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Plan of the ground floor: the continuity among inside and outside spaces ...... Haskoy, is located on the west side of Istanbul, on Golden Horn. ...... Stadium is recently in use for some football matches and waiting to host 2022 Winter ...... Summer Study on Energy Efficiency in Buildings, August 14−18, 2006, Pacific Grove, CA.
Özgür Öztürk DAKAM YAYINLARI

June 2016, İstanbul. www.dakam.org Firuzağa Mah. Boğazkesen Cad., Çangar İş Merkezi 36/ 2, 34425, Beyoğlu, İstanbul ARCHDESIGN '16 / III. International Architectural Design Conference On Design anf Nature organized by DAKAM (Eastern Mediterranean Academic Research Center) Scientific Committee Prof. Dr. Ahsen Ozsoy- Istanbul Technical University Prof. Dr. T. Elvan Altan - Middle East Technical University Prof. Dr. Sibel Bozdogan - Kadir Has University Prof. Dr. Meral Erdogan - Yildiz Technical University Prof. Dr. Sema Soygenis- Bahcesehir University Prof. Dr. Ryadi Adityavarman - Kansas State University Assoc. Prof. Dr. Acalya Allmer- Dokuz Eylül University Assoc. Prof. Dr. Erkan Aydintan- Karadeniz Technical University Assoc. Prof. Dr. Esin Boyacioglu, Gazi University Assoc. Prof. Dr. Esin Kasapoglu- Istanbul Kültür University Assoc. Prof. Dr. Guido Cimadomo, University of Malaga Assist. Prof. Dr. Hatice Gunseli Demirkol- Anadolu University Assoc. Prof. Dr. Havva Alkan Bala- Selcuk University Assoc. Prof. Dr. Mehdi Sabet- Zayed University Assoc. Prof. Dr. Murat Cetin- Kadir Has University Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ozlem Parlak Bicer- Erciyes University Assoc. Prof. Dr. Sebnem Uzunarslan Assoc. Prof. Dr. Sebnem Yalinay Cinici- Istanbul Bilgi University Assoc. Prof. Dr. Yasemen Say Ozer- Yildiz Technical University Assoc. Prof. Dr. Yonca Kosebay Erkan- Kadir Has University Assist. Prof. Dr. Aysegul Kuruc- Mimar Sinan Fine Arts University Assist. Prof. Dr. Yildiz Aksoy- Istanbul Aydın University Assist. Prof. Dr. Zeynep Halu- Yeditepe University Research Assistant Dr. Erdem Ceylan- Mimar Sinan Fine Arts University Alessia Riccobono- Köln International School of Design, Cologne University of Applied Sciences Manfredi Saeli, University of Palermo Sabine Storp- Bartlett School of Architecture, Ucl, Storp-Weber-Architecture Edited by: Berfu Ayhan Designed by: Barış Öztürk Cover Design: D/GD (DAKAM Graphic Design) Print: Metin Copy Plus, Mollafenari Mah., Türkocağı Cad. 3/1, Mahmutpaşa/Istanbul, Turkey ISBN: 978-605-9207-26-3

A JOURNEY INTO THE CRYSTAL ................................................................................................................. 8 ÖZEN EYÜCE TAKING INSPIRATION FROM NATURE: RULES AND PROCEDURES FOR A GOOD BUILDING PRACTICE ......... 12 TIZIANA CAMPISI, MANFREDI SAELI A PROPOSAL FOR THE NEW SCIENCE CENTRE IN NAPLES: A “GREENHOUSE” IN THE LANDSCAPE .............. 24 PASQUALE MIANO, ADRIANA BERNIERI AN APPROACH IN ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN EDUCATION: RANDOMNESS ................................................. 37 ARZU IL VAROL “SCALE” AS THE DESIGN DIALECT OF INTERIOR ARCHITECTURE ............................................................... 47 ADEM VAROL IMPLEMENTING WORKSHOPS AS A TOOL IN ARCHITECTURAL EDUCATION: THE AIM, PROCESS, EVALUATION OF EWTA 2009-2011 ........................................................................... 55 EMINE FULYA ÖZMEN THE COMPARASION OF TRADITIONAL AND MODERN HOUSING PATTERNS OF GAZIANTEP ...................... 56 ESRA GÜRBÜZ YILDIRIM, FEYZA KUYUCU SUSTAINABLE PLANNING IN HISTORICAL ENVIRONMENTS, A CASE STUDY IN BURSA - CUMALIKIZIK ........ 64 MERYEM ALAGÖZ, AYSU ÖZDOĞAN AN ALTERNATIVE APPROACH FOR THE LOW-INCOME HOUSING PROJECTS IN TURKEY: THE EXAMPLE OF QUINTA MONROY, CHILE ............................................................................................ 73 EMRE DEDEKARGINOĞLU PIECEMEAL AESTHETICS: POETICS OF PARTS IN USONIAN AUTOMATIC HOUSES ...................................... 85 EZGİ İŞBİLEN STRUCTURAL EVOLUTION OF HIGH-RISES: FROM HOME INSURANCE BUILDING TO BURJ KHALIFA ........... 96 GÖRKEM ARSLAN KILINÇ, AYŞİN SEV FOCUS ON LIVED SPACES AND IDENTITY: THE PARADIGM OF THE URBAN DESIGN WITH RESIDENTIAL HIGH-RISES IN ENGLAND ........................... 106 ELENA KALCHEVA, YURI HADI, AHMAD TAKI NANOTECHNOLOGY IN CONSTRUCTION: A MATTER OF FASHION OR REAL POTENTIALITIES? ................. 112 MANFREDI SAELI EMERGENCE OF NANOMATERIALS IN INTERIOR ARCHITECTURE OF HEALTHCARE DOMAIN.................... 113 AHOU AKBARİ HAGHİGHAT, EMİNE GÖRGÜL NANOTECHNOLOGY PROVIDES NEW DYNAMICS IN ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN ........................................ 123 NIKOLETA K. PARTHENOPOULOU A SENSORY EXPERIENCE IN AN URBAN ENVIRONMENT: SOUND-WALKS AND SOUND-MAPS.................. 137 EMINE KOSEOGLU OPTIMIZING PUBLIC SPACES FOR SOCIAL INTERACTION IN DUBAI: RESIDENTS’ PERSPECTIVES ............... 147 DANA NABTITI IMPROVING THE STREET ENVIRONMENT FOR AN ENHANCED PEDESTRIAN EXPERIENCE ........................ 155 SHERINE ALY THE POWER AND NATURE: THE RESISTANT SUBVERSIONS .................................................................... 168 SERDAR ERİŞEN BIOMIMETIC DESIGN PRINCIPLES AS AN INSPIRATIONAL MODEL: CASE STUDY ON URBAN FURNITURE .. 174 UJAL ABBASLI, SEMRA ARSLAN SELCUK INTEGRATED DIGITAL DESIGN AND FABRICATION STRATEGIES FOR COMPLEX STRUCTURES: REEXPERIENCING WOOD JOINERY IN ARCHITECTURE ................................................................................ 184 ISBAH ESTATEYIEH, SEMRA ARSLAN SELÇUK NEW ARCHITECTURAL ICONS OF THE COMPETITIVE ERA ....................................................................... 193 ESRA AKBALIK CURRENT PROBLEM OF GLOBALIZATION, RESIDENCE AND LIVING ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY AROUND RESIDENCES: ANKARA ÇAYYOLU EXAMPLE ........................................................................................... 200 FULYA ÖZMEN, TUĞÇE ÇELİK, ALİ BARMAN

ARCHITECTURE OF THE DAY ................................................................................................................. 211 TEHREEM UN NISA WAYS OF VISUALISING KNOWLEDGE IN ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN EDUCATION: CONCEPT MAPS, WORD CLOUDS, AND PARTI ....................................................................................... 213 EMINE KOSEOGLU TEACHING DESIGNING: FROM CONCEPT TO SPACE................................................................................ 223 GOKCE KETİZMEN ONAL ARCHITECTURAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL COMFORT EVALUATION IN THE PALESTINIAN SCHOOLS .......... 235 MUHANNAD HAJ HUSSEİN, MUTASIM BABA, ALINE BARLET, CATHERINE SEMIDOR FUTURE ENVISIONS AS TRIGGERING MECHANISMS IN INTERIOR DESIGN STUDIOS: “URBAN INTERIORS: ISTANBUL 2050” STUDIO PROCESS ........................................................................ 246 EMİNE GÖRGÜL, BANU GARİP SPACES WITHOUT WOMAN .................................................................................................................. 255 SEVIM GÜLEN ÖZAKTAN DISCOVERING THE ARCHITECTURAL PRINCIPLES FOR TRANSFORMATION OF PLACE TO SPACE: DESIGNING “KITCHENS” FOR CITIES ........................................................................................................................ 259 ÖZLEM KARAKUL A CONVERSATION ON VIRTUAL SPACES AND SPATIAL EXPANSION WITH A FOCUS ON VIDEO GAMES .... 265 J.C.RAI ARCHITECTURAL IMAGE IN CINEMA ..................................................................................................... 266 TÜRKAN NİHAN HACIÖMEROĞLU EBD-EVIDENCE BASED DESIGN IN INTERIOR ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN OF HEALTHCARE SPACES ........ 275 EMİNE GÖRGÜL, LEVENT ÇIRPICI, TİMUÇİN ERKAN EVALUATION OF EXFOLIATED VERMICULATE AGGREGATES TO PRODUCE NEW GENERATION COMPOSITE MORTARS IN ENVIRONMENTALLY SUSTAINABLE BUILDINGS.............................................. 282 LÜTFULLAH GÜNDÜZ, ŞEVKET ONUR KALKAN SYNTHESIZING THE GASEOUS STATE ..................................................................................................... 291 ALEJANDRO MIESES CASTELLANOS AN EVALUATION OF THE EFFECTS OF OCCUPANCY PROFILES IN ENERGY PERFORMANCE SIMULATION... 292 BASAK GUCYETER TREE METAPHOR IN ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN ....................................................................................... 304 NUR BANU ÖZDEMİR, SEMRA ARSLAN SELÇUK ACHIEVING COLOR HARMONY IN CURRENT ARCHITECTURAL STRUCTURES THROUGH THE USE OF DIGITAL METHODS IN COLOR ............................................................................ 316 ADEL KHODEIR, TALA ALNOUNOU CAN COGNITIVE MAPPING BE AN ALTERNATIVE TOOL FOR THE PARTICIPATORY REHABILITATION OF HISTORICAL URBAN SPACES? THE CASE OF KEMERALTI BAZAAR IN IZMIR, TURKEY ........................... 325 FULYA SELÇUK, İLKNUR TÜRKSEVEN DOĞRUSOY INVESTIGATION OF AVANOS REGION IN THE CONTEXT OF URBAN IDENITY ........................................... 335 EDA BALABAN VAROL PRECEDENT KNOWLEDGE AS REPRESENTATIVE OF MEMES IN ARCHITECTURE ....................................... 344 SİNEM ÖZGÜR, BELKIS ULUOĞLU THE TERM “DISEGNO” IN THE AGE OF RENAISSANCE AND THE PROBLEM OF DESIGN IN POSTHUMANIST CONDITION.................................................................... 354 ÖNDER ÇELIK DECORATIVE APPROACHES IN SOME OTTOMAN BATHS ........................................................................ 355 KADER REYHAN FOUCAULT DISCOURSE ANALYSIS ON INFORMAL SETTLEMENTS' REPRESENTATION IN FICTION-GARBAGE COLLECTION AREA- MANSHIET NASSER- CAIRO..................................................................................... 366 SEIF EL DINE SAAD GHALLAB

BUILDING ENERGY PERFORMANCE GAP BETWEEN DESIGN AND OPERATION: A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW.... 376 BASAK GUCYETER ENVIRONMENTAL AND CONTEXTUAL INTEGRATION OF WATERFRONTS ................................................ 389 SHERINE ALY TRANSPORTABILITY AND ADAPTATION THROUGH DESIGN FOR DISASSEMBLY; THE CASE OF CONCRETE BUILDINGS ..................................................................................................... 400 WASIM SALAMA, ALEXANDER FURCHE UNDERGROUND TRANSIT SPACE AND WOMEN’S FEAR OF CRİME ......................................................... 411 NEVINE RAFA KUSUMA, ENIRA ARVANDA THE ROLES OF QANAT AS A MODE OF VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE & URBAN LANDSCAPE IN IRANIAN EVERYDAY LIFE ................................................................................ 420 SINA RAZZAGHI-ASL NURSING CABIN PROJECT: TOWARD INCLUSIVE BREASTFEEDING SPACE IN TRANSPORTATION FACILITIES ...................................... 428 ENIRA ARVANDA, NEVINE RAFA KUSUMA READING RELIGIOUS SPACES THROUGH BELIEF SYSTEMS: THE COMPARISON OF SYNAGOGUE, CHURCH AND MOSQUE INTERIORS ............................................... 435 DILARA TÜFEKÇİOĞLU A CURRENT SPECTRUM OF PARTICIPATORY DESIGN APPROACHES IN TURKEY: LEARNING FROM A GRADUATE COURSE ............................................................................................... 447 MELAHAT KÜÇÜKARSLAN EMİROĞLU INSPIRING LEARNING IN ARCHITECTURE AMIDST THE CLUTTER OF THE INFORMATION AGE .................. 456 ALEX NDİBWAMİ AN ALTERNATIVE WAY OF CREATING THE CRYSTAL IMAGE IN ARCHITECTURE: THE ARCHITECTONICS OF BODY AND SENSES THROUGH DIGITAL .......................................................... 462 ELIF BELKIS ÖKSÜZ A CRITICAL LOOK AT ARCHITECTURE HISTORY: AN INTERACTIVE LEARNING METHODOLOGY FOR STUDENTS ...........466

ALESSIA RICCOBONO THE CONTINUITY OF CULTURAL AND ARCHITECTURAL IDENTITY IN URBAN CONTEXT: A SAMPLE ANALYSIS FROM RIGA, LATVIA ............................................................................................. 474 NİLGÜN RENGİN SAZAK MZAB ALGERIAN VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE: A CONNECTION BETWEEN THE ARCHITECTURE AND THE ENVIRONMENT .............................................. 485 NAGME EBRU AYDENIZ, NADJLA FELLAHI SHAPE GRAMMAR AND ARCHETYPES: “I. NATIONAL ARCHITECTURE PERIOD” AND ITS LEGACY ............. 499 AYSE YUCEL THE IDENTITY OF URBAN SPACE NEW APPROACHES FOR HISTORICAL AND MONUMENTAL PLACES IN THE CITY ...................................... 500 DOMENICO CHIZZONITI, LETIZIA CATTANI, MONICA MOSCATELLI, LUCA PREIS UNFOLDING ARCHITECTURAL LANDMARKS: WHAT MAKES THEM SO DISTINGUISHED?.......................... 512 HADEEL MILYANI, SARA MOFARHI CO-DESIGNING THE DRIVER’S SEAT: A CALL FOR AN ‘OPEN’ APPROACH TO DRAWING PRODUCTION IN SPATIAL DESIGN PRACTICE............... 521 JHONO BENNETT EXPLORATION AND MANIPULATION IN CHILDREN’S PLAY SPACES ......................................................... 531 SARA EL HUSSEINY, LOBNA SHERIF, MARWA KHALIL THE DESIGN OF ARCHITECTURAL SPACE THROUGH SYSTEMS OF NATURE. ............................................. 541 LILIANA ENEIDA SÁNCHEZ PLATAS, JESÚS SÁNCHEZ LUQUEÑO DESIGN THINKING IN ARCHITECTURE: ISSUES, LIMITATIONS AND SUGGESTIONS ................................... 553 MOHAMMED GHONIM ARCHITECTURE FOR THE CROWD BY THE CROWD: A NEW MODEL FOR DESIGN ACQUISITION ................ 562 IMDAT AS, TAKEHIKO NAGAKURA

MORPHOLOGICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL PERSPECTIVES FOR OPTIMIZING MULTIFRACTAL ARCHITECTURE IN THE HISTORICAL CITY OF ALEPPO ..................................................................................................... 571 BASHAR SWAID, HADYA SALKINI, LAURA GRECO, ROBERTA LUCENTE EFFECT OF SOCIAL NETWORKS ON SPACES ............................................................................................ 580 GAMZE DEMİRCİ, BURCU KOSE KHIDIROV THE DESIGN FROM NATURE: TOWARDS THE ORDER OF THE POWER OF GLOBAL ................................... 581 SERDAR ERİŞEN THE ROLE OF ORDER IN PERSIAN GARDEN ............................................................................................ 590 HAMIDEH RIMAZ THE INCREASING USE OF THE INTERNET AND ITS POTENTIAL IMPACT ON THE FUTURE OF THE CITY – WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO CAIRO, EGYPT ...................................................................................... 595 RANA SWELAM, YASSER MOUSTAFA, AYMAN WANAS

A JOURNEY INTO THE CRYSTAL ÖZEN EYÜCE Assoc.Prof.Dr., Bahcesehir University, İstanbul [email protected] INTRODUCTION Modern Architecture changed out completely the existing rules of design at the beginning of 20 th Century. Architectural styles, canons, typologies were all rejected to start from a tabula rasa in favor for the functionality and rationality. This rejection, on the other hand, ended in the proliferation of diverse design approaches in the architectural form-giving process in the second half of the 20th Century. Nevertheless, the metaphor of the "Crystal" which was also the symbol of German Expressionism and Bauhaus seemed to have a continuing re-appearance all through the ages in architectural history. In the opening speech of "The Exhibition of the Unknown Architects" in Weimar (1919), Walter Gropius explained the aim of regeneration in the German visual culture as: "Together let us conceive and create the new building of the future, which will embrace architecture and sculpture and painting in one unity and which will rise one day toward heaven from the hands of a million workers like the crystal symbol of the new faith." (Curtis, 1996, p. 184) This "crystal symbol" had also been illustrated on the cover of the program pamphlet prepared by Lionel Feininger. The crystal metaphor, accepted as the symbol of the new faith in 1920's, had been extensively used both before and after the establishment of Bauhaus. Today, we still witness the construction of many architectural edifices using crystal metaphor either in the naming or visual appearance. Examples of the massive crystalline addition to existing Royal Ontario Museum (Michael Lee-Chin Crystal) in Toronto (2007), Crystals at City Center, in Las Vegas (2009) by Daniel Libeskind; Musée des Confluences in Lyon by Coop Himmelb(l)au (2014); and Renaissance Tower by Fehmi Kobal Architects and Soyak Crystal Tower by Pei Cobb Freed & Partners and Has Mimarlık in İstanbul are just to name some of the contemporary examples of the concretization of the Crystals in Architecture. The use of crystal metaphor as an originating idea in the form-giving process to architectural end-product displays a variety of forms either as a mimesis of a perfect geometrical form and/or crystallization or with a metaphorical approach making use of the meaning and the peculiarities of the crystal. The historical background of the crystals in architecture goes back to Prophet Suleiman. Rosemary Bletter traces the mythical origin of crystal (used interchangeably with glass) referring to Old Testament, Biblical descriptions, and Koran. (Bletter, 1981, p. 23) The origins and the reappearances of crystals have been widely explained in several articles each dealing with the use of crystals in architecture from a different perspective.(Bletter, 1981; Bergdoll ,2007; Cheetham ,2009; Eyüce 2016) This paper, however, will try to display the importance of an architectural metaphor's inter-discipliner background in the 19th Century through the philosophical and literary works which paved the way for the extensive use of the crystal metaphor at the beginning of 20th Century. Concentrating mainly on George Sand's short novel "Laura: A journey into the Crystal", this paper will try to depict the panorama of the intellectual discourse of the era. Before trying to explain the relations in between nature, crystals, and architecture, it will be useful to decipher the idea of crystal through an artwork in literature. GEORGE SAND'S SHORT NOVEL LAURA: A JOURNEY INTO THE CRYSTAL Crystals, an inorganic natural identity, has always been an important generic idea in visual arts and architecture, either for imitation or by analogy, reflecting once the idea of perfectness and purity. A search in literature shows that crystals, due to increasing interest in mineralogy and geology, have also been an attractive topic in literature and poetry. Goethe’s mineralogy studies, John Scafe's “King Coal's levee' “(1839) intending to exhibit the geological features and order of stratification in England and Wales, Jules Verne’s Journey to The Center of Earth (1864) are some of the examples of this interest. The literary work of George Sand, Laura: Voyage into Crystal, published in January 1864, also links this mineralogical world to a young man’s transformation and development through an imaginary journey into the world of crystals. In fact, it is a love story about a young man named Alexis Hartz who falls in love with his cousin, Laura. While learning to be a mineralogist, Alexis, lives his love in an imaginary world of crystals. Whether a coincidence or not, Stendhal described the perfect love as crystallization at the beginning of the 19th century: "Repeated acts of madness, in which a lover sees all the perfections together in the woman with whom he is falling in love, were always referred to...as crystallization." (Stendhal, 1975) Fascinated since childhood by mineralogy and paleontology, George Sand brings extreme attention to these sciences in literary writing, but in a scientific way rather than poetic. Like Jules Verne, a friend of her, she has a passion for underground worlds and their representations as evidenced in her dedication of the novel to her daughter: “.... we

