, indepth interviews, personal inventories and practical exploration within the field of conceptual fashion. 3.2

Interviews

IPA researchers choose methods that allow them to “(…) invite participants to offer a rich, detailed, first-person account of their experiences” (Smith et al., 2009, p. 56). Therefore semi-structured, in-depth interviews are the most common research method used in IPA, which acknowledges also the importance of the interviewer’s role in the process of listening and reacting to the interviewees’ given accounts. The choice of this method is also supported by its growing recognition within the fields of art and design (Gray and Mulins 2004, Martin and Hanington 2012, Crouch and Pearce 2012, Ni Chonchuir and McCarthy, 2007) and fashion (Bugg, 2006). For the purpose of this project I interviewed the homogenous sample of 5 men who in the process of recruitment identified themselves as fashion-conscious. Each interview lasted between 90-120 minutes and was recorded and transcribed verbatim. All interviews were analysed following the same procedure: reading and re-reading the transcript, initial noting, developing emergent themes, searching for connections across emergent themes, moving to the next case, looking for patterns across cases. 3.3

Personal Inventories

Martin and Hanington (2012, p. 102) notice that “[i]nterviews can be made more productive when based around artefacts (…)”. The use of a certain types of objects as the stimuli for conversation is especially relevant to my research which aims to explore the various and complex types of relationship that the participants have developed with fashion and clothing, represented by different types of fashionrelated artefacts such as garments, accessories or photographs. Although the personal inventories method is not typically used in IPA research, it focuses on encouraging participants’ autonomy in selecting the significant artefacts (Csikszentmihalyi, 1991; Odom and Pierce, 2009) and it is consistent with the locus of the IPA concern. In the study five participants were asked to bring along 3-4 fashion artefacts that carried special meaning to them. This generated a series of photographs capturing artefacts belonging to participants and participants themselves wearing the artefacts (fig. 3.2), analysed and interpreted alongside the interview transcripts.

a.

b.

c.

Figure 3.2 Personal inventories 3.4

Practical explorations

In 1993 Christopher Frayling identified three modes of design research: research into design, research through design and research for design. Since then there has been attempts to further specify the relation between research and design and its potential role in knowledge production (Jonas 2007, Anna Maria Sadkowska

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Fallmann 2007, Cross 2007). Niedderer and Imani (2008) notice that there is insufficient understanding of how to attach relation between tacit/explicit knowledge to the research methodology, regardless of intensified focus on qualifying practice as a research method. Martin and Hanington (2012, p. 146) describe research through design as a research method which is “constituted by the design process itself, including material research, development work (…) [a]nd the critical act of recording and communicating the steps, experiments and iterations of design.” Practical experimentations (fig. 3.3) in this project have become a method for advancing and articulating unfolding interpretations of the data gathered through interviews and personal inventories.

a.

b.

c.

e.

d.

f. Figure 3.3 Practical explorations

4.

RESULTS

The initial findings of this project involve 6 themes describing and interpreting older men’s experience of fashion. The “Mirroring” theme deals with participants’ past and current practices of being inspired by the appearance of others, significant in terms of its impact on the development of one’s personal style. I argue that the act of being visually inspired or even to imitate the way others dress serves as a way for their social validation. The key role played by the various interactions with others,


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especially other men has been crucial for the way participants currently experience their ageing bodies through the mediums of fashion and clothing. Since the design concept, within which this project operates, is to develop a series of fashion artefacts which will extend the phenomenological understanding of the participants’ experience of ageing. My intention for the first garment was to stretch my interpretation of the emerged “Mirroring” theme. In the course of interpreting the relevant passages of text and images I begun to experiment with materials such as mirrors, glass and Lego men together with the form of the male suit jacket itself. Field notes completed during this period illustrate how this influenced the posing of new questions during the process of analysis: “I stitched the Lego men to the fabric and I brought it into tension with a thread. This brought fabric into drapes/movements. Those movements redefine the fabric; just as the participants’ fashion sense has been redefined by the other members of the group. What is the personal identity within a crowd?” (field note 03/11/13). This allowed me to extend my written interpretation by producing the “Mirroring Jacket” (fig. 4.1) documented through the short accompanying video.

a.

b.

c.

d.

Figure 4.1 The Mirroring Jacket a. side view; b. back view; c.-d. details

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CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This paper has aimed at introducing Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis and its potential to be utilised as a fashion design methodology. It has presented the IPA theoretical underpinnings including the concepts of the hermeneutic circle and double hermeneutics in order to draw on them and present the concept of triple hermeneutics, central to the author’s doctoral project. As the initial findings show, the interpretation is the tool that allows the researcher not only to deepen their understanding of the


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phenomenon under study but also to create the alternative forms of knowledge dissemination such as fashion artefacts and film. Adapting IPA as a research and design methodology and practical fashion explorations as the research method gives the researcher opportunity to more fully understand and explore the older men’s experience of ageing through the lens of fashion and clothing and to produce artefacts which can potentially carry cultural significance. This can influence the developments of new research strategies within the fields of fashion design, interpretive psychology and cultural gerontology. It is recommended therefore for the author to continue the process of active and creative interpretations of the gathered data, pushing the boundaries of material and technique experimentations and artistic expression as ways of capturing the reflexive process of unfolding interpretations.

6

REFERENCES

ALVESSON, M. and SKOLDBERG, K. (2009) Reflexive Methodology: New Vistas for Qualitative nd Research (2 ed.). London: Sage. BIGGS, M.A.R. (2002) Editorial: the concept of knowledge in art and design. Working Papers in Art and Design 2 Retrieved 13/10/13 from http://sitem.herts.ac.uk/artdes_research/ papers/wpades/vol2/intro02.html BUGG, J. (2006) Interface: Concept and context as Strategies for Innovative Fashion Design and Communication. Unpublished thesis (PhD), University of the Arts London. CROSS, N. (2007) Forty years of design research. Design Studies, 28 (1), pp. 1-4. CROUCH, C. and PEARCE, J. (2012) Doing Research in Design. London: Berg. CSIKSZENTMIHALYI, M. (1991) Design and Order in Everyday Life. Design Issues, 8 (1), pp. 26-34. FALLMANN, D. (2007) Why Research-oriented Design Isn't Design-Oriented Research: On the tension Between Design and Research in an Implicit Design Discipline. Knowledge, Technology & Policy, 20, pp. 193-200. FINLAY, L. (2011) Phenomenology for Therapists. Researching the Lived World. Oxford: WileyBlackwell. FRYLING, C. (1993) Research in Art and Design. London: RCA. GRAY, C. and MALINS, J. (2004) Visualizing Research. A Guide to do Research Process in Art and Design. Surrey: Ashgate. HARRE, R. (1979) Social Being. Oxford: Blackwell. JONAS, W. (2007) Design Research and its Meaning to the Methodological Development of the Discipline. In: MICHEL, R. (ed.), Design Research Now, Basel: Birkhauser, pp. 187-206. MARTIN, B. and HANINGTON, B. (2012) Universal Methods of Design. Beverly: Rockport. NI CHONCHUIR, M. and MCCARTHY, J. (2007) The enchanting potential of technology: a dialogical case study of enchantment and the Internet. Personal and Ubiquitous Computing, 12 (5), pp. 401-409. NIEDDERER, K. and IMANI, Y. (2008) Developing a Framework for Management: Tacit Knowledge in Research using Knowledge Management Models. In: Undisciplined! Design Research Society Conference 2008, Sheffield Hallam University, Sheffield, UK, 16-19 July 2008.


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ODOM, W. and PIERCE, J. Improving with Age: Designing Enduring Interactive Products. In: Proceedings of the 27th International Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, CHI 2009, Boston, MA, USA, April 4-9, 2009. SCARDI, G. (2010) The Sense of Our Time. In: COPPARD, A. (ed.) Aware: art, fashion, identity : GSK Contemporary. Bologna: Damiani, pp.13-23. SMITH, J. (2007) Hermeneutics, human sciences and health: linking theory and practice. International Journal of Qualitative Studies on Health and Well-Being, 2 (1), pp. 3-11. SMITH, J. and FLOWERS, P. and LARKIN, M. (2009) Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis. Theory, Method and Research. London: Sage. SMITH, J. (1996) Beyond the divide between cognition and discourse: Using interpretative phenomenological analysis in health psychology. Psychology & Health, 11 (2), pp. 261- 271. SNODGRASS, A. and COYNE, R. (2006) Interpretation in Architecture. Design as a way of thinking. London: Routledge.


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LEGAL EDUCATION FOR INTERNATIONAL LAWYERS IN CHINA YINGXIANG LONG N0487268 E-mail: [email protected] Keywords: Co-operation, international lawyers, legal skills, legal education Abstract

This paper is focused on legal education system in China and it further analyses the existing problems in Chinese legal education context for international lawyers. This paper argues that in the context of Mainland China, there is a gap lies between law schools’ curricula and legal profession practice. The gap is mainly caused by the significant missing part of legal skills’ teaching in the legal education system. This missing part is not only lead to the difficulty for law graduates to find a proper job in domestic law departments and it also contribute the situation that there is only a few Chinese law practitioners may work for international legal service market. The other obstacle for the improvement of international legal education lies between the infinity of languages, cultures and legal systems across the jurisdictions and the limitation of learning capacity, time and money of human beings. Such obstacle cannot be solved in the normal way without the help of teaching co-operation as an essential legal skill for international lawyers. Based on the facts and analysis, this paper underlines three trends for future curricula of international legal education in China to follow: 1) fill the gap between legal education and legal profession practice with legal skills’ teaching curricula; 2) introduce co-operation as a new essential legal skill for international lawyers; 3) follow the Anglo-American legal educational route for cultivating international lawyers.

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LEGAL EDUCATION FOR INTERNATIONAL LAWYERS IN CHINA

1. Introduction and background One of the effects of economic globalisation is the globalisation of legal services. Changes in legal services provision necessarily means, in time, changes to legal education. China is one of the biggest economic markets in the world (UK Trade & Investment, 2011), increasingly investing financially into other countries (National Bureau of Statistics of China, 2013) and there is a growing appetite for Chinese legal professions to enter into the transnational commercial legal services market. However, the Chinese legal education system has not caught up with the growing speed of international legal practice (Huang, 2012). Therefore, it is time for Chinese legal educators to think about how they will prepare their students for the modern global legal service markets. This paper is concerned with establishing new skillsbased courses in China, targeting those wishing to work within the global commercial legal service market. This paper will focus on teaching ‘co-operation’ as a new legal skill to cultivate future international lawyers in Chinese legal education system. From a transnational perspective, what kind of legal education could meet the needs of international legal service practice? This paper advocates that, in the future, there should be some skillsbased curricula established in China led by international legal practice. They would follow an AngloAmerican legal education tradition as English and American law firms are dominating the global market at present, and will maintain their leading position in the foreseeable future (flood, 2013). The legal skills involved are research, drafting, negotiation, managing workload etc. ‘Co-operation’ will be taught as a new and vital legal skill for international lawyers, emphasising the attitude of working with others. It includes co-operation with colleagues within law firms and lawyers, laymen or other professionals outside law firms. This means, ‘co-operation’ involves an interdisciplinary concept as well. In the context of a complex international legal service market, multiple isolated teams of expertise brought together for specific projects can cause cultural conflicts, language differences and law barriers etc.. Lawyers are somehow in a good position to mediate these differences and enable the teams to work together because they will participate in all aspects of the project. 2. Current Legal Education System in China In Mainland China, according to the Lawyers Act of the People’s Republic of China, Judges Act of PRC and Public Prosecutors Act of PRC and Directions for Applying National Judicial Examination, a bachelor degree is the basic educational qualification for lawyers, public prosecutors and judges. There is a four-year Bachelor in Law (L.L.B) programme while at master’s level there are academic master in law (L.L.M) programme and applied Juris Master (J.M) programme in legal subjects. The L.L.M is the traditional academic programme for 2-3 years. The J.M. programme started in 1996, and it is named after the American Juris Doctor (J.D) for cultivating applied legal talents in China to meet the needs of legal practice (Yi, 2010). All these programmes are concentrated on domestic law although some substantive international laws are compulsory for L.L.B students. From the international perspective, as stated by Chesterman (2008), international legal education may be summarised into three stages: 1）Internationalisation; where only a small number of lawyers are involved in mediating disputes between jurisdictions or determining which jurisdiction applies. Educational institutions would therefore focus on training students for practice within one jurisdiction. 2）Transnationalisation; where lawyers travel more frequently than in the internationalisation stage and there is a need to manage cross-jurisdiction tasks seamlessly, but the significant part of legal services remains jurisdiction-based. Therefore, law schools develop cross jurisdiction collaborations between law schools including exchange programmes. 3）Globalisation; where in a truly globalised legal services market, double-degree programmes are developed in order to educate lawyers to be “residents” rather than “tourists” in new jurisdictions. All types of international legal education mentioned by Chesterman can be found in China outside or combine with the typical L.L.B, L.L.M or J.M programmes mentioned above. For example, Peking University School of Transnational Law provides a J.M/J.D dual degree programme (globalisation

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stage) and a collaboration programme with The University of Hong kong in the summer (transnationalisation stage). According to the requirements of the Higher Education Department of the Ministry of Education of PRC (1998), law students must have international law, international private law and international economic law as core courses in bachelor programmes (internationalisation stage). 3. Existing problems and Suggestions Despite all the international legal education programmes that already exist in China, there are still some demands that cannot be satisfied by the latest double-degree programmes. For instance, in the international business context, a Chinese businessman may set up a company on the British Virgin Islands for avoiding heavy taxes, and produce the products in Vietnam because of the low labour costs, and then sell the goods to Europe or America for a good price. In this example, there are more than five jurisdictions involved and more than four local languages encountered. How can a lawyer who has only learnt laws in two jurisdictions handle such complex cases? What kind of new international legal education method should we introduce to compliment the double-degree programme? A triple-degree programme, or multi-degree programme? How much workload can a human being handle? Given the problems expressed above, there are some obstacles that cannot be avoided: 1) People have their limitation on learning and dealing with workloads. Although some may do better than the others, no body may ever learn all the languages and legal systems existing in the world. 2) The learning of various languages and legal systems in different jurisdictions is time-consuming work and costs a lot of money as well. Therefore, the international legal education cannot follow the route from double-degree programme to triple-degree programme or multi-degree programme. Then, what can the solution be for people to deal with tasks they may not learn by themselves? Co-operation seems to be the only answer. It will make lawyers capable of co-operating with other people from different background and manage the legal tasks without knowing everything. Therefore, this paper suggests to involve co-operation into new international legal education system and to teach it as a new essential legal skill. Traditionally, legal skills have been seen as including drafting, research, advocacy, interviewing, and negotiation (known by the acronym DRAIN in England and America (Webb et al, 1996)). Co-operation may be added in for international lawyers because international/transnational legal services may involve language barriers, culture differences and conflicting legal systems etc. and such difficulties may be solved by it without trying to ask lawyers learn every single language and know all the law in every jurisdiction. This includes co-operating with colleagues within law firms and lawyers, laymen or other professionals outside law firms, and therefore also involves an interdisciplinary concept: Halliday (2012, p.1) stated, “studying law is now quite a varied business. Inside law schools you will find lecturers and professors drawing from a wide range of other academic disciplines to study law.” An example of a multidisciplinary approach can be found in ‘lawwithoutwalls’ initiated by the University of Miami in 2011. Peking University School of Transnational Law is one of the partners of this programme. Trans-disciplinary activity may be inevitable especially for international commercial lawyers of global financing programmes and high-tech products producing and selling etc. The lawyers’ role will extend to cooperation with other professionals. Therefore, multi-disciplinary cooperation may be an important feature of the proposed skillsapproach.There should be a feasible way to transfer the lawyers from domestic lawyers to international lawyers. Additionally, all the curricula of programmes in China mentioned above in the second section of this paper may be regarded as knowledge-based programmes and lack skills’ teaching. However, in legal practice, legal skills are used daily by lawyers. Wang (2010) emphasised that the disconnection between legal education and legal practice had already caused problems in Mainland China: law graduates cannot find law related jobs; and meanwhile, law related entities have difficulty in recruiting competent staff from new graduates. Such unfulfilled demands are serious, particularly in the international legal services market. Therefore, the Ministry of Education and the Committee of Political and Legislative Affairs of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China (2011) issued a 10-year framework of Distinguished

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Legal Talents Training Programme for applied and multi-disciplinary legal talents. By the end of 2012, 22 universities were selected for cultivating international legal talents. The 22 universities may establish various programmes for international legal education in China. However, according to the analysis mentioned in this paragraph earlier, legal skills are very important for legal profession but rarely taught in law schools in China. Therefore, legal skills’ teaching should be emphasised in the future curricula for international lawyers no matter which law school is leading. 4. Conclusion Based on the statement above, generally speaking, the defects of Chinese legal education for international lawyers are the lack of a high quality vocational stage. It is important for the future course designers to focusing on legal skills teaching rather than “rote learning of theoretical teaching” (Wang, 2010). Besides the traditional legal skills, co-operation should be highlighted as a new legal skill for cultivating international lawyers. This is the only feasible way for lawyers to manage legal tasks across several countries without learning each single legal system. In the global legal services market, English and American law firms dominate. Moreover, those from jurisdictions outside the Anglo-American legal tradition find it is difficult to get involved in global legal business without an education background at a major U.S. or U.K. law school (Flood, 2013). Hence, the international legal education in China should base on the Anglo-American legal education tradition. To sum up, this paper suggests that international legal education should add legal skills’ teaching part in China. Co-operation should be taught as one of the key legal skills for international lawyers and the international legal education in China should follow the Anglo-American route. 5. References: Chesterman, S., 2008. The Globalisation of Legal Education. Singapore Journal of Legal Studies, pp. 58-67. Federation of Law Societies of Canada, 2012. National Entry to Practice Competency Profile Validation Survey Report.[pdf] Available at: http://www.flsc.ca/_documents/NASSurveyReportSept2012.pdf [Accessed 30 September 2013]. Flood, J., 2013. Institutional Bridging: How Large Firms Engage in Globalization. Boston College Law Review. 54(1), pp. 1087- 1121. Halliday, S., 2012. An Introduction to the Study of Law. Edinburgh: W. Green. Higher Education Department of Ministry of Education of PRC, 1998. Standard of Legal Core Courses for National Higher Education Institutes. Beijing: Higher Education Press. Huang, Q., 2012. ‘Go Global’ Strategy and Cultivating Chinese Legal Talents: about Chinese International multi-disciplinary Legal Talents. China Legal Education Research. 2, pp. 37-197. Hutton, M., 1989. Learning from Action: A Conceptual Framework. In: Weil, S.W. and McGill, I., (eds.) Making Sense of Experiential Learning: Diversity in Theory and Practice. Bristol: Open University Press, 1989, pp.50-59. Jarvis, P., Holford, J. and Griffin, C., 2003. The Theory & Practice of Learning. 2 Abingdon: Routledge Taylor & Francis Group.

nd

ed.

Kolb, D.A., 1984. Experiential Learning: Experience as the Source of Learning and Development. New Jersey : Prentice-Hall.

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National Bureau of Statistics, 2013. Statistical Report of PRC on National Economic and Social Development in 2012. Available at: http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjgb/ndtjgb/qgndtjgb/t20130221_402874525.htm [Accessed 26 September 2013]. Solicitors Regulation Authority, 2007. Day One Outcomes for Qualification as a Solicitor. [Online]. Available at: [Accessed 26 September 2013]. rd

UK Trade & Investment, 2011. China Business Guide. 3 ed. [pdf]. Available at: [Accessed 26 September 2013]. Wang, J., 2010. Constructing the Legal Personnel Training Pattern Taking the Legal Profession as Goal-oriented: A Report of the Study on Reform and Development of Chinese Legal Education. Journal of Jurist, 5, pp.138-180. Weil, S.W. and McGill, I., (eds.) Making Sense of Experiential Learning: Diversity in Theory and Practice. Bristol: Open University Press Webb, J. and Maughan, C., 1996. Teaching Lawyers’ Skills. London: Butterworths. Yi, X., 2010. Model of Legal Education in China. Beijing: China Social Science Press.

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DEVELOPMENT AND VALIDATION OF AN INSTRUMENT TO DETERMINE TRAINEE COMPUTER SCIENCE TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF COMPUTATIONAL THINKING ANDREW CSIZMADIA N0472454 E-mail: [email protected] Keywords: Computational Thinking, Knowledge Elicitation, Open Card Sort, Information Architecture, Abstract Computational Thinking is regarded as a gift from Computer Science to other discipline areas, a digital literacy skill and a cornerstone of the Computing Programme of Study to be delivered as part of the National Curriculum in English Schools. In this paper, the researcher describes the design, iterative development and validation of a qualitative participatory data collection instrument based on open card sorting. This is a new application of card sorting as a knowledge elicitation technique and its ability to elicit semi-tacit knowledge applied to Computer Science Education, where the subjects, trainee Computer Science teachers, are given a collection of cards containing Computational Thinking vocabulary to sort. They are asked to separate these cards into groups determined by the subjects themselves. Information about the individual subject’s knowledge structure of and their conceptual model of Computational Thinking is inferred from the groups created and the names attributed to these groups. This paper discusses the challenges associated with analysing data generated by card sorts either semantically or syntactically. An open card sort activity is proposed as the most appropriate approach to be adopted for both knowledge acquisition and knowledge elicitation in order to explore the subjects’ knowledge of Computational Thinking vocabulary and their clustering of individual terms. In addition, subjects’ voice would be captured using a self-reflective constructive questionnaire in order to offer suggestions to both refine and enhance the next iteration of this research instrument. Finally, in section 4, conclusions and a discussion on the next stage of the development are presented.

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Validation of Card Sorting as an Instrument to Determine Perceptions of Computational Thinking

1. INTRODUCTION Wing (2006, p.33) argued that ‘Computational Thinking represents a universally applicable attitude and skill set everyone, not just computer scientists, would be eager to learn and use’ and advocated for the inclusion of this competency within all subjects. Worldwide professional bodies and subject associations (Barr & Stevenson 2011; Dede et al. 2014; The Royal Society 2012) have responded positively to this clarion call and in England the Departmental of Education has given Computational Thinking a pivotal role in the Computing Programme of Study to be introduced from September 2014 (DfE 2013a; DfE 2013b). Therefore, it can be inferred that both trainee and in-service Computer Science teachers will be required to possess an operational definition of Computational Thinking in order to embed it within their own subject and evangelise its adoption cross curricular. Despite the interest in and active promotion of Computational Thinking, a number of individuals (Brennon & Resnick 2012; Dede et al. 2014; Guzdial 2014) have expressed their concern that fundamentally there is not a collective agreed definition of Computational Thinking. The rationale for this research instrument is to capture trainee Computer Science teachers’ perceptions of Computational Thinking to determine common vocabulary. Card sort is participatory knowledge elicitations technique (Martin & Hannington 2012) in which subjects are given a collection of items and are asked to organise and classify them into logical groupings. Information about the implied knowledge structure that subjects construct is inferred from the groups created and the names used to describe those groups. The focus of this study is to determine whether a card sort activity is a validate instrument for eliciting perceptions of subjects. The subjects categorised and created self-deterministic groups based on the items that have been supplied to them and the names subjects gave to the resulting categories. Hudson (2012) indicated that the sorting process to be performed by subjects in a card sort will provide the following information: Terminology (what subjects call things); Relationships (proximity, similarity) and Categories (groups and their names). Card sorts have been widely used in a range of disciplines to elicit and analyse knowledge structures. Within the computer science education domain, this has included studies such as web-usability (Upchurch 2001), competence of novice programmers (Fossum & Haller 2005; Lewandowski 2005) and classification of program components (Davies 1995; Sanders et al. 2005). The objective of this study was to discover if an open card sort knowledge acquisition instrument could be used to elicit how trainee Computer Science teachers organise, structure and articulate their knowledge and understanding regarding Computational Thinking terminology.

