Building Resilience in Youth

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The Newspaper of the National Association of School Psychologists ... but the one that guides the work of the research team that we are part of is: a set of .... disorders, learning disabilities, autism spectrum disorders, and traumatic .... children's physical activity and cognitive outcomes (particularly for children diagnosed.
Communiqué Th e N e w s pa p e r o f t h e N a t i o n a l A s s o c i a t i o n o f S c h o o l P s y c h o l o g i s t s

March/April 2010

Volume 38, Number 6

Pediatric School Psychology

Multicultural Affairs

RTI and SWPBIS: Confronting the Problem of Disproportionality soccer kids by Josh Hodge/Istockphoto, School building by Tony Tremblay/Istockphoto

By E dwa r d M c K i n n e y, C h a r l e s B a rt h o lo m e w, & L a R e a s a G r ay This article is one in a series on equity in schools and promising practices in addressing disproportionality developed by members of the African American Subcommittee under NASP’s Multicultural Affairs Committee. The authors acknowledge the support of the African American Subcommittee for their insightful discussions on the article’s topic, as well as for the group’s professional allegiance.

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s indicated in an earlier article in NASP members can join an online discussion about this this series (Sullivan et al., 2009), article in the Communities area of our website: disproportionality is considered www.nasponline.org/communities to be an issue of equity and access in general and special education and refers disproportionately affected by negative to “the extent to which membership in a consequences associated with special given group affects the probability of being education labeling and placement, includplaced in a specific disability category” ing stigmatization, lowered expectations, (Oswald, Coutinho, Best, & Singh, 1999). substandard instruction, and less rigorLabeling students as disabled when they ous curricula, as well as isolation from the are not creates many negative problems educational and social curricula of general for these students and their communities. education (Sullivan et al.). Long-term For instance, overrepresented groups are consequences [ continued on page 26 ]

Let’s Move! School Psychologists as Change Agents in the Domain of School-Based Physical Activity

Building Resilience in Youth: The Penn Resiliency Program

B y A l i c i a L . F e d e wa & T e r e s a P. C l a r k

By Karen Reivich & Jane Gillham

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ow many of us have heard the statement, “Never take a child out of recess.” It makes sense; so many of the students we work with see recess as a refuge from the multiple demands of school. Yet, how many school psychologists truly understand the multidimensional benefit of physical activity in schools? Increased physical activity has been associated with better physical health (Burton & VanHeest, 2007), improved mental health (Floriani & Kennedy, 2008) and higher academic achievement (Tomporowski, Davis, Miller, & Naglieri, 2008). Programs that encourage physical activity in school may be

viewed as expendable in the current economic times. There are growing concerns about the reduction of recess time in America’s elementary schools. In 1998, nearly 40% of the nation’s schools had modified, removed, or considered reducing recess in schools (Johnson, 1998). Other popular media sources are claiming that schools are significantly reducing recess (Barros, Silver, & Stein, 2009; Gould, 2009; Johnson, 1998). Although a 2005 survey conducted by the National Center for Education Statistics stated that somewhere 83% to 88% of children in public elementary schools have recess, a [ continued on page 19 ]

Research-Based Practice

sychologists have been studying resilience since the 1970s to understand what enables individuals to meet developmental milestones despite serious risk factors. Although early research used terms like “invincible” and “invulnerable” to describe youth who showed resilience, the current understanding is that resilience is enabled through ordinary processes, many of which are teachable (Masten, 2001; Reivich and Shatté, 2002; Seligman, 1990). The term resilience has many definitions, but the one that guides the work of the research team that we are part of is: a set of processes that enables good outcomes in spite of serious threats (Masten, 2001). In nontechnical language, resilience is the ability to persist in the face of challenges and bounce back from adversity. There are three primary sets of circumstances that require resilience: recovering from adversity or trauma (such as loss of a parent or natural disaster), overcoming risk factors (such as having a parent with a form of psychopathology), and steering through the everyday stressors that most students confront (such as academic pressures or social pressures). In this article, we will describe the risk factors and pro- [ continued on page 17 ]