ourselves marveled at the beauty of the mineralogical specimen instead of following exclusively its geological formation.” She also continued to write expecting her grandson: “(he) will read this story, and he will take from it, perhaps, a taste for research or some serious theory.” (Sand, 2004) In fact, this was what Sand’s editor Jules Hetzel’s principle: underpinning the extraordinary voyages he said, “art for art's sake is not enough in our time” and “the time has come where science has made its place in the field of literature.” Thus, according to Hetzel, to publish a work of literature, it must promote interest in science and intellectual curiosity. The story of Alexis starts in M Hartz’s shop selling minerals, insects and plants to collectors. Accepting artist as a traveler, and art as a journey of his spirit, Hartz narrates a story of Alexis falling in love with Laura to one of his clients, who is an artist. Alexis is a young man taking his education in a gallery of a Natural History establishment where a collection of mineralogical specimens is exhibited. Under the guidance of his uncle who is director of this establishment, Alexis is asked to attend lectures of his Uncle Tungstenius and develop his career in mineralogy, although he is not interested. After meeting with Laura, his cousin and childhood friend, he falls in love with her. Recognizing Laura’s fascination and knowledge in crystals, he suddenly becomes interested in crystals, and he dreams a journey into an amethyst geode, exploring with Laura. They experience it as the world of surpassing beauty. The novel, as "an extremely subtle study of the imagination, at the same time, is “an analysis of a delirium and temporary madness” of Alexis. (Warman, 2009, p. 23) Sand defines geode in the novel as “in mineralogy, a ‘geode’ means any hollow stone whose interior is lined with crystals or incrustations; and any mineral whose interior contains voids or little cavern, which you can see in this one, is called a geodic stone.” (Sand, 2004, p. 10) Comparing inside of the geode to a mountain landscape, and using mineralogical terminology—‘sardoine’, ‘béryls’, ‘saphirs’, ‘chrysoprase’, ‘pyromorphite’, Sand relates art of writing with the scientific discoveries of the period. She continues to write: .....and I saw that these voids did indeed look like mysterious grottoes furnished with stalactites of extraordinary brilliance; then considering the geode as a whole......I saw peculiarities of shape and colour which, enlarged with imagination, constituted Alpine areas, deep ravines, grandiose mountains, glaciers, everything that makes up an imposing, sublime natural tableau. ...... and crystals....a fantastical world where all is transparency and crystallization. ..... I see here that nature works better than fairies. These transparent bodies are grouped in such a way as to produce slender shadow, smooth reflections and the fusion of shades does not prevent the composition from being logical and harmonious. (Sand, 2004, p. 11) ………. What a strange a grandiose sight greeted our eyes! Beneath the vitreous layer stretched an ocean of colossal stalagmites: violet, pink, blue, green, white and transparent as amethyst, as ruby, sapphire, beryl, and diamond. The great polar cavern...... was, in fact, a geode, lined with glittering crystals, and this geode extended for an immeasurable distance beneath the earth's crust! (Sand, 2004, p. 116) Bachelard called this ‘roman de géologie imaginaire,’ the geological and mineralogical references enhance the magical nature of the descriptions while also grounding these in scientific fact. (Harkness, 2012, p. 1054) Bachelard notes that for terrestrial imagination, the cave is the ultimate place to develop the dream, made possible by a sense of security. (Mustiere, 2014, p. 201) In this way, Literature makes use of science as a springboard for the imagination as in Laura; the mineralogy creates a factual background for the story, and the geode becomes a symbol of an ideal world. In other words, it is encountering of material and immaterial / ideal world. George Sand’s short novel published in January 1864, Jules Verne’s August 1864. This was an important period of scientific discoveries changing the attitude of the human being towards nature and also, to himself. Understanding his place in nature, learning laws of nature better and better every day increased the control over nature. In art and architecture, a shift in aesthetic values from imitation to metaphorical use of nature occurred. NATURE, CRYSTALS AND ARCHITECTURE Nature has always been a creative repertoire for architects in the formation of environment from Antiquity up today. As Adrian Forty stated in his book Words and Buildings: "for most of the last five hundred years 'nature' has been the main, if not the principle category for organizing thought about what architecture is or might be" (Forty, 2012) Especially, in the 18th and 19th Centuries, the cultural developments based on the "reason" together with the developments in naturalistic sciences, philosophy, and also in social sciences affected all sectors of life creating a new worldview changing the idea of nature held by people. This change was from "a powerful and uncompromising nature that is to be subjugated" to the superiority of human being over nature to dominate or "to conquer the wilderness." (Altman & M. Chemers, 1984, p.15) Before the early 19th Century, art and architecture tried to decipher nature's rules and processes to imitate as a model to reach to the ideal beauty and to find the origins of architecture as in the theories of Abbe Laugier (1753) and Quatremere de Quincy’s (1788-1825) acceptance of architecture as an art of imitation. The scientific developments continuing from the previous century, on the other hand, resulted in an epistemological shift in biology, mineralogy, geology and geohistory, creating an accumulation of knowledge on both forms of the earth's surface and also on the underlying unities of the diverse forms of nature like crystals and plants. New discoveries of inorganic and the organic life around the world,

new ideas about nature changed art - nature relationship in the 19th Century. This new vision in art, defining architecture as “the second nature” by human hands, based mostly on Goethe’s writings, his wide-ranging scientific studies of mineralogy, plant morphology and studies of past architectures. Goethe's extensive interest in British Mineralogy and studies in both mineralogy and crystal formation brought him honorary membership of Wernerian Society at Edinburgh together with the diploma which had been sent to him with a hand-written letter from Robert Jameson, its president. In 1823, it was C. F. Schwagrichen, the botanist, who procured for Goethe the membership of the Royal Society of Edinburgh (then under the presidency of Sir Walter Scott); and in 1825, Giesecke, professor of mineralogy at the Royal Dublin Society, was instrumental in having Goethe elected honorary member of the Royal Irish Academy. (Hennig, 1999) The increasing interest in Goethe's natural history studies affected all arts, architectural discourse, and the philosophy. In his book, The World as Will and Idea (1851), Schopenhauer, referring many times to Goethe, asserted that the crystal is “the only one manifestation of life”, and also he accepted that the crystal as “the only inorganic individuality in nature.” Literature and philosophy's increasing interest in natural sciences in the 19th Century, also reflected itself in the architectural discourse, especially in the writings of three prominent figures: A great art critique John Ruskin’s (18191900) The Seven Lamps of Beauty (1849) and Stones of Venice (1851); an architect and restorer Eugenie Viollet-le-Duc’s (1814-1879) Dictionnaire Raissoné de l’architecture francaise (1856); and an architect, art critique Gotfried Semper’s (1803-1879) Der Stil (1860). Although they considered nature from different points of view and having opposing views on architecture, all three architects referred to crystal and crystalline forms in their writings or drawings. Ruskin and Viollet-le-Duc, beyond being interested in crystals, also undertook extensive studies in the mineralogy and geology of the earth formations on mountains respectively on the Alps and the Pyrenees. John Ruskin, influenced by the book of Henri de Saussure's Voyages dans les Alpes, of 1779 a scientific and artistic work on the minerals and geology of the Alps, expressed his impressions about the Alps in one of the travels with his family through North Switzerland as 'they were clear as crystal, sharp on the pure horizon sky, and already tinged with rose by the sinking sun…” (Gamble, 1999) Ruskin also fascinated by the illustrations of the mountain forms in the works of W. Turner, spent the summer of the year 1849 in the Alps. Admiring nature as "there are sometimes more valuable lessons to be learned in the school of nature than in that of Vitruvius" (Ruskin, p. 58), learnt the life and movements of the mountains, the landscapes, drew and painted them, wrote extensively about them and on the subjects of geological theory, on denudation and crystallization. Nature and the mountains were an important link between John Ruskin (1819-1900), and Eugene Viollet-Ie-Duc (18141879). Both became the member of the Alpine Club later 1869 and 1874 respectively (founded in 1857 for promoting good fellowship among mountaineers, of mountain climbing and mountain exploration throughout the world) fulfilling the criterion of promoting a 'better knowledge of the mountains through literature, science, and art." (Gamble, 1999) Ruskin, thinking about architecture and nature relation, distinguished architecture as “second nature,” parallel to Goethe’s definition. Rejecting the imitation of natural forms and objects, since this would “achieve inferior and derivative beauty”, he explicitly insisted that architecture “is the outcome of the uniquely human faculty for mental and manual work.” (Forty, 2012, p. 234) Therefore, he asserted that “architecture may derive its expressive means from the study of nature, but there is no sense in which architecture is just the imitation of nature, for what qualifies it as architecture is the evidence it betrays of man’s spiritual desire" On the other hand, he stated that: “crystalline form, which is the completely systematized natural structure of the earth, …. The four-sided pyramid, perhaps the most frequent of all natural crystals, is called in architecture a dogtooth; its use is quite limitless, and always beautiful " and he also related crystals to the Gothic architecture's moldings as "... little more than representations of the canaliculated crystals of the beryl, and such other minerals." (Ruskin, pp. 226,Ch.XX) This growing interest in the Alps is apparent in many paintings and drawings such as in Jean Du Bois' Ascent of Mont Blanc by de Saussure in 1787; J M W Turner's Valley of Chamonix with Mont Blanc in the distance of 1809 or even in the new art of photography as Bisson Brothers. Similar paintings of crystalline structures are also evident in other glaciers like Caspar David Friedrich's Sea of Ice (or Arctic Shipwreck) (1823-4). All these visualizations as art works, Ruskin's exquisite watercolors of 'Fragment of the Alps' and Viollet-le-Duc's studies of the glaciers of the High Alps outside Lausanne, expressing natural formations influenced extensively all arts and architecture at the beginning of the 20 th Century. It is not wrong to accept that these scientific researches, literary writings and philosophical discussions on nature and crystals in the 19th Century, establishes a background to Bruno Taut’s famous book Alpine Architecture, 1917, and Walter Gropius’s Memorial to March victims in Weimar 1921. Today, Nature and natural processes and crystals are still the main sources for inspiration in design. The crystalline aesthetic has developed to a process meaning fractures, reflections imperfections as in natural processes instead of accepting the beauty of a predefined perfect crystal form, parallel to the change in the evaluation of nature as a process. Deleuze and Guattari affected the architectural discourse as: "We took as our point of departure cases of this kind on the geological stratum, the crystalline stratum, and physicochemical strata, wherever the molar can be said to express microscopic molecular interactions".

CONCLUSION The use of crystal metaphor traces a discontinuous emergence at the intersections between humanity- natural history and architectural thought, where nature has been accepted to develop human experience in creating arts. Nature, in one way or another, has always played an important role as the source of inspiration in architecture. In other words, 'nature', once a source of form by imitation, has become a source of rationality in the genesis of architectural form by analogy, with its inherent principles discovered by scientific developments in the18 th and the 19th Centuries. The importance and the influence of philosophy and literature in this transformation, from imitation to analogy, is an undeniable reality. Crystals, the inorganic natural identity, have been used either as a symbol of perfection and purity both in meaning and form all through the ages. In contemporary world, harnessing the digital technologies in the generative process led to the emergence of new design approaches, also, in the use of crystals. The change in the idea of form from perfect prisms to complex forms creates a whole new world of formally and spatially different, fluid crystallized architectural endproducts. Some of the contemporary examples, on the other hand, make use of the crystal form just for the sake of being different from other architectural edifices. In other words, instead of a metaphorical approach reflecting the inherent qualities and meaning of the crystals such as the idealization and perfection of material world, mere imitation of form has been used. Whether it is accepted simply as a form, or as a symbol of perfection and purity, crystals continue to attract architects. REFERENCES Bergdoll, B., 2007. Of Crystals, Cells, and Strata: Natural History and Debates on the Form of a New Architecture in the Nineteenth Century. 50, 1-29, Bletter, R. H., 1981. The Interpretation of the Glass Dream-Expressionist Architecture and the History of the Crystal Metaphor. The Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, 40 (1), pp. 20-43. Cheetham, M. A., 2010. The Crystal Interface in Contemporary Art: Metaphors of the Organic and Inorganic. Leonardo,43(3),pp.250-256 Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/40661659. Deleuze, G., 1987. Thousand Plateaus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia. Minneapolis, MN, USA: University of Minnesota Press. Ersoy, U., 2007. The Fictive Quality of Glass. Architecture Research Quarterly, 11 (3-4), pp. 237 - 243.DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S1359135500000737 . Forty, A.,2012. Words and Buildings: A vocabulary of Modern Architecture. Thames and Hudson. Gamble, C., 1999. John Ruskin, Eugene Viollet-le-Duc and the Alps. Alpine Journal AJ, 185-196. Harkness, N., 2012. ‘Textes fossiles’: The Metatextual Geology of Verne's Voyage au centre de la Terre. The Modern Language Review, 107 (4), 1047-1063. Hennig, J., 1999. Goethe's interest in British mineralogy. 534-546. İnceköse, Ü., 2006. Instrumentalisation of natural sciences for the reconstruction of architectural knowledge: Lissitzky, Doesburg, Meyer, Teige. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis Instıtute of Technology. İzmir, Turkey. Mustiere, P., 2014. Etude psychocritique croisée de Laura de George Sand. Rocky Mountain Review, 195-206. Pehnt, W., 1973. Expressionist Architecture. New York: Praeger Publishers. Ruskin, J., The Stones of Venice Volume I. (of 3), December 27, 2009 [eBook #30754]. Ruskin, J., The Stones of Venice, Volume II (of 3), December 31, [eBook #30755]. Sand, G., 2004. Laura: A Journey into the Crystal. (S. Dyson, Trans.) London: Pushkin Press. Schopenhauer, A., 1969. The World as Will and Representation. (E.F.J. Payne, Trans.) Dover Publ. Stendhal, 1975. On LOve. UK: Penguin Books. Taut, B., 1972. Alpine Architecture. (D. Sharp, Ed., & S. Palmer, Trans.) New York, USA: Praeger Publishers. Warman, C., 2009. From Lamarck to Aberration: Nature, Hierarchies, and Gender. Journal of the History of Sexuality: Feminine Sexual Pathologies in Nineteenth- and Early-Twentieth-Century Europe, 18 (1), 8-25.

TAKING INSPIRATION FROM NATURE: RULES AND PROCEDURES FOR A GOOD BUILDING PRACTICE TIZIANA CAMPISI, MANFREDI SAELI Department of Architecture (DARCH), Polytechnic School, University of Palermo [email protected], [email protected] * corresponding author

ABSTRACT Since the most ancient times, humans have always exploited natural growth and elements for their building purposes: nature, in general, inspired and taught a number of constructive rules that have been historically employed in construction. Some of the numerous arboreal species have represented a matter of fact for the primitive constructions and, later on, for the classical architectural styles. There are many examples of primitive shelters, or even real and proper constructions, made of natural elements and materials assembled in a specific way. Those primitive buildings used to recall nature in its flourishing development and accurate equilibrium. Classical architecture and decoration too, exploited for centuries till the modern and contemporary architecture, are evident examples on how the natural world inspired construction: from lotus or acanthus leaves for capitals or plinths, from trees’ trunks and branches for columns and epistyles, etc. Since the Roman times, and even with a major emphasis and attention in the modern age, trees’ laws of growth enraptured treatisers and philosophers as Giovanni Biagio Amico or John Ruskin, and architects as Jacques-François Blondel or Dominique Perrault in France, Giovan Battista Filippo Basile or Damiani Almeyda in Italy, or, to continue, Pierluigi Nervi, Frank Lloyd Wright and Santiago Calatrava, just to mention some of the most contemporary and prominent personalities. Even entire architectural styles were strongly influenced by natural world as the aforementioned classical architecture, as well as the gothics Portuguese Manueline or Sicilian Catalan styles, etc. Still nowadays plants surprise and fascinate experts and laymen for their stately, luxuriant and mighty structure that is often characterized by a complicated interlacement of roots, trunks, and branches that simulate arches, vaults or pillars and even a complete shelter or a reassuring protection in their thick and tangled reticulated work. Taking motion from natural plants’ growth, with a particular reference to the trees of Ficus magnolioides in Palermo that are regarded to be the largest and oldest in Europe of such a species, we will analyse and compare many structural, architectural and decorative principles and elements adopted in architecture and intended for a good constructive practice. Such a vast and fascinating repertory gives us the basis to a deeper understanding of the architectural design through the centuries, from the most primitive times to the closest contemporary age and, at the same time, gives us the possibility to take inspiration in a more conscious and reliable way during our constructive/architectural design process. ARCHITECTURES WITHOUT ARCHITECTS. RULES OF NATURE AND CONSTRUCTIVE KNOWLEDGE, BETWEEN IMITATION AND EXPERIMENTATION Very often we are amazingly surprised and astonished by the strong analogy between nature and architecture. However, if we take a little trip down memory lane we can trace the origin of such a coincidence, that is something going over a simple pretty coincidence. Trees and other natural elements indeed suggest many formal expressions and constructive criteria, characterized by an incredible simplicity, that are often adopted in architecture. For everybody interested in the relationship between architecture and nature, it’s available a vast and complete bibliography that numbers the forms and structures of the spontaneous architectures along with the similarities between natural environment and architectural expressions. Such a topic has always been fascinating and has been considered pretty actual during every historical period. Even the most innovative architect or the most “modernist” theorist indirectly faced the binomial “creativity – nature” suggesting that the laws of nature are strictly linked to the figurative image, and even with the constructive technologies, of a building. Hence, even if many scholars of architecture claimed to have “invented” novel and innovative styles and rules, if compared to the old ones - as Blondel, Perrault, Girardon, or Desgodetz – what they really did was simply varying the ancient and well-known Corinthian capital, as observed by Ribart de Chamoust in his Ordre François trouvé dans la Nature (1783). Ribart de Chamoust himself created his “new” architectural order, and while remembering the phases of his

personal “discovery” and “innovation”, he was forced to admit that after all he simply transposed in architecture what he has seen during a walk in the wood of the Marne (an eastern tributary of the Seine) valley. That was clearly reported by Rykwert. According to Louis Kahn “Architecture is what Nature can’t do”: in fact the builder takes from nature “the means to do” and distinguishes the rules that regulate the vegetable world, practicing his power of choice. That is partially true if we consider that human action is aimed to understand those rules that Nature has in itself, innate in its inner order and harmony: observation of nature may be used by the architect in order to understand which are the best materials useful to build a structure, using the processes that “he believes to choose” at a certain moment. Anyway, it would be reductive thinking that the natural world, and more particularly the sphere of the trees, may not have the possibility to “choose” the best way to grow up avoiding any condition of structural overloading with consequent problems, failing, or even a plant collapse. On the contrary, nature has chosen much earlier than any homo faber outlining an architectural project, with all the theories and schemes of the building practice. The Roman treatiser Vitruvius, in his De Architectura, wrote that an architect can condense in his architectural experience what in nature is divided: by means of an act of “critical synthesis” the architect can condense single awareness in an unicum. In such a way he improves the rules of nature that he exploits in the light a knowledge that is the “architectural corpus”, that is to say the “rule of the art”. In such an assumption Vitruvius caught the relationship homo structor – natura and the overcoming of the simple imitation in the critical interpretation and experimentation. In order to demonstrate how important and noble the capability of building was, Francesco Milizia (1725 - 1798), an Italian theorist of architecture and art, included this ability among the primary “natural” faculties of humans, even more important of speech. At this point, we find it appropriate discussing the meaning, even if obvious, of the “significance” of an architectural work. Indeed, the appearance and the connotation of an architectural object overcome every material used or the way it is applied, even independently of any figurative association it can raise. As well summarize by Rykwert, the real meaning may be traced in the transcendent concept that architecture itself embodies, in the value that every monument or simple construction has, fundamental in the assessment and knowledge of architecture, with particular reference to architectural “shapes” regarded as the “words” of a constructive “language”. In such an interpretation, the dialogue between nature and architecture may be searched within that “base language” that we have lost, the same concepts that many architects constantly try to find again or re-discover. This “base language” represents a sort of glossary that makes us look at nature with astonishment in search of obvious and simple solutions toward a complexity that, wrongly, is only prerogative of architecture: imagination, reproduction, claim. TREES AND THE ARCHITECTURAL CONCEPT OF “HOUSE” At this point, it is easy to support our thesis: there is a direct connection between the arboreal species and the rules of construction. Among the trees, we would like to mention the Moreton Bay Fig Tree (Ficus magnolioides) that can macroscopically suggest many associations. Its powerful and massive structure is given by the number of aerial roots that, upon reaching the ground, give origin to supplementary trunks which help in supporting the weight of its crown. Some of them sub-vertically drop from the branches creating real columns, others generate from the main trunk forming long and curvy buttress. The final appearance of an old tree is a kind of small wood characterized by a thick and luxuriant foliage. In this short essay, we would like to deepen some of the teachings that a tree itself suggests, with the extraordinary capability of expressing its own history linked to the intrinsic characteristics of the species along with the surrounding environmental context where it was grown. Looking at the Ficus we should really talk about architecture at the same way we would talk about the history of a monument: the design, the drawings, the constructing phases, the changes of mind and the variations during the construction, the preservation works, the intended use occurred during centuries or the final abandon and lack of preservation works, etc. Furthermore, it wouldn’t be difficult to find many approaches of securing or restoration in the expedients exploited by a plant to support itself with some “structural parts”. Finally, we must admit that nature uses some ancestral measures to stand, with an astonishing mastery of static, often adopting volumetrically complex figures, showing a formal language of admirable dare and, at the same time, harmony. Among the various examples, we would like to start from the construction par excellence: the house. The most primitive house, which is the cavern, took inspiration from the trees’ large hollow trunk. That used to be the first shelter from natural agents and slowly suggested to the primitive humans the idea of using a cavern to take refuge. If not carved, nature itself offered the possibility of a safe refuge: just think about an old olive tree whose trunk is highly nubby and twisted, or the massive oak tree where the wizard Merlin, uncontested protagonist of the Arthurian legends, used to live in company with a wolf. Looking at the protective function of branches and foliage, it derives the intuition of a houserefuge made by means of bending and fasten the most flexible trees, as it is reported by the Roman historian Tacitus when he described the Lappish people’s habits. The idea of “house”, intended as a place to spend some time in, derives from the experience of the tree taken as a robust,