2. STUDY DESIGN 2.1 Assumptions The following key assumptions underpinned the design of this study:  



The way in which individual subjects organise cards into groups reflects the subject’s mental representation of how Computational Thinking terminology should be logically grouped; By placing a card into a meaningful category determined by the subject (i.e. a ‘named’ group rather than ‘don’t know’) then individual subjects demonstrate that the item name on the card has some meaning for themselves; By placing a card into a category, subjects indicate what that category means to them.

2.2 Design of the Card Sort Activity An extensive literature review was initially conducted and identified 15 academic texts relating to Computation Thinking and also 3 academic texts relating to perceptions of Computer Science. Context

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Validation of Card Sorting as an Instrument to Determine Perceptions of Computational Thinking analysis (Krippendroff 2013) of the identified texts indicated 100 terms to be used within the proposed card sort. Terms identified were compared and contrasted in order to identify superficial similarities which could produce a superficial match and potentially generate unhelpful results (Hudson 2012).Superficial similarities were addressed by either removing one of the similar terms or if possible replacing one of the terms with a synonym. The final terms to be utilised in the card sort are listed in Table 1.

Remixing

Creating with Others

Simulation

Design

Co-creation

Lists

Events

Debugging

Sequence

Problem Solving

Co-authoring

Recursion

Boolean Expressions

Process

Decomposing

Learning through Design

Object

Reuse

Reflection

Testing

Iterative

Confidence

Heuristics

Synchronisation

Modelling

Coordination

Design

Pseudocode

Persistence

Interests

Understanding

System

Tolerance

Transformation

Perserving

Evaluating

Refining

Visualisation

Abstraction

Threads

Identifying

Model

Modularisation

System Thinking

Sharing

Search & Prune

Implementing

Event Handling

Debugging

Algorithm

Transferring

Remix

Questioning

Recollection

Expressing

Function

Connecting

Parallelism

Conceptualisation

Creative Computing

Randomness

Generalisation

Relationship

Learning through Reflection

Teamwork

Learning through Interests

Collaborating

Representation

Simulation

Intention Audience

Imaging

Automation

Tinkering

Data Structures

Collaboration

Operators

Personalising

Incremental

Generalisation

Create

Analysing

Data

Creating

Computation

Learning through Collaboration

Formulating

Sharing

Procedural Thinking

Loops

Pattern

Reduction

Evaluation

Variables

Conditionals

Reflecting

Communication

Concurrency

Creating for Others

Table 1 - Computational Thinking Card Sort Terms Subject experts were consulted ( Hudson 2012; Spencer 2009) for advice and guidance to determine which one of the three types of card sort activity, open card sort, closed card sort or inverse card sort should be used within this research study. An open card sort is used to explore conceptual models for new information, initially categorise information or elicit conceptual models. Subjects in an open card sort are provided with a set of items to sort, collate into groups and then determine labels for those groups they created. On the other hand, a close card sort is used to explore how new content relates to an existing information structure by sorting a set of items into pre-defined categories. With an inverse card sort subjects are required to identify a specific item within a completed information structure. As an outcome of this study was to elicit conceptual model of Computational Thinking of individual subjects, then the researcher determined that an open card sort activity was the most appropriate one that should be used in this context.

3. DATA COLLECTION Data collection followed a standard protocol: Background Data: Individual subject’s background information was collected and included gender, teacher training route.

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Validation of Card Sorting as an Instrument to Determine Perceptions of Computational Thinking Task Data: Category names were recorded. Within each card, a unique number was assigned. Also, for each category the number corresponding to the cards placed in that particular category were recorded. Feedback Questionnaire: Following the card sort activity, subjects completed a self-reflective questionnaire allowing them to constructively reflect on the process they had interactively engaged in and the product they have created. 3.1 Study Protocol This study was conducted face to face and consisted of two separate parts. Firstly, subjects engaged in an open card sorting activity regarding terms associated with Computational Thinking. Secondly, the session was ended with a reflective feedback questionnaire being completed individually by subjects. The sorting task and questionnaire are discussed in more detail in the following subsections. 3.2 Recruitment and Briefing of the Subjects Hudson (2012) indicated that subjects should be representative of the target group as they will be self-motivated to participate in the study because they potentially have an interest in the outcome of the study. Thirteen trainee Computer Science teachers were recruited as subjects for this study, as they have a professional interest in understanding what Computational Thinking is. This is because they need to internalise their understanding in order to clearly and concisely articulate to those computing learners they teach and support. .Demographic and background data pertaining to the subjects indicated that 7 (54%) of the sample group were female, 6 (46%) were male. Analysis of the subjects’ training route revealed that 9 (69%) were following the PGCE Core route, 3 (23%) were following the School Direct Salaried route and 1 (8%) was following the School Direct Trainee route. The entire sample group had successfully studied either IT related or computer science related undergraduate modules. Subjects were verbally briefed as to the purpose of the activity and what they needed to do in order to produce self-deterministic groupings for the items that they have been provided with. In addition, each subject was issued with a one page briefing sheet which they could refer to for clarification throughout the card sort activity. The subjects were advised verbally on how to deal with items that they did not understand by simply creating a specific ‘unknown’ group to receive them (Hudson 2012). Tullis and Wood (2005) and Weller (1998) suggest that between 20 and 30 subjects provide a cost-effective sample group for a card sort activity providing that subjects recruited are a good representation of the target group. However, Neilson (2004) recommends that only 15 subjects are required for a card sort activity, whilst Paul (2008) indicates that a reasonable knowledge structure can be determined using as few as 5 subjects. 3.3 Card Sort Task Gaffney (2000), Hudson (2012) and Spence (2009) provided practical operational guidance on the preparation required to manage a card sorting activity effectively and efficiently. Guidance included ensuring that: 

only unambiguous terms are used in the card sort;



index cards are randomised prior to each subject session;



each subject was provided with the same instruction sheet so that they all have the same understanding of the process;



subjects were left alone during the card sorting process to avoid placing them under any undue pressure;



subjects were provided with rubber bands enabling them to gather groups of cards together.

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Validation of Card Sorting as an Instrument to Determine Perceptions of Computational Thinking Subjects were given a set of 104 index cards, which comprised of 98 cards each containing a “minimalist” prompt for a term associated with Computational Thinking and 6 blank index cards for subjects to add their own terms if they wished to. Each subject was requested to sort these cards into categories using self-deterministic criterion as illustrated in Figure 1. Subjects provided names for each group (category) they constructed and were allowed to use “don’t know” as category names.

Figure 1 – Subject performing Card Sort Activity It was anticipated that 100 items should on average take a subject approximately 60 minutes to sort in self-deterministic categories (Hudson 2012). All subjects categorised and grouped the item cards. The number of groups that subjects created ranged from a minimum of 5 groups created to a maximum of 10 groups created. 3.4 Questionnaire Following the card sort, subjects were individually invited to complete a qualitative questionnaire, consisting of four questions critically reflecting on: the approach they adopted in sorting the cards and identifying categories, identification of keyword to distinctly summarising group headings, the outcome that they produced and the process they engaged with during the card sort. Firstly, subjects were asked to identify their rationale for their grouping approach. All subjects were able to individually articulate the approaches that they adopted. Secondly, subjects were invited to identify the best examples for each group. Subjects’ contributions ranged from simply stating a word which summarised a specific group to distinctly articulating their choice of a term for a specific grouping. Thirdly, subjects were requested to emotively reflect on the outcome (product) that they had created. Over 90% of the subjects were satisfied with the outcome of the card sort that they had produced. Those who were not content with their outcomes expressed their frustration as there being too many terms to be sorted and articulated not being able to identify and establish easily relationships between individual terms in order to identify natural groupings. Fourthly, subjects were invited to actively contribute to the improvement of the card sort (process) by having an opportunity to offer possible suggestions. Of all subjects, 63% indicated that no changes should be made, 18% requested that there should be less cards to be sorted, 18% requested assistance in understanding and clarification specific terms, 18% requested group headings, and 9% suggested that instead of a physically sorting cards then a digital application should be developed in order to allow subjects to place individual items into multiple groups. The researcher critically reflected on the subjects’ comments, as part of an iterative quality enhancement and improvement self-reflective cycle (Gibbs 1988; Honey & Mumford 1986; Schön 1983), and refined the guidance accordingly but decided not to amend the numbers of items to be sorted as the majority of subjects had not suggested this change. The following amendments were made to the card sort guidance sheet: inclusion of a clock to indicate to subjects how long the card sort task should take, articulate what should be done with the blank cards provided and what to do to with terms that could not be sorted.

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Validation of Card Sorting as an Instrument to Determine Perceptions of Computational Thinking

4. DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSIONS To summarise, the researcher found evidence that indicated:    

An effective and easy to implement open physical card sort activity has been created with clear guidance provided for subjects as to how they are to undertake the card sort exercise; Subjects performed sorts on items that could be categorised into a small number of well-defined categories; The card sort provided an effective research instrument of eliciting subjects’ knowledge structures of Computational Thinking terminology (Murphy et al. 2005); The card sort, as a by-product, provided individual subjects with an indication of potential deficiencies in their specialist computer science subject knowledge and understanding with regard to terminology associated with Computational Thinking (Murphy et al. 2005).

The following questions have been asked either by the subjects or the researcher as they critically reflected on the card sort activity::        

Should a digital card sort application be developed? Could a digital card sort application support multi-categorisation of individual items? Should subjects repeat this activity using an open card approach, in which subjects are given the group headings and categorise items using the pre-defined headings? At present subjects conduct this card sort activity individually, should this be conducted as a small group activity? Should subjects use the Think Aloud technique to articulate their rationale for placing cards within groups? How did the subjects utilise the six blank cards that were part of the set of item cards supplied to them? How should the data captured be coded and recorded? What methods should be considered to analyse the data captured and identify common emerging themes: how often a card is placed within a category, K-Mean Analysis, Dendrogram Analysis, Dissimilar Matrix, Two-dimensional Multidimensional Scaling Analysis, or Co-occurrence Analysis.

These questions will inform discussion regarding the next stage of the development of this research instrument and determining the most appropriate methods for analysing the data captured. Thus this study indicates that a card sort activity as outlined previously is a validate research instrument for determining trainee Computer Science teachers’ perceptions of Computational Thinking. Acknowledgments The researcher sincerely wishes to thank their supervisory team for their on-going support and encouragement and this study’s subjects for volunteering their time and effort.

REFERENCES 1.

Barr, V. and Stephenson, C., 2011. Bringing computational thinking to K-12: What is involved and what is the role of the computer science education community? ACM Inroads, 2(1), pp. 48-54.

2.

Brennon, K. and Resnick, M., 2012. New frameworks for the studying and assessing the development of computational thinking [online]. Available at: http://web.media.mit.edu/~kbrennan/files/Brennan_Resnick_AERA2012_CT.pdf [Accessed: 20th December 2013].

3.

Coxon, A. and MacMillan, P., 1999. Sorting Data: Collection and Analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

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Validation of Card Sorting as an Instrument to Determine Perceptions of Computational Thinking 4.

Davies, S.P., Gilmore, D.J. and Green, T.R.G., 1995. Are objects that important? The effects of expertise and familiarity on the classification of object-oriented code. Human-Computer Interaction, 10 (2 & 3), pp. 227-228.

5.

Dede, C., Mishra, P., & Voogt, J., 2013. Working Group 6: Advancing computational thinking in 21st century learning [online]. Available at: http://www.edusummit.nl/fileadmin/contentelementen/kennisnet/EDUSummIT/Documenten/2013/Adv ancing_computational_thinking_in_21st_century_learning.pdf [Accessed: 20 January 2014].

6.

DfE [Department for Education], 2013a. National Curriculum in England: Computing programmes of study - key stages 1 and 2 [online]. Available at: https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/239033/PRIMARY_nati onal_curriculum_-_Computing.pdf [Accessed: 20 December 2013].

7.

DfE [Department for Education], 2013b. National Curriculum in England: Computing programmes of study - key stages 3 and 4 [online]. Available at: https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/239067/SECONDARY_ national_curriculum_-_Computing.pdf [Accessed: 20 December 2013].

8.

Fossum, T. V. and Haller, S. M., 2005. A new quantitative assessment tool for computer science programs. ACM SIGCSE Bulletin, 37(3), pp. 153-157.

9.

Gaffney, G., 2000. “What is Card Sorting?” Information & Design [online]. Available at: http://infodesign.com.au/usabilityresources/cardsorting/ [Accessed: 10 September 2014].

10. Gibbs, G., 1988. Learning by doing: a guide to teaching and learning methods. Oxford: Further Education Unit, Oxford Polytechnic. 11. Honey, P. and Mumford, A.,1986. In Mumford A Effective Learning. London: IPD. nd

12. Hudson, W., 2012. Card Sort in The Encyclopedia of Human Computer Interaction, 2 [online]. th Available at: http://www.interaction-design.org/encyclopedia/card_sorting.html [Accessed: 20 December 2013]. rd

13. Krippendoff, K., 2013. Content Analysis. 3 Edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications 14. Lewandowski, G., Gutschow, A., McCartney, R., Sanders, K. and Shinners-Kennedy, D., 2005. What novice programmers don't know. In Proceedings of the first international workshop on Computing education research, pp. 1-12. 15. Martin, B. and Hanington, B., 2012. Universal Methods of Design. Beverley, MA: Rockport Publishers. 16. Murphy, L., McCauley, R., Westbrook, S., Fossum, T., Haller, S., Morrison, B. B. and Anderson, R. E., 2005. A multi-institutional investigation of computer science seniors' knowledge of programming concepts. In ACM SIGCSE Bulletin, 37(1), pp. 510-514. 17. Neilsen, J., 2004. Card Sorting: How Many Users to Test [online]. Available at: http://www.nngroup.com/articles/card-sorting-how-many-users-to-test/ [Accessed: 10 September 2014]. 18. Neilsen, J., 2009. Card Sorting: Pushing Users Beyond Terminology Matches [online]. Available at: http://www.nngroup.com/articles/card-sorting-terminology-matches/ [Accessed: 10 September 2014]. 19. Paul, C. L., 2008. A modified Delphi approach to a new card sorting methodology. Journal of Usability Studies, 4(1), 7-30. 20. Sanders, K., 2005. A multi-institutional, multi-international study of programming concepts using card sort data. Expert Systems, 22(3), pp.121-128. 21. Schön, D., 1983. The reflective practitioner: how professionals think in action. New York: Basic Books.

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Validation of Card Sorting as an Instrument to Determine Perceptions of Computational Thinking 22. Spence, D., 2009. Card Sorting: Designing Usable Categories. New York: Rosenfeld Media. 23. The Royal Society, 2012. Shut down or restart? The way forward for computing in UK schools. London: The Royal Society. 24. Tullis, T. and Wood, L.E., 2005. How Can You Do a Card-sorting Study with LOTS of Cards? Poster presented at the Annual Meeting of the Usability Professionals Association, June 24-July 1, Montreal, QB, Canada. 25. Upchurch, L., Rugg. G. and Kitchenham, B., 2001. Using card sort to elict web page quality attributes, IEEE Software, 18(4), pp. 84-89. 26. Weller, S. C., 1998. Structured interviewing and questionnaire construction. In H. R. Bernard (Ed.), Handbook of methods in cultural anthropology, pp. 365-409. Walnut Creek, CA: Altamira. 27. Wing, J., 2006. Computational Thinking. Communications of the ACM, 49(3), pp. 33–36.

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EXPLORING BOUNDARIES: OLD AND NEW


FAMILY ADAPTIBILITY AND COHESION SCALE (FACES), DEVELOPMENT, PART OF THE IMPACT OF INTERNET USAGE ON FAMILY COHESION PROJECT SAMI ALZHRANY NTU N0464352 E-mail: [email protected] Keywords: Circumplex Model, FACES, Measurement, Family Cohesion, translation Abstract Arabic countries, especially Saudi Arabia, suffer from a lack of assessment of family issues that because the family has not received more investigations. There are a number of measures for assessing family function which have been used for research in Western and Asian countries over the past three decades. One of the important instruments that have been widely used is the Family Flexibility and Cohesion Evaluation Scale FACES which was developed by Olson in 1983 (Kouneski, 2000). This paper designed to shed more light on the background and theory that is behind the FACES instruments and also shows the process the instruments’ development to be adjustable for the Saudi Society. This study follows two steps to achieve this amendment. The first step is to translate the instrument from the original English version to an Arabic version and for these 10 referees who are Arab PhD students at UK universities have been selected as they are bilingual. The second step is to find out the instrument’s psychometrics. Regarding to the last step, the pilot study is under process so far.

1- INTRODUCTION: The family is considered to be vital ingredient for all societies across the world. As a result, many theories have been proposed and studies have been carried out to determine suitable circumstances and environment to have such a successful family system. One of the most widely used theories is Circumplex Model of Marital and family System. It was developed to fill the gap that typically exists between research, theory and practice (Olson et al., 1989). According to Kouneski (2000) The Family Circumplex Model and the corresponding FACES instruments are established for testing the family function in many fields of study. For example, about 200 journals have presented many studies that used the Circumplex Model and FACES instruments in different topics such as psychology, family social science, medicine, marriage and family therapy, psychiatry, social work and education. Furthermore, nearly a thousand empirical studies have been completed with the FACES instruments and more than 450 are published. In addition, the FACES instrument has been applied extensively in the United State and it has been translated into many other languages for example Swedish, Norwegian, Japanese, Chinese, Polish, German, Italian, Spanish and Hebrew. This model focuses on two main aspects that shape the family system which are family cohesion (togetherness), family flexibility (adaptability) with communication between members of the family as an additional element that links those two (Olson, 2000).

1.1

MARITAL AND FAMILY COHESION:

Family cohesion assesses the degree to which family members are separated from or connected to their family is defined as the emotional bonding that family members have towards one another (Olson, 2003). The family cohesion has been determined by specific concepts which are emotional bonding, boundaries, coalitions, time, space, friends, decision-making, interests and recreation. All concepts are used to measure and diagnose family cohesion (Olson, 2003). According to the Circumplex Model, the target of family cohesion is how family system makes a balance between the separateness and togetherness of their family members. This model has provided four levels that describe the family cohesion balance. The levels of family cohesion range from disengagement (very low) to enmeshed level (very high). However, the level required for a good balanced of family function based on this model is between the extremes level (disengagement) and (enmeshed).

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1.2

MARITAL AND FAMILY ADAPTABILITY:

Family flexibility is defined as the amount of change in the family’s leadership, role relationships and relationship rules. This aspect refers to the family function’s need to change, to be flexible, or to adapt and learn from different experiences and situations. According to the model, family flexibility contains specific concepts of control, discipline, and negotiation style. These concepts of family flexibility can be measured to find out how the family system finds a balance between stability and change. Family flexibility has four levels ranging from Rigid (very low) to Chaotic (very high). On the basis of this model the balanced couple and family system which tends to be more functional over time should be in between the extreme level. On the other hand, unbalanced couples and families are more likely to be rigid or chaotic (Olson, 2000).

1.3

MARITAL AND FAMILY COMMUNICATION:

Communication is the third aspect in the Circumplex Model and is considered facilitating aspects and is considered critical for facilitating movement on other two aspects. Because it is facilitating aspect communication is not graphically included in the model along with cohesion and flexibility (Olson, 2000). It has been found that balanced system of family tend to have very good communication. Other than, unbalanced system tend to have poor communication. (Olson, 1983)

2. FACES (Family Adabtibility and Cohesion Evaluation Scale): 2.1 Introoduction: The FACES instrument has been used and recomended to apply in diffrent applications in areas such as family medicin (McCubbin & Patterson, 1982). medical rehabitation (Novack & Gage, 1995). substance abuse and tybical depedency (Kumpfer & J, 1986). clinical child psychology (Bradley & Brisby, 1990). Consqeuntly , it is worth to display the development of Family Adabtibility and cohesion scale (FACES) this section shows some important ponits of the FACES. For example, psychomitrics proprities and how is the FACES adminstrated and scoring. 2.2

Development of FACES II: FACES II was developed in the spring of 1981 with 50 items to measure aspects of the family as have been described. The three aspects of the FACES II scale can be used as an independent scale. For example, some statements are used to measure family cohesion aspects and it can be administrated to score the family flexibility aspect as well. The target age for the FACES scale is from 12 to 70 years old. Accordingly to Olson (1992) this scale created a short instrument with simple sentences so that it could be used with children and those with limited reading ability. In addition, the goal was to develop a scale that was empirically reliable and valid (Olson, 1992). The properties of the 50 items of the FACES scale were found out in two ways. Firstly, the Internal Consistency (Cronbach Alpha) was used and it was .91 for cohesion and .80 for flexibility. The second way was that a Test-Retest scale was conducted on 124 students from university and high school and the average age was 19.2. The time between the first survey and the second survey was four to five weeks. The result of the reliability for the total scale was .84, .83 for family cohesion and .80 for flexibility (Olson, 1992). The 50 items of the initial FACES were administrated to 2.412 individuals in a national survey (Olson et al.,1983). By using factor analysis and reliability analysis, the 50 items were reduced to 30 items (Olson,1992). 16 items are concerned with measuring family cohesion and 14 items measured family flexibility.

2.3

Reliability: The reliability of 30 items was found out by using two methods. The first method was Internal Consistency. In this method the researcher divided the total sample 2.412 into two equal subgroups. Cornbach’s Alpha showed the result of the reliability of each group as follows : Table(1)

Total

Sample 1

Sample 2

.87

.88

.86

Sample

Cohesion

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Flexibility

.78

.78

.79

Total scale

.90

.90

.90

Figure 1: Reliability result The second method to find out the reliability of the 30 items was the Test –Retest. The number of samples was 124 respondents. The reliability of the total FACES scale was .84, .83 for family cohesion and .80 for family flexibility (Olson, 1992). 2.4

FACES Validity:

The correlation between FACES with the global measure of family health in Self-Report Family Inventory (SFI) is 0.79 for the Family Flexibility dimension and 0.79 as well for the Family Cohesion dimension (Kouneski, 2000.7). In addition, it has become a hard evidence for other instruments which focus in the same area. For instance, the Family Environment Scale (Miller, Epstein, Bishop, & Keitner, 1985), the Family Assessment Device (Bloom, 1985), the Family System Test (Feldman & Gehring, 1988), and the Kvebaek Sculpture Technique (Berry, Hurley, & Worthinton, 1990). 2.5

Administrating and Scoring Procedure:

In FACES II the respondents are asked to read the statements and decide for each one how frequently, on a scale ranging from 1 (almost never) to 5 (almost always), the described behaviour occurs in his/her family (Olson, 1992). 2.6

Direction for Obtaining a Circumplex Type Score: For Cohesion: 1. 2. 3. 4.