7 | Model Licensure Act Retains Exemption for School Psychologists 24 | The Role of Exercise in Reducing PTSD, Anxiety, and Depression 37 | NASP-Approved/Nationally Recognized Graduate Programs in School Psychology 43 | Design a School Psychology T-Shirt and Win! © 2 0 1 0 , Nat io nal A sso c iat io n o f Sc ho o l P syc ho lo g ist s

man, M. E. P. (1994). Prevention of depressive symptoms in school children. Behaviour Research & Therapy, 32, 801–816. Kwok, O., Hughes, J. N., & Luo, W. (2007). Role of resilient personality on lower achieving first grade students’ current and future achievement. Journal of School Psychology, 45, 61–82. Lambert, V. A., Lambert, C. E., Jr., Klipple, G. L., & Mewshaw, E. A. (1989). Social support, hardiness and psychological well-being in women with arthritis. IMAGE: Journal of Nursing Scholarship, 21, 128–131. Lewinsohn, P. M., Hops, H., Roberts, R., & Seeley, J. (1993). Adolescent psychopathology: I. Prevalence and incidence of depression and other DSM-III-R disorders in high school students. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 102, 110–120. Lohman, B. J., & Billings, A. (2008). Protective and risk factors associated with adolescent boy’s early sexual debut and risky sexual behaviors. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 37, 723–735. Masten, A. S. (2001). Ordinary magic: Resilience processes in development. American Psychologist, 56, 227–238. Masten, A. S., Best, K. M., & Garmezy, N. (1990). Resilience and development: Contributions from the study of children who overcome adversity. Development and Psychopathology, 2, 425–444. Masten, A. S., & Reed, M. G. J. (2002). Resilience in development. In C. R. Snyder & S. J. Lopez (Eds.), Handbook of positive psychology (pp. 74–88). New York: Oxford University Press. Mehta, M., Whyte, E., Lenze, E., Hardy, S., Roumani, Y., Subashan, P., et al. (2008). Depressive symptoms in late life: Associations with apathy, resilience and disability vary between young-old and old-old. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 23, 238–243. Meltzer, H., Gatward, R., Goodman, R., & Ford, T. (2000). The mental health of children and

adolescents in Great Britain. London: The Stationary Office. Murphy, D. A., & Marelich, W. D. (2008). Resiliency in young children whose mothers are living with HIV/AIDS. AIDS Care, 20, 284–291. Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Girgus, J. S., & Seligman, M. E. P. (1986). Learned helplessness in children: A longitudinal style of depression, achievement, and explanatory style. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 435–442. Pengilly, J. W., & Dowd, E. T. (2000). Hardiness and social support as moderators of stress. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 56, 813–820. Reivich, K., & Shatté, A. (2002). The resilience factor: Seven essential skills for overcoming life’s inevitable obstacles. New York, NY: Broadway Books. Rohde, P., Lewinsohn, P. M., & Seeley, J. R. (1991). Comorbidity of unipolar depression, II: Comorbidity with other mental disorders in adolescents and adults. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 100, 214–222. Seligman, M. E. P. (1990). Learned optimism. New York: Knopf. Sheard, M., & Golby, J. (2007). Hardiness and undergraduate academic study: The moderating role of commitment. Personality and Individual Differences, 43, 579–588. Smith, B. W., & Zautra, A. J. (2008). Vulnerability and resilience in women with arthritis: Test of a two-factor model. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 76, 799–810. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA), Office of Applied Studies. (2008). The NSDUH report: Major depressive episode among youths aged 12 to 17 in the United States: 2004 to 2006. Rockville, MD: Author. Whitaker, A., Johnson, J., Shaffer, D., Rapoport, J. L., Kalikow, K., Walsh, B. T., et al. (1990). Uncommon troubles in young people: prevalence estimates of selected psychiatric disorders in a nonreferred adolescent population. Archives of General Psychiatry, 47, 487–496.

Physical Activity [ continued from page 1 ]

more recent analysis of the same data (Barros et al.) showed that although 88% of the children surveyed did have recess, the amount of time varied significantly. Among children 8 and 9 years of age, 30% were not exposed to recess at all or had less than a 15-minute daily break. Another 65% of these children had physical education in school only twice a week or less. The limited research looking at the amount of recess time in schools is inconsistent, but there is evidence that school administrators view recess as expendable (Simon & Childers, 2006). It is important for school psychologists to advocate for the continued need for recess to support the healthy physical and social development of school children. While creating an academic intervention for a student struggling with reading or consulting with a teacher to create an effective behavioral intervention for a student with ADHD are weekly occurrences for many school psychologists, many may be unaware of the significant benefit in advocating for more physical activity in school. This article will highlight the importance of physical activity for the general well-being of students and offer information to encourage school psychologists to become advocates for school-based activity. Children’s Physical Activity and Physical Health