tall and leafy place. Thus, among the numerous species of trees, Italo Calvino (1923-1985), one of the most-translated contemporary Italian writers, in his novel “The Baron in the trees” the protagonist Cosimo climbs up a Moreton Bay Fig Tree where he spent the rest of his life inhabiting an arboreal kingdom. The choice of that particular tree comes out from its own characteristics that recall a sort of primitive house: robust branches and holes to hide in. Rudofsky, in his “The prodigious builders: notes toward a natural history of architecture…“, describes the Parisians’ popular habit to go to an “arboreal tavern” on 1920s Sundays. He alludes to the “immortal history of urban humans who face the capricious gifts of Nature”: in that place people used to have lunch on the massive branches of a secular oak that provided shadow and coolness. On the contrary, Defoe’s poor Robinson Crusoe was obliged to abandon the civilized society to live like a primitive returning to an induced “state of nature”. The earliest constructive experiences were strictly linked to nature with the habit of reusing and readapting what the natural world had provided. Thus, trunks and branches were fastening to create columns and pillars, leaves and twigs were used to cover the shelters, etc. The real evolution started when stone began to be used instead of wood: that was the beginning of an “experimental architecture” with stone shaped to look like wood. In that “precise moment” architecture started to tend to beauty: as strongly stated by Vitruvius, the early constructors using stone and marble were highly aware of the most correct use “only the elements that had a precise and recognized function (…) and glorify all those things whose explanation (…) was solid and rational”. Such a consistency and rationality were taken, needless to say, from trees, from the expressive sincerity and from the indisputable structural properties of the wooden matter. The Vitruvius’ “precise and recognized function” is also granted by the valence of “image” that some species of tree show, in terms of representation of both an architectural element and its correlated structural property. For instance, the Ficus magnolioides’s roots, going down into the ground, recall the idea of pillars and columns; the hard sub-horizontal branches evoke beams and architraves; the sloping offshoots the image of frontons and arms; the curved branches, going down because of the upper weight they have to support, recall vaults and arches; finally, the aerial roots, supporting the most robust branches, give back to the supporting beams. At the same time, bark’s trees suggest the different ways carvers used to shape the matter in order to embellish the technical elements: the knottiness and irregularities, the divert fibres and the solutions of continuity caused by cracks, the veining, etc. NATURAL SHAPES IN ARCHITECTURAL OBJECTS If stone well imitates the natural shapes, even going beyond the limits imposed by the material itself, in a certain way the technology of iron better simulated the natural elements in construction as, for instance, the weaving branches: metallic carpentry exploits slim beams and lighter elements. Some interesting examples are the first experimentations of the structural engineering: the arches of the metallic bridge on the Severn in Coalbrookdale (Pritchard, Darby and Wilkinson, 1775-79), the Palm House in London Kew Gardens (Turner and Burton, 1845-48), the successes of the French engineer Gustave Eiffel with his tower in Paris (1887-1889) or the Pennsylvania Station in New York (McKim, Mead a White, 190211). We also would like to mention the roofing of the two XIX century theatres in Palermo, the Massimo Vittorio Emanuele Theatre (the largest in Italy and 3rd in Europe) designed by the architect Giovan Battista Filippo Basile and the Politeama Garibaldi by Giuseppe Damiani Almeyda. Leon Battista Alberti, in De re aedificatoria, has well expressed the concept of “symbolic imitation”: he traces the real relationship nature-architecture in the concinnitas, a word indicating a particular attention to shapes and orders, the only ones that can harmonize the human elements, and the human being as well, with the mathematical rules of nature: honour, quality, authority and value. Architecture is aimed by those laws intended as fundamental rules to be pursued in order to gain perfection, as also underlined by the architect Portoghesi, in his Natura e Architettura (trad: Nature and Architecture). The incipit of the constructive process is nature that is the creator of the best shapes - now we might say of the best technics and technologies. Theorists of architecture should only suggest the best way to apply those rules in construction, in order to best fit the requirements. In such a way, during the past centuries, new architectural languages were invented, in the double meaning of components useful to the figurative architectural expression and structurally necessary to make a building stay still during time, for posterity. Trees suggested proportions, differences and relations between the various parts, a sort of natural procedure of sizing: also in nature the dichotomy between the rules of static and the criterion of aesthetic exist. If one prevails, and the other looks over, then the tree shows its hidden potentialities: what is necessary to the “structure” can’t be avoided and becomes also useful to the whole appearance, as remarking its “expressive strength” in its manifest function. After all, that is similarly shown and expressed by some architectures, a “constructive truth” that nature can’t hide and that architects use recalling the concept “imitation of the function”. STRUCTURAL RULES: FROM NATURE TO ARCHITECTURE Every leaf or branch growing on a tree performs a particular and defined function, and at the same time it contributes to the whole image of beauty. Ruskin stated that architecture recreates the image of the natural creation, that is defined as

“one of the seven lamps of beauty” able to light the noble representation of harmony and grace that every architect might have given to the natural sphere. The beauty of the architectural work, an artificial constructed object, might have come from the belonging to the “organic nature”. it is a well-known fact that Ruskin theorized with a great awareness indeed, in fact he had analytically compared the distribution of the branches of an ash tree with the disposition of an ogive vault ribs. Anyway, the most original aspect of Ruskin’s theory in the so-called “law of ramification”: natural shapes are seen the final aim of a design process. Also Paul Valéry, in his Cantique des colonnes, recalls the concept of “ramification” in the “theory of branching”, as the inspiring principle of the architectural orders: in a natural environment a large tree trunk has, at different heights, various branches that look smaller and smaller going upward, till becoming stalks, leaves, flowers and fruits. With a great simplicity, the architect and treateser Giovanni Biagio Amico, in his L’architetto prattico (1726), described the figurative image creation of the Corinthian capital taking inspiration from “the sight of the trunks crushing under heavy blows”: a trunk is itself a robust column so it is sufficient hooping it by a metal ring, blowing its top until it reaches a bulb shape, add some Acanthus leaves and the game is done! The same concept may be traced in Delorme’s “tree-shaped column” where the capital shape was compared to the suckers growing from a trunk base and along with the leaves grown at the top of the column-trunk. In this work, such a dissertation is limited to the comparison with plants, but what about the image of a capital head of a column? Caryatids and Telamons are the real personification of the column becoming woman or man, even if they represent a sort of “degraded population”: women and men became slaves and are obliged to support heavy buildings. A century later, the Palermitan architect G. B. F. Basile will choose such an antique classical decorations for his Massimo Theatre, and more specifically he will use the Corinthian capital, or better the uncommon Italian-Corinthian capital, that is considered one of the most original stylistic innovation among the classicism eclectic practice of that time. His son Ernesto, an architect as well, will notice how the “rational decoration” used by his father represent the stylization of the natural world’s shapes. To continue, a tree suggests what many authors define the “weaving principle”: the twisting of flexible elements can create a more or less continuous surface where the branches are the real protagonist of the structural function while the foliage represents the finishing. In this case, we are referring to both the largest branches of a massive tree and the most flexible plants or the little bushes. An example is the bamboo or the common reed that can be bended, weaved and transported to build parts of a building (walls, false-vaults, etc.) if not real sheds or tents. In the twisting, the concept of “structural fabric” is implicit: beyond the notion of “intersection” as a natural rule, we introduce now as an additional plant’s constructive principle, the “rule of the tree” recalled by Frank Lloyd Wright. He stated that a tree might have suggested to architectural practice the principle of “section lowering” going upward and the expansion of roots at the bottom. As it happens in a tree, where larger branches support the smallest (and youngest) ones, in an architectural wooden carpentry the twisting helps the structural net by means of a principal framework and secondary one, making the weakest part be more resistant. The main structural structures, as i.e. wooden roofing, are often finished by a number of smaller beams and batons; some works of wooden partition walls are made by a twisting of thin beams and struts in order to create a frame where a finishing is applied on. More particularly, in the Palermitan areas, and in many parts of Sicily, such a finishing is made by a texture of pressed canes that are fasten together, in order to create a continuous surface that is finally plastered at the intrados. A twisting often implies “intersection by inter-penetration”, easily recognisable in the crown of a tree where some branches look like fused together as if they will to gain a major resistance. In construction, such a rule may be traced in the structural nodes and connections characterizing the most of the constructive technics. Coming back to roofing, especially in the cases of irregular stitches, we can speak about “casual twisting”, even if the casualty is only apparent. Often, indeed, it comes out from carpenters reasoned choice while in regular rooms such a twisting becomes more regular. If in round spaces, recalling the XIX century treatises and Renaissance technics, short beams were used in order to simulate all the possible branches directions, thus reproducing the same twisting that makes them supporting one each other in the most critical structural sufferings. Purlins are other interesting structural elements. They are usually located in wooden roofs in order to reduce the free inflection length, along with the long diagonal frames used in false vaults or the ones employed in the A-frames. In the sphere of “supporting framework” we would also like to mention the roof turnbuckles that were often used in old buildings, as well as in restoration works, in order to gain a more rigidity on the plane. THE IDEA OF THE COLUMN: AN ARCHITECTURAL TRUNK We take advantage of the proportions between trunk and roots in the above mentioned Moreton Bay Fig Tree to recall some more concepts linked to the good building practice rules. Roots development in the soil represents the negative sight of the foliage crown and stands for the building foundations, a solid basement of a tall and heavy construction, the tree in our case. Aerial columnar roots, that take birth from the large branches and go down into the soil, resemble the theme of thick intersections and wrappings, as a hooping applied in columns or pillars. Those roots often confuse

themselves with the structure of the main trunk creating a sort of super-trunk. It is then able to enlarge by means of new horizontal branches that, in turn, generate other aerial roots that secure the whole structural equilibrium, as building supports. Such a structure might be seen in the Baroque Solomonic columns, or rather tall helical structures characterized by a spiral twisting shaft like a corkscrew. All considered, in the image of a column the idea of the trunk can be retraced: nature exploits a round or cylindrical section as it shows the minimum stress with the major result. A set of columns recalls a serial grouping as a secular wood or forest is. And what about a Greek temple? It is the abstraction of a lush wood where the visitor walks through the columns as he would do through the trunks in a wood. The serial grouping is very common in Egyptian architectures, simulating the number of palms growing side by side or the bundle of canes fasten all together. The same feeling could be experienced with the Gothic capitals into the large French cathedrals. Still speaking about columns, the long longitudinal fluting recalls the cork of the trunk. In our case they appear as subtraction of matter made by skilled hands; the same hands that have created some strategic enlargements, the socalled éntasis, often applied in Classical columns making a convex curve to the surface/section for aesthetic purposes. BRANCHES AND TRUNKS, A STRONG ALLIANCE In nature, the union of branches and trunks can be often recalled in the colonnades where a number of columns or pillars, like a grouping of trunks, support a series of architraves, the branches, that in turn sustain the upper mass and distribute the whole field of tensions. Such an image also recalls the horizontal beams of a roof whose support-arms help in distributing the strain, reducing the free inflection light, and preventing any buckling instabilities. A brunch grows from the trunk to conquer new space and light, it develops as an architectural projection: it will grow in section depending on the length and on the strain applied to it. At the same time, it must support its own weight. Once again, as those branches become too long to stand alone, nature provide some aerial roots as we similarly build supporting bean to help the structure. In construction, we operate in a reverse way, that is to say from the top. For instance, as we usually prefer supporting the roof by means of tie-beams in order to maintain the intrados flat without any visible structure protruding from it. Only in the case of an emergency, as a rick of structural failure, we usually put some support-beams at the bottom of the structure, just for temporary situations. Different is the case of purlins put in place for an indefinite time. We would like to remember that wood, as a material, is highly resistant to flection thus the early human experimentations in technics of projections were done exploiting such a material. It’s not a casualty that many architectural projections show phytomorphic decorations recalling little or large branches projecting from a trunk. Furthermore, many metallic shelves that usually support the balconies, or the ones used in platforms or in other metallic-glass structures, imitate the twigs furnished with leaves and flowers. A long and twisted branch, or even a linear one equipped with aerial roots, along with the joint system trunk-branchaerial roots, recall an architectural gate or a monumental portal. And what to say when the trunk bends over or contorts under the natural forces (wind, snow, etc.)? In such a case, as the tall and robust beams of many buildings, the tree and the building become particular examples of structural expressivity. Once again, while walking through a portico of a palace or a cloister, the leaves used as capitals’ decorations look like shaken by the wind blowing. Infinite are the possible examples. We finally have to mention the brunches’ twine and their direction that suggest the soft and gentle lines of the covered passages, a sort of natural roofing that inspired the architects of every historical age for the design of their vaults or wooden structures. Under the action of the wind, a flexible brunch twists giving back the image of a circle. That is the arch! It would be reductive speaking only about “symbolic imitation”: antique and contemporary constructors used to imitate what was offered by nature but adding some personal and original variations, with great designing efforts, static doubts and verifications, and experimentations. Just think about the large arcades of the metallic bridges or the tall and impressive domes. The relationship between the twisting branches and the vault typology could be traced in the Roman poet Lucan. In his Pharsalia, he describes a place provided with a natural vault made by branches: “lucus erat (...), conexis ramis”. Highly suggestive are the frescoes painted by Leonardo da Vinci in the Sforza castle’s Room of the Axis in Milan, representing a series of trees whose branches create a light covering. Our mind fast run to the gothic cathedrals again, to what Hegel affirmed in his Estetica: a gothic cathedral is freed from any concept of solidity and static, the tall and thin pilasters support a high vault, that recalls a thick wood, where the twisted branches are interconnected heeling one to each other. Rationally thinking, a beam requires a horizontal disposition and a stable and solid stand; on the contrary the gothic pilasters and columns branch out “as if they meet by casualty”: the task of supporting the roof or the vault is not clearly declared by falcate pilasters in fact the ribs, starting at their top, look like their continuation, which is structural indeed, even if they are different and separate elements. The same is the brunch with the trunk. In a vaulted system, the plant veins are associated to the rib running along the curve surface, often protruding from it. As a “support that veins”, the rib is often useful to identify the structural part. That is especially true in the “structural

decorations” of some Medieval cross vaults. In gothic architecture the ribs’ disposition acquires a highly important valence in both the structural system and in the figurative image of the whole composition and disposition of the branches of the crown: we can find it in the cross vault’s star-style disposition, in some radial systems such as the umbrella-shaped, the fan-shaped, or the mushroom-shaped vaults. In a tree, the branches’ system generates the whole unique crown from the modular unit “branch”, in the same way a vaults’ rib system blends the unity “cross” into a single barrel vault. Tracing the gothic architecture’s origin, it will be useful to refer to the experimentations and researches performed by sir James Hall, as happily reported in the already-mentioned text by Rykwer. It is quite uncommon that such a theory was enunciated by a Scottish geologist, thus demonstrates how nature might really suggest some practical constructive rules, source of inspiration for every scientist. At the end of the XVIII century, Hall believed that imitation was an important part of the architectural practice, moreover he compared some rural buildings he has seen during his Grand Tour to the French gothic constructions. Furthermore, he stated that the formers, or anyway some similar buildings, have inspired the gothic shapes to the ancient architects. As it usually happens, a new discovery induces to perform many experiments in order to verify a certain hypothesis: some poles were hammered into the ground at a set distance and height, then willow tree branches, that are highly flexible, were secured to those poles. Branches were finally fastening together. What they obtained was the different typology of arches and vaults: pointed arches, polylobed pillars and ribbed roofs. Those are the “three fundamental elements of the gothic architecture”. The building’s side-walls were realized using some poles characterized by the same height and size and equipped with twisted branches; windows were obtained interrupting the texture and, where the branches were too flexible, they were twisted and fastened one each other in order to gain more rigidity and creating a sort of fretwork, another important property of such an architectural style. Subsequently, some theorists rejected such an idea, first of all Schlegel, and condemned every “material” explanation that may limit the creation of a style, intended as an act of spirituality. Such a quarrel was strongly debated during those times between who supported the “feeling” caused by a natural image into an architect and who believes that practical experiments only may give an indisputable “estimation” as a unique reality. Agriculture and architecture Beyond the experimental tests, the idea of the Scottish geologist and his attention to the rural architecture leads our investigation towards another topic. Very often the validation of some constructive rules can be traced in the popular wisdom and in farmers and peasants’ frankness. In such a way, a procedure slowly establishes, becomes a common procedure, till being considered a real “rule of the art” that is preserved and transmitted through generations. Agricultural science suggests some practical procedures that were slowly transmitted to the building practice: in order to protect plants from rotting, cold and excess of water a layer of tar was usually spread on them: such a procedure was transposed in architecture to avoid any rotting of the beams’ head located into the walls or of the poles sticked into the ground. Or the growing technic of putting the plants close to each other, became the constructive procedure of arranging the beams with the heads in contrast. Once again, filling the bark of a tree with mortar in order to secure a new graft was transposed in construction filling in the mortars’ planes that were degraded during time. And what about splashing some vinegar along with lime to kill insects? And so on. Indeed, many treatises of agriculture reported long sections about rural building construction, tanks, surrounding walls, etc., as if they are aimed to underline the strict relationship between natural world and built environment gained by a number of technological affinities. Furthermore, the words used in agriculture are very often transposed in construction or they are useful to understand some constructive practices or technical language. Natural decorations and ornaments for architectural purposes Decoration and ornament are the topics where the most of the natural recalls are used by architects, with a particular attention to flowers, trees or the vegetal world in general. Veining is itself a sort of decoration for the wooden matter, thorniness and roughness are a soft reference for embroidery and drapery. At the same time, climbing ornamental plants inspired wood carvers and the colours of leaves and flowers stimulated roofing painters. More than any other element in nature, more than stone, plants show intrinsic ornamental shapes that could be successfully imitated in architecture. Architects often refer to natural elements while choosing a formal design or finishing an architectural drawing, putting all the imagination they have in a strict personal view of nature, making a sort of individual mark of their art. The movements Arts and Crafts, with Henry van de Velde and William Morris (end of XIX century); the Art Noveau, the imaginative works of the Catalan Antoni Gaudì (Parc Güell, 1900-14), of the Belgian Victor Horta (Hôtel Tassel, 1892, and Van Eetvelde House, 1895-98), of the French Hector Guimard (iron-glass entrance of the Parisian Métro, 1898-1904); in Italy the Floreal Style and the Palermitan Liberty with Ernesto Basile.

REFERENCES Amendolagine F., 2002. Villa Igiea. Palermo: Sellerio. Alberti L. B, 1450. De re aedificatoria. Florence. Amico G. B., 1726. L’architetto prattico, vol. I. Palermo. Emy A. R., 1856. Trattato dell’arte del carpentiere. Venice: G. Antonelli. Giusti M. A., Fagiolo M., 1998. Lo specchio del Paradiso. Il giardino e il sacro dall’Antico all’Ottocento. Milan: Silvana Editoriale. Fiorani D., 1999. Transiti in Russia. Restauro e architettura statica in un paese di frontiera. Palladio n. 24 (1999). Imbornone P., 1984. La colonna dorica. Ipotesi sull’origine della forma. Palermo: M. Giordano. Mauro E., Sessa E., 2000. Giovan Battista Filippo Basile ed Ernesto Basile. Settant’anni di architettura. I disegni restaurati della Dotazione Basile (1859-1929). Palermo: Novecento. Musso P., 2004. Il lessico tecnico dell’Agricoltura di Antonino Venuto. Bollettino del Centro di Studi filologici e linguistici siciliano n. 20 (2004). Portoghesi P., 1999. Natura ed architettura. Milan: Skira. Rykwert J., 1972. On Adam's House in Paradise: The Idea of the Primitive Hut in Architectural History. Greenwich, Conn.:, Museum of Modern Art. Rudofsky B., 1979. The Prodigious Builders: Notes Toward a Natural History of Architecture with Special Regard to those Species that are Traditionally Neglected or Downright Ignored. San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1977. Tampone G., 1996. Il restauro delle strutture di legno. Milan: Hoepli Editore. Watkin D. J, 2005. A History of Western Architecture. London-New York: Laurence King Publishing. Ribart de Chamoust C.F., 1783. L’Ordre François trouvé dans la Nature. Smith N. K., 1993. Frank Lloyd Wright. Bari: Dedalo. Vitruvius, 15 a.C. De Architectura.