2.7

For Adaptability (Flexibility):

Sum Items 3, 9,15,19,25 and 29. Subtract that figure from 36. Sum all other odd numbers plus items Add the figure from step 2 to obtain a total Cohesion score.

1. 2. 3. 4.

Sum items 24 and 28. Subtract that figure from 12. Sum all other even numbers expect items 30. Add the figure from step 2 and step 3 to obtain a total adaptability score.

Linear scoring and interpretation: Table (2)

Dimensions

Family Functioning

Cohesion

Flexibility

Type

Level

Very Connected

Very flexible

Balanced

Very high

Connected

Flexible

Sepreaited

Structured

Midrange

Low

Disengaged

Rigid

Unbalanced

Very Low

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Moderately balanced

High

89


3. FACES and SAUDI SOCIETY: Arabic country, espacially In saudi arabia, sufer from a lack of studies which focus on the family and relationship between members and an approprate family instrument . for instance, Jwaher (2005) discuss the reasons for divorce in saudi society and she mentiond that saudi family issues should be investigated more and measuring the family function of saudi society. As mentiond that the FACES has been translated in many different languages except arabic language. However, this study provides the technique of translation from original version to the arabic version and it will be followed up by pilot study but the pilot study is under process. Also, it would be good not only for saudi society but for all arabic countries as well. Moreover, the technique of translation will be helpfull for students to start translating the scale from language to other. 3.1

Study method: The current study used two methods to translate the scale from the English version to the Arabic version as

follows: 3.1.1 First method: it is called Back Translation and to do this method the researcher has determined some points I. II. III. IV. V.

The researcher chose a focus group of five Arab students who are studying a PhD in the United Kingdom and they are able to speak, read and write the English Language. The focus group was asked to read the questionnaires (English Version) and having a discussion to select the best Arabic statements for the original English version statements. After discussion they are in an agreement about the Arabic statements. The researcher required them to translate the instrument again from arabic to english to let them in the final step to compare between the statments of the original English version with the second Englis version. The final step is to compare between the first Original English version and the second English version.

Later, the researcher noticed that the focus group find some difficulties when they were asked to translate from Arabic to English language. This situation is considered to be dilemma. As a result, the researcher decided to take their arabic translation of the instrument and select a new set of ten referees from universities in the UK to do the second method of translation. 3.1.2 Second method: Table (3)

FACES Scale 2 ‫مقياس العالقه بين الزوجين‬

English version

We are 1 supportive of each other during difficult times.

I.

II. III.

Arabic Version

25%

50%

75%

100%

Comments

‫نحن ندعم بعضنا في‬ .‫االوقات والمواقف الصعبه‬

The researcher made a form as the table shows the form consisted of seven columns. The first column showed the English statements and the second one showed the Arabic statements and from three to six showed to what extent Arabic statements match with the English statements by using percentages; the final column was for comments. This form was provided to the referees to give their feedback on each statement by choosing the appropriate percentage. In the final step the researcher calculated the mean of each statement and he determined the percentage, (cut of score) 75% to accept the Arabic statements or whether need to be changed.

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The result: The percentages of all scale statements have touched 75% and more that means all statements are accepted and to ensure that the FACES scale is adapted correctly to be conducted in Saudi society, the researcher is now carrying out a pilot study to find out the properties for validity and reliability of the scale. 7.

Pilot study:

Nowadays, the pilot study is taking place and the researcher cannot provide the result of the psychometric properties of the FACES. Acknowledgment: 1-

I thank the Royal Embassy of Saudi Arabia in London for help the research to carry out the study.

2-

I thank Al-Baha University in Saudi Arabia for funding the PHD project.

3-

I thank the supervisory team Dr. Jens Binder, Dr. Maria Karanika-Murray and Dr. Thom Baguley for their advices.

4-

I thank NTU for giving the students good opportunity to present their project and the facilities.

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REFRENCES: Berry, T. J., Hurley, J. H., & Worthinton, L. E. (1990). Empirical validity of the Kvebaeck Family Sculpture Technique. The Amercan Journal of Family Therapy , 18, 19-31. Bloom, L. B. (1985). A factor analysis of self-report measure of family functioning . Family Process , 24, 225-239. Feldman, S. S., & Gehring, M. T. (1988). Changing perceptions of family cohesion and power across adolescence. Child Development , 59, 1034-1045. Kouneski, E. F. (2000). The Family Circumplex Model, FACES II,and FACES III: Overview of research and application . Twin Cities : University of Minnesota. Miller, W. I., Epstein, B. N., Bishop, S. D., & Keitner, I. G. (1985). The McMaster Family assessment Device:Reliabilty and Validity. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy , 11, 345-356. Olson, D. H. (2000). Circumplex Model of Marital and Family Systems. journal of Family Therapy, 22, 144-167. Olson, D. H., Bell, R., & Portuer, J. (1992). Family Inventories Manual. Minneapolis: Life Innoviations. Olson, H. D., McCubbin, I. H., & H, B. (1983). Families:What Makes them Work. Beverly Hills,CA: Sage Publications . Bradley, H. R., & Brisby, A. J. (1990). Assessment of the home environment .In J.H.Johnson & J.Goldman (EDS). Developmental assessement in clinical child psychology : Ahand book , 219-250. Kumpfer, L. K., & J, D. (1986). Family enviromental and genatic influnces on children's future chemical dependency. Childern in a Cotemporary Society, 18, 49-91. McCubbin, I. H., & Patterson, M. J. (1982). Family adabtation to crises . H.I. Novack, A. T., & Gage, J. R. (1995). Assessment of family function and social support . Amarican Psychological Association, 275-297. Jwaher, S. (2005). Survey about the reasons for divorce. Riyadh : www.Alriyadh.com

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MEDEA’S RHIZOME: AN ANALYSIS OF MYTHOLOGICAL WOMEN’S GENDER ROLES THROUGH A DELUZIAN LENS VICTORIA OLDHAM N0482845 E-mail: [email protected] Keywords: Literature, Myth, Comparative Literature, Rhizome, Deleuze Abstract

Long vilified as the woman who kills her own children, Medea is unquestionably a character of great complexity and depth. From her role as semi-heroine in The Argonautica by Apollonius of Rhodes to the terrifying and tragic villain of Euripides Medea, she is consistently stepping outside stereotypical gender roles of her time. Through the Deluzian lens of the rhizome, however, we can see that in contemporary literature there are plenty of Medea types who continue to be vilified and reviled when they step outside prescribed gender roles. Even books with the intention of bringing a feminist sensibility to a previously patriarchal story, like that of Helen of Troy by Margaret George, often end up re-inscribing those gender roles instead of reinventing them. My work focuses on the aspect of gender as it applies to mythological women in contemporary literature, comparing them to Medea as one of the first women to stand up for her rights, and in so doing, become a pariah and example of what happens when a woman enters into masculine territory. I seek to answer, if possible, the question of whether, as contemporary writers seek to give voice to the women of myth (e.g. The Penelopiad by Margaret Atwood) they are actually managing to create a new feminist voice, or if they are simply re-inscribing old gender norms and in so doing continuing to marginalize the female characters of myth. Toni Morrison’s Beloved, Margaret George’s Helen of Troy and Margaret Atwood’s The Penelopiad are all contrasted with the story of Medea in an effort to see if there really is any difference in feminist sensibilities from her time in Ancient Greece to our Modernist era.

Victoria Villasenor-Oldham

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Medea’s Rhizome

1. INTRODUCTION The Deluzian Rhizome suggests that limitless connections are happening at a continuous, unfathomable speed. While there may have been a singular, original starting point, or idea, by the time numerous offshoots have appeared from the original, it is virtually impossible to find the original idea. Like a patch of grass, it is impossible to figure out which was the first blade. So too does this apply to literature, and to gender in literature more specifically. Analyzed through a mythomorphic lens, we can see how one of the original Greek myths, that of Medea and the Golden Fleece, continues to be a relevant example of gender expectation and maternal conflict. Successive myths, like those of Penelope and Helen, place women in a less overtly aggressive position, and those “revisionings,” (new visions of old texts), are used as a direct source through which to compare my own creative reworking of an ancient myth. Throughout the years, authors have attempted to rewrite the stories of mythological heroes and heroines, further developing the themes of the original myth. In this way, we see the mythomorphic growth of the rhizome. Contemporary authors Margaret Atwood and Margaret George have both attempted this with mythological women in their respective novels The Penelopiad and Helen of Troy. The idea behind revisioning these powerful women’s stories is to give them a voice and attribute their actions to their own will, rather than to circumstance or the desire of men. The question is, have these authors managed to develop a new voice, a more ‘feminist’ voice through these retellings, or are they, in fact, simply reinscribing old gender roles? If the character of Medea, without retelling, is compared to the contemporary rhizomic revisionings of other myths, are they as strong, as capable and do they in any way transgress accepted gendered boundaries? As I attempt to revise the myth of Medea in my own creative work, (writing a novel from her point of view), gender representation and the writing process will be of primary focus. Using the reworkings of the Penelope and Helen myths as a framework through which to view female gender roles and myth, I will analyse their stories as a way to create Medea’s.

PENELOPE In the original myth, Penelope is the wife of Odysseus. While he fights for a decade in Troy, and then makes his way slowly home in the next decade, Penelope waits for him in rocky Ithaca, a remote and undesirable kingdom. She is faithful and is constantly mentioned by Homer as the ideal wife, pining away for her true husband and never losing faith that he will return. And when she is besieged by suitors who attempt to wrest the kingdom from her by eating and drinking her wealth away, she devises a trick: she will weave a burial shroud for her father in law, and will decide who to marry when she has finished it. But during the night she unweaves all her work, so that she never actually makes any progress. Of course, this plan eventually fails, but fortunately Odysseus is there to take over at the critical moment. He kills all the suitors, hangs the twelve maids who assisted the suitors, and restores his house to its proper place. In Margaret Atwood’s mythomorphic version, the story is told by Penelope in first person, from her home in Hades among the dead. In this way, it is similar to the Euripides play of Medea, where we get to hear her version of a woman’s experience in a heavily masculine world. Her focus is on the twelve maids Odysseus hung from the rafters as an example to others who might consider betraying them. What we get from Penelope in this version is the real story of the maids; they were not in league with the suitors, as much as they were spying on them at Penelope’s request. In Atwood’s version, Penelope explains that as a woman she had little choice with regard to where she went or who she married. She expects the reader, to whom she speaks, to understand that times were different then. It is almost as though she is aware of the rhizomic movement of her story through the ages (as Atwood indeed is), and wants the reader to know that she was not just a woman waiting for her husband. She had to learn to run a household, she had to deal with an irritable mother in law and a controlling maid. The question of whether Atwood manages to create a feminist version of this myth is an open one. In one sense, we get a mythological woman’s voice which has always been described or silenced by others. We get an idea of why she made the choices she did and that she did have a mind of her own. However, it is also true that at crucial moments, Penelope bursts into tears and falls asleep. In this way


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she could not be more stereotypically feminine, swooning at the first hint of instability or stress. She manages to hold the suitors off by being ‘crafty’ (as Odysseus was often described), but the fact remains that she was, as the myths suggest, a faithful, patient wife who waited two decades for her husband to come back. Atwood had the option to tell the story in such a way to give Penelope far more agency, but instead she keeps her strangely passive. There is an element of unreliable narrative, as she suggests more than once that there were rumours she took a lover, though it was never true. That she reminds the reader of that concept creates the possibility of veracity, however, Atwood could have made this more explicit and given Penelope more agency than she did.

HELEN OF TROY It’s possible that Helen of Troy will forever be the most well known woman of mythology. Her part in rhizomic literature is undeniable, as the ‘most beautiful woman in the world’ caused a ten-year war. The original myth, which was concurrent with that of Penelope’s, told the story of Helen of Sparta, who married King Menelaus and created a prosperous union between their two kingdoms. When Prince Paris of Troy came as an envoy before Menelaus, Helen and Paris fell instantly in love. When Paris left to return to Troy, Helen fled with him. Shortly thereafter followed a decade of war against Troy as the Spartan army attempted to retrieve Helen. They conquered Troy, burning it to the ground, and Helen went back to Sparta with Menelaus, his wife once again, her paramour left in a grave under the ashes of Troy. In Margaret George’s contemporary revisioning, Helen herself tells the story of her life, right to the time of old age. The reader learns about her passion, her terrible debt to the goddess of love, and her eventual desire to give up the man she loves in order to stop the masses of death below the fortress of Troy. While Penelope is quick witted and dry, Helen is sensitive and passionate. When she is given the option to stop the madness before it truly begins, the goddess takes the passion away, and Helen panics as the world of beauty created by love turns grey and dull once more: “I could feel, for an instant, her leaving. I could feel her draining away, leaving me dull and colourless, as my life had been before the roses.” (2007, 224) She decides in that fateful moment to follow her passion rather than live a life of complacent servitude. While George’s Helen is decidedly heavily gendered, being as she is the most beautiful woman to have ever lived and the epitome of femininity, the insight provided into her decisions and actions is also instrumental in gauging how, by leaving her husband to choose a man of her own, she wilfully breaks through the gendered boundaries in which she has been placed. Just as Atwood had to use the general framework of Penelope and the shroud, so too did George have to use the general framework of Helen’s love for Paris to tell her story. However, this revision is somewhat paradoxical: that a woman would choose love over honour seems cliché, and the fact that George takes agency away from Helen by making the reasoning come from an external source (in this case a deity), seems a direct offshoot of rhizomic gender expectations. But when Helen attempts to flee Troy in order to stop the war, willing to give up the life she wants in order to save those she loves, she shows a bravery worthy of the warriors who fight below her. When she is caught, she stays strong in the face of her adversary within Troy, refusing to cower. George manages to convey in this revisioning a kind of middle ground, a new shoot of the rhizome. While there are still distinctly problematic gendered tropes in play, there is also a clear and enviable attempt to develop a character who is able to move beyond them to some extent.

MEDEA The Jason and the Argonauts myth, or that of the Golden Fleece, is one of the oldest recorded myths in Greek Mythology, possibly predating the mythos of the Homeric Age of Heroes by several centuries (Apollonius, 2009: xix). However, prior to Euripides play, Medea, she had become little more than a side note in the Jason and the Argonauts myth, which, as it moved through the rhizome, from oral to written, began to focus instead on the ‘hero’ of the journey rather than on all the characters in play. Early versions of the myth included her as a power source, the only way in which Jason could gain what he needed to regain his kingdom. Without her, he is lost, and this myth is singular in its appreciation of the powers given to a woman. Though the invention of infanticide came later, even in the early versions of the myth, it is Medea who kills and dismembers her brother, and, later, convinces Pelias’s daughters to murder their father. She is a polarizing figure, a woman in a man’s role of protector and hero. Perhaps that


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is why Euripides felt confident in developing the later adaptation of her revenge on Jason by murdering their children; as she did in the other murders she committed, she feels justified and clearly shows her reasoning for the terrible deeds she commits. In the mythomorphic rhizome, Medea served as a warning of what might happen when a woman was allowed to move beyond the boundaries of her socialized gender. The dire message of the play is that if allowed to behave in a masculine way, a woman will perform a variety of vile acts, including the murder of her own flesh and blood. Unlike Penelope, Medea was not being used as a pawn in a political system. When Jason arrived in her land, she was an independent priestess in the temple of Hecate. Like Helen, however, she was used by a goddess, her heart pierced by Eros’s arrow at the behest of his mother: “[Eros] crouched down low at Jason’s feet, fitted the arrow-notch to the bowstring, and stretching the bow wide in his two hands shot straight at Medea. Her spirit was seized by speechless stupor” (Apollonius, 2009:72). However, when she leaves Jason’s presence, she fights the goddess’s biding, tearing at her hair and crying out against betraying her family. Ultimately, of course, the politics of Mount Olympus wins out, and she moves forward. Like Helen, she cannot fight against the course the gods have set. What sets Medea apart from her mythogically rhizomic counterparts, however, is the role she then plays in the rest of the Argonautic trip, as well as in the assistance of the quest itself. Were it not for Medea, Jason would have been killed attempting the tasks set before him by the king. He is fully dependant on her for his survival. And when they make their journey home, he is often found wailing and depressed about their impending death, but thanks to Medea’s constant skills and clear thinking, they make it through every obstacle. Thus, she is clearly different from her female counterparts: rather than sitting and waiting or trying anything underhanded, or standing by while events unfold as would a ‘proper’ woman, she is actively involved in a more masculinised sense. There were many versions of the Argonaut myth, the final one being Euripides theatrical version, which takes place some ten years after the Argonaut expedition. In this ancient rhizomic revisioning, Euripides takes the myth a step further, and investigates the position of a woman like Medea, one who stood beside Jason on the voyage rather than cowering below him. She began in a more active (masculine) position, and so when the time comes for her to face betrayal, she does so as she did before: actively and aggressively. When Jason sets her aside as a barbarian for a younger woman who will give him power, Medea doles out death, just as she did when she was helping him gain what he wanted. She murders the younger woman with a poisoned wedding dress (an item of celebratory femininity turned to a gateway to death), and then, in the utmost horror, murders the children they had together. Not only does she wish to hurt him, but she also wants to keep them from being raised by a man she feels has no honour; and honour was a concept reserved for men, not women. But here she reverses the roles, accusing him of having no honour while she does what she must to defend her own. Perhaps most intriguing about this revision, and almost feminist in nature, is that unlike most areas of myth where infanticide/fratricide is involved, Medea is not punished in any fashion. Penelope’s maids were hung and Odysseus repaid her fidelity by going off again within a short period of time, and Helen lost Paris in the war and was then returned like chattel to Menalaus. Medea mounted a golden chariot sent by the sun god, and flew to Athens, where she married the King of Athens. Atwood’s Penelope and George’s Helen are both victims of circumstance who are portrayed as doing their best to transgress within the limited world they inhabit, which is heavily gendered. Both revisionings attempt to give voice to women whose stories have always been told for them. Investigations have been made into their reasonings and actions to supply a sense of time and place as well as the sociological place they inhabit as women. Although Medea was a victim of a goddess’s machinations, from the moment she stepped aboard the Argo, she began making choices to suit her purpose. Throughout her journey she acted the heroine, never faltering from the path she chose, even when that path meant the grisly death of several people, including her own children. In the fashion of Atwood and George, my work attempts to offer another shoot of the rhizome as I revision Medea’s story in an attempt to understand her motivations and emotions from her point of view, without making her a victim or gendering her behaviour in a way that is not true to the myth. As authors, Atwood and George had the options to step further out of gendered boundaries and to create even more interesting versions of the mythological rhizome, and I believe that Medea’s story has the same potential. By understanding the way gender is part of the rhizome, we can understand how to revision it outside of


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myth, as a way to reconstruct rigid gender expectations and develop a new discourse about how gender is performed outside of the literary rhizome.

REFERENCES Apollonius of Rhodes, c. 300BC [2009]: The Argonautica: Jason and the Golden Fleece. London: Oxford University Press. Atwood, M., 2005: The Penelopiad. Edinburgh: Canongate Books Limited. Campbell, J., 1991. The Power of Myth. New York: First Anchor Books. Euripides, c. 400BC [1996]: Alcestis and Other Plays. New York: Penguin Books. George, M., 2007: Helen of Troy. Oxford: Macmillan Publishers. Homer, c. 400BC [1970]: The Iliad and the Odyssey. New York: Barnes and Noble Books.


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EXTENDING THE BOUNDARIES OF KNOWLEDGE: SOCIAL MISBEHAVIOUR IN NOTTINGHAM AND THE ARCHDEACONRY COURT 1580-1640. HELEN DREW N0210055 E-mail: [email protected] Keywords: Community, Morality, Church Court, Social, Regional. Abstract

The Early Modern period in English history has often been defined by Henry VIII’s split from the Catholic Church and the religious reformation he apparently sought to instil across the country. This means that to some extent many other aspects such as social and cultural history have been overlooked or deputised in favour of the infamous religious and political events of the era. This research project delves into the records of a regional ecclesiastical court (Archdeaconry Court of Nottingham) to analyse the types and levels of social misdemeanours that were being reported to the officials in order for them to act to protect the moral health of the community. The county of Nottinghamshire is an interesting area which contained a remarkable diversity of communities due to a number of geographical variations, and this could potentially have impacted on the behaviour under scrutiny and the attitudes surrounding them. Thus far most studies into Early Modern social history have focused on creating a national generalisation of events and behaviour; but it is often the local examples and anomalies that provide the most valuable insights into the social and moral lives of the ordinary person. Due to the regional approach and the focus on social offences brought to the attention of the church courts, this project and paper is breaking the boundaries of existing research and knowledge. This paper will present the aims of the project as a whole and discuss the preliminary findings and analysis that are indicative.

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Social Misbehaviour in Nottingham and the Archdeaconry Court 1580-1640

1. INTRODUCTION English early modern history is often dominated by the infamous political and religious events that occurred during the period; such as Henry VIII’s split from the Catholic Church, the creation of the Church of England and the Civil War. However, there is much more to the era than meets the eye, and by sidestepping the history of the grand and elite much more can be discovered. The life of the ‘ordinary’ parishioner (if such a term can be used) can provide numerous useful inferences into attitudes held by the populace and the impact national events had upon localities. There is a current academic trend within the subject promoting the investigation of the social and cultural lives of the general populace, as opposed to focusing on the famous and elite members of society. Focus is also moving away from national generalisations, which were once a popular way of assessing historical occurrences and now much more attention and importance is fixed on regional studies. Each region will have experienced events such as the Reformation differently due to its geographical position, inhabitants and prominent political allegiance, and Nottingham is an interesting example, given its land borders with four neighbouring counties and the situation of its church courts. The fact that a wealth of material from the Archdeaconry Court of Nottingham has survived and is accessible; along with the counties unique situation make it an ideal focus for research such as the project described in this paper. Whilst essentially being a regional study, the results, analysis and findings will inform national assessments for the period and could shed light on patterns of social and moral behaviour. Social history is becoming an increasingly popular sub-discipline, but for some areas it is still drastically under-developed. The majority of work done in this field focuses either on the national situation (more of a generalisation of common trends) or case studies of regions other than Nottinghamshire. For example some of the most influential works in early modern social history, for instance that of J.A Sharpe (1987) and John Addy (1989), provide national overviews while others offer insights into specific areas, such as Quaife (1979) who has focused on Somerset in his assessment of illicit sex. So there is ample opportunity to both extend and break the boundaries of existing social history in the Nottinghamshire area.