Children today spend much less time engaged in physical activity than they did even a decade earlier (CDC, 2003). As children move from elementary to middle school, their physical activity levels plummet; it is estimated that 20% to 50% of adolescents do not participate in recommended levels of daily physical activity, and this pattern of inactivity continues into adulthood (Grunbaum et al., 2004). The relationship between sedentary behaviors and prevalence of obesity has been well documented (CDC, 2003; Pate et al., 2002). In the last 30 years, rates of obesity for children (ages 6 to 11 years) has doubled, while the prevalence of obesity in adolescents (ages 12 to 19 years) has tripled (National Center for Health Statistics, 2003; Ogden et al., 2006). Although there is not a consistent correlation between physical activity and obesity within the literature, physical activity is a key preventive measure in child weight gain. Children who spend more time engaged in physical activity reap significantly more health benefits than sedentary children (see Burton & VanHeest, 2007). Alicia L. Fedewa, PhD, NCSP, is an assistant professor at the University of Kentucky in the Educational, School, and Counseling Psychology department. Teresa P. Clark is a doctoral student at Michigan State University and is completing her doctoral internship at Cypress-Fairbanks Independent School District in Cypress, TX.

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March/April 2010, Volume 38, Number 6 | Communiqué | 19

The escalating rates of obesity and related health concerns among children have spurred policy makers into creating federal initiatives that increase the rates of physical activity among school-age youth (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2004). Significant health benefits have been associated with an active lifestyle in both adults and children (Burton & VanHeest, 2007; Center on Education Policy, 2006; Nowicka & Flodmark, 2006; Shephard, 1997). Children who engage in physical activity have lowered adiposity, enhanced fitness levels, and significantly lower risk for heartrelated illnesses. Furthermore, physical activity helps children to develop lean body and strong bone mass, and leads to greater levels of flexibility, strength, and agility (Nowicka & Flodmark, 2006). A substantial literature base has consistently documented numerous benefits of physical activity on children’s health. There is thus little dispute among researchers that physical activity acts as both a preventive measure for poor health outcomes and a treatment for children who are already classified as overweight or obese (Burton & VanHeest, 2007). Children’s Physical Activity and Mental Health

In addition to the physical health benefits of free play and exercise, there are numerous mental health benefits associated with increased activity. Children who engage in frequent amounts of free play and are therefore more active tend to have higher self-esteem and have higher reported levels of well-being (e.g., lower rates of anxiety and depression; Parfitt, Pavey, & Rowlands, 2009). Although findings vary (see Johnson et al., 2008), overall, schoolage youth who are more active reportedly experience feelings of sadness and depression less frequently than sedentary youth (Brosnahan, Steffen, Lytle, Patterson, & Boostrom, 2004; Dishman et al., 2006; Haarasilta, Marttunen, Kaprio, & Aro, 2004; Motle, Birnbaum, Kubik, & Dishman, 2004). Physical activity among children also helps to relieve anxiety and stress (Salmon, 2000; Nabetani & Tokumnaga, 2001), ward off sickness and feelings of pain (Haughland, Wold, & Torsheim, 2003; Sundblad, Jansson, Saartok, Renstrom, & Engstrom, 2008), enhance self-esteem (Briddle et al., 2000; Crews et al., 2004; Dishman et al.; Motle et al.), and even buffer against suicidality among adolescents (Taliaferro, Rienzo, Miller, Pigg, & Dodd, 2008). Despite a lack of consensus with respect to the precise neurological or physiological mechanisms that may underlie these findings (Hillman et al., 2005), researchers find it difficult to dispute the positive associations between children’s physical activity and enhanced mental health outcomes (Floriani & Kennedy, 2008).