Figg. 1, 2 – Merlin’s grotto (engraving by J. Vardy, 1744 ca), in Fagiolo andGiusti; A shelter whose roof is supported by an uprooted tree (Rudofsky). Figg. 3, 4 – The primitive shelter in the treateses of Rondelet and Filarete. FİGG. 5, 6 – Sclafani Palace (Xıv Cent.) in Palermo in a Lithography By G. Moore (Xıx Cent.); The Wooden Roof Of The Grand Hôtel Villa Igiea in Palermo (İn Amendolagine). Fig. 7 – Particular of the drawing of the facade of the Villino Florio in

Olivuzza (Basile E., 1899-1903).

Figg. 8 (a, b, c), 9 – The origin of the Doric column and capital, G.B. Amico (1726); the Italic-Corinth capital in the Massimo Theatre in Palermo (Basile, XIX cent.). Figg. 10, 11, 12 – Framework of wooden beams following Renaissance schemes (in Emy); Principal and secondary framework of a wooden roof in Palermitan area; wooden A-frame joint, particular. Figg. 13, 14 – Ficus magnolioides’s roots in the Garibaldi Garden in Palermo; Basement of the Communication Tower by Calatrava in Barcellona.

Figg. 15, 16 – Fork-shaped branch in a Ficus magnolioides; wooden portico in Bologna (in Tampone). Figg. 17, 18 – Conservation of the lines of an Egyptian column, derived from clay, reed and canes (in Imbornone); Columnar root with supporting function. Figg. 19, 20 – Phitomirohic shelters in the Galletti and Campofranco Palaces in Palermo. Figg. 21, 22 – Tree deformed by wind (in Portoghesi); capital in the Chiaramonte Palace (XIV cent.) in Palermo.

Figg. 23, 24, 25 – Ficus magnolioides in Palermo. Figg. 26, 27, 28 – Wood of columnar Birch trees, Olive tree, Trunk of Oak tree. Figg. 29, 30 – 1862 litography by Friedrich August Stuler, Temple of Khnum in Esna (Egypt). Figg. 31, 32 – Concordia temple in Agrigento (Sicily), The columnade of S. Peter in Rome.

Figg. 33, 34 – The origin of the gothic architecture following the theory of sir James Hall (in Rykwert); Fanshaped vaults in the King’s College chapel, Cambridge (UK). Figg. 35, 36, 37, 38 – Lamp for the Grand Hôtel Villa Igiea in palermo (E. Basile, 1899-1903, in Mauro and Sessa); Viollet Le Duc, decorative irons (1884); Villino Favaloro in Palermo (G.B.F. Basile, 1889-1991). Fig. 39, 40 – Alphonse Mucha (1860-1939), Art Nouveau drawings.

A PROPOSAL FOR THE NEW SCIENCE CENTRE IN NAPLES: A “GREENHOUSE” IN THE LANDSCAPE PASQUALE MIANO, ADRIANA BERNIERI Pasquale Miano, Associate Professor, Department of Architecture, University of Naples “Federico II” (Italy) Adriana Bernieri, PhD student, Department of Architecture, University of Naples “Federico II” (Italy).

ABSTRACT The position held about the reconstruction of the New Science Centre for Città della Scienza in Naples, Italy, which has been the object of an international competition between 2014 and 2015, is strongly connected to the concept of identity of the urban context: it is about a reconstruction action, determined by the tragic event of the big fire, which opens to a very complex reasoning. To completely face this subject, the project has been developed in relation with authenticity and reproduction concepts of the original building’s elements, keeping the structural and composition identity as well as the trace of existing relations, in order to imagine a new architecture, open to the landscape. PLANNING THE PROJECT PROCESS. PREMISES The New Science Centre of Città della Scienza in Naples has been the object of an international design competition held between 2014 and 2015, in which the main subject was the reconstruction of the building, destroyed in a significant way by a big fire in 2013.

Figure 1. The landscape in Bagnoli plain, from Pozzuoli to Posillipo, after the fire in Città della Scienza Photo by Adriana Bernieri In origin, the building belonged to a chemical plant that was constructed around 1853 thanks to Carlo Lefebvre, a French businessman, and was enlarged during the years until Montecatini took it over between 1923 and 1924. The complex was constituted of different warehouses that, at the moment of the industry closure, happened in 1992, were converted into the institution of Città della Scienza, after a renovation project by the Neapolitan architect Massimo Pica Ciamarra, hosting an important museum of scientific character but also different laboratories and research centres. Within the competition announcement, some fundamental lines for developing the project were given, especially regarding an idea of reconstruction which had to be careful in terms of reinterpreting the traces of what was still there of the pre-existing building, but also of the Science Centre destroyed during the fire in 2013.

Figure 2. Città della Scienza before the fire: the relation with the landscape Source: www.museincapania.it It is important to clarify that the building to be reconstructed constitutes a delimited piece of a huge area which used to be a productive plant in Bagnoli, an area of great relevance from the landscape point of view, on which the city of Naples has been elaborating programs and projects for years and, until now, any of them was realized. It is just the case to consider that, moreover, nowadays, within the Neapolitan urban planning previsions, it is established that Città della Scienza will be moved out from its actual location. In this situation, the reconstruction of the building destroyed by the fire results for many reasons paradoxical: starting from the clear logic of “temporary” reuse of the existing volumes, even the reconstruction project, as the one in 1992 which brought a new museum into the area, constitutes, in fact, the unique trigger point of an articulate operation on the territorial level, for many aspects still contradictory and, anyway, not started yet. After 25 years since the first project of reuse of the ex productive building, which offered significant results, ultimately, just within the importance of the new function introduced (although the fire is a sign of inner contradictions and difficulties), there is the obligation to face the theme of connections and relations with the entire abandoned area of Bagnoli. This imposed to overcome the logic of the “finished” and self-referential project and to reason in terms of a continuous process. The building to be reconstructed has been intended as an element of identity, strongly connected with the process of reappropriation of the Bagnoli area by the city and the citizens, that could develop in the future, also through operations of further modifications and transformations of the Città della Scienza complex itself.

Figure 3. Interior of the ex chemical industry Montecatini before the transformation into Città della Scienza Source: A. Vitale, S. de Majo, “Napoli e l'industria. Dai Borboni alla dismissione” (2009)

Figure 4. Città della Scienza after the fire in 2013 Source: www.napoli.repubblica.it AUTHENTICITY AND REPRODUCTION. THE SPECIFICITY OF THE RECONSTRUCTION OPERATION Città della Scienza complex represents, within the daily life, a very important point of reference for the Neapolitan people, outpost of a recapture of a territory for too much time blocked. How to intervene in such a condition, so strong from the historic, urban, landscape and social point of view? How to give credibility to an operation that regards, for the second time, just the reconstruction of Città della Scienza? First aspect to be adequately illustrated is related to the position held by the most important specificity of the realization project for the new Science Centre, that is embodied into the consideration that this is a reconstruction operation, determined by the tragic drama of the fire. After 14 years since Città della Scienza was realized and more that 150 since the original productive building was constructed, which was very significant within the Neapolitan industrial history, the reconstruction effort to be done could not correspond in any case to the logic of “how it was, where it was”. In respect of all the limits imposed by the competition announcement, it appeared necessary to develop an experimental architecture research within the project team (coordinated by Prof. Arch. Pasquale Miano, with the architects Eugenio Certosino, Giuseppe Ruocco, Antonio Mugnolo and Adriana Bernieri) through which underline the exceptional nature of the building inside Città della Scienza and inside the city of Naples, by pursuing the realisation of a identifiable, recognisable, characterizing structure. That does not mean at all that the new building didn’t have to contain traces of its past, also those connected with the tragic event of the fire in 2013: within the new project machine, an analogous dynamic to that of some significant monuments in Naples wanted to be determined, monuments that became important and relevant for their stratification and especially for their capacity of containing pre-existing elements and significant signs of their past lives within a new structure. The evident data is that what survives of the pre-existing industrial building and of Città della Scienza introduced in it afterwards, assumes doubly the connotations and the characterization of “modern ruin”: doubly because not only the productive spaces have lived the long period of abandon, but also because the fire has cancelled fundamental pieces of the architecture and constructive history of the building. Reasoning on the mechanisms of re-signification of these ruins means to adopt an archaeological approach to the contemporary, working on overlapped strata and interrelating them in order to let new “grounds” emerge, on which it could be possible to introduce a complex dialogue between pre-existence and new intervention. In order to completely face this issue, the idea was based on keeping the structural scheme, the trace of the existing building, as a background on which a new structure was over layered, that was not identified on the basis of a rhythmic articulation, but by concentrating it in few elements of structural support, on which a big shell lies, a sort of roof-building that, on the one hand, again confirms the longitudinal directionality of the pre-existing warehouse and, on the other hand, it is able to reinterpret it into a new spatial configuration. Moreover, in order to realize a space of memory of the tragic fire, the concept was to integrate the most significant remains of the southern part of the building into a global system, from the composition, formal and structural point of view, by giving emphasis to a unitary image of pre-existence-contemporaneity, through the maintenance of some original structural wall, for an efficient and interesting contraposition with the new big shell. Ultimately, in many points, both inside and outside the new building, the material permanence of some elements of previous Science Centre, included some machineries of the original building and following setting, were conveniently reclaimed and reintroduced into the new educational machine. In particular, the idea was to maintain the façade located

on the sea front of the burned warehouse, through the recovery of the remains of the tuff and bricks exterior case and part of the previous survived shell, as well as part of the southern side composed of four spans, with the conservation of some constructive original elements signed by the fire. In this way the building could represent an adequate proof of a process that starting from the Bourbon industry, through different passages, was developed until the new proposed configuration. Both within the recovery of what pre-existed and in the pre-figuration of what is new, finally, it is possible to establish a strong and articulate relation between authenticity and reproduction. The parts that pre-existed, that are the authentic material elements which were recovered and reintroduced into the project, are reinforced by the operation of reconstruction conceived as a graft into the pre-existing structural system. Within the prefiguration of the new, the necessity to reproduce a volumetric pre-existing configuration is developed through the introduction of a new structural system authentically contemporary, which is not the result of extraneous solutions but it is completely deriving from the characters of the architecture plant and its context.

Figure 5. The new volumetric configuration in relation to the remains of pre-existing building Source: original drawings and design elaborated by the project team: Pasquale Miano (group leader), Eugenio Certosino, Giuseppe Ruocco, Antonio Mugnolo, Adriana Bernieri Moreover, in relation to the case of big productive machines, that have been preserved in their physical structure, the delicate relation between conservation of identity and “update” of its image to the contemporary necessities may be read, in synthesis, through the idea of originality, intended as original reading of the pre-existing elements, that is translated into innovation, into a new interpretation of spaces. Main task of the project has been, therefore, that of induce a “third” life into the building, a difficult intervention to be defined in synthetic terms, that takes its origin from the previous building in all its different conditions, but that cannot be identified with a restoration action or with a simple change and functional update, rather as the attempt to delineate a new and original condition, through an open preparation to multiple possibilities to be developed, both in urban and in architectural sense. This happened according to an attitude well-described by Giorgio Grassi, when he affirms that “the artifact fallen into ruin, reduced to fragment, shows a sort of recovered incompleteness in its ultimate stage, as a new availability” (Grassi, 1996 p. 406). On the other hand, the coincidence between the adjectives “original” and “new”, that within the project reasoning on the productive machine efficaciously overlap, incentivizes a review of the concept of authenticity itself, which acquires a new meaning within the design process of metabolizing the change. As Giorgio Agamben writes, “the authentic has no other content but the inauthentic” (Agamben, 2005 p. 309). In order to briefly explain the logical process through which the project for the Science Centre has been developed, it appears useful to refer to an interesting consideration made by Giuseppe Galasso, about the logics with which the researcher selects the causes of an historical event, by working “(...) with the criterion of creativity, originality, innovation of every present respect to any past. Every action is introduced into the past and it is temporally its continuation; but it is also a break from the past (...), a break in the chain of what happens. And it is this rift that differentiates the present from the past, the unknown from the known, the choice which is not only the selection of the alternatives, but, at same time, it is the modification of those alternatives in the very act of selection (...). Within the act of selection, the alternatives get transcended themselves” (Galasso, 1995 p. 431). In this perspective, the “new” configuration has been conceived somehow as a scaffolding, as an other architecture which has been useful to facilitate the reading of the previous architecture, but at the same time having the precise role of involving what belonged to the previous logics into a new spatial organization. Not the past on the one side and the

present on the other one, but, as Francesco Venezia asserts, a particular condition of continuity and interweaving, because “there is no authentic novelty without reference to the chain of efforts that have preceded us” (Venezia, 2011 p. 22). In this way, by developing the archaeological approach to which we referred beforehand, it is like the previous building had been “re-written”, into a logic of “overlapping”, heading towards to realize a “multiple palimpsest” of the architecture plant. The pre-existing architecture is read as an assemble of strata to which over add a further new layer, that gets fragmented and decomposed and that gives origin to new continuities, partially with the pre-existence, as new sentences to new systems; in this sense, it becomes unavoidable the introduction of a different constitutive logic in relation to the existing. It is interesting to refer to the project for the National Studio for Contemporary Arts Le Fresnoy in the ex coal region Tourcoing, where Bernard Tschumi gives to the “new layer”, grafted on the pre-existing structure, the role of reinterpreting the found objects, affirming that “by adding something to what was already there I wanted to re-contextualize and re-define it… This is what I have done in Le Fresnoy with the overlapping or juxtaposition of old and new” (Tschumi, 2013). THE “GREENHOUSE” AS AN ELEMENT OF THE LANDSCAPE A second aspect of fundamental importance is associated to this open and problematic interpretation of the overlapping operation issue: it regards urban and landscape themes, in particular the role of the building in relation to them. In reality, the ex productive structure represents the physical permanence of an industrial past, that within a precise period had characterized the Bagnoli territory and had outlined a development, that has been revealed as transitional and, finally, unrealistic. Therefore, even if in a total contradictory way, this structure continues to represent a fundamental element of identification and recognition because it has determined some of the proper characters of the area and, nowadays, partially, it follows its morphology and image: it registers a specificity related to the position it has, an architectural specificity related to the configuration and to the materials that have been used, a specificity related to the landscape because, slowly, all the buildings masses have been reabsorbed within the context of the sea, of the plain and the hills that in origin had been altered. But the abandoned building didn’t represent an element of stability: on the contrary, its peculiarity is in the intrinsic possibility of being modified that he had, related to the nature of being productive machines. In this perspective, the new Science Centre has been conceived as a greenhouse, an identifiable building from the architectural point of view, that assumes a precise meaning within the interpretation of the entire area as a park, closely connected to the configuration of the settlements along the coast and to the green spaces, by representing a necessary conclusion.

Figure 6. General plan of the project Source: original drawings and design elaborated by the project team The greenhouse has been designed as a unitary shell, able to produce energy in all of its parts and to establish precise and efficient correspondences between a great and varied articulation of the inner spaces and the logics of the landscape in transformation of the ex industrial area of Bagnoli, where the issue of ecology and of a gradually reconquered nature may be proposed again within the great scenery of the Neapolitan coast.

The building-greenhouse is characterized by an inner sequence, through which a further problematic aspect due to the particularity of the site has been solved: a longitudinal building with a potential entrance in the centre of the shorter dimension. The sequence of inner spaces, continuously related to the exterior ones, has been imagined as a promenade inside the building on the sea front, directly proceeding to the outside, by creating a condition of continuity. The inner promenade goes through the building starting from the northern part, in order to reach the central space, from where it is possible to access to more narrow and functionally more articulate spaces, located in the southern side. The exterior promenade doesn’t end along the seaside but it completely embraces the building, by realizing a unitary and continuous public space, varied by some calibrated ground movements, in relation with the same undulations of the building’s shell, in order to accentuate the unitary of the intervention. Through the new system of interior and exterior paths, definitely a new weave of relations has been imagined, in order to “tie” again the building in its new configuration to the landscape and the urban context.

Figure 7. Plan of the ground floor: the continuity among inside and outside spaces Source: original drawings and design elaborated by the project team To the northern side of the building, that directly dialogues with the overpass connection of the bridge towards the other buildings belonging to Città della Scienza as well as towards the sea, an exterior space, wide and versatile, is connected, that gets characterized by different planes at various levels, by interpreting in this way the theme of the square next to the sea. In particular, a sort of wide and comfortable stairs has been designed as a place for events, with the north front of the building as the set on which some projections could be done. The square close to the sea represents in the project the perfect localization for a general ticket-office for the museum, as the keystone of the new building within the whole complex of Città della Scienza, by underlining this entrance through a particular volumetric articulation.

Figure 8. North and south fronts in relation to the context Source: original drawings and design elaborated by the project team

Figure 9. The square next to the sea and the system of exterior spaces Source: original drawings and design elaborated by the project team THE RENOVATION OF TYPOLOGICAL CONTENTS. THE ARCHITECTURE OF IDENTITY The typological characterization of the Science Centre as scientific interactive museum is widely defined not only by the previous Neapolitan experience, that constituted an excellence on the international level, but also by the large possibility of comparison with many other analogous initiatives in the world, in which, with different grades, a group of interactive exhibition spaces has been realized, with laboratories and places for education. This common ground od knowledge has been reinterpreted thank to the peculiarity of the architectural history of the complex and of the particularity of its position, that, as it has been already underlined, represents very significant factors of individuality and originality within the typological characterization of the Neapolitan Science Centre, resulting as an added value. In this perspective, providing the city of Naples of a Science Centre conceived as a very innovative machine has been one of the main aim; a machine able to settle into the morphology of the historical-archaeological, landscape and naturalistic system of Naples and the Campi Flegrei. Regarding the typological profile, the project has been working about the construction of a big unitary space (as the void of a greenhouse), under the great and articulate shell, where the multiple functions to be introduced have determined a porous net of two levels height and all height spaces. The realization of a big unitary space, where various and very different places meet, connected by an articulate system of paths that go “through” the great void, results particularly appropriate, in order to organize at the best all the exhibition contents of the Science Centre. These contents are based on the evocation of emotions, on the peculiarity and unicity of the visit, on a kind of informal education and knowledge: a machine where everything is studied, but that at the same time guarantees wide possibilities of selection, of choice, of having a totally personal experience of the space. In this perspective, the Science Centre has been conceived as an innovative exhibition space since the very starting moment it has been imagined, that could be continuously renovated, by conferring an idea of flexibility and reversibility as a quality aspect. After some months, without misrepresenting the idea of permanent exhibition, some different spatial configurations could be proposed for the inside, like more articulate solutions, by giving fully emphasis to the evolution dynamic, inherent with this typology. An enormous importance assumes, therefore, the issue of the installation project, that could guarantee a sense of surprise and of newness to any visitor, even if repeating the experience after a very short time. The installations should underline and enhance at the same time some fundamental aspects of this great cultural, scientific and technological attractor: the continuity of inside-outside through the dynamism of the paths and the ground movements, the diffused presence of the green inside the building, the underlining of some specific aspects related to the territory where the Science Centre is located, such as the morphological configuration, volcanic phenomenon, etc.

Figure 10. Dynamic of inner paths Source: original drawings and design elaborated by the project team More than a building intended in a traditional way, the Science Centre has been ideated as an intermediate space between inside and outside, whose recognition quality is given to the reticular structure of ten great pillars that sustain the roof, empty elements and somehow available, as the building in its complex, to be used in different ways. Among the pillars, there is an overpassing promenade, located in the central area of the building, in correspondence with the main entrance, going through the interior by allowing at the same time to have a very suggestive view of the sea and of the entire coastal line, in accordance with the openings designed in the continuous shell. The project suggests a new and complex machine, able to respond to different and not always convergent instances. It was not about introducing functions in an existing building as it happened in the case of the first intervention, but of conceiving a unitary enclosure, in which precise and effective matches have been established between a large and varied articulation of the interior spaces and the inclusion in a landscape of valuable characters, complete and stratified: a structure in which the interior spaces have been designed in order to expand outside, in the great scenery of the Neapolitan coast. In this context a central role has been played by the issue of building a great prospect "towards the sea", open to the landscape, but that at the same time could become an element of the landscape itself, assuming a specific configuration. The extensive shell, for its shape, has the opportunity not only to give special importance to the building’s fronts, such as the sea front that communicates with the one survived the fire, but also to contain inside itself some terraces open to the surrounding landscape as optimal conclusion of the scientific path and a further increase of overlooking points towards the sea and the coast. The façades were then characterized as the natural continuation of the mechanism of the shell and are substantially related to this logic. In this sense they represent connecting elements and synthesis between the building's roof-logic and that of the building-greenhouse. The folds of perforated metal cover are overlapping the large glassed gashes designed in the lower part, in order to allow to get a strong continuity between exterior and interior spaces. At the same time the glass parts have been turned over to the cover, internally folding them into the deep cuts of the two terraces. The dense drilling of the full parts of the façades represents an element of continuity with the landscape: the mass of the cover has been designed to be subjected to an intense work of "inlay" to break the compactness, bringing it back to the formal matrix of the green and the sea. This analogy, on which is hinged both the front outline and the design of the cover, is reflected in the precise location of the Science Centre, with the shell clearly visible from the Posillipo hill, almost like a fifth façade strongly interconnected to the surrounding landscape. A careful graduation of different closing elements, from large glazed openings to the areas where the light filters through the drilling of titanium zinc walls, made possible to achieve optimal illumination for all building’s spaces. Even the complete detachment of the external cladding wall according to the internal intermediate floors will help to achieve this particular filter brightness, encouraged by the introduction of a connection element in structural glass. Directly connected to the theme of filtered direct light is the combination of resin floors, which will determine, with the appropriate colour graduations, a further element of variability and individuality of the spaces.