2. PERIODISATION, VICINITY AND PEOPLE The period under scrutiny was supposedly characterised by the notion of settlement, often referred to as the Elizabethan settlement, following a phase of confusing religious and political upheaval – but in terms of behaviour were people really living a godly, moral and settled life? In short no they were not, in the case of religion, recusants and non-conformists were active and striving for prominence in England. Social behaviour and community life was also very turbulent as the results from my investigations so far are illustrating; the population were not conforming to the codes of behaviour that were idealised and instilled and so the church courts were frequently called upon to deal with complaints and disputes. The county of Nottinghamshire was split into five deaneries (Bingham, Nottingham, Retford, Newark and Southwell Peculiar) during the early modern period which allowed more efficiency in the ecclesiastical administration of the area, and each deanery consisted of a varying number or parishes. The smallest of which, Southwell Peculiar, despite being in the very centre of the county was attached to a jurisdiction outside of Nottingham and so we need not concern ourselves with that vicinity. The documents under the spotlight for this piece of research are what are known as the ‘Presentment Bills’, which were documents created for each parish by the local officials who were known as the church wardens. These bills were submitted to the Archdeaconry Court at regular intervals summarising parish business, but most importantly for social history they included reports which presented any moral misdoings of parishioners for consideration and potentially further action. The churchwardens charged with collating these documents, were members of the community in which they served as officials, their levels of literacy varied which indicates that they were not chosen purely from the educated or elite sections of society. Their positions as permanent residents of the parish

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meant that they were ideally placed to assess and observe behaviour of all kinds. It could however also prove to be problematic, as William Muggleston, a churchwarden from Upper Broughton discovered in 1624, when he was assaulted whilst trying to ascertain the guilt of another parishioner through observance (AN/PB 314/4/12, 1624). Whilst utilising parishioners as officials could be incredibly useful it could also prove tricky in the sense that they may have been reluctant to present friends and family whom they knew to be guilty, so that they could avoid punishment and embarrassment. The beauty of the presentment bills and other localised ecclesiastical court records is that they provide the details of people who for the most part would remain silent in terms of historical evidence, as the majority of the surviving evidence pertains to the rich, elite and landed members of society. In comparison these documents can provide a wealth of material, as some of the church wardens were meticulous in recording the details of those they presented; which allows a much more detailed understanding of the communities that existed within the county to be created. The church courts were one of the few outlets that provided a voice for members of the populace whose opinions and concerns were expected to remain inaudible.

3. COURT, CONDUCT AND COMMUNITY There are a number of offences which came under the jurisdiction of the ecclesiastical court– in that they were either moral or religious lapses in behaviour - that can be labelled as social. They include: brawling or violence, scolding and railing, defamation, cursing, disorderly behaviour, drunkenness, drinking on a Sabbath, playing unlawful games and a variety of sexual offences. In order to make the research more coherent the offences within this grouping had to be further collated to form sub-categories. For the purpose of this paper they will therefore be referred to via the sub-headings, which are violent conduct, verbal offences, behavioural offences and marital/relationship related offences. In order to survive and flourish the Archdeaconry Court relied greatly upon the support and cooperation of the community it served. One thing that has become increasingly clear during my interrogation of the surviving documentary evidence is that the community were heavily involved in the localised ecclesiastical courts. There are numerous instances where the community asked for measures to be taken by the court, as in an example from 1625, where the bill states that the churchwardens: ‘desire exemplary justice to give the congregation satisfaction’; (AN/PB 302/243, 1625), this illustrates that the parishioners were unhappy with the moral behaviour of some of its members and were using the court in an attempt to solve the problem. There are, however even more instances of members of the parish reporting and informing on their friends, neighbours and even relatives in an attempt to solve the moral and social ills of their neighbourhood. Again this clearly illustrates the community’s willingness to use the Archdeaconry Court and its processes to take action against those who they deemed to be threatening the stability of their locality. Some historians have previously downplayed the importance of both the localised church courts and churchwardens in this period. Margaret Steig (Ingram, 1987, p.364), John Addy ((1989, p.199) and Stephen Lander (Haigh ed., 1988, p.34-56) have all remarked that the regional church courts were ineffectual, unpopular and in some cases corrupt – but this thesis aims to reassess the reality of the church court’s position in society when dealing with social offences. Other presentment bills also infer that parishioners were aware of the court processes and the duties of the churchwardens as statements were made presenting the wardens for failing to report parishioners for sins that had been committed. This supports the notion that in Nottinghamshire the relationship between society and the church court was one of mutual utility, even if respect for the institution was lacking at times. Unfortunately, as with most examples of historical research it is necessary to be aware of underlying motives for the creation of any document, and the presentment bills are no exception – the courts may have been used to incriminate innocent parishioners for malicious purposes; as presentments for certain offences had the ability to seriously damage and tarnish a person’s reputation. The community in Nottinghamshire’s parishes appear to have acted, through the church courts, when they felt distressed at or threatened by the behaviour of their neighbours – utilising the ecclesiastical authorities when a person’s conduct was problematic but not illegal. The evidence of the presentment bills suggests that people were aggrieved when fellow members of the parish flouted official and unofficial

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behavioural codes and acted appropriately. This is not to say that informants to the court were themselves the picture of morality and piety, but that they disapproved of those who they were aware of who were misbehaving.

4. PRELIMINARY FINDINGS Although the research is still ongoing, patterns are already forming that will shed light on behaviours that have been previously unexplored in relation to Nottinghamshire. For example a number of the violent and verbal offences that were presented to the Archdeacon for Bingham and Nottingham took place either in the Church or church yard surrounding the Sunday services. Attendance was compulsory and so the church was the focal point of the community; it also meant that those who held grievances also came into direct contact with each other and so confrontations occurred. Granted this is not altogether surprising and is in line with the findings of similar studies pertaining to other regions in England. However, further results are exposing fascinating trends surrounding the social behaviour of Nottinghamshire inhabitants that has not previously been investigated in detail. Preliminary results show that apart from consistently high levels of presentments relating to sexual offences, there are some discrepancies between the deaneries in terms of the number of presentments for certain social offences. The deaneries of Nottingham and Retford had extremely high levels of people Sabbath breaking for social purposes and drinking on a Sabbath; for the deanery of Bingham this was also the most common social offence, along with brawling/violence – but the presentments were much fewer in number. In fact, the numbers for presentments for this offence in Retford alone is nearly double the amount of total presentments for social offences for the deanery of Bingham. Whilst the deaneries do vary in size and population, the figures show that there are some vast differences in behaviour or at the very least in the perceptions of what constitutes a moral or social problem worthy of presentment to the courts in some areas. Some offences are likely to have been viewed as more dangerous to the community than others, although the criteria for this is variable. Violent offences were problematic because they could cause serious physical injury, whilst verbal offences – particularly defamation could cause irreparable damage to a person’s reputation. Sabbath breaking for social reasons, including drinking on a Sabbath, may not seem to be very morally dangerous by modern perceptions, but it usually implies that the perpetrators were absenting themselves from church services and therefore encouraging the wrath of God to punish the community. Their absence from required church services would also have been very easy to spot and may account for the high numbers of this offence being detected.

5. CONCLUSION The results so far illustrate that the moral condition of Nottingham was far from settled and that a large number of social, and therefore moral, offences were being committed, detected and presented to the church courts. Patterns emerging from the documentary analysis are indicative of which social offences were not only occurring the most but also which offences were deemed to be the most serious by the community and therefore were being presented on a more regular basis and with more urgency. Such inferences into the social and cultural history, behaviour and attitudes of the populace of early modern Nottinghamshire will provide new knowledge and understandings of the period and locality. It will extend the existing historical knowledge of the region and will also provide data and theories towards national assessments and studies.

6. REFERENCES Primary Archival Sources:

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AN/PB, Presentment Bills, 1587-1863, Manuscripts and Special Collections, University of Nottingham,

Secondary Sources: ADDY, J., Sin and Society in the Seventeenth Century, London: Routledge, 1989. INGRAM, M., Church Courts, Sex and Marriage in England, 1570-1640, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987. LANDER, S., ‘Church Courts and the Reformation in the diocese of Chichester 1500-58’, in HAIGH, C., (ed.), The English Reformation Revised, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988, pp. 34-56. QUAIFE, G.R., Wanton Wenches and Wayward Wives: Peasants and illicit sex in Seventeenth Century England, London: Croom Helm Ltd, 1979. SHARPE, J..A., Early Modern England: A Social History, 1550-1760, London: Arnold, 1987.

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KURDISH ONLINE JOURNALISM: Shifting Boundaries of Privacy Rights during the Coverage of the 2014 General Election Campaigns

SHWAN ADAM W. AIVAS NTU ID: N0439569 E-mail: [email protected]

Keywords: Privacy, Online Journalism, Journalism Ethics, Kurdistan Region, Election Campaigns Abstract: It is becoming increasingly difficult to ignore the media intrusion into privacy rights. The issue of privacy has been a controversial and much disputed subject within the field of media ethics. Consequently, invasion of privacy has become a contemporary phenomenon in the online journalism that is expanding broadly across the world. Accordingly, the current study will look at the impact of Kurdish online journalism on the private lives of ordinary citizens and public figures in the Kurdistan Region. The research sample is the coverage of news stories of the general th election campaigns of Iraq, and the Kurdistan Region that will occur on 30 April 2014. The researcher will practise the methods of: (1) A case study of the British - Leveson inquiry regarding the scandal of phone hacking. This might be useful counter point or a base, when analysing the main case of Kurdish online journalism that includes mainstream and alternative media in the Kurdistan Region. (2) Content analysis of Kurdish online news texts. (3) Semi-structured interviews with media decision-makers, experts, journalists, editors, managers, and ordinary citizens; in order to deeply understand privacy issues.

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1. INTRODUCTION Recently, there is no straightforward answer to the question of whether privacy infringed by media and journalists is ethical or not. However, it mostly can be noted that the media intrusion into privacy rights resulting in lack of abiding professional ethics and legislations of the media. In this day and age, it is becoming increasingly difficult to ignore the media intrusion into privacy rights around the world. More recently, there has been a growing interest in online journalism as the newest type of new media. It has become an important component of any democratic system, and plays a key role in the election campaigns. As a result, invasion of privacy has become a contemporary phenomenon in the network journalism that is expanding broadly across the world. The Kurdish media encountered this problem, especially, during the election campaigns, when issues of privacy intrusions seem to be more acute. Privacy issues related to freedom of speech as essential human rights will be looked at and how the right to free speech and freedom of press are practically protected in the Kurdistan Region’s legislation will be demonstrated. Accordingly, the current research is working on the impact of Kurdish online journalism on the private lives of ordinary citizens and public figures; particularly during the coverage of 2014 Iraq and Kurdistan Region’s Election Campaigns. Hence, privacy issues, online journalism in the Kurdistan Region, objectivity and the problems of the study, and the research methodology will be discussed in this paper.

2. PRIVACY ISSUES: DENOTATIONS AND TYPES One of the most significant current debates in legal and moral philosophy of new media is the privacy issue, which is important to the protection of individual rights in the public and private spheres. The initial idea of privacy was that of the people’s right to be left alone (Warren & Brandeis 1890:193). In this sense, privacy as a legal human right should be valued owing to the fact that “privacy has been described as the right of the individual to be protected against intrusion into his personal life or affairs, or those of his family, by direct physical means or by information dissemination” (Welsh et al 2005:389). Likewise, Sanders (2005) and Belsey (1992) set out three models of privacy. The first, Physical Privacy, means that all things related to the human body should be respected. The second, Mental and Communication Privacy, indicates the relationship between the inner and outer world of a person. Third and last, Information Privacy is a person’s private data that includes pictures, data, letters, telephone number, chat, video conference and so on. Indeed, several scholars for example, Bussian and Levine (2004), and Christians et al., (1995) classified the cases of privacy into four distinct types by using: Intrusion upon seclusion or solitude, publicity that places individuals in a false light, appropriation of an individual’s name or likeness for commercial advantage, and public disclosure of embarrassing private affairs (1995:115). Additionally, Westin (1968) emphasizes that the privacy is the wish of individuals to select liberally in what situations, and to what range they will disclose themselves. Also, it involves their approaches and their conduct to others, because “privacy is not merely a legal right but a human condition or status in which humans, by virtue of their humanness, control the time, place, and circumstances of communications about themselves” (Meyers 2010: 204). 2.1

PRIVACY ISSUES: PROFESSIONAL ETHICS IN JOURNALISM

In terms of professional standards, recent developments in the domain of online journalism have led to a renewed interest in ethics. Morrison and Svennevig (2007) view the ethics principle as an important part of moral philosophy, which includes recommending, systematizing and defending the connotation of right and mistaken conduct. However, the author offers no explanation for the distinction between ethics and morality; according to Deni Elliott “Ethics begins when elements of a moral system conflict” (Patterson & Wilkins 2008: 4). So, ethics mostly relates to professional practice standards. For instance, the ethics of journalism may be broadly defined as the branch of media ethics that is concerned with the measurement, causes and consequences of professional problems. The key aspects of media ethics can be listed as follows: freedom, credibility, transparency, privacy, responsibility, objectivity, justice, protection of information sources. Jones (2005) believe that the public figures have less privacy than ordinary people. This means that the privacy of individuals who have responsibility or a position in the government is liable to be invaded due to their fame or publicity. Figures such as; judges, officials of police and school educators perhaps have fewer rights because of their position is influence on the public spheres. However, lawyers are trying to limit how far the journalists and their channels could be permitted

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KURDISH ONLINE JOURNALISM: Shifting Boundaries of Privacy Rights during the Coverage of the 2014 General Election Campaigns to intrude into the individuals’ private life. Additionally, there is a limited degree of elasticity in the law concerning privacy rights. Also, it is extremely difficult to separate between public and private lives. Nevertheless, journalists should make a clear distinction between public and private figures, exclusively between public locations and private positions. Indeed, privacy rights as a term was first used by two American lawyers in the Supreme Court of the United States in 1890. In addition to the legal circumstances such as constitutional guarantees of privacy, their perspectives were a good start to legalize the notion within the frame-work of law in the United States of America, and it has since been published everywhere (Sanders 2005). In recent decades, due to the drawbacks of technology’s impact most of the countries in the world are trying to protect the statutory right to privacy, such as United States, France, Canada, Germany and Spain (Keeble 2001: 48). It is obviously misguided to say that every country has the same punishment for journalists who infringe privacy rights through new media and online journalism. Also, these are due to various legal limitations, cultural differences and other considerations. The protection of privacy can be seen as a key principle of human rights and professional ethics in journalism. Furthermore, some global conventions suggested placing a ban on intrusion into people’s private life, for example, Article twelve of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948, and Article eight of the European Convention on Human Rights in 1950. Similarly, a large number of internal legislations have mentioned protection of privacy, such as the Iraqi Constitution in 2005, the Kurdistan Region’s Constitution draft in 2009 and various local Acts for example; the Iraqi Penal Code, Iraqi Personal Status Law, Iraqi Copy Right with Kurdistan Region’s Press Law, Access to Information Right Law, and the Abuse of Communication Law. 2.2

PRIVACY ISSUES: ONLINE JOURNALISM IN THE KURDISTAN REGION

Historically, a few centuries ago the Great Kurdistan was divided into Iraq, Iran, Syria and Turkey. The Kurdistan Region, which is an independent part of the Great Kurdistan, has an estimated population of five million that apart from Kurds also embraces the ethnic and religious groups of the Assyrians, Chaldeans, Turkoman, Armenians and Arabs. Kurdish, which belongs to the Indo-European family of languages, is the main and only official language of this region. Typically, local rules and regulations have been inspired by Islamic Sharia Law that pays extraordinary attention to protect individual's privacy rights. The South of Kurdistan, as native speakers call, it has declared its unofficial separation from Iraq since 1991. The first general elections of the Kurdistan Region occurred in 1992. This caused the formation of the Kurdistan Parliament and Kurdistan Regional Government (KRG) to be run in tandem by the two major parties. However, this was followed by a bitter civil war that separated the Kurdistan Region into two administration zones until the invasion of Iraq (or Iraqi liberation) in 2003. As a result, political pluralism and civic opposition powers flourished, particularly after the 2009 elections in the Kurdish Region, when the opposition parties won more than one-third of the Kurdistan parliament seats. Over the past decade, there has been a dramatic growth in the Kurdish online journalism due to the development of communication technology. In the recent years, the readers of traditional media have dramatically decreased resulting in the closing down of many printed media outlets. Then, journalists are one of the most widely user groups of online digital media to convey new information and produce first-hand news story as an essential source. Since 2003, when the former Iraqi Regime collapsed, the Kurdish media in general have expanded rapidly and introduced the Kurdish society to a previously unfamiliar field. This expansion has brought with it an array of new ethical complications involving privacy issues. Similarly, given the absence of legislation to deal with online journalism in the Kurdistan Region, these complications have remained unresolved. With reference to Kurdish culture; the family or group is much more important than individuals due to the absence of the conception of individualism. It involves the view that everyone should have the right to improve him or herself based on private choices, whether or not that suits the community (McLaren 1998: 22). In the past, Kurdish culture did not see privacy as a personal right that should be respected and protected. So far, however, in the Kurdistan Region there has been little conversation about individualism ideas. Therefore, privacy protection in the private and public spheres is not a political or cultural issue yet, because of a lower awareness level of the political system and individual’s background. However, the acceptance of this concept is gradually increasing. 2.3

PRIVACY ISSUES: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

In order to answer the three main research questions; three main research methods have been chosen: (1) a case study; (2) Content analysis; and (3). Semi-structured interviews

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3.1 Research Aims and Problems The key aim of this study is to understand the impact of Kurdish media intrusion into privacy rights. Besides, it will seek to find out the fundamental aspects of privacy rights that are infringed by government, political parties, commercial companies, media and journalists due to various reasons. Therefore, the current research will attempt to answer the following research questions that are divided into three main problems: 1.

How does Kurdish online journalism (XENDAN, RUDAW, NRT, LIVEN, PUKMEDIA) cover an individual’s privacy rights; during the coverage of general election campaigns (Iraq and Kurdistan Region) in 2014?

2.

What are the main issues related to the private lives of individuals that are invaded by Kurdish Journalists, especially during the coverage of general election campaigns?

3.

What is the impact of Kurdistan Region’s Legislation (Press Law, Access to Information Right Law, and the Abuse of Communication Law) on protecting individual privacy rights?

3.2 A Case Study It was decided that the best method to adopt for this study was to focus on a case study of the British - Leveson inquiry regarding the scandal of phone hacking. It would be used to compare and understand the privacy issues raised by the relationship between legislation and journalistic practice in emerging and developed democracies. One of the main advantages of using diverse data sources is comparison of similarities and differences of the Leveson-inquiry, as a current privacy issue of journalism ethics and legislation, in the United Kingdom and the Kurdistan Region.

3.3 Quantitative Content Analysis In order to find out how Kurdish media are covering the issue of privacy, the sample of professional online journalism texts from Kurdistan Region will be created. The data will be collected st th th during the four weeks of the general election campaigns during 1 – 28 April, which will occur on 30 April 2014. The samples of five Kurdish websites: XENDAN, RUDAW, NRT, LIVEN, AND PUKMEDIA was suggested based on the Alexa’s Top Sites in Iraq. The content analysis will take periods of samples alternately. For example, three days per-week, 12 days per month, which would be randomly selected st rd samples during whole campaign period. In the first week the period of 1 – 3 April (Tuesday, th th Wednesday, Thursday) would be selected. In the second week includes 11 – 13 . In the third week th th th th covers 15 – 17 ; and in the last week contains 26 – 28 April.

3.4 Qualitative Semi-Structured Interviews Six media policy-makers, experts of media legislation and professional ethics will be interviewed, and ten interviews with journalists, editors, mangers, and ordinary citizens will be conducted. This will add to a deep understanding of the privacy issue as a key component of human rights, press regulation, and journalism ethics. In addition to answering the main research problems the sub-research questions will be classified into four main sections: Questions regarding understanding the atmosphere of Kurdish media in general; questions about understanding the privacy issue in Kurdish online journalism; questions concerning understanding the privacy issues in professional journalism ethics; questions around understanding the privacy issue in the Kurdistan Region’s legislation. After the collection of qualitative data from the answers of 16 in-depth interviewees, data will be transcribed, (or translated from Kurdish into English). Subsequently, the data will be coded and analysed based on the three main research questions.

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4.

REFERENCES AND BIBLOGRAPHY:

ANTAKI, C., BILLIG, M., EDWARDS, D. & POTTER, J. 2003. Discourse analysis means doing analysis: A critique of six analytic shortcomings. Discourse Analysis Online, 1 (1). BELSEY, A., 1992. “Privacy, Publicity and Politics”, in Belsey, A. & Chadwick, R. (eds), Ethical Issues in Journalism and the Media. London: Routledge. BERELSON, B., 1952. Content Analysis in Communication Research. New York: Free Press. BERGER, A., 2000. Media and Communication Research Methods: An Introduction to Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches. US, Sage. th

BRYMAN, A., 2012. Social research methods. 4 ed. New York, Oxford: Oxford University Press. nd

DENSCOMBE, M., 2 ed., 2003. The Good Research Guide for small-scale social research projects.. London: Open University Press. ESS, C., 2009. Digital Media Ethics. Cambridge: Polity Press. HANSEN, A., et al., 1998. Mass Communication Research Methods. London: Palgrave Macmillan. HOLSTI, O. R., 1969. Content Analysis for the Social Sciences and Humanities. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. International Christian Organisation of the Media (ICOM), [no date]. Professional Ethics in Journalism [online]. Available at: http://www.icomworld.info/do/eje.htm [Accessed 28 November 2013]. JONES, C., 2005. Winning with the News Media. [Online]. Available at: http://www.winningth newsmedia.com/privacy.htm [Accessed 28 November 2014]. KEEBLE, R., 2001. Ethics for journalists. London, Rutledge. MEYERS, C., eds., 2010. Journalism Ethics a Philosophical Approach, Oxford University Press. NEUENDORF, K., 2002. The content analysis guidebook, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. PLAISANCE, P, L., 2009. Media Ethics Key Principle for Responsible Practices. California. SAGE Publications. rd

SANDERS, K., 3 ed., 2005. Ethics & journalism. Sage Publications Ltd, London SEALE, C., ed., 2012. RESEARCHING SOCIAL AND CULTURE. 3 Publications Ltd.

rd

ed. London: SAGE

SOLOVE, D., 2009. Understanding privacy. Harvard University Press. YIN, R. K., 4th ed., 2009. Case Study Research. Design and Methods,. Thousand Oaks, Los Angeles: Sage Publications.