middle school-age children (Burton & VanHeest, 2007; Sibley & Etnier, 2003). Tomporowski and colleagues (2008) evaluated the effects of physical activity on children’s intellectual functioning, cognitive abilities, and academic achievement. Overall, intellectual functioning (as defined by children’s IQ), cognitive abilities (working memory, executive functioning, and processing abilities), and achievement (standardized test scores, grades, and teacher reports) were positively related to children’s engagement in physical activity, although studies varied widely in their results (Tomporowski et al.). As the authors note, the lack of randomization and poor quality of the studies’ designs make it difficult to assume a causal relationship between increased physical activity and children’s cognitive outcomes. There appear to be vast differences across studies depending on the intensity and the type of the exercise children engage in. In other words, at greater intensities of physical activity, children appear to derive more cognitive benefit, and if their activity levels are based on group play or structured movement activities versus individual running or cycling, children also appear to develop greater benefit in cognitive outcomes (Tomporowski et al.). One specific cognitive advantage gained from physical activity is an improvement in children’s executive functioning. Hallmark characteristics associated with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) include difficulties sustaining attention, impairment of self-regulatory behavior, and hyperactivity (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). Preliminary data across studies suggest that physical activity may be an effective intervention for those children who have difficulty inhibiting behavioral impulses, attending to stimuli for extended periods of time, and staying on task long enough to complete required assignments (Flohr, Saunders, Evans, & Raggi, 2004; Gapin & Etnier, 2009). Moreover, teachers report that students are more attentive, focused, and exhibit greater on-task behaviors after periods of physical activity (Shephard, 1997). Students also report greater enjoyment of school, less boredom, and a greater desire to learn (Dwyer, Blizzard, & Dean, 1996; Shephard, 1997). Although more research is needed in this area to clarify the relationship between children’s physical activity and cognitive outcomes (particularly for children diagnosed with ADHD and learning disabilities), the role of physical activity in other areas of children’s well-being provides a strong impetus for its inclusion in school (Burton & VanHeest, 2007). Implications for School Psychologists

Children’s Physical Activity and Cognitions

Research indicates that physical activity has a number of benefits for the overall wellbeing of all students and may even be more beneficial for particular groups of students who receive special education services. Physical activity has even been termed

There are mixed research findings with respect to the relationship between physical activity and higher cognitive functioning and achievement scores in elementary- and