Figure 11. Front towards the sea Source: original drawings and design elaborated by the project team

Figure 12. Front towards the Chimneystack Square. In both facades there is a close relation with the elements that survived the fire Source: original drawings and design elaborated by the project team THE METAMORPHOSIS OF LIVED SPACES. INTERIORS OF THE CONTEMPORARY CITY How to blow new life into the production machine no longer functioning and that, in good part, had lost its physical structure? How to introduce into this machine, which responded in its construction and development to practical purposes, new uses, through which, with a synthetic expression by Andrea Branzi “the city of the future realizes itself within the inner spaces of contemporary cities” (Branzi, 2006 p. 117)? In order to answer the question, first of all the issue of double axial building was faced, linked from the one side to the central entrance from the Chimneystack Square, on the other side to the marked longitudinal development of the building. In this sense the duality of permanent and temporary exhibition space function has been interpreted in an operative way. The function of temporary space, for which it was required an autonomous access, has been associated with the main ticket office function of the entire Città della Scienza, while through the central entrance it is possible to access the permanent exhibition and other spaces of the Science Centre. The ground floor, in its central part, is completely free: a large open space in which is arranged the permanent exhibition. Within those spaces, the main vertical connections are located: mobile ramps developed longitudinally and a spiral staircase with a lift, connected to one of the ten big pillars. Through these connections, it is possible to access to the second level that is designed to be less wide in relation to the north façade, using just half of the entire volume. That configuration allows to realize a considerable internal view, important to ensure continuity with the installation at the lower level. The two building’s heads instead configure as more closed elements, under which the more specialized spaces have been arranged. In particular, in the northern side it is placed a large multipurpose space of the temporary exhibition and a café, while in the southern part the children workshop area was proposed, closely linked to the fenced outdoor area, and the Fablab (workshop of exhibit), also accessible by the visitors of the permanent exhibitions and provided of independent vehicle access.

Figure 13. The inner spaces of the exhibition, between conservation of pre-existing elements and new structures Source: original drawings and design elaborated by the project team In the eastern side, more connected with the theatre/laboratory Galilei, stores and services for the theatre have been located, in order to increase levels of functionality, as well as the second café and bookshop of the museum that, in this way, is directly accessible both from the Chimneystack Square for external buyers, and from the inside, from the area destined to the permanent exhibits, placed at the exit of the visit. In the southern part, on the second level, three didactic laboratories were introduced, highly integrated into the open space general setting, through a thin dividing system adequately studied to ensure the autonomy both functionally and acoustically. In the northern part, instead, at the first level, another multipurpose space of average size for temporary exhibitions and the agora were placed. Here the building presents an autonomous vertical connection, with fire escape function too. At the next level, it was placed a further space for temporary exhibitions. Ultimately, the spaces for temporary exhibitions are organized vertically, constituting a single system of dimensionally decreasing spaces as they reach the upper parts, offering the possibility of a single exposure, but also possibly divisible in different equipment, completely autonomous. The double internal height spaces are crossed by a long reticular reticular promenade that from the far north of the first level reaches the second level, in which the other two agora and the astronomical terrace were placed.

Figure 14. First level and the continuity of inner space Source: original drawings and design elaborated by the project team The planned agora areas, which constitute fundamental spaces of internal aggregation, are three. The first one is located at first level where the outside is visible through the glass along the wide stairs. The other two are positioned in correspondence of the terraces, in continuity with the open spaces. From the northern side, in a closer way related to the temporary exhibition spaces, it is possible to access into a second part of the second level, in which other exhibition spaces, both open (terrace) and covered (multipurpose area of small size) are proposed.

Figure 15. An architecture opens to the sea and the landscape Source: original drawings and design elaborated by the project team Within the project, a very precise position in relation to the exhibition has been proposed, well summarized in an article by Franco Purini, who, about the exhibition theme, in a text about the meaning of the Italian word for “installation”, namely allestimento, affirms that: “in museums, (allestimento) loses one of its main features, a character that is written within its own etymology - (allestimento) contains the idea of (lesto), quick, fast as Mercury - to become a stable arrangement, a conformation of elements, walls, lights, paths – not more ephemeral, but called to an existence which can be as lengthy as the life of the famous installations by Carlo Scarpa, BBPR, Franco Albini, is now. Yet, it is precisely in the fact that is usually a system upon fast consumption that the installation seems to correspond exemplarily to the futurist proposal of an architecture which should be no longer projected on the long term, but rather cast to search the flash, the brevity, an architecture made of fulminating and extreme trajectories” (Purini, 2002 p. 61). The plant imagined for the new Science Centre will be able to guarantee high levels of flexibility in the organization of the exhibitions. In fact, the more specialized spaces, the services and the vertical safety connections are located in the two head blocks, leaving essentially free central space, which can be completely crossed in a horizontal and in a vertical direction sense, thanks to the sequence of the helical ramp and long mobile-promenade. Installations can be arranged in this way in a free and flexible configuration, adapting every time to the specific nature of the scientific and educational contents, which require continuous updates. The concept of flexibility has often been declined according to an analogy between flexible and neutral space, causing the formation of big volumes without any significant characters. In the new Science Centre of Bagnoli, it is pursued instead the logic of flexibility without giving up the introduction of some devices that are able to give a precise architectural characterization of the internal space, in order to develop and to be completed through the exhibition project. As pointed out by Sara Marini, it deals with “simple mechanisms but that reintroduce the interior complexity into the building itself, overcoming the mere notion of function and moving away from the dictatorship of the dimension and possible automated logics: the device gets adapted to the void, but changes its own meaning, it puts in place new life cycles” (Marini, 2013). In the great void, the empty pillars may be, in an extremely various way, used as particular points of the exhibition but also as solar chimneys, aspect of a complex energy recycling system thoroughly researched. The double height allows to obtain various points and different ways of getting in contact with the installations on the ground floor, allowing, thanks also to the reticular promenade, to develop the exhibition even vertically. Finally, the large cut towards the sea, gives a character of continuity between landscape and building and allows a complete integration with the outer space and, beyond the existing arches, with the beach. Based on these principles, some elements of the installation project were developed, strongly linked to the architectural identity of the new Science Centre, but at the same time characterized by a strong grade of independence and variability in relation to the more fixed parts of the building. The installation project reinterprets through a different scale, the formal matrix of the shell: a sequence of ripples configures inclined planes, some of which are paved, some other characterized by vegetation, that closely work with the permanent interactive exhibition divided into several sections. The elements of the exhibition are designed in light tubeshaped steel, connected by fireproof clothes and varnished wood panels. The exhibition system will be focused on an installation-volcano, which extends seamlessly to the outside, where such a system envelops the existing arches, projecting directly toward the beach. In the closest part to the "volcano", some aquariums have been proposed, where the tanks are positioned according to a strongly inspired orography of Campi Flegrei territory. The same system turns along the inside front, hosting green elements, with some vegetation appropriately studied, accentuating the character

of the building as greenhouse. In this way, the project strengthens the continuity between exterior and interior, projecting into the double-height a green wall starting from the grassy parterre located in the outer court, which assumes, therefore, a large indoor garden character. A strong continuity between the exterior and interior is also obtained in the children workshop area, part of the museum tour but with a separate entrance, where the interior space, completely glazed, is in a natural progression continuing to the outside, in a space equipped and protected for kids. In this sense, even the construction and the interior spaces of the exhibition become distinguishing features of the building, designed to be so flexible and modelled according to the events, but, in their essence, closely related to the morphology and the meaning of the Neapolitan landscape. A RENEWED IMAGE FOR BAGNOLI LANDSCAPE. CONCLUSIONS The project for the new Science Centre, even if conceived as a possible answer to a very precise design competition, accepts a grade of indeterminacy, typical of a productive structure of new generation, not simply blocked within a predetermined function, but open to a plurality of cases, to a continuous modifiability of the inner spaces in different moments. Starting from this concept, in which the theme of the productive machine specificity regains centrality, even if deeply modified, the project has worked, through a sort of archaeological methodology, to the definition of an assemble of overlapped layers, that contain a constellation of different interventions, without prefiguring the areas but moreover the connections among them. These strategic choices get in relation to the space characters, but also to the times of this architecture: the productive memory of the building as a sort of “root” to its context and place, through the unexpected and maybe temporary presence of new elements of connections and of architecture configuration, allows to open new scenarios, projecting the ruin of the burned machine towards the future. In light of the entire reasoning, it results very clear that a project operation made within a methodological approach means, somehow, to assume very specific positions from the theoretical point of view. Aiming to the authenticity through a reconstruction operation and pursuing a renewal of the typological contents through an architecture of identity could seem a paradox, but it is within the paradox itself that is essentially contained the central issue of the entire problem, explained through the project operation: the authenticity and the identity of the places and of the complex of Città della Scienza reveal as the final purposes of the project but at the same time they represent the tools through which the project has been developed. Lines and choices of the intervention become part of a process to which the architect gives a final shape but whose contents are already very “present” and reclaim a final legitimateness. Therefore, the “third” life of the industrial building, abandoned and afterwards reused, then hit by a fire, whose future is now being written again, becomes an ephemeral operation and actually very “contracted” if considered as an action for itself; if, instead, the project becomes the place where all those lives finally coexist all together, in that case, the architecture succeeds in its most important role, that is to be the physical proof of the meanings assumed by the matter along the temporal and spatial territorial variations. In this way, the theoretical and methodological approach could generate substantial contents in terms of the project, by feeding a very complex dialogue/debate, that is, anyway, able to discuss about some of the fundamental issues of the architectural project for contemporary cities.

REFERENCES Agamben, G., 2005. La potenza del pensiero. Vicenza: Neri Pozza. Branzi, A., 2006. Modernità debole diffusa. Il mondo del progetto all’inizio del XXI secolo. Milan: Skira. Galasso, G., 1995. Filosofia e storiografia, in “La Filosofia” (edited by P. Rossi), vol. II. Turin: UTET. Grassi, G., (1996). Un parere sul restauro, in “Giorgio Grassi: I progetti, le opere e gli scritti” (edited by G. Crespi, S. Pierini). Milan: Electa. Marini, S., 2011. Nuove terre. Architetture e paesaggi dello scarto. Macerata: Quodlibet. Marini, S., 2013. Le ali dell’architettura. Spazi del lavoro ed altre alchimie. L’architettura degli spazi del lavoro. Nuovi compiti e nuovi luoghi per il progetto. Macerata: Quodlibet. Miano, P., 2014. Vita e attese di due edifici-macchina, in “Sul futuro dell’origine. Novità ed Originalità in Architettura” (edited by C. Di Domenico). Genova: Il melangolo. Miano, P., Aquilar, G., 2015. New life cycles for modern ruins, in “Structural Studies, Repairs and Maintenance of Heritage Architecture XIV. WIT Transactions on The Built Environment” (edited by C.A. Brebbia, S. Hernández). Vol.153: WIT Press. Miano, P., Aquilar, G., 2015. Identity and Image of Productive Spaces in the Process of Reuse, in “Envisioning Architecture: Image, Perception and Communication of Heritage”, Lodz University of Technology. Pica Ciamarra Associati, (edited by M. Pisani) 2002. Pica Ciamarra Associati: Città della Scienza and other works. Napoli: Liguori editore. Purini, F., 2002. Allestire, in “Lotus international”, n. 115. Tschumi, B., Walker, E., 2006. Tschumi on Architecture. Conversation with Enrique Walker. New York: The Monacelli Press. Venezia, F., 2011. Natura 01/04. Doppio per riflesso = Doubling by reflection. Edited by A. D’Onofrio, C. Felci. Roma: MAXXI Press. Vitale, A., de Majo, S., 2009. Napoli e l'industria. Dai Borboni alla dismissione. Soveria Mannelli: Rubbettino editore.

AN APPROACH IN ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN EDUCATION: RANDOMNESS ARZU IL VAROL Arzu İl Varol, Research Assistant, Eskişehir Osmangazi University, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Department of Architecture

ABSTRACT Currently, the paradigm shift in design necessitates rethinking architectural education due to changes in perception of the city, architecture and space. In this sense, concepts, techniques and aspects of disciplines other than architecture, could be used as design tools to define architectural design paradoxes and solutions. This study aims to explore Exquisite corpse game and PEPAKURA software together as an agent for architectural design education. It is presented as an approach based on the design process and products of a workshop called Formless, conducted within Bademlik Design Festival 2015 (BTF) at Eskişehir Osmangazi University, Turkey. The main target and content of this study comprise considerations that provoke creative processes that emancipate the concept of space from the supremacy of architectural form finding and that redefine concepts such as form, function, integrity, etc. through the utilization of game-play and randomness. In order to fulfill such objective, Exquisite corpse, known as the lettering game `Who, With Whom, Where, Doing What? `, is employed for production of surreal visual images. It is one of the many games of surrealists, who believe that randomness and game-play is a catalyzer that enhances creativity. The logic behind Exquisite corpse is thus adopted and interpreted into the interface of PEPAKURA to construct random relationships among the patterns of three dimensional form. Consequently, a workshop activity, structured by the collision of the randomness in exquisite corpse and printed unfolded patterns of forms obtained from the PEPAKURA software, is employed with architecture students to conduct spatial experiments. Consequently, this paper demonstrates the outcomes of the Formless workshop, discusses the spatial quality and potentials of the generated forms and relates these outcomes to the concepts such as imagination, improvisation and interpretation processes in architectural design education as the means to promote design skills. The findings of this paper could further be employed in architectural education, particularly at basic design phase to foster students’ creativity. Keyword: architectural design education, randomness, game-play, exquisite corpse, form finding INTRODUCTION This study examines how to benefit from randomness through game-play, especially in first year design studios in architectural education. Uncertainty and unpredictability, which are distinct characteristics of architecture, express the existence of randomness in the design process. Randomness is a condition that liberates the game-player attitude, which is the source of flexible, spontaneous and intuitive behavior. Randomness through game-play is suggested as a method for actualization of design in an environment with flexibility by twists, divergence to multiple/plural actors, communication, flexibility, and negotiations, contrary to the classic design approaches. In the acquaintance process with architecture, it is aimed to express the dynamic characteristic of design, increase different approaches in basic design studios and the process is expected to reflect the change appropriate to the nature of design through the use of game-play as an input that liberates students' creativity. Therefore, the topic is examined theoretically and is discussed through an experimentally implemented study. The context, aim and implementation of the completed studies were scrutinized through the outcomes. In evaluating randomness through game-play as a tool for architectural design education, it becomes essential to emphasize how architecture and architectural education are defined. Architectural discipline has an inherent complexity. It is comprised of tangible elements such as structure, materials; abstract elements such as time, conceptual approach; quantitative factors such as statics, mechanics, topography; and fully unpredictable factors such as human nature, and the "event". This open-ended structure possessed, is both the most disturbing and enjoyable characteristic of architecture (Cook, 1996). Due to this complex nature, architectural education as well contains many contradictions. Van Meggelen, who defines the contradictory nature of architectural education as the "paradoxes of architectural education", lists these contradictions as: architecture being an art form and a technique; architecture’s exploratory nature and logical explanation nature; architecture being a slow discipline and the pace gained in the world due to mobile media; place-dependent characteristic of architecture (genius logi)and its non-place

characteristic (universality); professionality of the architect and of personal, social, cultural preferences; the effort of the architecture school to plan the education and the students and the student’s effort to be creative and regulatory individually; the disappearance of the architecture school almost to transparency and its being monumental and bureaucratic (Yürekli, 2003, p.38). One of the most interesting contradictions of architecture is between; appearing as a concrete reality and as in fact appearing to be defined by the non-visible. For instance, one of the most important elements of architecture, time, is not a visible concept. Architecture takes place between the tension of the visible and non-visible. In their joint work with Félix Guattari ‘What is Philosophy=?’, Deleuze points out that architecture could have a prominent place among all arts. Quite due to this contradictory nature, the qualifications of criticism and empiricism opposed to all sorts of transcendence, are the qualifications of architecture, and according to them; architecture is inevitably associated to substance, dirt, tangible and corporal empiricism (Deleuze, Guattari, 2015, p.42).A way of thinking that rejects the slit inserted between the intangible and tangible, the theoretical and actual, is perhaps the most useful way of thinking provided by the architectural thought. Therefore, when trying to explain the architecture, it would remain insufficient solely to explain the tangible. Tschumi, with his pursuit of the unexpected, invisible in architecture through the "eventful architecture" statement, is a major actor. He discerns between the architecture program and the "event". The program emerges with its defined utilization and behavior; "event", on the contrary, emerges with the hidden potential that is unexpected, invisible in the program, place and situation (Tschumi, 1994)."Event" is surprising and might take architecture to a whole new adventure, beyond what the architects predict. Therefore, architecture has the characteristic of being unpredictable, uncertain. According to De Sola-Morales, architecture is a phenomenon that exists due to the intersection of coincidences (Yürekli, 2003, p.40). What causes this uncertainty in architecture is that the architect is face to face with different participants, with the “other”, therefore the unknown. It is almost a “game” that has different rules, which vary throughout the game, for every participant. Thus, architecture is an open-ended system that includes many variables and uncertainties. The architectural product varies constantly through life and events within. According to Lynn; the transparency characteristic of a building, which is receptive to variations, additions, subtractions, could be explained as a surface tracing the projections of a deeper space (Lynn, 1999). Variability and having a potential to allow for different projections are important considerations for today's architecture. Uncertainty and open-endedness should as well be inherent in the design problem formulation. Open-ended problems do not have a definitive approach for solution, might have with multiple explanations, and their solutions could not be responded as right or wrong. The design starts due to the mode of postulation of the problem, and does not always result in the providing a solution to the problem. The process continues within the generated discussion platform. In this regard, problem solving is merely one of the conditions intrinsic to design. Considering design as a condition related to design, a journey and an exploration that proceeds for the quest of design, would bring us closer to the nature of design. Therefore, there exists no textbooks of architectural education, in the sense we are accustomed to. It could be possibly defined as a work, a kind of experiment with no particular outcome or solution, and executed open to different ideas. It is the problem of architectural education to disengage the students coming out of a race, in which nothing is more important than solving tests, with a postulate that architecture means “building” into the architectural education, from the built environment created by architecture. The randomness, which allows the questioning of “how” instead of “what” architecture is, could be utilized in order to endorse the multi-dimensional perception, taking a different approach ability expected from the architecture students in basic design studios. Game-play, similar to architecture, includes the tension created by the contradiction between the randomness and the certainty of rules. These common features bring the game and architecture closer through education. Game-play oriented design attitude requires a constantly experiencing, multiplying possibilities, producing variations, diversifying, divergent (1) movement Man must constantly destroy himself in order to construct himself all over again. (3) Theo van Doesburg, 1918 Humans determine their position in life through the mental schemes gained through experience. These schemes entail certain patterns along with changes and flexibility. Obtaining different positions in face of different situations is related to breaking these patterns and uncovering the change and flexibility potential. In a sense, it means to isolate and alienate ourselves from our habits. As Woods determined, architecture, to a great extent, is a discipline dedicated to the continuation "normal" (Woods, 2000, p.15). It is impossible not to value the words of Woods, observing how architecture stiffened itself during the groundbreaking advances in science and art in 20th century. Breaking this conservative attitude of architecture could only be possible by producing alternatives that are out of the system, that are odd, and that change our position when we come across it. Game-play could be a tool in order to provide such conditions. As game-play provides the individual a differentiating condition from the everyday life. Such condition appears to the individual as an uncertain setting. Game-play is irrational.