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CHALLENGING EXISTING BOUNDARIES TO CREATE NEW MARKETS


CO-CREATING ENGAGING EXPERIENCES IN THE CHINESE RESTAURANT SECTOR TENGFEI MA N0428689 Email: [email protected] Keywords: Experience, Co-creation, Customer engagement Abstract With the rise of service-dominant logic paradigm, co-creation and customer engagement have grown considerably in unprecedented fashion. Nevertheless, research on the role of customer experience in co-creation/engagement is relatively little. How to co-create/engage customers through partnership with companies becomes an important theoretic and practical issue. In fact, in the experience economy, companies start to make experience marketing the base of future marketing, and customer experience becomes the core of market competitiveness instead of goods and service. Existing studies on customer experience are mainly concerned with large companies and their customers, but not on restaurants and their customers. Restaurants play a major role in Chinese social life. This investigation will perform a different and more comprehensive study than those undertaken previously in this area. It will base on the conceptual terms of experience, co-creation and customer engagement, utilising restaurant as a vehicle to explore and evaluate the potential of customer experience co-creation/engagement in China. There are two strands of research: an inductive strand will be used to develop a questionnaire/set of scales, which will represent relevant latent variables in respect of co-creation and customer engagement; in the deductive strand the questionnaire/scales will be used for conducting a major consumer survey to measure the nature, direction and strength of relevant relationships between a range of latent variables.

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Co-creating engaging experiences in the Chinese restaurant sector

1. INTRODUCTION Customer experience is holistic in nature and involves the customer’s cognitive, affective, emotional, social and physical responses to the service offering which is based on more than just the factors a company can control (e.g. price, atmosphere, product); it also depends on the elements that cannot be adjusted and constrained (e.g. word-of-mouth, purchase intent) (Verhoef et al., 2009). For the restaurant sector, the customer experience comprises the total experience, starting from the search, continuing with purchase and consumption, and then with after-sale experience. These stages are identified by Tynan and McKechnie (2009) as: Pre-experience (before visiting), Primary-experience (whilst visiting) and Post-experience (after visiting). As marketing theory has evolved to embrace what Vargo and Lusch (2004, 2008) have termed ‘service dominant logic’ (S-D Logic), the importance of the consumer-service firm’s interaction has become more acknowledged, and the customer has been highlighted as an important co-creator of experience space (Prahalad and Krishnan, 2008). This experience space is conceptually distinct from that of the product and consumption space: within the space, the individual consumer is central, by means of the interaction that puts customers in touch with the firm and other customers; it also is the source of any personal meaning derived from the co-creation experience, which determines the value of the experience to the individual (Ramaswamy, 2009). Likewise, Helkkula et al. (2012) state that the experience cocreation is an interactive and collaborative process in which the customer actively participates in the configuration of a personalised experience with the firm and other customers. Recently, considerable attention has been directed at an associated concept termed ‘consumer engagement’ (Bowden, 2009; Hollebeek, 2011; Brodie et al., 2013). Prahalad (2004) identifies customer engagement as a form of marketing that involves co-creation with customers. From S-D Logic perspectives (Brodie et al., 2013), customer engagement is focused on the importance of enduring, cocreative interactions and relationships amongst value generating stakeholders. Customer engagement behaviours include a variety of customers’ behavioural expressions that have influences on firms, such as word-of-mouth activity, referrals and recommendations, voluntary assistance with other customers, web postings and blogging, participation in brand communities, engagement in product development, and other behavioural manifestations that are likely to influence the firm and its brands (van Doorn et al., 2010). To date, few studies have systematically explored the exact nature, or dimensionality, of customer co-creating engagement behaviour in the Chinese academic field, leaving its precise composition unclear (Jia, 2012). Some studies use a multidimensional approach to capture customer cocreation/engagement behaviour and consider it to consist of many distinctive components (e.g. Lu, 2011), whereas other studies employ a unidimensional approach and use single-item measures (e.g. Zhang and Chen, 2008). However, these studies have largely neglected the conceptual richness of co-creation and customer engagement and none of them has explored the relationship between the overall construct, the influence of culture and regional differences on customer co-creation and engagement activities. The primary motivation for this study is thus to fully identify Chinese customer co-creation and engagement behaviour.

2. CONTEXT OF THE STUDY China is a highly diverse nation, with many languages, lifestyles, types of food, business styles, etc. (Veeck et al., 2007). The entire Chinese cultural system places an emphasis on interaction with one another and exhibits in such indigenous values as guanxi (social networks and relationships), mianzi (face or social dignity and prestige), and he (social cohesion and harmony) (Wang et al., 2008). More interestingly, China’s land area is similar to that of the US, however its population is four times larger, indicating the country’s significance as a consumer nation. Due to the large size and population as well as the growing disparity among different city tier (this study classifies Beijing, Shanghai as first–tier cities; Nanjing, Wuhan as second-tier cities, and Handan, Anyang, as third-tier cities), differences in consumption habits are likely (Veeck et al., 2007; China Market Research, 2013). The notion of “food is No.1 need” is the most important and essential idea for Chinese. Restaurants play a major role in Chinese social life. Since political reform and the liberalisation of Chinese

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society took place at the end of the 1970's, the indigenous restaurant sector has grown substantially, which was catering industry’s most lucrative in 2011, with total revenues of $340.3 billion equivalent to 77.6% of the industry's overall value (Restaurant Industry Profile, 2013). Besides, restaurants have those obvious features: they provide a range of products and services; they touch nearly every household in one way or another; they are closely concerned with food choice and quality, but simultaneously have long been considered to offer a rich social experience to which many other factors contribute. Furthermore, restaurants are a highly interactive service context and so provide a good opportunity for studying customer/organisation relationships (Andaleeb and Conway, 2006). Hence, a focus on Chinese restaurants across Chinese culture and regions might help in establishing a more refined and comprehensive understanding of Chinese consumer behaviour.

3. AIMS AND OBJECTIVES Given all of the above, the overall aim of this study is to evaluate the potential for customer cocreation and engagement in China using the restaurant sector as a context for investigation. To assist the aim, the following objectives are derived:  To identify the various practices that represent co-creational engagement activity for customers in the Chinese restaurant sector.  To identify how key variables – customer experience, engagement and co-creation – can be specified/operationalised for research purposes.  To explore the extent to which Chinese restaurant customers are willing to participate in cocreation/engagement activity.  To investigate the extent/nature to which co-creation/engagement practice varies according to geographical region.  To explore the implications of Chinese social and cultural specificity in respect of the largely Western-determined concepts of consumer experience, co-creation and engagement.

4. METHODOLOGY This study will primarily utilise quantitative research method to measure the nature, direction and strength of relevant relationships, but as there is scarce knowledge in both the frameworks and the scales, this study will adopt an inductive approach to undertake some theory-development work. 4.1 Stage One: Inductive Approach The inductive approach used here attempts to develop a new set of scales that will represent relevant latent variables in respect of co-creation and engagement in the context of customer experience (6 and Bellamy, 2012). At the preliminary or exploratory stages of developing new constructs/scales, the focus group technique will be adopted, because of the following main benefits:  It involves organised discussion with customers to gain information about their views and experiences with restaurants.  Its interviewing is particularly suitable for obtaining several perspectives about the same topic (co-creating engaging behaviour).  It gains insights into customer’s shared understandings of everyday life and the ways in which individuals are influenced by others in a group situation. New scales will focus on experience stages (i.e. Pre-experience, Primary-experience, Postexperience) (Figure 1) to address factors of customer engagement in a Chinese context including engagement partnering (customer/customer and customer/organisation); engagement channel (face-toface and online/offline); and will address effects of key cultural characteristics (guanxi, mianzi, and he) and their relationship to any observed regional diversity.

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Figure 1. The holistic customer experience (Tynan and McKechnie, 2009) The target population of interviewees are consumers who regularly (at least once per month) frequent popular restaurants in China. There will be five focus groups (expected to be held in five days) with six restaurant customers in each (thirty customers in total invited from restaurants). Each focus group session will be conducted in Chinese and will last approximately one hour. The interviews will be audiotaped and transcribed, analysed and converted into scale items. Six expert reviewers - business and marketing lecturers (two English, two Chinese and two English/Chinese bi-lingual) will be invited to check, evaluate and comment upon scales to determine whether the item pool appears to measure the whole range of engagement/co-creation activities (construct validity) and whether the item pool covers the full conceptual and contextual range (content validity). A Likert Scale will be adopted as the response format. The response, in a 5-point scale, will range from ‘strongly disagree’ to ‘strongly agree’. An item will be retained if at least five of the reviewers will be chosen from same category (Tian et al., 2001). 4.2 Stage Two: Deductive Approach Questionnaire items will be determined by the results of the previous inductive stage, and will be translated into Chinese for the convenience of participants. The questionnaire will be divided into four parts. Firstly, it will begin with simple questions to gather the consumers’ demographic profile; the second part will measure to what extent consumers participate in the three different experience stages; the third part will measure influential factors in consumers co-creation/engagement with restaurants. Finally, the effects of Chinese cultural specificity on co-creation/engagement in restaurants will be identified and examined. Multiple-choice questions are used for measurements in part one, a 5-point Likert scale is used for latent variable measurement in part two, three, and four. 4.2.1 Sample Selection The target population will be selected from China’s three different city tiers. The total sample size is expected to be 450 and equally divided into three parts to distribute in the three different city tiers. In each city tier, random sampling is to be undertaken, which is suitable to get samples to examine the correlations among variables. For data collection, I will be assisted by 5 research assistants to help deliver questionnaires on high streets. Moreover, to encourage higher customers’ participation, a clear statement of the research objectives will be provided; anonymity and confidentiality will be assured. Although this is generally seen as being a more costly and time-consuming approach, it will ensure that respondents will take part and answer to different questions more fully and accurately. Checks on respondent eligibility (regular – at least monthly – restaurant customers) before the questionnaire is conducted will also take place, and face-to-face administration will help ensure the interviewees understand the questions being asked.

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4.2.2 Data Analysis Method The main focus for analysis will be a set of hypotheses, derived both from literature and insights gained via the semi-structured interviews discussed further above. A combination of methods, including inference tests and structural equation modelling, will be used to test the hypotheses. Descriptive statistics will also be explored for the purpose of finding insights into these results. The exact nature of the tests to be used will be dependent upon the assessed variables, the source of collected data and the wording of the hypotheses themselves, all of which will be confirmed prior to the deductive stage of this project.

5. RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY Validity of the scales used to represent the measured variables will be assessed for face, content and construct validity by expert review (Hardesty and Bearden, 2004). Following piloting, and after making relevant adjustments, scales will be returned to expert reviewers for final confirmation before being administered to the full sample. After questionnaire administration and before full analysis, the data will be evaluated to test for inter-item scale reliability and adjusted, as necessary, to achieve maximum scale effectiveness and efficiency (Peterson, 1994).

6. CONCLUSION This study aims to investigate the nature and extent of the possibilities for co-creation and customer engagement in the context of the restaurant sector in China. The basis of this investigation lies in an initial attempt to develop an integrative multidimensional restaurant experience construct comprising a set of scales integrating the literature of customer engagement behaviour, customer co-creation behaviour, Chinese cultural characteristics and focus group findings. It would be useful to understand how the key concepts derived in a Western context might, or might not, be applicable to China. It might help expand understanding of co-creation theory and engagement theory and further explore how these theories relate to a Chinese service context. This study would suggest important managerial implications. The three experience stages can aid restaurants in involving more customers to facilitate co-creation and engagement behaviour, e.g. restaurant managers might use the stages for customer segmentation to gain useful information for optimising co-creation and engagement behaviour. Furthermore, the three experience stages are useful for evaluating and rewarding customer performance. In fact, if a restaurant regularly assesses and rewards restaurant practices, customers will be more willing to engage in co-creation and engagement behaviour.

7. REFERENCE BOWDEN, J., 2009. Customer Engagement: A Framework for Assessing Customer Brand Relationships: The Case of the Restaurant Industry. Journal of Hospitality Marketing and Management, 18(6), pp.574—596. BRODIE, R.J., ILIC, A., JURIC, B., and HOLLEBEEK, L., 2013. Consumer engagement in a virtual brand community: An exploratory analysis. Journal of Business Research, 66(1), pp.105–114. CHINA MARKET RESEARCH, 2013. Chinese first tier cities, second tier cities and tiered cities [online]. Available at: http://www.starmass.com/china-review/businss-tips/chinese-tiered-cities.htm [accessed: 11/4/2013]. DOUGLAS, S.P., and NIJSSEN, E.J.,2003. On the Use of ‘Borrowed’ Scales in Cross National Research: A Cautionary Note. International Marketing Review, 20(6), pp.621-642. ETGAR, M., 2008. A descriptive model of the consumer co-production process. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 36(1), pp.97-108. GRÖNROOS, C., 2011.Value co-creation in service logic: a critical analysis. Marketing Theory: special issue on value co-creation, 11(3), pp.279-301.

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HARDESTY, D.M., and BEARDEN, W.O., 2004. The use of expert judges in scale development: Implications for improving face validity of measures of unobservable constructs. Journal of Business Research, 57 (2), pp.98-107. HELKKULA, A., KELLEHER, C., and PIHLSTRÖM, M., 2012. Characterizing value as an experience: implications for service researchers and managers. Journal of Service Research, 15(1), pp. 59– 75. HOLLEBEEK, L.D., 2011. Demystifying customer brand engagement: exploring the loyalty nexus. Journal of Marketing Management , 27(7/8), pp.785–807. JIA, W., 2012. Study on Influence Mechanism of Customer Participation On Customer Value Creation, Beijing: China Forestry Publishing House. LU, J.Y., 2011. Research on the Mechanism of Customer Participation in Co-creation Service Experience. Management Review (In Chinese). PETERSON, R.A., 1994. A Meta-Analysis of Cronbach’s Coefficient Alpha. Journal of Consumer Research, 21 (2), pp. 381-391. PRAHALAD, C.K., 2004. The co-creation of value. Journal of Marketing, 68(1), pp. 23. PRAHALAD, C.K., and KRISHNAN, M.S., 2008. The New Age of Innovation: Driving Co-created Value through Global Networks. New York : NY: McGraw Hill. RAMASWAMY,V., 2009. Leading the transformation to co-creation of value. Strategy and Leadership, 37(2) , pp. 32-37. TIAN, K.T., BEARDEN, W.O., and HUNTER, G.L., 2001.Consumers' need for uniqueness: Scale development and validation. The Journal of Consumer Research, 28, pp.50–66. TYNAN, C., and MCKECHNIE, S., 2009. Experience marketing: a review and reassessment. Journal of Marketing Management, 25(5/6), pp.501-517. VAN DOORN, J., LEMON, K.N., MITTAL, V., NASS, S., PICK, D., PIRNER, P., and VERHOEF, P.C., 2010. Customer engagement behaviour: theoretical foundations and research directions. Journal of Service Research, 13(3),pp.253–266. VARGO, S.L., and LUSCH, R.F., 2004. Evolving to a new dominant logic for marketing. Journal of Marketing, 68(1), pp.1–17. VEECK, G.,PANNELL, C.L., SMITH, C.J, HUANG, Y.Q., 2007. China’s Geography: Globalization and the Dynamics of Political, Economic, and Social Change, Plymouth: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. VERHOEF, P.C., LEMON, K., PARASURAMAN, A., ROGGEVEEN, A., TSIROS,M., and SCHLESINGER, L., 2009. Customer Experience Creation: Determinants, Dynamics and Management Strategies. Journal of Retailing, 85 (1), pp.31-41. ZHANG, X., and CHEN, R.Q., 2008. Examining the mechanism of the value co-creation with customers. Production Economics, 116(2), pp.242–250. 6, P., and BELLAMY, C., 2012. Principles of Methodology: research design in Social Science, London: SAGE Publications Ltd.

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DISTRIBUTED TRAFFIC SIMULATION MODELS AND TRAFFIC PREDICTION MODEL BASED ON THE WIRELESS AD-HOC NETWORKS QIMING ZHANG, DR. EVTIM PEYTCHEV N0148638 E-mail: [email protected] Keywords: Traffic simulation, Traffic prediction, Traffic model, VANET, C2C Abstract Car to Car communication (C2C) system has become essential for driving safety and comfort also for improving road condition. In this project, the system is based on the prediction models and VANET. The system based on those data collection, aggregation and dissemination aims to be running in all individual cars so that cars have up to date information for the traffic at all times. And those cars also forecast the current traffic condition through its own prediction system. The system does not depend on any kind of roadside communications infrastructures. It is a simple and flexible vehicle communication technology to collect real-time traffic information. The traffic prediction system will become an important part of the intelligent transportation systems. The overall aim of the project is to build and investigate the behaviour of a distributed traffic simulation module in ad-hoc network, with a specific part of it embedded into each vehicle’s equipment. When the vehicle equipment receives the travel speed, the module will be analysing the data and forecasting the travel speed using with a new speed prediction model in the next a few seconds or minutes. This process will be aided by car to car (c2c) wireless communication method. Therefore, the project has been divided into three important parts: simulate the traffic condition of the city, apply C2C communication in wireless ad-hoc network, and use the data to analysis and predict the travel speed.

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DISTRIBUTED TRAFFIC SIMULATION MODELS

1. INTRODUCTION The development of the transport industry is an important symbol of national prosperity. The rapid development of the transport industry not only promotes the exchange of goods and people travelling, it makes greatly shorten the travel time and improves work efficiency. Simultaneously, traffic congestion, road construction and traffic accidents are plaguing the world’s cities. In order to improve the efficiency of the road network, ease traffic pressure and guarantee traffic safety, many countries have been studied urban transport planning and traffic control. Traffic Simulation (Matti P, 1999) is the use of computer technology to simulate the changing of traffic environment. Microcosmic traffic simulation model has a high description of the traffic element and traffic behaviour details. For instance, micro-model describes every single vehicle as the basic unit, when overtaking, car following and changing lanes, the micro-model can be represented. Currently, using simulation technology is a trend in traffic research and analysis. This study will use microscopic traffic simulation to simulate and build the traffic condition for Nottingham city centre, and import it into simulator to achieve the Car to Car communications (Stephan E, etc 2006).

2. TRAFFIC SIMULATION In traffic simulation, the node that means vehicle is required for the transportation network. Moving mode of the vehicle will influence the results of the traffic simulation, so that it must be realistic environment. However, this would involve many factors, such as driving reaction time, driving behaviour and so on. 2.1. Traffic Simulation Software- SUMO The simulation of this project based on SUMO (Simulation of Urban MObility) (Kmjzewicz D, 2002; SUMO website). SUMO is developed by the German Aerospace Centre. It is microscopic, multimodal and continuous road traffic simulation software. The most important thing that is open source and highly portable, it can be imported a variety of real map database to generate the simulation map. Through a visual graphical interface, the users can observe the complex transportation network simulation. The figure 2.1 is Nottingham city map which is generated by sumo.

Figure 2.1 Nottingham city map generated by sumo SUMO uses the Krauss model as a default model (Daniel K, etc 2005). The Krauss model (S. Krauß, 1998) developed by Stefan Krauss in 1998. It is a microscopic, space-continuous and timediscrete car-following model. Vehicle behaviour represents in speed of time-discrete. In the mechanism of avoiding collision, vehicle speed is affected by the front of vehicle speed. And in this time, the vehicle speed is called safe velocity, represented by

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(2.1)

is speed of the leading vehicle in time t. is distancefrom the leading vehicle in time t. is average speed between two vehicles. b is deceleration of the vehicle. Unit is m/s^2. is the driver’s reaction time ( usually default by 1s). 2.2. Vehicular Ad-hoc NETwork (VANET) VANET (Vehicular Ad-hoc NETwork) is one of types of MANET (Mobile Ad-hoc NETwork) (Sommer C, etc 2007). VANET’s node is vehicle, it uses multi-hops wireless communication between cars. VANET has many similarities with the MANET, such as multi-hops transmission, dynamic topology changes, etc. Hence it is possible to make VANET using existing MANET’s routing protocols. The traditional routing and transport layer protocols (TCP, UDP) cannot achieve good communication for VANET (Lijia C, etc, 2007). Transmission quality and reliability of the protocol are very important, because network topology changes fast with node’s higher speed. So the routing protocol is the core and foundation of Car To Car communication (C2C) [2].Figure 2.2 shows C2C communication as a basic structure of VANET and describe the routing protocol base on the topology.

Fi gure 2.2 Car to Car communications Several existing routing protocols, such as ADOV, DSR, OLSR, etc (Yao H H, etc, 2008), but each protocol has its own advantages and disadvantages for different applications. There is no almighty routing protocol for any environment, all routing protocols need to be designed by customized or demand. Table 2.1 shows that a comparison of features for these 4 routing protocols (Ade S A, etc 2010): Property

DSDV

DSR

AODV

OLSR

Distributed

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

One-way link support

No

Yes

No

Yes

Multicast

No

No

Yes

Yes

Periodic Broadcast

Yes

No

Yes

Yes

Route Maintained

Route Table

Route Cache

Route Table

Route Table

Reactive

No

Yes

Yes

No

QoS support

No

No

No

Yes

Table 2.1 Comparison with the protocol property

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DISTRIBUTED TRAFFIC SIMULATION MODELS 2.3. Network Simulation-NS3 NS-3 (Network simulator Version 3) is a discrete-event network simulator, which it has a virtual clock and all simulations are driven by discrete-event (Ns-3 website). Compared with other network simulator, NS-3 is better than others in the completeness, open source, usability and scalability, and is free software. NS-3 has been redesigned on the overall architecture by NS-2, abandoned the NS-2 used in Otcl scripts and C++ model structure, and is a complete new software development. In NS-3 environment, the user can only use C++ and Python to complete the model and topology scene. 2.4. Traffic Prediction In the case of the current development of forecast, there are many traffic information prediction models and methods. It includes the Regression Analysis Method, Time Series Prediction, Grey Theory Prediction Model, Markov Predication Model, Neural Network, Kalman Filter and so on. However, each prediction method contains several prediction models. For example, when prediction model is based primarily on the traditional mathematical and physical methods, it should involve Time Series Prediction Model, Kalman Filter Model, Parameter Regression Model and Exponential Smoothing Model. If the prediction model uses modern science technologies as a research tool, the no-Parameter Regression Model, Warelet Theory, Multi-fractal Method and Compound Forecasting Model of Neural Network are involved. This project will present a new traffic speed prediction model that equations and steps are given at below. This model takes into account the impact the surrounding road conditions. The C2C communication technology ensures the real-time information. Assuming a set of known data of average speed for one road section, the polynomial regression equation group will be constructed by average speed against time period at first time. Polynomial Regression Group:

(2.2)

is prediction speed at t.

C is constant number of regression equation,

is coefficients

Each polynomial regression equation should have different fitting curves with the data. And each separate curve describes a different regression results. However, the regression results must be within a certain range. Then calculating the average regression value will be within the valid range.