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an “evidence-based intervention” for physical, mental, and cognitive benefits (Flori- man & Sluyter, 1988; McGimsey & Favell, 1988) in this population. Additional research ana & Kennedy, 2008), and can greatly enhance the effectiveness of more traditional is also needed for this population of children. school-based interventions. Physical activity resources for school psychologists. A number of interventions Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder have been developed to promote the integration of physical activity into the school (ADHD) affects 1 in 20 children in the United States (Faraone, Sergeant, Gillberg, & day (Salmon, Booth, Phongsavan, Murphy, & Timperio, 2007; Ward, Saunders, & Pate, Biederman, 2003) and is one of the most common behavior problems encountered 2006). In a review of school-based interventions designed to increase students’ physiin school settings (Brock, 2002). Most school psychologists are knowledgeable about cal activity levels, Salmon and colleagues identified a number of effective intervenevidence-based behavioral interventions to address ADHD in the classroom (e.g., tions for school-age youth. Allowing students 15-minute activity breaks throughout contingency management, adjusting task duration, using visual cues, etc.), yet most the day during instructional tasks significantly increased children’s physical activity fail to consider the benefit of physical activity. A classroom-based physical activity levels. Moreover, increasing the time spent in—as well as altering the structure of— program improved the on-task behavior of children with ADHD by at least 8% and children’s physical education class also greatly enhanced both children’s fitness and as much as 20% for the most off-task activity levels (Salmon et al.). These interventions need not be extensive or use a lot of students (Mahar et al., 2006). Another resources to be effective. Integrating physical activity into teachers’ preexisting lesson study showed that the attention levels plans can be both simple and effective. A variety of resources for integrating physical for children with ADHD improved sigactivity into the classroom can be found through Take10! (n.d.), Brain Breaks (n.d.), and nificantly after a 20-minute walk. Azrin Energizers (n.d.). School psychologists can use these resources to encourage and assist and colleagues have demonstrated that teachers in implementing physical activity breaks for their students without missing physical activity is a powerful contingent academic instructional time. That is, many of these activities are built into curricular reinforcement for maintaining attentiveconcepts, such that students are learning while they are moving. In an age where stakes ness and calmness in children with ADHD, are high and accountability for academic standards is ubiquitous, it is important that much more effective than the typical reschool psychologists emphasize the benefits of incorporating physical activity into the inforcers (e.g., praise, tangible rewards, classroom for all students. response cost; Azrin, Ehle, & Beaumont, Conclusions 2006). Recent research suggests that physical activity may improve the execuPhysical education and recess have become vulnerable to cuts as many school districts tive functioning, especially the planning struggle with reduced school budgets. However, when time spent in physical activity abilities, of children with ADHD (Gapin is decreased, children miss out on a number of favorable outcomes. There are signifi& Etnier, 2009). Although more research cant benefits of incorporating physical activity into children’s daily school routine, as is needed in this area to clarify the relawell as promising findings for those children who need additional assistance to meet tionship between children’s physical actheir academic potential. Children’s physical health, cognitions, and mental well-being tivity and improved school performance, are enhanced with physical activity. As school psychologists, we are called upon to be preliminary data across studies suggest change agents and advocates for our students. Given school budget constraints, limthat physical activity may be an effective intervention for those children who have ited resources, and pervasive stress among teachers and administrators, incorporatdifficulty inhibiting behavioral impulses, attending to stimuli for extended periods of ing physical activity into the school day is an inexpensive and effective intervention time, and staying on task long enough to complete required assignments (Flohr et al., for improving outcomes for all students. Whether at the classroom, school, or district 2004; Gapin & Etnier, 2009). level, there is little question that school psychologists can play an active role in supAutism spectrum disorders. Identification of children with an autism spectrum dis- porting school-based physical activity. n order (ASD) has dramatically increased over the last 2 decades (Newschaffer, Falb, & References Gurney, 2005). These children can present unique challenges in general education class- Abrantes, A. M., Strong, D. R., Cohn, A., Camportance of physical activity in closing the eron, A. Y., Greenberg, B. D., Mancebo, M. C., achievement gap. Quest, 59, 212–218. rooms because of their atypical behavior (i.e., lack of social skills, stereotyped behavior, et al. (2009). Acute changes in obsessions Celiberti, D. A., Bobo, H. E., Kelly, K. S., Harris, S. and maladaptive behaviors). There has been little research examining the benefits of and compulsions following moderate-intensity L., & Handleman, J. S. (1997). The differential aerobic exercise among patients with obsesschool-based activity for children with ASD (Pan & Frey, 2006), yet the research that and temporal effects of antecedent exercise sive compulsive disorder. Journal of Anxiety has been conducted demonstrated positive outcomes. Mildly strenuous aerobic activity on the self-stimulatory behavior of a child Disorders, 23, 923–927. with autism. Research in Developmental Disdecreases self-stimulatory behavior in children with ASD while concurrently increasing Allison, D. B., Basile, V. C., & MacDonald, R. B. abilities, 18, 139–150. academic performance (Celiberti, Bobo, Kelly, Harris, & Hadleman, 1997; Elliot, Dobbin, (1991). Brief report: Comparative effects of Center on Education Policy. (2006). From the capital antecedent exercise and lorazepam on the Rose, & Soper, 1994; Rosenthal-Malek & Mitchell, 1997). Furthermore, involving children to the classroom: Year 4 of the No Child Left Behind aggressive behavior of an autistic man. Jourwith ASD in school-based physical activity is an opportunity to address the social defiAct. Retrieved January 20, 2010, from http:// nal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 21, www.cep-dc.