According to Suits, game-play restricts the efficient option that leads to a solution, facilitates the less efficient, and solely utilizes the tools and methods that enable such activity in order to reach to a condition. Despite the game is defined via several rules, there is randomness in its nature. Suits argues that games are activities in which the purposes never diverge from rules and adherence to these rules is never binding (Yürekli, 2003, pp.78-79). For the player, there is always a possibility of a rule outside he game. The rules of the game are temporary, just as the game itself. Variability might as well be a constituent of several rules. Game is an activity, in which the rules constitute a part of the purpose, rules are not certain and are replaceable, and the player could quit the game anytime (Yürekli, 2003, p.83). A game that permits no flexibility loses its characteristic to be a “game”. What makes a game enjoyable is being open to interpretation despite the unnegotiable rules, defining alternative activity areas while outlining the boundaries. Besides, not only the environment created by the game is uncertain, but also the designer or the player constitutes another uncertain point within the game. In order to utilize game-play as a method in architectural design course, it is essentially necessary to refer to the commonalities of architecture and game-play concept. It is prominent that subjects such as contradictions, ambiguity, open-endedness, randomness, human relations, flexibility are inherent to both, and most of the concepts that constitute today's architecture agenda are associated to game-play. These intangible characteristics and concepts that are challenging to be evaluated in education, even though they are important parts of architecture, could be subject to discussion and exercise through games. Both game-play and design are activities that their progress is altered during the process. Although predicted at the outset, the process is unpredictable. The path followed is not foreseen or predetermined. This particular form of action is scrutinized in detail as 'reflection in action' by Schön (Köknar,2009, p.69). It is a conditional conception that does not model the encounter with the event, but uses the encounter itself as the model. In this perspective, design could be interpreted as an activity that tackles with the relationships, which establish form and image, not the form or the image itself. Currently, majority of the concepts that constitute the agenda of architecture (computer technologies and virtual environment, movement, uncertainty, temporariness, utilization of ordinariness in an extraordinary way) are related to game-play and this indicates that architecture is gradually being gamified. Game-play causes us to come across products beyond familiarity and leads us into a quest for adventure apart from formfinding, due to containing several concepts that cultivate the design process such as imagination, improvisation, and interpretation. In this paper, this approach is evaluated through the design process and products of the Formless Workshop, which took place as a part of the Bademlik Design Festival at Eskişehir Osmangazi University, Department of Architecture, on April 23rd-26th,2015. The workshop was designed with the intent to propose a design game to reverse the values such as form, function, unity, completeness, brand-newness and even pureness, which are already expected to become obsolete, yet are still dignified by the architectural thought. In this game, Pepakura Designer software, which supplies the 2D face projections of 3D models created in computational environment, for building their physical models, is used as a tool. The logic behind the software strongly resembles the cardboard house production with "cut - fold paste" method, which was distributed as a promotion of newspapers and was one of the favorite games for children decades ago. It could as well be recognized as the Papercraft method used by architectural instruction. The reasoning behind selecting the Pepakura Designer software could directly be associated with the need to define a nesting of the “game” concept within a different reality of computational environment, outside the boundaries of tangible truth. Besides, the possibility to design with flexible multi-dimensioned systems, topological geometries, folds, blobs, which are alternatives to the two dimensional forms with precise and complete boundaries, has emerged due to the digital technologies (Lynn, 1998). A value or form variation executed in a part of the model is reflected to all elements of the system. Thus, the model becomes more fluent and flexible, exposing the uncertainty inherent to architecture. This facilitates a perception shift for students in comprehending architecture abstracted from the form, contrary to the perception of planar representation. The functioning principle of the software is as follows: Initially, the form, which will be physically modeled, is produced in 3D computational format in software such as 3ds Max, AutoCad or Maya.

Figure 1. 3D model constructed in AutoCad Pepakura Designer (3), which works compatible with several software that facilitate three dimensional modeling in computational environments, provides the flat 2D projection of the 3D form. The interface of the program demonstrates both the 3D and the 2D image of the model simultaneously and provides information on the location and orientation of a selected piece. Since it is possible to receive plots at any given dimension, the scale problems could be eliminated in translating the 2D representation into a physical model. The production of the physical model, when considered as a “game”, has rules as every game has.

Figure 2. 2D projection of the 3D form obtained by using Pepakura Designer In order to produce the 3D form created in computational environment as a physical model, the rules set by the software are followed. It is possible to use the software to code these rules on the 2D projection of the 3D form. For instance, the software could number the pieces in 2D projection in order to indicate the other pieces that could be joined to, and might provide eaves for gluing. Since the model would be executed via a kind of Papercraft technique, the fold directions could be indicated with line types (inwards folding with a dashed line, outward folding with a continuous line).

Figure 3. The game-player does not appear as a variable that transforms the end product when Pepakura Design Software’s linear and sequential rules are followed. In the workshop, Exquisite corpse, one of the many games used by the surrealists, who consider randomness and game as a catalyzer to liberate the creativity process, was selected as the method to twist the defined processing of the Pepakura Designer software. André Breton, explains the story of the Exquisite corpse as: “The Exquisite Corpse was born, if we remember correctly (and if that is the proper expression), around 1925 in the old house at 54 rue du Chateau, since destroyed. There Marcel Duhamel, long before devoting himself to the perusal of American literature, made enough from his whimsical (if grandiose) participation in the hotel industry to lodge his friends Jacques Prevert and Yves Tanguy, who did not yet excel at anything except the art of living, while enlivening everything with their spirited outbursts. For a while Benjamin Peret also stayed there. Absolute non-conformism and universal disrespect was the rule, and great good humour reigned. It was a time for pleasure and nothing else. Almost every evening we gathered around a table where Chateau Yquem deigned to mingle its suave note with that of other, equally tonic local brews. When the conversation—on the day's events or proposals of amusing or scandalous intervention in the life of the times—began to pall, we would turn to games; written games at first, contrived so that elements of language attacked each other in the most paradoxical manner possible, and so that human communication, misled from the start, was thrown into the mood most amenable to adventure. From then on no unfavourable prejudice (in fact, quite the contrary) was shown against childhood games, for which we were rediscovering the old enthusiasm, although considerably amplified. Thus, when later we came to give an account of what had sometimes seemed upsetting to us about our encounters in this domain, we had no difficulty in agreeing that the Exquisite Corpse method did not visibly differ from that of 'consequences'. Surely nothing was easier than to transpose this method to drawing, by using the same system of folding and concealing.” (4) Exquisite corps, is a term that means “super corpse” in French. It is a game, based on randomness and employed with a collective collage technique among surrealist artists, in which images and words are used. This game resembles the highly anticipated game of the Victorian Era, “Consequences”, known also as “Who, where, how?” game. All players sketch something on a paper (or writes down) and passes the paper to another player for contribution. As all players have contributed on sketching or writing down on the paper, the final product becomes a ‘cadavre exquis’.

Figure 4. Several examples for Exquisite corps. (André Breton, Jacqueline Lamba and Yves Tanguy, 1938, Man May, Yves Tanguy, Miro and Max Morise, 1928, André Breton, Man May, Max Moris, Yves Tanguy, 1927) This game, from which pure and strong surreal images could emerge, in Breton’s words, represents the “complete rejection of the nonsense of duplicating the physical aspects” and “bears the mark of something that cannot be created with a single mind.” (Breton, 1948, pp. 9-11) The game, in this manner, is an artistic expression of the surrealist uprising. According to the surrealists, Exquisite corps game liberates the thought and provides full independence to images. Surrealist images are created collectively. In the workshop process, several queries were placed with the curiosity whether a similar production method could be employed: Could Exquisite corps game be a tool in design process? Could randomness be used as a design method? Is it possible to overthrow the frequently-appearing values in architectural education, such as form, function, unity through the use of game or randomness and to save the design problematique, the concept of space from form-finding? In the workshop, the multiple answers possible given to these questions or the new questions that would be accompanied to the answers are formulated as follows: The surrealists, who hold a high esteem in game-play, improvisation and randomness, first distort the language. They liberate the images from their representations, as well as the words. In that case, to shift from the course of a definitive model production process, it is initially necessary to distort the language of the design tool. In order to do so, the rules, perpetrated by Pepakura Designer for the execution of the physical model, are removed. In other words, all the codes that define the production process in 2D projection (numbers, gluing eaves) are removed and the folding lines are standardized in order to obscure the folding direction.

Figure 5. The piece that indicates the folding rules.

Figure 6. The piece with removed folding rules.

This procedure aims to eliminate the limitations and restrictions that could prevent free manipulation of the design tool. Increasing randomness in the game is directly related to the number of players in the game. Therefore, groups of four or five individuals were created depending on the total number of students attending the workshop. The Exquisite corps game groups are set to start the game with the supplied materials and a 50x70 base board. The game starts with the first

move of the first player. The selected model piece could be folded once or cut or could be subject to any uncertain intervention deemed fit by the player before being placed on the base board, and the turn shifts to the next player. The player constitutes the most uncertain rule set in the game. The players can only make one move in each turn and the game continues until the model pieces supplied to them are finished. Hence, the irrational possibilities offered by the 2D projection of a 3D form composed due to the restrictions of a thought process could provide spatial exercises in collision with the randomness of the Exquisite corps game. The purpose is to stray the initially defined process, invalidate its limitations, thus to deform, resolve and spoil the desired end product. The formulated game facilitates a systematically interrupted and non-linear design process and attains a new dimension with being unstructured, contrary to the models formulated linearly and sequentially. The game includes an uncertain structure defined with the rule set and game-player decisions. This condition causes the game to be unpredictable and facilitates different interactions at each move.

Figure 7. The uncertain and open-ended movement scheme of the design game fictionalized via the Exquisite corps It could be observed that distinct processes are created through the perception, experiencing and reaction of the gameplayers. The game enables the subject to grasp and utilize the situational attitude among the possible attitudes instead of being embedded with numerous rules; to adopt a proactive position instead of a passive and repetitive attitude. The outcomes that resemble an infinite motion is almost a visual definition that everything is connected and is possible to move any direction.

Figure 8. First Group (Merve Yapıcı, Hatice Atmaca, Tuğçe Hızarcı, Deniz Kolay)

Figure 9. Second Group (Hasan Tolga Altılı, Tuğberk Kaan Nazlı, Emre Demir, Muret Özçelik)

Figure 10. Third Group (Deniz Söy, Hatice Özçelik, Eda Salıncak, Gizem Naz Tezcan)

Figure 11. Fourth Group (This work was conducted by workshop instructors: Interior designer Selçuk İl, Arzu İl Varol; assistants: Damla Deveci, Beyza Özyürek)

Figure 12. Fifth Group (Arda Aksaç, Özge Kamış, Elif Salcı, Bengisu Gürel) The process was regarded as stimulating for the creative impulse, interesting, enjoyable and seminal by the students, since it allowed improvisation. Game-play could therefore be a part of design education, as the stimulant of learning. Beside, gamifying the design education is important in terms of constructing a self-universe for architecture education, which already resides on the education model of “learning by doing” despite being framed by the same administrative processes that constitute the engineering and medical faculty curricula, through increasing motivation and creating the desired atmosphere. CONCLUSION Design activity accommodates the randomness factor. Accepting the existence of the unforeseeable in advance could translate the uncertainty into an advantage. The flexibility gained through the game-play attitude in design could accompany the adaptation to unpredictable change in architecture, which is an ambiguous system. Such approach is important in terms of ability to conduct teamwork, coordination, and in facilitating the creative thought and different alternatives. The game could be a part of the architectural design education, due to both the “reality” provided with the system of rules, and the “game-play attitude” outstanding with the flexibility, intuition and reasoning, in evaluating the intangible, non-quantifiable, unpredictable and uncertain characteristics of architecture. This is equally important in the face of the danger that architecture discipline could diverge from its essential characteristic, disguised in objectifying the education. There is evident risk that sole “creativity” could drive the one into an unrealistic thought environment without the professional and mental discipline in architectural education; yet, a discipline stripped from “creativity” could possibly get stuck within the formulas, prescriptions and routines. Therefore, architecture should self-realize within the undulation of these two positions. Within such undulation, game-play should therefore be considered as an input that liberates the creativity of the student in the basic design curriculum. NOTES: 1 ‘Divergent’ concept is comprehensively discussed in Deleuze’s ‘ The Fold: Leibniz and The Baroque’ book. 2(Cited by) Heynen, H., 1999. Architecture and Modernity, MIT Press, Cambridge, p.8. 3 The major shortcoming of the Pepakura Design software is to produce 2D projections via triangulation. This method, no doubt, leads to several geometrical limitations.

4 André Breton, from the catalogue of an exhibition at La Dragonne, Galerie Nina Dausset, Paris, 7-30 October 1948, entitled "Le Cadavre Exquis: Son Exaltation", p.5-7 http://www.exquisitecorpse.com/definition/bretons_remembrances.html REFERENCES Adamowicz, E., 1998. Surrealist Collage in Text and Image: Dissecting the Exquisite Corpse Cambridge University Press. Baber C., 2003. Cognition and Tool Use, Taylor & Francis, London and New York. Bazjanac V., 1974. ‘Architectural Design Theory: Models of the Design Process’, Ed. Spillers W. R., Basic Question of Design Theory, pp. 8-16, North-Holland, New York. Breton, A., ‘Yaşayan Eserleriyle Sürrealizm’, Sanat Manifestoları: Avangard Sanat ve Direniş, İletişim Publishing, pp. 253-261, Istanbul. Combs, J., E., 2000. Play World: The Emergence of the New Ludenic Age, Preager, Westport. Cook, P., 1996. Primer, Academy Editions, London. Cross, N., 2006. Designerly Ways of Knowing, Springer Verlag, London. Deleuze, G., 1988. The Fold: Leibniz and The Baroque, Continuum, London. Deleuze, G., Guattari F., 2015. Felsefe Nedir?, YKY Press, Istanbul. Duplessıs, Y., 1991. Gerçeküstücülük, İletişim Publishing, Istanbul. Erdem A. and Pak B., 2005 Information and Communication Technologies in Design Studio: New Tools, Strategies and Techniques at Work, A|Z ITU Journal of the Faculty of Architecture, Vol.2 No.1-2, pp. 52-61. Huizinga, J.,1995. Homo Ludens: Oyunun Toplumsal İşlevi Üzerine Bir Deneme, Ayrıntı Publishing, İstanbul Köknar, S., A., 2009. Tasarım Araçları Bakışıyla Bir Tasarlama Okuması, Istanbul Technical University Press. Lynn, G., 1999. Animate Form, Princeton Architectural Press, New York. van Meggelen, B., 1998. ‘Architectural Education for the Third Millennium: Remarks on the Renewal of Architectural Education’, Forum II: Architectural Education for The Third Millennium, EMU Printing House, Famagusta. Schön D. A., 1984. The Architectural Studio as an Exemplar of Education for Reflection-in-Action, Journal of Architectural Education, Vol.38 No.1, pp. 2-9. de Sola-Morales, I., 1997. Differences, MIT Press, Cambridge. Tanju B., 2008.’ Mekan-Zaman ve Mimarlıklar’, Zaman-Mekan, Eds. Şentürer, A., Ural, Ş., Berber, Ö., Uz Sönmez, F., pp. 168-185, YEM Press, Istanbul. Tschumi, B., 1994. Architecture and Disjunction, MIT Press, Cambridge. Tschumi, B., 2000. Event-Cities 2, MIT Press, Cambridge. Vesely D., 2004. Architecture in the Age of Divided Representation, MIT Press, Cambridge Massachusetts, London. Woods, L., 2000. ‘No-Man’s Land’, Architecturally Speaking: Practices of Art, Educating Architects, Eds. Pearce, M., Toy, M., Academy Editions, London. Yürekli, İ., 2003. Mimari Tasarım Eğitiminde Oyun, Istanbul Technical University Press.

“SCALE” AS THE DESIGN DIALECT OF INTERIOR ARCHITECTURE ADEM VAROL ‘Scale’ as the Design Dialect of Interior Architecture, Hacettepe University Institute of Fine Arts, Department of Interior Architecture and Environmental Design, PhD.

ABSTRACT Design is the struggle of mankind to create his higher self in another dimension in a dynamic process; it is also about revealing an idea, a thought, and a project in an aesthetical form by artistic means. Final design is the result by means of ‘’dialect’’ which the designer brings character and soul of those products into light. The product unveiled speaks the language of the designer and bears the imprint of him. What’s more, it is shaped according to the acquisitions and knowledge of the designer. An interior designed and applied harbors the perception, previous acquisitions, experiences and fingerprints of its designer. While every single thing that has been designed bears the imprints of its designer, the proper designer is supposed to reflect the universal principles and rules. When reflecting what is universal in her product as a result of her own experiences and acquisitions, the designer should not neglect ‘human’ and ‘scale’ elements. So to say, the human being who is the only and precise scale should form the starting point of the design. Interior Architecture which as a design discipline takes the human being as its starting point forms its designs in an original and livable way based on the human scale. TMMOB (Union of Chambers of Turkish Engineers and Architects) will present the original position of Interior Architecture among other design disciplines and its distinct ‘design dialect’ comparatively with visual documents based on the legal legislations stated by The Chamber of Interior Designers. Relationships of Location-Human, Human-Furniture, FurnitureLocation are scale and proportion problems. The solution to this problem should be the scaling and mechanical drawing rules based on the legal legislation of the Chamber of Interior Designers, TMMOB. The aim of this study is to put an emphasis on the differences of scale which are at the design and application phase. At the same time, introducing the position and significance of Interior Architecture among similar disciplines that have many things in common but differ in the application area. It will be underlined that Interior Architecture uses scale, mechanical drawing and semiotics specific to its own area and it also uses values closer to human criteria in this wise. Besides these, it will be stated that these values are more effective on human behavior and psychology and that they direct the behaviors more efficiently one to one. Keywords: Design Dialect, Interior Architecture, Scale

I.INTRODUCTION Interior architecture is a field of profession which creates solutions for providing the optimum design to users in terms of functional, structural and aesthetic criteria. Interior Design Educators Council's (IDEC) definition of interior architecture/interior design is as follows: “Interior design is a multi-discipline field, which implements creative and technical solutions within a structure, in order to create an internal environment. These implemented solutions improve quality of life and culture, they are functional and aesthetically appealing. Designs are created in relation to the building shell, and acknowledge the physical location and social context of the project. Designs must adhere to code and regulatory requirements, and encourage the principles of environmental sustainability. The interior design process follows a systematic and coordinated methodology, including research, analysis, and integration of knowledge into the creative process, whereby the needs and resources of the client are satisfied to produce an interior space that fulfills the project goals.” (Url-1) Interior architects create designs in order to create new and economical solutions in space organization. As professionals, they research human-hardware-space problems again with concern for today and the future, beyond basic data of ordinary forms and criteria. In the hand book published in 1991 by The International Federation of Interior Architects/Designers (IFI), which was established in 1963, definition of Interior Architect/Designer is as follows: “Professional interior architects/interior designers, with their education, experience and talent, are the people who;  determine, investigate and creatively solve problems regarding the functions of internal environment;



conduct programming, design analysis and space planning with regard to the internal environment; supervise the work-site, have specialized knowledge on internal construction, building systems and elements, building rules, building equipment, materials and furniture;  and prepares documents and drawings about interior space design to increase the quality of life, for the good of society, health and safety.” (IFI,1991) Interior architect is an individual, who is concerned about the fundamental problems of the occupant, provides creative, functional and aesthetical solutions to their problems, on an equipment level. Therefore, referring to interior architecture also as space equipment architecture will not be wrong. Garden, street and even an automobile are spaces. The important thing is the scale at which one approaches the space. Urban and regional planners approach the street on a neighborhood or city level, however, a space equipment architect approaches the street on an equipment level. Space equipment architecture definition provides a broad field of work to the interior architect. Neither the exteriors of the buildings, nor gardens and streets are outside the working field of interior architecture. Therefore, the term interior architecture creates an unnecessary contradiction in interior-exterior terms.

Figure 1: Analysing of Interior’s (Personal drawings) Designed space that comes forth, speaks the language of its designer, that is, the interior architect. The final product takes shape according to the experience and knowledge of its designer. A designed and implemented interior space carries the perception, past experiences and acquisitions, hence the fingerprint of the interior architect or interior designer that designed it. While every designed thing carries the fingerprint of its designer, designer also has to reflect universal principles and rules. While reflecting the universal onto the product through their own experience and acquisitions, the designer should not ignore human and scale factors in their designs. Martin Pawley, who said that ‘’it is the humans themselves that give meaning to the environment in the acts of creation and alteration’’ (Martin Pawley, from Spankie, 2012) indicated that humans, as the one and true scale, should constitute the starting point of design. Interior architecture, which is a discipline that takes humans or occupants as its starting point, creates its unique and habitable designs based on this human scale. II.CONTRADICTIONS IN BETWEEN OF SCALE and RATIO The terms scale and ratio are semantically closely related to each other and for this reason they are often confused with and compared with each other. First giving a definition of ratio and pointing out the difference between these two concepts will get rid of this contradiction in terms. Comparisons made with a reference yield ratio. The relation of object with human, human with space, space with environment are described with ratios. Numerical relation between two things and between a whole and its constituents are defined with the concept of ratio. This balance of measure within a structure itself can be described in terms of ratio. ‘’Existence, position and relationship of the design in physical environment is defined with the concept of measure. However, relationship between these objects and humans is defined by ratio’’ (Kaptan, 2011). We understand objects are whether thin or thick or wide, long or short via ratios. It gives the relationship between a whole and its parts, between horizontal and vertical, between depth and width or between height and length. ‘‘In short, ratio is the device used in critical comparisons made with respect to the individual's body measurements. Concepts like big-small, short-tall, thinthick are comparisons with regard to ergonomic data of the individual’’ (Kaptan, 2011).