Average regression:

(

)

(2.3)

is prediction speed at t, use by average regression of polynomial equation group n is number of polynomial regression in valid range

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DISTRIBUTED TRAFFIC SIMULATION MODELS a is a range of acceleration, between last data by received and last data at (t-1) time period

Acceleration range

(2.4)

is speed at last data by received, should be in second.

is speed of last data by time period, The system also needs to build the weight average equation by using the data received. The construction of this equation needs three recent data from the received data list, so that:

Weight average:

(2.5)

is prediction speed at t, use by weight average

is speed of penultimate data in the speed data list.

is weight set by 0.9, 0.09, 0.01 Finally, the prediction model should be given by average between average regression and weight average, shows:

Prediction model:

(2.6)

is prediction speed as expect at t time period.

3. EXPERIMENT This chapter will give the experimental process, offered simulation parameters, environment, condition and assumptions. Figure 3.1 shows the simulation flow, it includes the main process for this experiment and how is the system working.

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DISTRIBUTED TRAFFIC SIMULATION MODELS Simulation Flow Network Topology

Mobility Model

VANET

Prediction Model

Nodes

Car Flow

Network By NS3

Model Generated

Edges

Turning Rate

Run NS3

Select Model

Map Setup

Create Route

Output NetAnim

Analysis Data

Map Generated

Simulation Generated

Trace Data

Prediction Results

Figure 3.1 Simulation Flow NS3 supports simple mobility models along with some complex models such as random walk, random waypoint and random direction. However, we already generate a mobility trace by using SUMO for NS3 mobility simulation parts. In addition, MAC and PHY extension provided by the IEEE 802.11b is available for using. Current NS3 also support these protocols with VANET by utilizing the WiFi model with IEEE802.11b extensions. The prediction model is based on C2C communication system in ns3. The information would be as message exchanges in C2C communication is given in Figure 3.2. The content of information include position, speed and time in the current version, and the event information will complete in the future versions. The data is from message exchange between cars which is more important data when the prediction model using. The data message would be grouped according to geographic location information by the system. It means that each road has corresponding information, in other words the equivalent of each message must be attributable to a particular road. Moreover, this message is only belong to this road on this time.

Direction

Figure 3.2 Message exchanges in C2C communication In traffic simulation part, using SUMO construct the Nottingham city map and vehicle is with real road network. Then the mobility files which is the topology that generated by SUMO import into NS-3 v3.18.Implement the wireless communication using by NS-3 with the route protocols For this experiment, assuming that all data collection is immediate, it means that record the data on one road section. Table 3.1 is granted a set of data recorded by SUMO. And use this formula to calculate the average speed in the time period:

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Average speed:

(3.1)

is average speed in a time period

is time period

is speed in second. i is number of record.

Time 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Time period (s) 1-10s 11-20s 21-30s 31-40s 41-50s 51-60s 61-70s 71-80s 81-90s 91-100s

Ave speed (m/s) 20.77 18.33 9.25 3.72 4.05 3.36 9.54 14.87 5.85 4.26

Last data(m/s)

9.65

Table 3.1 data by recorded from sumo, use in prediction model From above table list, this example takes the travel speed at 1second to 100 second on a road section and divides 10s time period to calculate the average speed, thus predict the average speed in 101s -110s. According to 10 average speeds to generate optimal curve fitting and polynomial regression group using by least square (Bjorck A, 1996) method:

when t=11, there are 6 results have been given and use equation 2.3 to drop the results out of the acceleration range and get the average number by equation 2.4,has:

(

)

There are only 2 possible values in the acceleration range. However, if no possible value in this range, the system will be default

=

, although the curve fitting is high. Though the experimental test, the

prediction is ideal when the weight is 0.9, 0.09, 0.01. Because the more recent data have more influence on the prediction result, based on equation 2.5 so that:

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Finally two results have been combined to compute the prediction result as the average speed at t time which is 101s to 110s on this road section, following equation 2.6:

=9.25 Therefore the prediction of average speed is 9.25 in 101s-110s time periods, and it compares with the actual speed by recorded which is 9.18. Figure 3.3 shows an experiment in 20 minutes and the time period is 10s. And testing of correlation is between two curves that should be following:

= 0.792

Figure 3.3 Actual average speed Vs Prediction average speed This result has a good explanation of the prediction model. However, this approach is only based on all known data cases, and assuming all data received immediately. In the real-case, all data received from others that must to spend time. How does this influence input data and the prediction results, it will be in the experiment for next step. In the future work, continue to implement the prediction model with the experiment, regulate the parameter to achieve optimal prediction result. Import and use the prediction model in the wireless network, and compare the influence with different route protocol when cars have the same prediction model but in a different position. Distributed simulation model should be using for data computing and message exchanging, also possibility of convergence for all cars in the network.

4. REFERENCES

Pursula, M., 2013. Simulation of Traffic Systems-An Overview. Transportation Engineering, Helsinki University of Technology, Finland, http://publish.uwo.ca/~jmalczew/gida_5/Pursula/Pursula.html, [Access 30/Dec/2013] Eichler, S., Schroth, C., and Eberspächer, J., 2006. Car-to-Car Communication, Institute of Communication Networks, Technische University München, München, Germany,

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Institute of Media and Communication Management, SAP Research CEC, University of St. Gallen, Switzerland. Kmjzewicz D., 2002. Simulation of Urban Mobility(SUMO): An Open source Traffic Simulation[C], Proc. of the 4th Middle East Symposium on Simulation and Modelling. Sharjah, United Arab Emirates. German Aerospace Center, Institute of Transportation Systems. (2013).Simulation of Urban Mobility. Available: http://sumo-sim.org/userdoc/Sumo_at_a_Glance.html. Last accessed Dec/2013. Krajzewicz, D., Hartinger, M., Hertkorn, G., Mieth, P., Rössel, C., Zimmer, J., Wagner, P., 2005. Using The Road Traffic Simulation “SUMO” for Educational Purposes. Traffic and Granular Flow, Berlin – Germany, pp. 217-222 Krauß, S., 1998. Microscopic Modelling of Traffic Flow: Investigation of Collision Free Vehicle Dynamics. PhD thesis, Cologne, University of Cologne. Sommer, C., Dietrich, I., Dressler, F., 2007. Realistic Simulation of Network Protocols in VANET Scenarios. 2007 Mobile Networking for Vehicular Environments, Anchorage, AK, pp. 139 – 143. Li-Jia, C., Hao, J., Jing, W., Cheng-Cheng, G., Wu-Ping, X., Pu-Liu, Y., 2007. Research on Transmission Control on Vehicle Ad-Hoc Network. Journal of Software, 18(6), pp.1477-1490. Yao, H. H., AI H H, Kien, A. H., 2008. Routing Protocols For Inter-Vehicular Networks; A Comparative Study In High-Mobility And Large Obstacles Environments. Computer Communications, 31(12), pp. 2767–2780. Ade, S. A., Tijare, P.A., 2010. Performance Comparison of AODV, DSDV, OLSR and DSR Routing Protocols in Mobile Ad Hoc Networks. International Journal of Information Technology and Knowledge Management, 2(2), pp. 545-548. NS-3 website. 2014. Network simulator 3. Available: http://www.nsnam.org/, Last accessed Dec/2013. Bjorck, A., 1996. Numerical Methods for Least Squares Problems. SIAM, Philadelphia.

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CUSTOMER PERCEIVED VALUE ANALYSIS ON MOBILE CHANNEL SERVICE KAI ZHU N0295520 [email protected] Keywords: Mobile channel service, Customer perceived value, Mixed methods, Survival analysis Abstract Mobile service has been increasingly used to deliver value-added services. This research provides both theoretical and practical insights on how mobile technology enlarges its capabilities for service marketing. Starting with a literature review on customer perceived value and service-dominant logic, previous research suggests that mobile channel service enables the integration of operant resources (mobile communication technology, mobilised website, mobile application) and operand resources (mobile handheld devices) to determine the value of using it. Consumers are actors in this process as the ones adopting the value proposition, which is presented within a conceptual framework. Four research instruments are used in the data collection and analysis phases. They are secondary data from a major local retailer, primary student questionnaire data, student interview data and video data of consumer decision making process on mobile platform. Combining all the results from data analysis, this research offers insight on how mobile channel service generates competitive advantages.

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Customer Perceived Value Analysis on Mobile Channel Service

1. INTRODUCTION Mobile channel service (e.g. mobilised website, mobile application), defined as the service that is accessed with a mobile handheld device through wireless networks, offers potential opportunities to create value for both consumers and organisations (Andrews et al., 2012). On this service platform, temporal and spatial barriers are significantly lower for usage value creation and delivery. Despite that mobile channel service is a new generation of service, the potential usage value involved has arguably influenced consumers' behaviours in their decision making process (Schuster et al., 2013). Since to-date, very few studies have addressed the issue of how, or indeed whether, the value proposition affects time consumption in the decision making process. Thus, in this research customer perceived value and subsequently the co-creation of value are used as the theoretical lens to examine this decision making process in mobile channel service. Furthermore, user control, which refers to the extent to which consumers can determine the timing, location and functionality of information transaction, is proposed as the moderator in mobile service value proposition. There are four main research objectives in this research. Firstly, developing a conceptual framework for the specific value proposition of mobile channel service, a few key concepts are included in it, for instance, user control, usage convenience, electronic word-of-mouth, electronic risk and customer perceived value. Secondly, analysing the value proposition of mobile service channel on time dimension. Thirdly, developing a time related analytical approach to process the behavioural data of mobile channel service. Last but not least, offering suggestions on how to generate competitive advantages by enhancing customer perceived value creation on mobile channel service.

2. LITERATURE REVIEW In this section, several key theories and concepts will be reviewed both conceptually and contextually in order to show an intellectual map of crucial elements including research work that has been done in this scientific area and knowledge gaps that this research aims to fill in. 2.1

Customer Perceived Value and Value Co-creation

In prior literature, marketing has been defined as a process in which customers and organisations create and exchange the value of products and services to fulfil what they want and need (Keinan and Kivetz, 2011). This definition emphases the importance of value, given it is the value that attracts both sides into the process of value co-creating and exchanging (Vargo and Lusch, 2011). Customer perceives the value of participating in business activities as an interactive and preference experience. This experiential view of perceived value contains the traditional perspective of value in terms of a calculation of sacrifices-benefits (Chandler and Vargo, 2011). Different from the traditional value creation definition, which is a process that is conducted by company to create the product or service, customers are more engaged and involved nowadays in various stages in this process. The concept of value creation has been shifting from the earlier company-centric perspective to the more recent company-customer interaction perspective (Zainuddin et al., 2013). Customers, as value co-creators, or co-producers, are always engaged and involved in marketing activities; what they need are platforms of value and information exchange, and, occasionally, offers and suggestions on value propositions (Gronoos, 2008, 2011). This suggests that the level of control and the level of involvement are the most important variables when conducting co-creational marketing activities (Gamble and Gilmore, 2013). 2.2

Service-Dominant Logic

Recent literature suggests that value could be created or possessed not in a product or good, but rather in the process of service or in customer's experience, which highlights customer's participant role in the value creation process (Payne et al., 2008). This point of view has been adopted by Vargo and Lusch (2004, 2008, 2011, 2012) in their theoretical development of service-dominant logic theory. From this

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philosophical and economic perspective, organisations cannot produce value by manufacturing goods for their customers, they can only use a proper value proposition to attract consumers to participate in the value creation process along with the organisations and, possibly, other consumers. In order to better understand the issues above and further theoretically apply service dominant logic in marketing research, Vargo and Lusch (2008) offer their insights on how customers interact in a service to perceive value, and what makes consumers the control position in the service. In the economic system, consumers are engaged by the exchange of the resources, which can be categorised into two types: operand resources (cultural or intellectual resources) and operant resources (physical or financial resources). Service, as a resource integrator, is an activity to keep the network together, where everything and everyone are working together under the value proposition to co-create value (Lobler and Hahn, 2013). More importantly, since value is contextually and phenomenologically determined (Vargo and Lusch, 2011), the final value perceived by consumers is largely impacted by the temporal and spatial position of the resources and, the way the resources are accessed and integrated. (Akaka et al., 2012). In this research, mobile communicating technology and mobile service interface (mobilised website, mobile application) are indentified as operant resources; mobile handheld devices (smartphone, tablet) as operand resources. A mobile channel service not only integrates operant and operand resources in the service context, but also has the ability to access other resources in mobile service domain (Akaka and Vargo, 2013). However, there is little evidence of how value is influenced by applying mobile channel service in the context of electronic retailing, since mobile service enables resources integration with significantly lower temporal and spatial barriers.

3. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK The literature review has already been completed, resulting in the generation of a conceptual framework for this research (Figure1).

Firgue1. The conceptual framework of this research

4. RESEARCH METHOD AND RESEARCH DESIGN In order to examine the customer perceived value proposition in the context of mobile channel service, a mixed methods design is employed in this research. More specifically, given the complexity of measuring customer perceived value in general and in the time dimension, two studies are conducted using different research methods. 4.1

Study 1 - Conceptual Framework Testing

In this study, firstly, a structured interview is used to get an in-depth, conceptualised insight on mobile channel service usage. The aim is to account for participants' actual experiences of using mobile services and their value perceptions. Several key concepts are mentioned in the interview as either valueenhancing variables (e.g. usage convenience, electronic word-of-mouth, user control) or value-reducing variables (e.g. electronic risks). Approximately 20 university students with mobile usage experiences will

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be invited to the interviews. Each interview will last about 30-45 minutes. These qualitative data will be analysed to validate the questions in the questionnaire for testing the conceptual framework. Secondly, a questionnaire survey is used to collect quantitative data. The questionnaire contains 20 questions regarding the key elements of the proposed conceptual framework, and each question is constructed taking into account results from the qualitative interviews. Furthermore, 5 brief demographic questions are added at the end of the survey. Approximately 200 students are invited to fill the questionnaire. For analysing the quantitative data, Structural Equation Modelling is used to test the conceptual framework. 4.2

Study 2 - Survival Analysis on Consumer Decision Making Process

Survival analysis focuses on examining the relationship between survival time and the explanatory variables that have influences in that period of time (Park and Bradlow, 2005; Mavri and Ioannou, 2006; Demoulin and Zidda, 2008). This research focuses on the single mobile usage with a whole consumer decision making process occurred in. The mobile application functions that were used in that period of time are indicators of key elements in the conceptual framework. Furthermore, a major local retailer is invited to participate in this research. First of all, as a major retailer in the market, it has been using a sophisticated mobilised website as mobile service platform, which enables this organisation to offer insights on the actual consumer behaviours on their mobile channel. These secondary data are used to identify the indicators (mobile application functions) of the elements in the conceptual framework, which gives a strong link between theoretical and practical perspectives of this research. Additionally, this study intends to invite approximately 300 students using screen recording mobile application (e.g. ScreenCast) to video record a whole consumer decision making process on an actual mobilised website or mobile application. This local retail organisation's mobilised website can be used in this data capturing process. The recorded video will be collected and converted to meet the requirements of survival analysis. The results of the survival analysis show the roles of every functions in the consumer decision making process. Moreover, approximately 20 students will be invited to the post-usage interviews to further discuss their usage behaviour from a value proposition point of view. Combining the results of both survival analysis and post-usage interviews, this research offers insights on how, practically, mobile channel service generates competitive advantages when competing horizontally (competing with internet channel and traditional in store channel) and vertically (competing between mobile application with different function designs).

5. CONCLUSION This research aims to contribute to marketing research from the following two perspectives. Firstly, by developing and testing the customer perceived value proposition of mobile channel service, this research shows how mobile channel service integrates operant and operand resources to create customer perceived value. This is one of the first research that extends value co-creation and service-dominant logic theory to mobile service channel. Secondly, from a methodological point of view, mobile service channel, as a very fast developing channel, challenges academics to seek the appropriate research methods for studying it. Given mobile service channel's natural advantage of time saving, employing a time critical analytical method, such as the survival analysis adopted in this research, could inspire future research in this area.

6. REFERENCES AKAKA, M., VARGO, S. and LUSCH, R., 2012. An exploration of networks in value co-creation: a serviceecosystems view. Review of Marketing Research, Vol. 9, pp 13–50.

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AKAKA, M. and VARGO, S., 2013. Technology as an operant resource in service (eco)systems. Information Systems and e-Business Management, (in press; available on Springerlink) ANDREWS, L., DRENNAN, J. and BENNETT, R., 2012. Linking perceived value of mobile marketing with the experiential consumption of mobile phones. European Journal of Marketing, Vol. 46(3/4), pp.357-86. CHANDLER, D. and VARGO, L., 2011. Contextualization and value-in-context: how context frames exchange. Marketing Theory, 11(1), pp. 35-49. DEMOULIN, T. and ZIDDA, P., 2008. On the Impact of Loyalty Cards on Store Loyalty: Does the Customers’ Satisfaction with the Reward Scheme Matter?” Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, 15 (5), pp.386–98. GAMBLE, J. and GILMORE, A., 2013. A new era of consumer marketing? An application of co-coreational marketing in the music industry. European Journal of Marketing, 47(11/12), pp. 1859-88. GRONROOS, C., 2008. Service logic revisited: who creates value? And who co-creates?”, European Business Review, 20(4), pp. 298-314. GRONROOS, C., 2011. Value co-creation in a service logic: a critical analysis. Marketing Theory, 11(3), pp. 279-301. KEINAN, A. and KIVETZ, R., 2011. Productivity Orientation and the Consumption of Collectable Experiences. Journal of Consumer Research, 37 (6), pp. 935–50. LOBLER, H. and HAHN, M., 2013. Measuring Value-In-Context from a Service-Dominant Logic's Perspective. Review of Marketing Research, Vol. 10. pp. 255-82. MAVRI M. and IOANNOU, G., 2006. Consumers’ Perspectives on Online Banking Services. International Journal of Consumer Studies, 30(6), pp.552–60. PARK, Y. and BRADLOW, E., 2005. An Integrated Model of Bidding Behaviour in Internet Auction: Whether, Who, When, and How Much. Journal of Marketing Research, 42, pp. 470-82. PAYNE, F, STORBACKA, K. and FROW, P., 2008. Managing the Co-Creation of Value. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 36(1), pp. 83-96. SCHUSTER, L., DRENNAN, J. and LINGS, I., 2013. Consumer acceptance of m-wellbeing services: a social marketing perspective. European Journal of Marketing, Vol. 47(9), pp. 1439-57. VARGO, L. and LUSCH, R., 2004. Evolving to a New Dominant Logic for Marketing. Journal of Marketing, 68, pp. 1-17. VARGO, L. and LUSCH, F., 2008. Service-dominant logic: continuing the evolution. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 36(1), pp. 1-10. VARGO,L. and LUSCH, F., 2011. “It’s all B2B ... and beyond: toward a systems perspective of the market. Industrial Marketing Management, 40(2), pp. 181-87. VARGO, L., and LUSCH, F., 2012. The Nature and Understanding of Value: a Service Dominant Logic Perspective. Review of Marketing Research, 9, pp.1-12. ZAINUDDIN, N., BEENETT, R. and PREVITE, J., 2013. The Value of health and wellbeing: an empirical model of value creation in social marketing. European Journal of Marketing, 47(9), pp.1504-24

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SHIFTING BOUNDARIES


THE SUPPORT NETWORK OF MIGRANT WORKERS' OLDER PARENTS IN RURAL CHINA YUANDONG LIU N0465311 E-mail: [email protected] Keywords: Support network, rural China, left-behind elders Abstract This paper focuses on the context of post-reform China that is facing the pressure of population aging under the process of massive social transformation. The study aims at exploring the support network of migrant workers’ older parents in rural China. A semi-structured interview will be conducted to 36 respondents aged 60 or over with different physical conditions (disabled or non-disabled) and household composition (living along or living with others) from two villages in Henan Province in China to gather qualitative data in terms of their interaction among formal and informal support networks including spouse, children, relatives, friends, and government or non-government organizations when they are facing financial, physical and emotional crisis. The proposed study will enhance the understanding of how the rural-urban migration affects rural older people’s help-seeking behaviours and their decision-making process.

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The Support Network of Migrant Workers' Older Parents in Rural China

1. INTRODUCTION This study aims at exploring the help-seeking behaviours of migrant workers’ older parents, analysing the role of children, spouses, neighbours, relatives, friends, official and non-official bodies on meeting their financial, health and psychological needs. A semi-structured in-depth interview will be adopted to gather qualitative data from 36 older people aged 60 or above in two villages.