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=Feature 89–94. cits inherent with this disorder, involving them in activities requiring imaginative play, .showFeature&featureID=7 reciprocal communication, turn taking behaviors, and positive interactions with typical American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders Centers for Disease Control. (2003). Youth risk peers. Although these activities can be difficult for children with ASD without adult sup(4th ed. text rev). Washington, DC: Author. behavior surveillance: United States. MMWR, port, there has been recent research examining strategies to make these physical play 53, 1–96. Azrin, N. H., Ehle, C. T., & Beaumont, A. L. interactions more effective (Pan & Frey, 2006; Pan, 2009; Zimbelman, Pashal, Hawley, (2006). Physical exercise as a reinforcer to Craft, L. L., & Perna, F. M. (2004). The benefits Molgaard, & Saint Romain, 2007). Further research is needed, yet the current findings promote calmness of an ADHD child. Behavior of exercise for the clinically depressed. Modification, 30, 564–570. Primary Care Companion Journal of Clinical of physical activity benefits for children with ASD are promising. Psychiatry, 6, 104–111. Bachman, J. E., & Sluyter, D. (1988). Reducing Emotional/ behavior disorders. Although less than 1% of children in schools are ideninappropriate behaviors of developmentally Crews, D., Lochbaum, M., & Landers, D. (2004). tified as having an emotional/behavior disorder (EBD), it has been estimated that as many disabled adults using antecedent aerobic Aerobic physical activity effects on psychodance exercises. Research in Developmental as 19% of schoolchildren meet eligibility standards for having EBD and even more may logical well-being in low-income Hispanic chilDisabilities, 9, 73–83. be suffering from unidentified mental health issues (Heathfield & Clark, 2004). Further dren. Perceptual Motor Skills, 98, 319–324. research in this area is needed to determine the specific benefits of school-based activity Barros, R. M., Silver, E. J., & Stein, R. E. K. Dishman, R., Hales, D., Pfeiffer, K., Felton, G., (2009). School recess and group classroom Saunders, R., Ward, D. S., et al. (2006). for children identified as having EBD; however, there is evidence to indicate that physical behavior. Pediatrics, 123, 431–436. Physical self-concept and self-esteem mediactivity has benefits for students suffering from depression or anxiety. North, McCul- Brain breaks: A physical activity idea book for elate cross-sectional relations of physical activlagh, and Tran (1990) conducted a meta-analysis of 80 studies and found that physical ementary classroom teachers. (n.d.). Retrieved ity and sport participation with depression September 25, 2009, from http://www.emc symptoms among adolescent girls. Health activity reduced depression scores by half a standard deviation (ES = -.53) as compared .cmich.edu/BrainBreaks Psychology, 25, 396–407. to the control groups. Further, there was an even larger effect size (-.94) of physical acBriddle, S., Fox, K., & Boutcher, S. (2000). PhysiDwyer, T., Blizzard, L., & Dean, K. (1996). Physitivity on mental health symptoms in clinical populations. In addition, physical activity cal activity and psychological well-being. New cal activity and performance in children. NutriYork: Routledge. seems to be as effective as either psychopharmacological treatments or cognitive thertional Review, 4(SII), 27–31. apy in its effects on depression (Craft & Perna, 2004; Lawlor & Hopkins, 2001). While Brock, S. E., Lazarus, P. J., & Jimerson, S. R. Elliot, R. O., Dobbin, A. R., Rose, G. D., & Soper, (Eds.). (2002). Best practices in school crisis there has been much less research on the effect of physical activity on anxiety disorders, H. V. (1994). Vigorous, aerobic exercise verprevention and intervention. Bethesda, MD: Nasus general motor training activities: Effects there is some evidence that physical activity is linked to a moderate reduction of anxiety tional Association of School Psychologists. on maladaptive and stererotypic behaviors of with effect sizes from .47 to .94 (Petruzzello, Landers, Hatfield, Kubitz, & Salazar, 1991; Brosnahan, J., Steffen, L. M., Lytle, L., Patteradults with both autism and mental retardation. Journal of Autism and Developmental Stich, 1998), and a more recent study has shown that physical activity holds promise in son, J., & Boostrom, A. (2004). The relation Disorders, 24, 565–576. between physical activity and mental health the treatment of obsessive–compulsive disorders (Abrantes et al., 2009). Furthermore, among Hispanic and non-Hispanic white adoEnergizers! The way teachers integrate physical acalthough there has been no research specifically looking at the behavioral benefits for lescents. Archives of Pediatric Adolescent Meditivity with academic concepts. (n.d.). Retrieved cine, 58, 818–823. children with externalizing disorders, other research has shown that aerobic exercise September 25, 2009, from http://www reduces aggression (Allison, Basile, & MacDonald, 1991) and disruptive behavior (Bach- Burton, L. J., & VanHeest, J. L. (2007). The im.ncpe4me.com/energizers.html

Preliminary data across studies suggest that physical activity may be an effective intervention for those children who have difficulty inhibiting behavioral impulses, attending to stimuli for extended periods of time, and staying on task long enough to complete required assignments.

© 2 0 1 0 , N at i o n a l As s o ciatio n o f S cho o l P s ycho l o gis t s

March/April 2010, Volume 38, Number 6 | Communiqué | 21

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Flohr, J. A., Saunders, M. J., Evans, S. W., & Raggi, V. (2004). Effects of physical activity on academic performance and behavior in children with ADHD. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 36(5), S145–S146. Faraone, S. V., Sergeant, J., Gillberg, C., & Biederman, J. (2003). The worldwide prevalence of ADHD: Is it an American condition? World Psychiatry, 2, 104–113. Floriani, V., & Kennedy, C. (2008). Promotion of physical activity in children. Current Opinion in Pediatrics, 20(1), 90–95. Gapin, J., & Etnier, J. (2009). Physical activity and cognitive performance in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)—Does physical activity participation predict executive function? Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 31, S11–S12.



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