It is knowing that in any design that is beautiful, along with many factors, there is a true system of ratios constructed among the elements of design. ‘’If we want to give an example from spatial design; within a spatial composition, elements, whose composition in terms of ratios with each other and with the space is designed, can provide an aesthetically and functionally correct relation to its user. A good ratio can only be created by correctly constructing the whole of relationships, that is harmony’’ (Alexander, 1977). Although in principle ratio answers more to a visual search within the design; scale answers to a technical search in the act of design. While ratio includes inexact numerical data, scale includes exact and clear numerical data. While there needs to be at least two objects in order to present ratio data, numerical values on one single object is enough for scale. ‘‘In the definition of an existing thing, there are some properties of that thing that differentiates it from other things. If these properties are given meaning with numerical values, these are called measures. Measure, makes all things objective in two or three dimensions’’ (Kaptan, 2011). Unitizing the area occupied by objects in space can be called a measure. Measure; "Is unitizing the area of space occupied by existing objects, their functions, etc. Whether two or three dimensional, congruent or converse, forms play their roles in a system with their "required dimensions" (Atalayer, 1994, p204)". As it is with the concepts of measure and ratio, the concept of scale also involves interpreting the dimensions of objects in relation with each other. As opposed to ratio, units given in a scale are determined, standard and fixed. ‘’Scale, is to represent measures of a design element or space in relation with a known standard or a fixed value. Objective scale is given by calculating an element's physical measurements with standard measurement systems; visual scale is given by the dimension obtained by comparing an element to other elements around it’’ (Özkan, 2007, p37). ‘’Objective scale is the correlation between an objects real dimensions and standard measurement systems. Visual scale is about our conclusions regarding mutual ratios of objects and it is not related to the scale used in drawings.’’ (Dodsworth,2012). Is the width of the table here shorter than the other? Are the window openings on the side shorter than the door openings? Are the kind of questions with which we knowingly or unknowingly compare objects we see?

Figure 2: Analysis of Ration and Scale (Personal drawings) ‘’Human scale takes it a step further and compares the dimensions of a space or objects to human body. If an object or a space is designed in a manner that enables it to function harmoniously with the human body, it is designed in a human scale. Sometimes buildings, furniture or other objects are not designed in a human scale and they create contrast. Large and wide spaces can create astonishment and/or awe, however, at extremes this disproportion becomes illogical. On the other hand, small spaces can be private and cute, but they can also be claustrophobic’’ (Dodsworth,2012). Consciously created disproportionality in a design represents the priorities of the designer. Usually, all spaces are designed for humans. Whatever their function or dimensions may be, humans will be a part of those spaces. Like in all design fields, the common concern of Urban and Regional Planning, Architecture and Interior Architecture disciplines is human. What differentiates these three design disciplines from other fields of design is that their area of activity is generally space. In the intersection of human-space, most fundamental means of expression in these three different disciplines is the different scales they use. While planners create design with regard to collective actions of humans, architects and interior architects design with regard to both collective and individual actions of humans. When saying ‘’Architects do not draw the space, they are interested in the surfaces of stationary objects, they assume that they can control the space this way’’ (Kevin Rhowbotham, from Spankie, 2012), Kevin Rhowbotham, in fact,

tries to explain the difference between interior architects and architects in terms of technique and implementation. As a result, different, distinctive means of expression and scale techniques used by these three disciplines have emerged. III. SCALE AS a LANGUAGE in INTERDISCIPLINARY DESIGN FIELDS ‘’Planning, also called urban planning or city and regional planning, is a dynamic profession that works to improve the welfare of people and their communities by creating more convenient, equitable, healthful, efficient, and attractive places for present and future generations’’ (Definition of American Planning Association, APA). In their designs, urban and regional planners have to reflect all cultural differences from the universal to the regional, while preparing an action plan from the country level to local regional level. Sometimes they have to synthesize different cultures in the same region, and sometimes they have to use the same cultural elements in order to add value to their designs. Regional planning disciple, like other disciplines that are at the intersection of space and culture, provides a large work area for architecture and interior architecture disciplines. While the limits of working area of the architect is the plot and block determined by the planner; interior architects working area includes functionally and aesthetically equipping inside and surroundings of the shell that is designed and applied on the area determined by the planner. Since the working area of urban and regional planners are larger, their numerically large scales represent rather small values. Some of the scales and respective values used by them are as follows: ‘’Spatial Strategy Plan for the Country: It is the plan that presents spatial and political strategies of the country; it is prepared with a scale of 1/1,000,000 and above; it is a whole that is comprised of plan notes and action plans. It is the plan that determines the country's naturally, culturally, historically and environmentally sensitive areas and its underground/above ground resources, while determining long term settlement policies. Regional Spatial Strategy Plan: It is the plan that is based on the spatial strategy plan for the country, and lays out the policies and strategies determined in this upper scaled plan; it is prepared in 1/250,000 scale; it is a whole that is comprised of plan notes and action plans. It is a plan that arranges development and sustainability of transportation, technical, social and infrastructural strategies within the new and developing urban structure while determining long term settlement policies. Environmental Plan: It is the plan that is prapared in accordance with country and regional spatial strategy plans with 1/100,000 and 1/50,000 scales; determines industrial, agricultural, touristic and transportation use of areas with respect to urban-rural relationship; it is a whole that is comprised of plan notes and reports. Land Use Plan: Cadastral conditions are marked on approved present maps according to environmental plan; general usage, important region types, future population densities of the regions, variouss urban and rural settlement areas, their development directions and sizes, policies, transportation systems is shown; land use scale of 1/5000 is used, unless otherwise specified by special laws; includes a detailed report and constitutes a whole with that report Tentative Plan: Cadastral conditions are marked on approved present maps according to land use plan; building blocks and their use, density and layout are indicated; floor area ratio, building coverage ratio, precedent, height, building distance, front and back sides lines, transportation relations, vehicle, pedestrian and bicycle ways, car parks, squares, public and government service zones, landscaping areas are indicated; implementation phases and principles that will form a basis for the required zoning application program are included; if necessary, parcel planning arangement principles are included; urban design principles that include the urban design project of the area in question and other details are included in 1/1000 scale and presented along with a report’’ (Chamber of Turkish Urban and Regional Planners drawing and presentation standarts). Urban and Regional Planners, who design action plans on country, region and area levels, provide field of action for other designers. Architects, who use appropriate grounds, implement their designs within limitations. Architects, who will use their own scale, start their own design in accordance with the land use plan included in the strategic plans prepared by the urban planner. At this point, numbers get smaller as the scale increases. Details increase. Here, the transition from the act of planning to the act of design begins. In the act of design, human is at the center and the only true scale is the human himself. ‘’Architecture profession involves providing necessary occupational services for designing, building, developing, preservation, renovation and repair of structures or structure groups related to urban planning. These occupational services include planning, land use planning, urban design, preparing designs, drawings, models, specifications and technical documents of preliminary projects, providing coordination between other technical works prepared by professionals (consulting engineers, urban planners, landscape architects, interior architects and other professional consultants) where necessary, structure economy, contract management, construction supervision and project management’’(International Union of Architects - UIA, 1999).

Figure 3: Analysing of Architectural Model for Interior Space (Personal drawings) The architects, who create their design in the appropriate area in accordance with national and regional strategy plans and laws, make their designs in the most efficient manner within their area of responsibility. They design a structure-shell inside the area defined by the planner, in which user can their own functions to meet their needs. They make this structure in accordance with its surroundings, with the texture of the city and applicable technical details and parameters. These parameters are generally the scales with which structure designers can describe and implement the structure they are working on. While the numbers diminish, the scale grows. Scales used by architects, like it is with other disciplines, change according to the area they are working on. These scales are: ‘’Location plans: This document includes the location of designed building on the parcel or block it is going to be built on and information regarding surroundings of that parcel, and it is usually created using 1/1,000 scaled zoning maps. According to the size of the project and the scale of informational maps, usually 1/2,000 and 1/500 scales may be used. Layout plans: This document indicateds the location of designed building on the parcel or block it is going to be built on, and it is usually in 1/200 scale. According to the size of the project and the scale of informational maps, usually 1/100 and 1/500 scales may be used. Conceptual projects: Conceptual projects of a building are generally drawn in 1/200 scale. However, if the architect desires, it can also be in 1/100 or 1/50 scales, or any other appropriate scale. Preliminary projects: Preliminary projects of a building are generally drawn in 1/100 scale. However, provided that the information included and the drawing method used remains the same, the architect can use 1/200 or 1/50 or any other appropriate scale. Final projects: Final projects of a building are generally drawn in 1/100 scale. However, provided that the information included and the drawing method used remains the same, the architect can use 1/50 or any other appropriate scale. Construction projects: Construction projects of a building are generally drawn in 1/50 scale. However, provided that the information included and the drawing method used remains the same, the architect can use 1/100 or any other appropriate scale. System details: System details are generally drawn in 1/20 scale. However, if it is necessary to convey specific information, 1/10 or 1/5 scales may also be used. Manufacturing details: Manufacturing details are generally drawn in 1/1 scale. However, provided that the information included and the drawing method used remains the same, the architect can use 1/2 or 1/5 or any other appropriate scale’’ (Chamber of Turkish Architects drawing and presentation techniques). Australian architect A. Schwanzer defines an architectural structure as something that is more than just four walls and a roof. In fact, floors, walls and roofs define the volume. The architect creats the building by joining volumes together. ‘’A building is like a soap bubble. The bubble is perfect and harmonious if the breath has been evenly distributed from the inside. The exterior is the result of an interior’’ (Corbusier,1974) said Le Corbusier. By that he emphasized that designing the structure-shell cannot be complete without designing the interior volume. As part of his job, interior architect, who will finalize the act of design, starts to think about all areas of action concerning the interior volume. Interior space, which will stimulate 5 senses of the people, starts to increase in scale. While the numbers in the scale decrease, details increase. Scales used by the interior architect encloses a range of scales starting from the public to the private. The scales used are as follows: ‘’Survey: This is the measurement process conducted for obtaining details necessary for two dimensional drawings, crosssections and views. It is in 1/100, 1/50, 1/20 scales. Preliminary/Avant/Conceptual Project: It is the presentation of definitive requirements of a new spatial design or a refunctioned space, furnishing elements, materials, sample catalogues and reports regarding the area in question. It is drawn with 1/100, 1/50 scales. Location plan: It is the plan that describes the relation between the space and its environment, in 1/500, 1/200, 1/100 scales. Samples of materials, colors and textures are written in the plan. Floor Plan: This is the plan that describes equipment and circulation spaces, movable and fixed furnitures, flooring materials according to the function of the space, in 1/100, 1/50, 1/20 scales. It is ordered from the lowest floor to the highest floor. In ground floor plans, environmental planning (sidewalk, access road,

etc.) is included as necessary. Cross-sections: Technical drawings of longitudal and lateral cross-section of the interior space, in 1/100, 1/50, 1/20 scales. Measurements that cannot be seen in the plans are given in cross-section views. Materials are described. Views: It is the representation that shows surface finishes or lining materials and furniture at the sides, with a vertical view on the planes parallel to the sides; it uses 1/100, 1/50, 1/20 scales. Measurements that cannot be seen in the plans are given. Door and window views are shown; open wings are marked. All used materials are indicated. Manufacturing details: This is the technical drawing that describes all details and manufacturing technical drawings in accordance with manufacturing technique, with measurements and scale; in 1/20, 1/10, 1/5, 1/2, 1/1 scale technical. Material names, colors and types are written. System details: This includes rough and fine construction manufacturing details of the structure are collected along with required data for all related disciplines. 1/20, 1/10, 1/5, 1/2, 1/1 scale technical. Material names, colors and types are written. Furniture and Equipment Manufacturing Details: This is the technical drawing that describes equipment used to fill the interior space, materials, fixed and movable furniture; in 1/20, 1/10, 1/5, 1/2, 1/1 scale technical. All material properties and manufacturing notes are written. Clear measurements necessary for manufacturing are given’’ (Chamber of Turkish Interior Architects Drawing and Presentation Standards).

Figure 4: A Bank Interior’s Project. (Personal drawings) ‘’While creating interior architecture drawings, both the scale of the building and the scale of objects inside the interior space should be considered. Furniture and objects inside the space are as important as the architecture itself, they have to be drawn together in order to match up with each other. Scale of the interior space is like a mediator between the building scale and body-object scale. Movable furniture should be drawn in scales between 1:5 and 1:50 along with architectural elements to show how the space is used’’ (Spankie,2012). Most important difference between interior architecture and other disciplines is that it designs the relationship between the individual and the objects in their private space. ‘‘We covet the best table at the restaurant. We make arrangements with the service employees and we move to that table as soon as the customers leave. We imagine relaxing on our favorite couch when we get back home. Our spot at the dining table is determined. If we share our beds, the owners of right and left edges are determined at day one. In the street, at the office, at home, this strategy continues and without ever thinking, it becomes the rituals we always repeat’’(Ilgın,2008). These repeated rituals are how the individual manages their personal space (proxemic space) against other individuals and objects. Proxemics (the theory of personal space), is concerned with the increase and decrease of human interaction in a determined space, relative to distance. Because, the price of interaction between two people or a person and an object, above all, depends on the distance between them. According to this theory there are four kinds of distances between an individual and other individual, groups and objects: intimate space, personal space, social space, public space. Only very close individuals with very close relationships can enter the intimate space. It is inside 45 cm radius from the body. These relationships are touching, whispering, hugging, kissing, etc., which appeal to 5 senses. The fundamental area concerned ith this space is interior architecture. Interior architecture has a great effect at the intersection of human-space-furniture, and it appeals to five senses. Personal space starts at 45 cm from the body and extends to 1.2 meters. It is the space reserved for close friends and persons with whom you have strong connections. Disciplines concerned with the action plan within this space are interior architecture and architecture. There is no direct contact with the equipment but due to the distance from the structural shell this space also concerns the architect. Social space starts approximately at 1 meter from the body and it extends to 3.6 meters. It is defined to indicated distances at which we do not have a high level of comfort. Action plan for this space concerns interior architects, architects and urban,

regional planners. It starts from around the space and includes the areas without intimate relationships. Regional planners, who also plans environmental organization of the space, can be affective within this space. Public space starts at 3.6 meters from the body. It is the public communication space; it is the distance between people while they are walking at a park or a mall. It is the field of action for all three disciplines. As space equipment architects (interior architects) have the authority to desgin any equipment at the park, they have a say in the space.

Figure 5: Proxemics (the theory of personal space) relationship with interdisciplinary design fields. (Ilgın,2008) The only discipline included in all spaces, from the closest to the farthest, is interior architecture. Interior architecture, which is the discipline that takes human body as a scale, has to plan and consider all activities of an individual, from the closest to the farthest. Interior architect, who has to have a thorough understanding of human behavior and psychology, must know that their designs appeal to all five senses.

Figure 6: Scale and Detailed Drawing. (Spankie, 2012) ‘‘We decide which scale we are going to use while we are drawing. The purpose is to give maximum possible level of detail regarding the space and we use optimum scales that will both fit into the map and describe the project. 1/1 scale may be used for implementation details of specially manufactured equipments or furniture. Under some special circumstances, in order to describe how some details are going to be implemented, even larger scales can be used; for example, a scale that will show things twice their original size is indicated as 2/1’’ (Dodsworth, 2012). It is the interior architect's responsibility to organize the details of space-object-human intersection that appeal to 5 senses and directly affect human psychology Therefore, interior architecture has to have necessary technical knowledge and experience in order to work on very small details.

IV. CONCLUSIONS In all three design disciplines, while the numbers diminish, scale and details increase, and vice versa. Therefore, detail is minimum in the plans of urban and regional planners, who use 1/1,000,000 and above scales. A designer who plans at 1/1,000,000 scale, in facts lays the ground for the architect, who designs at 1/1,000 scale level. At these scale levels, it is enough for the planner to use only a single line in order to represent the groundwork for the architect. Material and statics are not important for them. The architect, who prepares a 1/1,000 scale plan, indicates conjunction details, materials and wall thicknesses. They have to plan whether the roof will be inclined or flat, which material is going to be used and what will the inclination be. While representing materials and conjunctions of the framework, they also note the heights in the project. While the largest scale can be shown by an architect in their project is 1/50, it is 1/20 for the interior architect. At 1/50 scale, wall thicknesses of the structure is shown with combing technique and materials are noted. At 1/20 scale, interior architect has to indicate wall plaster, cement and finish. If there is drywall among the dividers, steel box profiles that provide structure has to be shown at 1/20 scale. At 1/50 scale, it is enough to indicate drywall using combing technique. While skirting boards at floor and wall conjunctions are not shown in views in architecture, it has to be included as the most important equipment in interior architecture. While the space is completed by the interior architect in growing scales, actually the interaction space of the individual is being completed. Individual no longer sees a plaster chosen by the architect, but they see a wallpaper or a natural stone with color-texture. At that moment, applications of the interior architect enter into the individual's intimate space. The space, which appeals to their five senses, not only directs the individual's behavior and psychology, but also affects it. If we assume that most of the individuals' time is spent at interior spaces, the importance of the 'scale language' used by the interior architect must be acknowledged among design disciplines. REFERENCES Alexander, M. ,1977. Designing The Interior Environments. New York: Harcourt Brace Press. American Planning Association, Date of Access: 9th March 2016. From: http://www.planning.org/aboutplanning/whatisplanning.htm Ataleyer, F. ,1994. Temel Sanat Öğeleri, Eskişehir: Anadolu University Press Corbusier, L.,1923;1974. Towards A New Architecture, tr. Frederick Etchells. London: The Architectural Press Dodsworth, S., 2009.The Fundamentals of İnterior Design, Switzerland: AVA publishing Ilgın, İ.D., 2008, Proksemiks: Tasarımda Bireysel Mesafe Kavramı. Date of Access:6 th March 2016. From: http://www.yapidergisi.com/makaleicerik.aspx?MakaleNum=45 Interior Design Educators Council. Date of Access: 01th March 2016. From: http://www.idec.org International Federation of Interior Designers/Architects.,1991. Definition of Interior Architect/ Interior Designer. IFI International Handbook of Interior Design Practice. From: http://ifiworld.simpleweb.com.sg/index.cfm?GPID=33 International Union of Architects.,1999. Mimarlık Pratiği İcin Tavsiye Edilen Uluslararası Profesyonellik Standartları Konusunda UIA Mutabakat Metni, tr. A. Ulkutekin ve A. Sentek. Date of Access: 4th March 2016. From: http://www.mo.org.tr/UIKDocs/architecture_practiceTR.pdf Kaptan, B.B. ,2001. İç Mekanın Niteliğini Belirleyen Öğelerin Görsellik Kazanmasını Sağlayan Oluşumlar. Anadolu Art. 11, 113-130. Özkan, A.,2007. İç Mekan Tasarımı Kuram ve Yöntemleri Işığında Günümüz Türk İç Mekan Tasarımcıları ve Tasarım Anlayışlarına Bir Yaklaşım. Master Thesis. Ankara: Hacettepe University Graduate School of Social Sciences. Spankie, R., 2009.Drawing Out The İnterior, Switzerland: AVA Publishing Union of Chambers of Turkish Architects Drawing and Presentation Standards, Date of Access: 10 th March 2016. From: http://www.mimarist.org/application/uploads/assets/files/c_standartlar.pdf Union of Chamber of Turkish Interior Architects Drawing and Presentation Standards, Date of Access: 10 th March 2016. From: http://www.icmimarlarodasi.org.tr/_Medya/YasalCerceve/e5cd59-cizimveSunusStandartlari.pdf

IMPLEMENTING WORKSHOPS AS A TOOL IN ARCHITECTURAL EDUCATION: THE AIM, PROCESS, EVALUATION OF EWTA 2009-2011 EMINE FULYA ÖZMEN ABSTRACT It is a fact that architectural education has become the focus of an extremely complicated set of issues and conscientious debates. All relevant institutions agree that the architectural education is facing a serious challenge at the present time. Therefore, to extend and challenge educational understanding in architecture becomes crucial to exchange pedagogical practice exchange. Within this context, this study consists of the evaluation of three-year experience of a workshop series realized under the support of Erasmus funds. EWTA “European Workshops on Tourism and Architecture” is an Erasmus Intensive Programme Project run by Gazi University, Faculty of Architecture during 2009-2011. The main aim of the workshops was to provide the mutual benefit for both students and professors experience of staying in a different social, cultural and academic environment; fresh input of new approaches and/or renewed interpretations of content and methods concerning architectural education. It aimed also to build an ability to gather specific information of defined problems; to increase the capability to reconcile divergent factors with an integrated knowledge of both technical and creative aspects of the last year architectural students. The improvement of linguistic skills, cultural and personal enrichment both for students and academics, constitute the added values of the workshops. The objectives of the workshops focused on the analysis of the environmental quality of built habitat of coastal cities and their environs. To improve the quality of the project and to increase the awareness and knowledge of the students, the IP project had taken place in a coastal/historical city, Ayvalık, as a case study. All the process of this workshops coordinated by Gazi University, Department of Architecture, will be explained and discussed as a case study within the content and the context of the study. The sub-processes, such as planning, implementing and assessment of the workshops will be evaluated beside the “activities” and “impressions” of the students and professors in a holistic way.