2. RESEARCH BACKGOUND According to Confucian ideas on filial piety, the traditional extended family is the primary caregiver of Chinese older parents. Children are required to show unconditional support and respect to their parents (Ikels 2004). A research study reported that daughters-in-laws are the primary care givers and sons are the backbone for providing financial support to rural Chinese families (Zhan and Montgomery 2003). Two surveys conducted in rural areas of Beijing in 1986 and Hubei in 1987 showed that about two thirds of older parents depended on their adult children to meet their basic needs (Davis 1991; Yuan, Wang and Song 1992). Because of political, social and economic changes, especially a large sale rural-urban migration, caring for older people in China has become a big social burden. Firstly, public social security system for older people in rural China has gone through a tortuous path. During Mao’s time, resources were distributed based on ‘work points’ that farmers earned each day – the commune system. Although there was no old age pension scheme at that time, older people could be guaranteed a basic livelihood. At that time, a basic grain ration was set up and each production team (a sub-unit of the commune) distributed its collective resources to all members (Davis-Friedman 1991). A commune leader also had authority to enforce children to fulfill their filial obligations since the ‘work points’ was transferable. However, since the abolition of the commune system, older people with children in rural areas have been excluded from the formal social protection system. The Chinese government has attempted to provide financial support for rural older people by establishing a new pension scheme. The scheme, however, cannot provide adequate support for older people to meet basic needs. Thus, it is important to understand how older people solve their financial problems in the context of adult children’s seeking jobs in urban areas (a large scale rural-urban migration). Although the level of rural-urban migration has increased from 34 million in 1989 to about 230 million in 2011 (NBSC 2006; 2012), Biao (2007) argued that children’s migration does not weaken financial support for older people because their children send back money to support parents. However, children’s migration has changed traditional living arrangements and the family’s caring ability. Du (2004) found that older people who live alone increased from 23.8% to 44.2% due to children’s migration. Furthermore, the proportion of female migrant workers increased from 26% in 1986 (Wan 1995) to 44% in 1990 (Davin 1996). Therefore, with an increasing number of women migrant workers, their role as caregivers for older parents likely has declined. When adult children are unavailable in providing assistance on fetching water, gathering wood for making meals, tending plots, and personal care, it is necessary to understand how older parents cope with their problems. Migration has also negatively affected the psychological well-being of older people. According to Guo et al. (2009), rural older people with more migrant children are much more likely to have lower life satisfaction and suffer more depression. It is therefore important to study the available support for meeting older people’s psychological and emotional needs. Given a large scale rural-urban migration in China, this study attempts to gather older people’s views on support from children, spouse, neighbours, relatives, friends and official and non-official bodies, assessing the effectiveness of their social networks in meeting their needs. Studies about old age well-being and population aging are usually approached from a macro perspective that evaluates national capacity to meet age-based needs for healthcare and other services (Shen et al. 2010). This study from ground-level to understand help-seeking behaviours of migrant workers' older parents will not only complement macro-level studies but also generate general theoretical

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significance that can contribute to a grounded theory of older people well-being amidst rapid sociodemographic change and shed some light on the impact of rural-urban migration on caring for older people in China. Therefore, this study aims 1) to understand the financial, health, and psychological needs of migrant workers’ older parents in rural China; 2) to explore their decision-making process in seeking assistance; 3) to identify their patterns of help-seeking behaviours; 4) to assess the effectiveness of their support network; 5) to discuss what services should be provided to meet the needs of migrant workers’ older parents

3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 3.1 Sample Selection In light of the study’s aims and objectives, older people living in migrant household in rural areas of China are target respondents. As 60 years old in China is defined as ‘old’ in government statistics and by social policies such as old age pension (China News 2009), all respondents of this study will be aged 60 or above. Both men and women will be selected so as to reach diversity in the sample in terms of gender. In addition, the literature showed that physical disabilities affect older people’s confidence and self control that lead to fears of engaging in social life and impacts on relationships with others (Ward 2012). In this study, physical disabilities refer to mobility impairment and visual impairment that are observable and will be judged by the researcher. Household size and living arrangements are key variables to determine family support. Older parents with physical disabilities or living alone possibly face more difficulties. Therefore, this study is going to find out how older people’s physical conditions and a family’s composition affect their help-seeking decisions and the extent of their supportive networks. In order to ensure consistency and reliability as well as avoid ethical issues and communication difficulties, people with severe cognitive impairment, speech or hearing impairment, and mental health disease will be excluded from this study. Non-probability or purposive sampling method, which will not be fully representative (Marshall 1996), is often used in qualitative research to study under-researched groups in order to examine meaning, process, or theory (Rice and Ezzy 1999). This approach also allows the researcher to select representative people that are the focus for this study and to gain a greater understanding and insight into the help-seeking behaviours of migrant workers’ older parents. Therefore, the purposive sampling strategy is well-suited in this small-scale and in-depth study (Ritchie and Lewis 2003). Further, the researcher will let participants to refer other older parents who might share similar characteristics. This might be a form of snowball sampling method. With regard to sample size, qualitative samples are usually fewer than 50 (Ritchie and Lewis 2003) and almost no new evidences will appear after interviewing 20 participants (Green and Thorogood 2009). For example, Liu (2011) found that 33 participants were enough for his PhD research about Chinese older people’s strategies to solve health problems in UK. Based on theoretical and empirical evidences, this study is proposed to interview 36 respondents. 3.2 Study Site Two villages including South Hechi and Zhuying in Dengzhou will be chosen as study sites. Like other Mainland Chinese villages except those in the east coast region, they maintain common characteristics: 1). both of them are long-established natural villages coming from a few family lines, and residents are in clustered settlement; 2). there is a very popular trend that is widespread construction of new homes made of brick, cement and steel with limited infrastructure such as roads, water supply, and sewers. 3). it is very common to see older parents to be left behind due to large-scale of rural-urban migration. The South Hechi village that has about 25% of the registered villagers working in cities. The Zhuying village, where about 300 households and almost every family had children working far away from their home town (Bjnews 2009; Cui 2012). When choosing the two study sites, the researcher has taken both research objectives and available resources into account. As this study will be carried out in the researcher’s hometown, there is

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no language barrier for conducting interviews. More importantly, the researcher has good networks to enlist village leaders’ support for assessing suitable respondents and arranging interviews. In the Chinese context, the village leader, namely the secretary of the communist party in the village, are always considered as the most powerful and important gatekeepers who have formal and informal right to distribute all available resources in a village. If they do not grant the research, it is hardly to gain cooperation from local residents since this study will be regarded as a sensitive political issue. Most Chinese, especially the older people have experienced some political movements. They are quite well-disciplined and afraid to comment on any sensitive issues to outsiders in case it will bring them unnecessary trouble. Furthermore, the two study settings are natural rural villages that are based on acquaintance and kinship relationship, local people are well connected and news spreads so fast that building relationships with the two village leader is vital to success. Hence, an informal meeting with them will be arranged with the help from the researcher’s relative who is working for the county government. By doing so, a mutual trust relationship can be well-constructed between the researcher and the gatekeepers. As a result, the researcher can conduct the research in the two selected villages without any difficulties. 3.3 In-depth Interview Semi-structured in-depth interviews will be used to collect qualitative data about older people’s financial, health, and psychological needs and their supportive networks. The interview includes two sections and all interviews will be conducted in Mandarin and audio recorded for data analysis. Section I: structured questions aimed at gathering social and demographic data including age, household composition, number of children, place of children working, children’s employment status and length of children’s migration; Section II: guided questions to explore respondents’ coping strategies and help-seeking behaviour on financial, health, emotional, and daily needs of the migrant workers’ older parents. Since questions such as preview experience regarding personal and financial arrangements are involved, the researcher will pay more attention when these questions are asked and to change the topic whenever there are difficult emotions expressed by participants. However, previous studies do not show that there are any difficulties to ask these questions. For example, a study reported that of the 507 respondents aged over 60, 36.5% stated ‘sons’ and 23.1% claimed ‘daughters’ as their main carers (Hong Kong Christian Service 2004). Another study interviewed 47 older people over 70 in Hong Kong reports that family incomes ranged from HK$2,000 per month to HK$20,000 per month, with the majority of incomes falling below HK$10,00 (Holroyd 2002). Therefore, questions like personal and financial arrangements may not be regarded as sensitive topics to Chinese older people. 3.4

Research Diary

A research diary will be used in this study. It is an important tool since it leads to reflect and be aware of the research process as well as monitoring how the outcomes are achieved. The diary also provides opportunity to state the researcher’s subjectivity and bias in detail so as to enhance the credibility of the findings. However, the researcher acknowledges potential ethical issues such as confidentiality raised by completing the diary. 3.5 Research Ethics The project will be conducted within the clear ethical procedures and will be guided by the Nottingham Trent University Graduate School’s code of conduct and the Social Research Association’s guidelines on ethical research. Two basic principles will underpin the fieldwork: informed consent and confidentiality. These details will be shared both with the two gatekeepers and older people involved.

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4. REFERENCE: Biao, X., 2007. How Far are the Left-Behind Left Behind? Population, Space and Place, 13(3) Bjnews, 2009. A empty village: 80,000 left-behind children [online]. Sociology and Anthropology China Available at: http://www.sachina.edu.cn/Htmldata/news/2009/02/4969.html [Accessed 25 March 2014]. China News, 2009. China Will Establish New Rural Pension Scheme [online]. Available at: http://www.chinanews.com/jk/kong/news/2009/03-04/1586983.shtml [Accessed 25 March 2014]. Cui,

W.Y., 2012. New issues in an empty village [online]. Available http://dengzhou.01ny.cn/news/zhxw/201202/19907.shtml [Accessed 25 March 2014].

at:

Davin, D., 1996. Gender and Rural-Urban Migration in China. Gender and Development, 4(1). st

Davis-Friedman, D., 1991. Long Lives. 1 ed. Stanford: Stanford University Presess. Guo, et al., 2009. The impact of out-migration on the intergenerational support and psychological wellbeing of older adults in rural China. Aging and Society, 29(07). Holroyd, E., 2002. Health-seeking behaviors and social change. Qualitative Health Research, 12(6). Hong Kong Christian Service, 2004. Research on the Phenomenon of Elder Abuse in Hong Kong [online]. Available at: http://www.Swd.Gov.Hk/Doc/Family/Eld_Abuse_Rep.Pdf [Accessed 25 March 2014]. Ikels, C., 2004. Filial piety. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. Marshall, M. N., 1996. Sampling for Qualitative Research. Family Practice, 13(6). NBSC, 2012, China's Total Population and Structural Changes in 2011 [online]. Available at: http://www.stats.gov.cn/english/newsandcomingevents/t20120120_402780233.htm [Accessed 25 March 2014]. Rice, P.L., and Ezzy, D., 1999. Qualitative Research Methods A Health Focus. Australia: Oxford University Press. Ritchie, J., and Lewis, J., 2003. Qualitative Research Practice: A Guide for Social Science Students and Researchers. London: SAGE Publications. Shen, C., and Williamson, J.B., 2009. China’s New Rural Pension Scheme: Can It Be Improved?. International Journal of Sociology, 30(5/6). Silverman, D., 2006 Interpretative Qualitative Data. London: Sage Publications. Wan, G.H., 1995. Peasant flood in China. Third Word Quarterly, 16(2). Yuan, F., Wang, C., and Song, Y., 1992. Support of the Elderly in China. In: H. Kendig et al. eds. Family support for the Elderl. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992. Zhan, H.J., and Montgomery, R.J.V., 2003. Gender and elderly care in China. Gender and Society, 17(2).

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THE RE-STRUCTURING OF BROADCASTING METHODS AND PREFERENCES DURING THE NORTH AFRICAN INSURGENCIES OF 2011 AYMAN ALREHAILI N0483512 E-mail: [email protected] Keywords: Arab uprising, Social media, Traditional media. Abstract The revolutions in Egypt and Tunisia during 2011 brought about vast political upheaval, moreover, these insurrections redefined journalism and media usage. At the heart of this transformation were the social media websites Facebook, Twitter and Blogger. This study will explore the role social media played in changing traditional media during this tumultuous period. The popular narratives (Kiss, 2011) that expounded the importance of social media, plus empirical studies (Abassi, 2012 and Reardon, 2012) that questioned its impact will be examined. The extent of the influence social media had on the revolutions will be discussed. Primary research will be collated through qualitative interviews with bloggers, social media users and journalists. It is anticipated that the respondents will reveal the processes by which social media has overhauled broadcasting in Egypt and Tunisia. The objective of this study is to determine how news dissemination evolves during periods of dramatic political change.

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The Re-structuring of Broadcasting Methods and Preferences During the North African Insurgencies of 2011

While commanding regimes in Tunisia, Egypt and elsewhere in the Middle East may have been broadly successful in their attempts to censor traditional forms of media, the advent of widespread Internet usage across the region presented these authorities with a whole new challenge. Before considering this dilemma and its management, it is worth noting that the Middle East experiences a reduced Internet penetration, as compared to Europe, North America and East Asia, thus traditional forms of media censorship remained attainable for longer than they would have elsewhere. Once the region finally did begin implementing online technologies, it embraced the internet revolution with such enthusiasm that in the last decade, growth in Internet penetration has been faster in the region than anywhere else on earth – a staggering 1825% rise in usage in the last ten years, versus 432% growth around the rest of the world in the same period. Indeed, by June 2012, Internet availability in the Middle East was above the world average, at 40.2% versus 34.3% globally. It is surely no coincidence that this rapid growth in Internet penetration immediately preceded the Arab uprisings of 2011; this question will be addressed in greater detail in a later section. The speed and timely emergence of the rapid Internet proliferation phenomenon across the region, has produced two primary outcomes. Firstly, that North African governments intent on censoring media outlets, only began to feel threatened by the Internet as an instrument with the potential to damage this established protocol, towards the middle of the last decade. And secondly, when these governments accepted that the Internet could be a threat to media control, they had little time to respond. Early attempts to control Internet content lay in stark contrast with the more sophisticated techniques for censoring film described by Beshir. In their 2003 report, Kalathil and Boas argue that the contradiction between a closed regime and the fundamentally open system that is the Internet meant that the two would not be able to operate alongside each other. Accordingly, the liberal nature of the Internet makes it incompatible with closed, autocratic regimes, thus when the two are juxtaposed, one or the other will become fundamentally reorganised. The Internet was barely a concern for these governments when Kalathil and Boas wrote their report in 2003. Kalathil and Boas highlight the contradiction at the heart of this issue. The Internet, they assert, is fundamentally an open system, thus was considered extremely dangerous by the totalitarian administrations of Tunisia and Egypt pre-2011

HOW SIGNIFICANT A ROLE DID SOCIAL MEDIA PLAY DURING THE ARAB UPRISINGS OF 2011? Philip Seib (2008) asserts, “to varying degrees throughout the world, the connectivity of new media is superseding the traditional political connections that have brought identity and structure to global politics.” This notion has become central to the utopian narrative of social media as a force for political good. But to what extent does this concept hold up under scrutiny? Is there a veiled agenda behind this hypothesis and is it in fact possible that the impact of social media on the Arab uprisings of 2011 was actually negligible? In many respects, it is quite patent that traditional politics have broadly remained the same, even as the forces of globalization have become more significant. Seib is regarded by some as something of a new media evangelist, having written several books on the impact of new media and the increased interconnection of platforms that has occurred in North African politics. Seib proclaims his comprehensive theory thus, “As more widespread Internet use gradually takes hold in the region, the World Wide Web’s political vitality is likely to change the way people view their own countries and the rest of the world. Information from news organizations and other sources that were previously out of reach, will be tapped and the Internet’s interactive nature may foster the intellectual enfranchisement that opens the way to political change.” Seib’s principal ideology is constructed on the assumption that the Internet will transform the manner in which inhabitants view their own countries and the rest of the world, however this concept and assertion is not substantiated with verified evidence. Nevertheless, this notion is supported by a specific observation made by Howard et al, who note, “One reason why technology has been an effective tool for democracy advocates in Tunisia and Egypt, is that both countries have relatively young, tech savvy populations.” Howard et al notes that Tunisia and Egypt, two of the countries to experience the most dramatic political change during 2011, are also two countries with among the highest saturation of mobile technology in the region. Indeed, in Tunisia in 2011 there were 93 mobile phone subscribers per 100 of

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population. There is another element to this technological theme that places emphasis on youth access and awareness of media gadgets. Howard et al associate the technological saturation to the younger sections of Egypt and Tunisia’s demographics, the same demographic more likely to engage in political protest. A possible flaw in this philosophy is that mobile saturation does not automatically lead to political dissent. For example, Qatar, a country with 99% mobile saturation experienced no real political upheaval. How can this be reconciled with Seib’s initial thesis? One suggestion offered by Howard et al is that, “in both countries [Egypt and Tunisia] the government censured the media, giving individuals a strong incentive to turn to the Internet for credible sources of information” Seib’s argument pre-dates the advent of the popular narrative that emerged during 2011; that the social and political change underway across the Middle East had been predicated on a social media revolution. Seib quotes the former Al Jazeera managing director, Mohammed Jassim Al Ali saying, “Democracy is coming to the Middle East because of the communication revolution. You can no longer hide information and must now tell people the truth. If you don’t, people won’t follow you, they won’t support you, they won’t obey you.” While this seems to be an attractive opinion, it is essential that one should carefully consider the source. As a member of Al Jazeera, a media organization not only looking for a greater mass media share in the Middle East, but also globally, it seems that Jassim Al Ali’s comments are aimed at western sensibilities. A more pertinent query could be whether or not Al Jazeera had any direct knowledge of the reality of the situation, that is to say, was there a discernable correlation between increasing the means of communication and democracy in the Middle East? At this stage it is important to draw a distinction between the popular narratives that emerged during this period and the serious academic research conducted on the issue. This distinction is important because both schools viewed the process differently and it could be argued that the popular narrative fuelled the process itself. This is certainly a point worthy of emphasis: once the populace began to believe that social media could become a vehicle for social and political change, that view became a self-fulfilling prophecy. It is the objective of this paper to analyse the significance of social media, firstly through available academic research and secondly through the populist, contemporary sources that helped to develop this narrative.

POPULAR MYTH OR POPULAR REVOLUTION? THE SOCIAL MEDIA NARRATIVE AND THE ARAB UPRISINGS Malcolm Gladwell, whose article partly inspired the title of this research, selected the worst possible time to publish a lengthy polemic debating that social media was unable to harness expressed political dissent and transform it into real-life protest. The article, entitled, “Small Change: Why the revolution will not be tweeted,’ was published in October 2010, just weeks before the beginning of the Arab uprisings. Accordingly, it ran in direct opposition to the fast emerging zeitgeist that would go on to dominate much of the discussion involving social media’s role in the protests, namely, that such demonstrations were inspired by posts on the pages of Twitter, Facebook and Blogger. This account first emerged in the weeks after the earliest protests in Tunisia and Egypt. Indeed by February 25, two months after the self-immolation of Mohamed Bouazizi, the supposition became so established that some were beginning to explore it further. “Recent events in Libya, Tunisia and Egypt have been called 'Twitter revolutions' but can social networking overthrow a government?” asked one Guardian journalist discussing the protests. He concludes, “…social media has played a role. For those of us who have covered these events, it has been unavoidable” and supports his stance with a number of case studies. A similar narrative can be observed from many of the foreign journalists who were investigating the breaking story during the early days of the Arab uprisings, particularly in Tunisia and Egypt. It is worth noting this account from Paul Mason, the BBC correspondent who witnessed many of the protests first hand, “Digital communications and social networks are the two big things facilitating revolutions and uprisings…People starting these revolutions are often insulted by suggestions that Facebook and Twitter have anything to do with it, but they do.” Mason supports this declaration with an example, “New media are obviously important in circumventing police repression and armed activity. In the early stages of the Egyptian protests, small groups were able to bring out tens of thousands of poor people who can't read by

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organising groups of up to five people to go to the same place using texts and social media. They arrived, and found each other - the idea of finding each other is crucial for the movements we're talking about.” He does however add one semantic qualifier, noting that, “I don't say [the social media sites] caused them, any more than the printing press caused the English revolution of the 17th century.” However, this qualifier appears more as an afterthought, a technicality between causation and facilitation that Mason struggles to clarify further. What do Beaumont and Masons’ assertions reveal? It seems contemptuous to instantly dismiss their conclusions, especially as the interpretations are based on direct observation of the early weeks of the protests. However, it is also prudent to consider their position and motivations. This refers particularly to the propensity to comment on the Arab uprising, describing it in terms of a simple cause-effect metric that would be familiar to the targeted Western audience. The social media narrative, it could be argued, is an attempt to assign the multi-faceted reasoning behind the protests with a framework that would be palatable to a Western audience. It is perhaps no coincidence that the Arab uprisings occurred at precisely the same time that Twitter began to gain a wider usage in the Western hemisphere. Could it be that Mason and Beaumont, both of whom run active accounts on Twitter, were keen to assign the social network a disproportionately important role in the events they had witnessed? There are potentially other meta considerations. Twitter and Facebook are both popular social networking tools and equally functional in the distribution of news articles. So it is possible that those articles championing the role of social networks in the protests would gain wider traction simply because they were more likely to be shared (and read) by more users. Journalists such as Beaumont and Mason used social networks such as Twitter to increase the exposure of their commentaries. Mason notes, “One of the brilliant things about Twitter is that it kills propaganda. When the Bahrain crackdown began, for example, I happened to be awake and following Twitter. People were saying they're firing live bullets. We tried to check this, and one of the most immediate ways was to follow links to pictures posted from cell phones.” Could this popular account simply be the result of a self-referential loop, of journalists dazzled by social media, using it to report on the conflict and accordingly assigning it too significant a role in the protests?

CONCLUSION It is important, however, to contextualise the impact social media had during the Arab uprisings with a theoretical model of media evolution within autocratic governments. Without such a context, it is difficult to reach a firm conclusion on the nature of its role in Egypt and Tunisia post-2011. An analysis of the available literature will be used to organise the plethora of assumptions, principles and concepts contained within this research project.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY ABASSI, M. et al, (2012), ‘Real World Behaviour Analysis through a Social Media Lens’ Computer Science and Engineering (Arizona State University), p6 accessed on 26/1/13 at http://www.public.asu.edu/~huanliu/papers/SBP12Lens.pdf BEAUMONT, P,. (2011) “The truth about Twitter, Facebook and the uprisings in the Arab world,” in The Guardian accessed on 8-2-13 at http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/feb/25/twitter-facebookuprisings-arab-libya BESHIR, M. (2013), This week in 1937: Egypt’s censors ban their first film, Egypt Independent [Online] 21 March. Available from: http://www.egyptindependent.com/news/week-1937-egypt-s-censorsban-their-first-film [Accessed: 4 April 2013] DARWISH, A. (2007) Historic inaccuracies in King Farouk series on Arab TV [Online] November 25, 2007. Available from: http://www.adeldarwish.com/?p=15 [Accessed: 27 March 2013]. ELSE, L. interviewing MASON, P., (2012), “The revolution will be tweeted,” in The New Scientist issue 2850 accessed on 09-2-13 at http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg21328500.400-the-revolutionwill-be-tweeted.html?full=true FAUAD, W., (2009), ‘Facebook and the Arab Youth,’ in Elmenshawy, M, ed. New Chapter of Political Islam. (World Security Institute, Washington) pp91-98 Freedom House (2013), Freedom of the Press 2012 - Tunisia, [Online] Available from: http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/4fce011ac.html [Accessed: 1 April 2013] GLADWELL, M. (2010, October 4), “Why the revolution will not be tweeted,” in The New Yorker. Accessed on 22-01-13 at http://newyorker.com/reporting/2010/10/01/101004fa_fact_gladwell HOWARD, P. et al, (2011), ‘Opening Closed Regimes: What was the role of social media during the Arab Spring?’ Project on Information Technology & Political Islam, (University of Washington) INTERNET WORLD STATS, (2012) [Online] Available from: http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats5.htm [Accessed on: 4 April 2013] KALATHIL, S & BOAS, T.C. (2003), ‘Open Networks, Closed Regimes: The Impact of Internet on Authoritarian Rule’ Washington Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. pp22-41 LFW (2006), Banned Books in Tunisia, [Online] Available from: http://www.internationalpublishers.org/images/pdf/banned_books_in_tunisia.pdf [Accessed: 3 April 2013] MILES, H. (2005). Al-Jazeera: The Inside Story of the Arab News Channel That Is Challenging The West. New York, Grove Press. CPJ (2012). Ten Most Censored Countries. [Online] Available from: http://www.cpj.org/reports/2012/05/10-most-censored-countries.php [Accessed: 27 March 2013]. MENASSAT (2008), Rumors of a Facebook block persist in Egypt [Online], August 29 2008 Available from: http://www.menassat.com/?q=en/newsarticles/4508-rumors-facebook-blockpersist-egypt. [Accessed: 23 March 2013] PFEFFER, J. and CARLEY, K., (2012), ‘Social Networks, Social Media, Social Change,’ in Advances in Design for Cross-Cultural Activities Part II ed Schmorrow, D. (Pittsburgh, CRC Press) p273

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Reardon, S. (2012), ‘Was the Arab Spring a Facebook Revolution?’ in New Scientist 2859 accessed on 25/1/13 at http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg21428596.400-was-the-arab-spring-reallya-facebook-revolution.html SEIB, P., (2008), The Al Jazeera Effect: How the New Global Media Are Reshaping World Politics (Potomac Books), location 3028

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THE ROLE OF ISLAMIC CULTURES IN MALAYSIAN POLITICS AND SOCIETY WAN NORSHIRA BINTI WAN MOHD GHAZALI N0426874 E-mail: [email protected] Keywords: Islamic cultures, Nationalism, Islamisation, Malaysia Abstract Islam has been used to promote nationalism and modernity in government affairs and politics during the first few years of Malaysia’s independence. Until present, Islamic cultures have been infused into, and have served as bases of, Malaysian political and cultural constructions and practices. With the goal to explore to what degree Islamic cultures are embedded in the cultural and political fabric of Malaysian society this study will investigate perceptions of media practitioners, government officials, and audiences through an in-depth interview and focus group. This is important to discover how different groups in the society view Islamic cultures as a thrust in moulding the country. For this purpose, the paper presents the contextualisation of social and political structures of Malaysia to situate the entrenchment of Islamic cultures in the country.


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Islamic Cultures and Media Representation in Malaysia

1. INTRODUCTION The aims of this paper are to present a brief background, research objectives, and discussions on research framework of this study. The main focus of this paper will be on Islamic cultures in Malaysian context in order to outline the original contribution of the research to the body of knowledge. The historical, religious, racial, cultural and political components are significant in defining Malaysia. More than half of Malaysian populations are Malays and by default they are Muslims while the rest are Chinese, Indian, and several ethnic minorities. One of the important features of Malay identity is Islam. These features were used to initiate the spirit of nationalism in Malaysia after independence. It is found by Miller (2004) that Islam and politics were tied to the issue of Malay nationalism. When Chinese and Indians were given the rights of citizenship by British, Malay Muslims felt insecure. Since then, Islamic issues have been used as a nationalist tool in Malaysian politics. This effort also prompted the establishment of a first Malaysian political player; the United Malays National Organisation (UMNO) which remained as a main political party in the Malaysian ruling coalition, Barisan Nasional (BN) or National Front. In fact this ruling party has been in power for almost 57 years since independence. The main objective of this study is to discover how Islamic cultures that have been used to support nationalism and modernity in Malaysia affect and shape the structure of politics and cultures in the country. This could in turn ascertain whether or not they influence journalism practices and consumption in the country, since Malaysia has been known as practising a tight control over media practices. In order to fully comprehend the entrenchment of Islamic cultures in Malaysia, the project will attempt to answer and highlight the extent to which Islamic cultures are embedded in the cultural and political fabric of Malaysian society. To do so, government officials, media practitioners as well as lay person will be interviewed. This study will also examine national as well as international travel materials. In this light, this study chooses travel journalism as a case study because of its ability to operate as an image formation for local and international countries. Besides performing almost the same function of hard news, this article argues that travel journalism is becoming an important source of media representation to project knowledge and information of ‘otherness’ and ‘ourselves’. Since there has been little attention to the study of news flows from travel journalism, this study is an effort to contribute to further research in this field from an Islamic cultural perspective. For the purpose of this paper, I will concentrate on the first part of this study which is the contextualisation of the research by situating Islamic cultures in Malaysia. Halliday (1995) suggested that in order to study Islamic communities, the interactions between religion and other ethnics, cultural and political aspects must be taken into considerations. Basing on this assertion, it is useful to see how Islam in Malaysia interacts with other ethnics, cultural, and political forces in an effort to understand the establishment of Islamic cultures in the country.

2. ISLAMIC CULTURES IN MALAYSIA This study suggests that there is a need to understand the politicisation of Islam by relating it to cultural and political structures in this country. This will lead to the exploration of the degree to which Islamic cultures serve as a thrust in the cultural and political fabric of Malaysian society. Islamic cultures serve as a main thrust of this study. Rather than referring to Islam, this study will centre on the concept of Islamic cultures because although Islam provides the foundation on every matter of human life, the fusion of religious practices with cultural beliefs and customs mould Malaysian society today. On this basis, the term Islamic cultures will be used throughout of this study as to refer to the situation and practices within which Islam is incorporated. Islamic cultures should not be regarded as homogenous because they constitute of different cultural practices which are developed through historical transformations and ideological constructions. This is in line with Abu Ameenah’s (2001) claim that the cultural practices of earlier generations have largely influenced the practices of today. Although some of those practices were based on Islamic traditions, many were not. He further noted that traditions that were not derived from Islamic traditions were difficult to resist. This may be one of the many reasons for variant Islamic cultural practices from one group to another. A nation building process is a challenge in a multi ethnic and multi religious country mainly for Muslim leaders who are eager to accommodate Islamic values and cultures within it. In particular, Islam has defined not only the religious practices, but also the political, cultural, and economic facets in Malaysia. It has been observed that Islamic cultures shape the Malaysian political discourses and


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practices. Briefly, Malaysia is one of the fastest growing countries has been characterised as a semidemocratic or an authoritarian-democratic country with authoritarian press controls. After independence from the British colonisation, Malaysia actively promoted the spirit of nationalism among citizens, particularly the Malay Muslims. Malaysian political system has been seen as somewhat stable with its key player, BN. Despite multi-racial compositions of the population which consisted of Malay, Chinese, and Indian, Malaysia has been witnessed as fairly successful in maintaining national stability. To do so, many have observed that Malaysia has practised authoritarian control over the media through ownership and legislation. The domination of BN in politics as a one-party system has been acknowledged by many to further curtail the freedom of the press in the country (Zaharom and Musatafa, 1998). This situation gives no means to political opponents, dissenters and alternative voices to make through the mainstream media. To further maintain its status quo, the ruling coalition of BN also includes the politicisation of Islam in its approach. In shaping and managing Malaysian society, Islam is core to the Malaysian political policies. This is particularly the case when BN and PAS are in a constant rivalry by institutionalising Islam in their politics. “Both parties have invoked Islamic symbols and pursued substantive policies pertaining to Islam in an attempt to win public support” (Miller, 2004, p.4). Major Islamisation efforts have also been carried out regularly to harmonise between Islam, modernisation, and development (Liow, 2004). A clear remark of Islam could be seen in PAS’s (a political opponent party which promotes Islam as its main force) effort to mobilise political supports based on religion. PAS previously known as PanMalayan Islamic Party (PMIP) seek to unite people under Islamic brotherhood, to Islamise constitutional administration, and to defend Islam’s honour for the people (Liow, 2004). Liow (2004), however, observed that PAS’s Islamic endeavours were only directed toward criticising the ruling government’s action. Meanwhile, Khoo (2012) claimed that the opposition party was more eager to secure the special positions of the Malay Muslims, a sentiment within a Malay nationalism. This also means the interest of the nonMuslims was less attended. For this reason, pollicisation of Islam by PAS had not thrived since it failed to gain supports from other ethnicities. PAS’s efforts were seen as threatening to the needs of other racial groups and were characterised as parochialism. Seeing this flaw, the incumbent party has played up the issue to woo supports from the non-Muslims. The ruling party has also opted for moderate, progressive, and systematic expressions of Islam in its politics (Liow, 2004; Ufen, 2009). Through this measure, the ruling government has been seen to reduce and eliminate the elements of conflict between religion and races in the country. Even though the competition between PAS and UMNO has been obvious in their politics, as a multireligious country, Malaysia has been able to maintain religious tolerance (Yousif, 1998, cited in Heufers, 2002) and being moderate in its religious approach (Houben, 2003). However, it important to note that, the Islamisation effort by the ruling party was criticised because it was seen as an attempt to strengthen the hegemony of the Malays (Mauzy, 2006; Ufen, 2009). Ufen (2009) argued that Islamisation policies were perceived as safeguarding Malay Muslim special rights which discriminated between Malays and other ethnicities. Thus, Islamic policies within Malaysian politics can be attributed to securing Malay’s position in the country. Indeed, Islamic cultures have been utilised for political interest and power control. In addition, it has been claimed by many that the establishment of Islam as the official religion in Malaysia was due to “the insistence of the UMNO as a means of symbolically giving the Constitution the external features of an Islamic state” (Ratnam 1985 cited in Miller, 2004, p. 3). Miller (2004) asserted that although Islamic cultures play an essential role in Malaysian politics, it is regarded as secondary to the broader politics in Malaysia. This is the case since Islam is not the only religion, and Malay is not the only ethnic, in the country and the performance of the ruling coalition has been observed by other groups represented within the BN. It is, hence, suggested that the ruling party compromises Islamic cultural values in maintaining supports from other ethnicities and interest groups. This is the part where PAS is against the ruling party and defines it a secular government. In view of this, Abu Ameenah (2001) claimed that Muslim countries have been largely influenced by western cultures. It is no doubt that to some extent the western cultures have imparted their values in Malaysia. For instance, educational systems in Malaysia were largely based on western cultures. Students’ achievements have been examined through examinations on worldly subjects instead of Islamic matters. Although Malaysian education includes Islam as one of the subjects in its syllabus, it is still perceived as less important as compared to other subjects. This can be observed when it worth a little as a requirement for students to move to a tertiary level of education. In another example, Islamic law is not fully utilised to govern the country even though Malaysia is known as an Islamic country. Instead, European law is principally used in ruling the society while Islamic law is only applied on certain areas,


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such as marriage and family matters. It is thus vital to note that, besides Islamic cultures, western cultures are somewhat interwoven in Malaysian systems wittingly or unwittingly. The aspects of western cultures seemed to weight more importance than Islamic cultures raised concerns among many people. For this reason, there is an urgent need to find out the extent to which Islamic cultures are infused into political and cultural fabric in Malaysia to explain how serious government is in defending Malay nationalism as stipulated in the history. Therefore, in order to gain some insights into the complexities of the relationship between Islamic cultures and politics, this study will explore the political position of Islam in Malaysia.

3. CONCLUSION This study particularly aims to explore and expand our understanding of how Islamic cultures are interwoven within the cultural sphere of Malaysia society. It is important to reiterate that the present paper highlights the political background of Malaysia to overview the context of this project by situating the role of Islamic cultures in the country. This part is very crucial as it serves as a basis to understand the entrenchment of religion in Malaysia, specifically Islam. The analysis on interviews with different levels of people in the society which this study aimed for, will offer a wealth of complex layers of religious and regional perspectives around the issue under study. As a whole, this project also seeks to contribute insights into the dynamic of travel journalism and cultural studies by widening the area of inquiry around Islamic cultures.

4. REFERENCES ABU AMEENAH, BILAL PHILIPS., 2001. The moral foundations of Islamic culture. [online]. Available at: http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:vUnfZrw2l54J:www.missionislam.com/k nowledge/books/culture.pdf+&cd=2&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=uk [Accessed 10 April 2013] HALLIDAY, F., 1995. Islam is in danger: Authority, Rushdie, and the struggle for the migrant soul. In Hippler J., and Lueg A., eds., The next threat: Western perceptions of Islam. London and Boulder, Colorado: Pluto Press. HEUFERS, R., 2002. The politics of democracy in Malaysia. Asien, 85, pp. 39-60. HOUBEN. V.J.H., 2003. Islam: Enduring myths and changing realities: Southeast Asia and Islam. The American Academy of Political and Social Science, 588 (149), pp. 1-17. KHOO, B.T., 2012. Islam and political dissent in Malaysia: The remarkable trajectory of party Islam (PAS). In KHOO, B.T., HADIZ, V., and NAKANISHI, Y., eds., Islam and political dissent: Studies and comparisons from Asia and the Middle East. Interim report. Australia: Murdoch University. LIOW, J.C.Y., 2004. Exigency or expediency? Contextualising political Islam and the PAS challenge in Malaysian politics. Third World Quarterly, 25 (2), pp. 359-372. MAUZY, D.K., 2006. From Malay nationalism to a Malaysian nation? In Lowell W.B., ed., After independence: making and protecting the nation in postcolonial and postcommunist states. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. MILLER, E., 2004. The role of Islam in Malaysian political practice. The Fletcher School Online Journal for Issues related to Southwest Asia and Islamic Civilisation, 4, pp. 1-10. UFEN, A., 2009. Mobilising political Islam: Indonesia and Malaysia Compared. Commonwealth & Comparative Politics, 47 (3), pp. 308–333. ZAHAROM, NAIN., and MUSTAFA K. ANUAR., 1998. Ownership and control of the Malaysian Media [online]. Available at: http://journals.upd.edu.ph/index.php/kasarinlan/article/download/448/413 [Accessed 10 March 2013].


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THE ROLE OF HUMAN RESOURCE PROCESS ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HUMAN RESOURCE PRACTICES AND PERFORMANCE CONTROLLED BY TENURE: A MULTILEVEL MODELING ANALYSIS INDRAYANTI N0535539 E-mail: [email protected] Keywords: Human resource proses, human resource practices, job performance, tenure Abstract This study is aimed to examine the role of human resource (HR) process on HR practices and performance relationship. Human resource process is defined as a psychological process on how the messages are delivered and understood by employees. Psychological process is measured by investigating distinctiveness, consensus, and consistency of implemented three HR practices. Multilevel analysis is used to analyse 425 individuals who are nested in 18 departments. HR practices (training, participation, and result-oriented pay) have strongly contribution to three dimensions of performance (task-adaptability, task-proactivity, and task-proficiency). Tenure has significant impact among three of performance dimensions of which junior employee more able to adapt, complete and show initiative towards core-task. Human resource processes on the higher level show: 1) distinctiveness and consensus effect training and task-proactivity relationship, 2) consensus and consistency effect participation and task-proactivity relationship, while 3) distinctiveness and consensus effect result-oriented and task-proficiency relationship.

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28. INTRODUCTION One of the most significant current discussions in human resource management (HRM) practices and performance relationship is human resource (HR) process. It is becoming increasingly difficult to ignore the relevancy of this issue in the organizational studies since thus far many scholars pay more attention to unlock the black box area between HRM practices and performance (Massersmith et al, 2011) and proposed an idea of high performance work system (HPWS). HPWS are viewed as coordinated bundles of HRM practices (Posthuma et al, 2013) such as training and development, participation, and result-oriented pay (Sun, Aryee, and Law, 2007). HPWS assumes that various type of HR practices interact to improve employees’ work attitudes, ultimately contributing to positive employee behaviours and organizational effectiveness (Boxall and Macky, 2009), increasing employees’ abilities, motivation, and opportunity to participate in decision-making (Tsui and Wang, 2002; Sun et al, 2007). A social exchange theory assumes that organizational life is the representative of take and give interaction of which individual will consider beneficial treatment from organization to expose their optimal effort in order to achieve organization goals. The more employees perceive HR practices as beneficial, fair and support them, the more employees optimize their effort to gain organization goals (Emerson, 1976). People will show more effective behaviour, in this case, completing and adjusting core-task properly, and having initiative better way of doing core-task, when they perceive the organization has upgrading their skill and ability, giving opportunity to participation in decision-making, and giving reward based on justice principle. Hence, employee would like to respond with discretionary behaviour as one of investment obligation (Sun et al, 2007) and develop positive behaviours to improve organizational performance (Griffin, Neal, and Parker, 2007) as a new model of work performance that embedded within a broader organizational system including task proficiency, task adaptability, and task proactivity. On the other hand, recently more scholars focus on the different HR practices and HR process instead of HPWS. Bowen and Ostroff (2004) criticized how prior research into HPWS was mainly concerned with what kind of bundles affected performance, without putting HRM, as a function and a system would affect performance. Bowen and Ostroff’ study made some researchers rethinking about standpoint to explaining the mechanism of HPWS (Sanders, Shipton, and Gomes, 2014). A strong HRM system is shown by high level of distinctiveness, consistency, and consensus as perceived by employees. Distinctiveness refers to an HRM system being visible, understandable, legitimate, and relevant to employees’ goals (Bowen and Ostroff, 2004; Sanders, Dorenbosch, and Reuver, 2008; Li, Frenkel, and Sanders, 2012). Consistency refers to the features of an HRM system being internally aligned, while consensus refers to the extent to which there is agreement among policy makers in the way HR practices are implemented (Li et al, 2012). Recently scholars investigate this concept whether distinctiveness, consistency, and consensus as one factor or separately defined (Sanders et al, 2014). Furthermore, Sanders et al (2014) questioned should HRM practices put into one-factor or would be defined separately defined. So far, Goncalves and Neves (2012) suggested to study for every single HR practices separately, since they found that training and communication could predict employee performance (wellbeing) while the others practices had no impact.

HR process features (distinctiveness, consensus, and consistency)

Job performance (task adaptability, task proactivity, and task proficiency)

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HRM practices features (training, participation, and result-oriented pay) INDRAYANTI

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The role of HR process on the relationship between HR practices and performance controlled by tenure Basically, the purpose of this study is to examine the effect of the different HRM practices on job performance (task adaptability, task proactivity, and task proficiency). A second purpose is to examine the role of HR process based on the mechanism of distinctiveness, consensus, and consistency. Furthermore the study will use multilevel to investigate people nested in departments or organizations and examine the effect of organizational level on individual level outcomes. Therefore, this study aims to address the following research question: Q1: What is the effect of different HRM practices (training, participation, and result-oriented pay) on job performance (task adaptability, task proactivity, and task proficiency)? Q2: Does HR process (distinctiveness, consistency, and consensus) moderate the relationship between HRM practices and job performance?

29. METHOD There are 425 respondents who are nested in 18 departments in Indonesian public sector institution. Questionnaire is delivered in each department by asking supervisors in each unit to deliver to their employees, while supervisor will appraise their employees as well. Five-point Likert scales was used wherein 1 indicates "Strongly Disagree" and 5 indicating "Strongly Agree" to measure HPWS (content), HR process (distinctiveness and consensus), job performance (task proficiency, task adaptability, and task proactivity), while consistency was measure by inverse of the average deviation (within-respondent agreement) of the three HR practices Sanders et al (2008) and Li et al (2011). A higher score denotes higher HRM consistency. Multi-level model (hierarchical linear modelling) is used to investigate the model. To test moderator variable and to ensure that the interaction term is not related to one of the main effects, we mean-cantered independent variable and dependent variable and add the main and interaction effects in model.

30. RESULT Three different HRM practices (training, participation, and result-oriented pay) have significant correlation to two dimensions of job performance (task adaptability and task proactivity), while only training has significant impact to task proficiency (see Table 1). Tenure has impact to three dimensions of job performance of which the younger the more adaptable, proactive, and proficient. Partial correlation among key variables after controlling tenure indicates that training and result-oriented pay have correlation to three dimensions of job performance, while participation didn’t have significant correlation to them (see Table 2). It shows that tenure increases the correlation value on training and result-oriented pay on job performance, and eliminates participation. Table 1 and Table 2 answered research question 1. On higher level (department level), tenure as control variable has significant impact to improve training – job performance relationship, but has no impact on participation and result-oriented pay. Meanwhile, HR process is examined as moderating effects on the HRM practices – job performance relationship. Distinctiveness and consensus moderate training – task-proactivity and result-oriented – taskproficiency relationship, while consensus and consistency moderate participation – task-proactivity relationship. Table 3 provides the result of multilevel analysis and answered research question 2.

31. DISCUSSION Consistent with social exchange theory, the results highlight the effect of HRM practices in achieving employee performance. The more organization give opportunity to upgrade employees’ skills and ability, the more employees adopt and complete task as well as have initiative to execute job tasks. Likewise the more organization provides opportunity to participate and give suitable rewards, the more employees adopt tasks and giving their initiative to accomplish tasks. In this study, tenure becomes significant factor to be controlled in HRM practices. After controlling tenure, training and result-oriented pay influence job performance, while participation has no significant impact anymore. Unless training and

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The role of HR process on the relationship between HR practices and performance controlled by tenure result-oriented pay, others wouldn’t impact employee performance, even organization provides opportunity to participate in decision-making towards either junior or senior employee. On the other hand, this study highlights the importance of how manager deliver the HRM practices to employees, effect employee performance. Three HR process features explain different mechanism on HRM practices – job performance relationship. It indicates the truth of scholar’s suggestion to separate different HRM practices and different HR process on job performance studies. The more training is distinctive, the more employees proactive in doing their tasks. The less result-oriented pay is distinctive, the more employees give their initiative to do tasks. The less training and participation are consensual, the more employees proactive in doing their tasks. The more result-oriented pay is consensual, the more employees develop initiative to do their tasks. Finally, the more managers give employees opportunity to participate in decision-making consistently, the more employees proactive in doing tasks. However, this study has not previously been described. Most previous findings explained HRM practices and HR process as one factor rather than describe separately (Sanders et al, 2014).

32. REFERENCES BOXALL, P., and MACKY, K. (2009) Research and Theory on High-performance Work Systems: Progressing the High-involvement Stream. Human Resource Management Journal, 19, pp. 3–23 BOWEN, D. E., and OSTROFF, C. (2004) Understanding HRM-Firm performance linkages: The role of the 'Strength' of the HRM system’. Academy of Management Review. 29, pp. 203-221. EMERSON, R.M. (1976) Social exchange theory. Annual Review of Sociology. 2, pp. 335-362. GONCALVES, S.P. and NEVES, J. (2012) The link between perceptions of human resource management practices and employee well-being at work. Advance in Psychology Study. 1(1), pp. 31-39 GRIFFIN, M.A., NEAL, A., and PARKER, S.K. (2007) A new model of work role performance: Positive behavior in uncertain and independent contextx. Academy of management Journal. 50, pp. 327347. LI, X., FRENKEL, S.J., and SANDERS, K. (2012) Strategic HRM as process: How HR system and organizational climate strength influence Chinese employee attitudes. International Journal of Human Resource Management. 22 (9), pp. 1825-1842 MASSERSMITH, J.G., LEPAK, D.P., PATEL, P.C., and GOULD-WILLIAMS, J.S. (2011) Unlocking the black box: Exploring the link between high-performance work systems and performance. Journal of Applied Psychology. 96 (6), pp. 1105-1118 POSTHUMA, R.A., CAMPION, M.C., MASIMOVA, M., and CAMPION, M.A. (2013) A high performance work practices taxonomy: Integrating the literature and directing future research. Journal of Management. 39, pp. 1184. SANDERS, K., DORENBOSCH, L., and REUVER, R. d. (2008) The impact of individual and shared employee perceptions of HRM on affective commitment: Considering climate strength. Personnel Review. 37, pp. 412-415. SANDERS, K., SHIPTON, H., and GOMES, J. (2014) Is the HRM process important? Past, current and future challenges. HRM Special Issue (accepted article) SUN, L., ARYEE, S., and LAW, K.S. (2007) High-performance human resource practices citizenship behavior, and organizational performance: A relational perspective Academy of Management Journal. 50 (3), pp. 558-577 TSUI, A., and WANG, D. (2002) Employment Relationships from the Employer’s Perspective: Current Research and Future Directions. International Review of Industrial and Organisational Psychology, 17, pp. 77–114.

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Table 1. Mean, SD, reliabilities, and correlation among key variables Mean SD 1 2 1. Tenure 2.70 1.00 2. Training 3.67 .95 .04 .76 3. Participation 3.48 .88 .08 .40** 4. Result 3.42 1.03 .07 .42** 5. Distinctiveness 3.49 .91 .11* .54** 6. Consensus 3.55 .90 .14** .50** 7. Consistency .56 .31 -.00 .02 8. Adaptability 3.91 .70 -.16** .15** 9. Proactivity 3.79 .75 -.13** .11* 10. Proficiency 4.11 .68 -.13** .14** Note: N=425; *p