THE COMPARASION OF TRADITIONAL AND MODERN HOUSING PATTERNS OF GAZIANTEP ESRA GÜRBÜZ YILDIRIM, FEYZA KUYUCU Esra Gürbüz Yıldırım, Lecturer, Gaziantep University Architecture Faculty, Feyza Kuyucu, Lecturer, Gaziantep University Architecture Faculty

ABSTRACT In contrast to similarities of today's cities and buildings, traditional city morphologies' and textures' diversity and differentiation, richness in details is a challenging subject for city and architecture researchers. When designing cities beyond esthetic concerns; as designers we should consider the existing morphology, unity of individual buildings, the memory of that place and users’ social habitudes. Due to the enlargement of cities, increase of population, industrialization and motor vehicles; requirements of cities have been changed. As societies' spatial needs are changing and differentiating so rapidly, sustainability of cities, urban texture's physical and quantitive continuity have been disregarded in many cities as in the example of Gaziantep city center. This differentiation led to the formation of new spatial and architectural models in the city. After the declaration of the republic, Gaziantep city which has a unique traditional urban fabric, has entered a new architectural formation process. New modern buildings which are placed around the new boulevards and streets have been accepted by the society quickly and the city has continued to grow rapidly. In the scope of this study, these changes and transformations of modern and traditional urban patterns will be analyzed by the help of space syntax method. The space syntax analysis will be applied in order to understand and interpret architectural and socio-cultural properties of these settlements. Space syntax analyses will be enriching with the help of maps from different eras, actual and old visual documents of the city and analytical studies of buildings and urban blocks. In this study it is conducted to figure out the differentiation and similarities between modern and traditional housing pattern of Gaziantep. These differences include public open space use, privacy needs, integration and visibility of street networks. In conclusion; by the help of the outcomes of these analyses it is aimed to understand the relationship between time, society and space, and also how spaces are formed by societies during time. AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY This paper is a part of on-going research project about Gaziantep. Urban development process and disparity in the urban fabric of Gaziantep are examined for the purpose of project. Spatial and architectural analyses which are the essential characteristics of the traditional and modern urban fabric will be conducted by the scope of this research. The differentiation and similarities of urban forms and social life relations in two different urban patterns of Gaziantep which have clearly different morphological features will be analyzed in a comparative manner. The primary aim and focus of this study is to understand development process of the city and how the city is formed by human and other factors. The initial objective is to examine and expose the transition process from historic urban form to modern urban pattern in other words; how the radical shift in city production occurred, what are the syntactic differences in these different patterns of Gaziantep. To understand the formation processes of the historic urban fabric, to reveal the city's architectural identity and to document urban fabric is important for the city in the terms of urban memory. Bey and Kolejtepe districts have been selected for the case study because of the similarities of their topographical features, density of traditional and modern houses and their different street patterns. Bey district which has a traditional housing pattern formed by houses with courtyards, behind deaf walls surrounding narrow and meandering streets. The main door that connects the street and the courtyard can be open to directly to the courtyard or a transition space. Not only the courtyard a circulation space but also a common living space for daily life. Rooms formed around the courtyard have many functions in same space such as living, sleeping, dining, storage etc. Contrary to the deaf, minimalist street façades, transparent courtyard façades are rich in details. After 1960s modern houses which have different design concept, materials and construction systems began to spread in the south-western part of the city. By this period, as seen in Kolejtepe organic urban pattern transform to the linear axis and grid parcel forms.

URBAN FORM AND URBAN DESIGN City is an organism which is formed under may different factors. If we accept urban form as a man-made artefact we should also accept that there are many external factors like; economy, climate, topology, culture, time and etc... These different factors make the differences of the cities. "Architecture came into being along with the first traces of the city; it is deeply rooted in the formation of civilization and is a permanent, universal, and necessary artifact' (Rossi 1991). The phenomenon of the city always had an important place in architectural and urban studies. During decades many researches try to define the relationship between urban form, culture and society in different ways. For example, Vauhgan defined the city as physical city and the social city. She explains this classification of the city as 'A large collection of buildings linked by space, and a complex system of human activity linked by interaction' (Vaughan, 2015). It is not possible to think the analysis about social life independent from place. Goodchild and Janelle, in their paper 'Thinking Spatially in the Social' emphasis the importance of the place, geographic conditions in space and spatial analysis. They also mentioned the relation of 'place' and 'location' terms with social sciences, and wrote the social and physical formations should be discussed with 'place' term. City is formed with its users and their culture. A city's urban and architectural form reflects the cultural and social identity of the society who lives in (Hillier, 1984). As social and spatial organization have an intense and compact relationship; a space should be analyzed with the regard of its users in other words its society. Because while socio cultural factors cause differences in local settlements’ spatial and geometrical forming, micro-economic factors cause similarities especially when urban fabric is getting bigger (Hillier 1984, 2001). For a successful urban design process in an existing urban pattern, reading and understanding the city is very important. Since time, place and user notions end up with many different urban form alternatives, the users and their socio-cultural behaviors should be read attentively. Krier (Urban Space, 1979) criticized today's urban design because of the similarities of the city patterns. He analyzed urban patterns in the content of open spaces and street networks and thought that with his study students can take lessons from the past and be inspired from historic city patterns. Especially he emphasis the diversity of different urban fabrics in 17.th century and lack of this diversity in 20.th century. He declared the importance of reading existing, historic urban fabrics for better urban design processes and products. The analysis of the historic urban fabric; 'reading', and 'understanding' the city is very important in order to provide social, cultural and spatial continuity. After the modernization period all cities started to lose their cultural identity, spatial memory and characteristic. As mentioned before for the continuity of spatial memory and better urban designs, reading and understanding the city, their users and social behaviors are very important. THE WORKING FIELD; GAZIANTEP Gaziantep has always been one of the most important hubs of the southeastern region of Anatolia. Due to it's location, being situated on some of the major trade routes throughout the history has led to the city's prominence in the region. We can’t see the name of Antep in literatures and researchs about antiquity. However due to the literatures Doliche (Figure 1.) that take place in 12 km north of Antep was an old settlement (Özdeğer,1996). However, there isn’t a clear description about the relationship between Antep and Doliche (Kuban, 2010).

Figure 1. A schema for the relationship between Antep and Doliche (Uğur,2004). Doliche became an important center in the region for a long time, but in time, the castle and its surroundings formed the core of urban pattern of today. Firstly, the housing patterns took place in castle but by the time they spread around the main axis which links the castle and Aleppo (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Map shows the urban pattern which replace in castle- Aleppo axis (Yüce, 2010). Over time, different ethnic groups have created their own districts in the city. According to the researchs about Gaziantep city, districts are segregated according to their religious groups. Location of religious buildings and inscriptions shows that groups of different religions lived together and created their own district (Figure 3.). Muslims were located in Karagöz, Çukur, Tıslaki, Şekeroğlu, Armenians were located Akyol and Bey and Jews were located in Düğmeci district (Tatlıgil, 2005).

Figure 3. Districts organisation due to different ethnic groups (Tatlıgil, 2005). Until the beginning of the 20th century the boundaries of the city has not been changed. The first the development plan of the city was drawn by Hermann Jansen in 1935.Suburcu, Karagöz, Gaziler streets, İsmet Paşa and Atatürk avenues were opened or enlarged by this plan (Kuban, 2010).

And the seconddevelopment plan of the city was drawn by Kemal Ahmet Aru and Kemali Söylemezoğlu between 19501955. With this second plan; the grid planning system has been maintained but housing zones spread in southwestdirection of the city. METHOD In the scope of this paper, spatial analysis was conducted by using space syntax method. Many reasearchs put forward the importance of this method in understanding of urban pattern and urban structure of cities (Hillier 1997, Holland 1999). With space syntax theories it is possible to read the charecteristics and functions of urban patterns, natural movement flow, street networks and etc. Bill Hiller, Julienne Hanson and their team developped the space syntax method and related analysis in their book ‘The Social Logic of Space’ in late 70’s and early 80’s, at the Unit for Architectural Studies, University College London.It was introduced as a technique, which can be used for understanding spatial and social relationship, morphological analysis of urban patterns, building plans etc. This method first emerged for analysing the devolopment of cities, the development process of cities and how people movedue to the social activities. Today this method isused in many areas like; pedestrian modeling, criminal mapping, way-finding processes in complex built environments (Peponis et al. 1990, Hillier 1996) and other socio-spatial relations in built environment, landscapes and cities. All these analyses are all related with space, culture and soceity content. One of the main aims of the method is to describe how societes use space and what is the interaction between humanmade environments and social structure. As Bafna wrote (2014); these are all related with the human societes and space; in its all diverse forms; buildings, settlements, cities and even landscapes. He also declared that, ‘The point of departure for space syntax is that human socities use space as a key and necessary resource in organizing themselves’. If we accept the space as a form, soceity is the content which fill this form (Hiller, Hanson, 1984). Society and space; each modifies and restuctures each other (Bafna, 2014). Because of this theoritical background of space syntax, this method was conducted in this paper for spatial and social distinction of different urban patterns. In the scope of this paper, first axial and visibility maps of Bey and Kolejtepe districts were produced and afterwards their analyses were produced by DEPTHMAP programme. Turner (2004) expalined this platform as ‘Depthmap is a single platform to perform a set of spatial network analyses designed to understand social processes within the built environment It works at a variety of scales from building through small urban to whole cities or states. At each scale, the aim of the software is to produce a map of open space elements, connect them via some relationship (for example, intervisibility or overlap) and then perform graph analysis of the resulting network '. It was aimed to measure axial integration, connectivity, mean depth, node count, and visibility relationships of these two patterns in order to put forward spatial and social similarities and differentiations of these two patterns. These measurements are explained much more detailed in the analysis part. ANALYSIS As Bey and Kolejtepe Districts are placed at top of hills they have different urban structures from each other. Bey District has a deformed wheel form and a central axial line which passes through this wheel and border lines which enclose this wheel. Besides these integrated and connected axes, inner parts of the pattern are inward-looking and less integrated due to the privacy needs. Although Kolejtepe District is a top hill settlement, its urban structure is very different from Bey District as seen in the Figure 4. Kolejtepe district is designed due to the master plan of Gaziantep, so it has a grid like structure. In Kolejtepe, houses have open spaces but more open to external world, streets are more straight and long. So we cannot see and read historic urban fabric spatial organization features in this pattern. In the following part we discuss these consequences and reasons more detailed.

Figure 4. Bey and Kolejtepe District maps

INTEGRATION INTEGRATION R3 CONNECTIVITY MEAN DEPTH TOTAL DEPTH NODE COUNT VISUAL INT. INTELLIGIBILTY SYNERGY

BEY NEIGHBORHOOD 1.07 1.48 3 5.2 570 110 4.6 0.48 0.82

KOLEJTEPE 1.56 2.00 4.6 3.43 230.02 68 7.10 0.64 0.84

Table 1. Numeric results of the space syntax analysis of Bey and Kolejtepe neighbourhood. Integration is the most used measurement in space syntax analysis. This syntactic measure describes average depth of a space to all other spaces in the system (Klarqvist, 93). In other words, a space is how deep or shallow in relation to all other spaces (Al_Sayed, Turner, Hillier, Iida, Penn, 2014). Additionally, integration value shows cognitive complexity of reaching a street, how pedestrians use these streets and potential destinations in the system. If integration value of a street is high, it shows that it is easier to reach that street and it is a popular street. Deformed wheel shaped Bey neighborhood has central and borderlines, which have high degree of integration value. But the inner axes of the pattern are shorter and less integrated; as well there are cul-de-sacs. These short lines of axes also give great changes in direction of visual fields. So length and articulation of these lines are important parameters for the whole system’s spatial organization. So in Bey neighborhood especially inner streets low integration values indicate the privacy necessity and spatial organization choices of that society. As Kolejtepe has a grid plan schema there are more redlines in other words more integrated lines in the system. These results indicate that is no shades of historic city pattern in the modern city in the name of street organization. As Sibel Bozdoğan (2001) declared; modernization in Turkey, which started with the declaration of republic, made a big shift in all regions, in every field of life. Another informative value is the mean depth value; which indicates arithmeticmean depth offrom each line to all others (Hillier, Hanson, 1984). Higher integration values indicate that line is less deep from all other lines on average namely integrationand mean depth values are in the inverse ratio. As noted in the Table1; Bey Neighborhood mean depth 5.2, integration; 1.07, Kolejtepe mean depth value is 3.43, integration; 1.56. As mentioned before broken lines and cul-desacs of Bey Neighborhood (Figure 5) constitute a less integrated and deeper spatial organization contrary to Kolejtepe. With these measurements we can predict and interpret historic domestic pattern and social organization of Gaziantep. Users’ basic needs like safety, security and privacy form not only buildings but also settlements and cities.

Figure 5. Bey and Kolejtepe District integration graphs Another local measure is connectivity, which defines the number of spaces directly connected to that given space (Hillier, Hanson, 1984). For example, Bey neighborhood’s value of 3.0 indicates that each line intersects with 3 other lines in system on the average. The low value of connectivity is a specific property of Arab cities and cities which have an organic pattern. Cul-de-sacs and short broken streets being cause low connectivity values. If we compare Bey and Kolejtepe neighborhood in these content, Bey neighborhood shows low degree of connectivity (3.0) (Figure 6) because of its spatial organization. Additionally, this value also implies information about accessibility therefore social interactions, communications and encounters in the spatial system. Especially in these kind of settlements confrontation of users and foreign is an unwanted situation. As mentioned before these residential areas are the most segregated parts of the city because of security and privacy reasons.

Figure 6. Bey and Kolejtepe District connectivity graphs Intelligibility is the correlation between axial connectivity and axial global integration (Hillier, B., Hanson, J., 1984). A strong correlation or high degree of intelligibility implies that the whole can be read from the parts; the users, visitors can read spatial system. Also intelligibility is an important value for way finding and spatial cognition, it gives some clues about how permeable and intelligible a space is for users. So the low degree of intelligibility of Bey neighborhood indicates that there is a high degree of privacy and inward-locking structure in that neighborhood. We can also interpret this low value as richness in spatial pattern. As, Agouri indicates; low value of intelligibility depends on density and broken axial lines, which are specific characteristic of Islamic organic cities. The intelligibility value of the Kolejtepe neighborhood; 7.10 shows that users can read the whole system quickly from their experience of small parts. As most of the modern city patterns; privacy is not the basic design principle for the city design. Synergy; is the relationship between local and global integration so it indicates some values about the local and global aspects in other words; parts and whole of a space. Synergy and intelligibility are the measures, which deal with the spatial experience that users/visitors confront during their movement (Agouri, 2004). So both of them give clues about privacy regulation and spatial structure of spaces. Synergy measure describes how local structure reflects the whole or inversely how global structure relates the partial structure of the city (Hillier, 1996). Both Bey and Kolejtepe neighborhoods have similar synergy values; which shows that districts are well organized for the movement of users and visitors. Visibility; visual integration measures visual distance from all spaces to all others (Hillier, 1996, 2007). With visual graph analysis we can explore urban form in the context of accessibility and visibility relations. Visibility graph module of Depthmap programme, which is designed by Turner, allows us to represent open spaces in a fine level by filling with grids; which present human body; so we can interpret how open spaces work and experienced by users in the urban context. The VGA can be applied to two levels, eye level for what people can see, and knee level for how people can move which is critical to understand spatial layouts (Turner, Doxa, O’Sullivan, and Penn, 2001). Many researches show that there is a strong relationship between visibility and natural movement. Hanson (1998): declared that; “In moving around in buildings, people orientate themselves by reference to what they can see and where they can go. In looking at the visual and volumetric qualities of architecture, we need not be constrained by the pragmatics of everyday space use and movement. Indeed, we should not be, since architectural speculation almost invariably brings into play the relationship between visibility (what you can see) and permeability (where you can go). This relationship also gives strong clues about privacy, movement, perception and way finding. While Bey neighbourhood's visual integration value is 4.6, Kolejtepe has 7.10 (Figure 7). This high degree of differentiation again comes from the organic pattern and grid like pattern of each district. In Bey neighborhood users or visitor should make large number of turns in their journeys in contrast to Kolejtepe. Inward looking spatial structure and privacy needs of community of Bey district make it less integrated visually contrary to Kolejtepe district. 


Figure 7. Bey and Kolejtepe District visual integration graphs

CONCLUSION In this research; two different urban patterns of Gaziantep examined syntactically in order to understand how the city of Gaziantep is formed in different eras, what are the shifts in urban design principles so far. So one historic pattern and one early examples of modern pattern were selected in order to understand what was interrupted in the continuity of the city design. The main motivation of this research was criticism of the radical shift in the city’s architectural and urban design after the modern era. In the modern pattern of the city, there is no shade of spatial characteristic of the historic city pattern, which is formed by socio-cultural factors. With the help of space syntax analysis, we tried to read the historic pattern of Gaziantep in the content of privacy, which is one of the main characteristics of the community that form and organize space. As Bafna (2014) declared, societies use space as a key issue and necessary source for organizing themselves. In the syntactic and visibility analysis, we have seen that privacy need, which comes from the culture and religion, is a key issue for the spatial structure of the city. While historic urban pattern of Gaziantep has its own self-organized mechanism, culturally specific urban pattern; modern pattern is dominated by micro - macro economic and external factors like different model of urbanism that took center stage in the world, by the early twentieth century. In order to have characteristic urban form and architecture we should read and understand historic patterns of cities. Otherwise as in the example of Gaziantep there will be much more similar cities with no architectural characteristic. Of course, in today’s urban dynamics it is meaningless to try to regenerate that old city pattern but it is important to understand socio-spatial pattern of the city for the continuity of the pattern and sustainably of the city. There are many different methods to read cities in different scales and content. In this paper we have chosen space syntax method because of the social-spatial relationship background of the method. But just a method is not enough for reading a city; besides these analyses there should be different information about city in order to interpret the results. As declared before this paper is a part of an on-going research project about modern city pattern of Gaziantep, which will be conducted, in different scales. In further works; the generation process of urban pattern will be analyzed in different scales.

REFERENCES Agouri, F.A., 2004. Privacy and Segragation as a Basis for Analyzing and Modelling the Urban Space Composition of the Libyan Traditional City. Case Study: The City of Ghadames. PhD Thesis. METU, Institute of Science. Al-Sayed, K., Turner, A., Hillier, B., Iida, S., Penn, A., 2014. Space Syntax methodology. [Book]. A teaching textbook for the MSc Spatial Design: Architecture & Cities. Bartlett School of Architecture, UCL: London. Bafna S., 2003.Space Syntax a brief introduction to its logic and analytical techniques. Environment and Behavio, 35(1): pp. 17. Bozdoğan, S., 2001. Modernizim ve Ulusun İnşaası, Erken Cumhuriyet Türkiyesi'nde Mimari Kültür, İstanbul: Metis Press. Hillier, B., Hanson, J., 1984. The Social Logic of Space. Cambridge: University Press. Goodchild, M. F., and D. G. Janelle. 2004. Thinking spatially in the social sciences. In M. F. Goodchild, and D. G. Janelle, eds. Spatially Integrated Social Science. New York: Oxford University Press, 3-21. Hanson, J., 1998. Decoding homes and houses, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Hillier, B., 1996. Space is the Machine, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press Hillier B., 2001. A Theory of the city as object or how spatial laws mediate the social construction of urban space. Atlanta: Proceedings 3rd International Space Syntax Symposium. Kuban, D., 2010. Türkiye'de Kentsel Koruma Kent Tarihleri ve Koruma Yöntemleri. 2nd ed. Tarih Vakfı Yurt Press. Major, M.D., Penn, A. and Hillier, B., 1997. Space Syntax, A Theory with a Toolkit, Prooceedings of the First International Space Syntax Symposium, 3, 1-7. Rossi, A., 1991. The Architecture of the City, Cambridge: MIT Press. Klarqvist, B., 1993. A Space Syntax Glossary, Nordisk Arkitekturforskning. Krier, R., 1979. Urban Space. London: Academy Editions. Özdeğer, H., 1996. TDV Islamic Encyclopedia, P.466 Tatlıgil, F., 2005. The analysis of traditional houses and alteration of socio-culturel structure of Gaziantep city. Master Thesis, YTU Graduate School of Natural and Applied Sciences. Turner, A., 2004. DepthMap4: A Researcher’s Handbook, UCL. Turner, A., Doxa, M., O'Sullivan, P., Penn A., 2001. From isovists to visibility graphs: a methodology for the analysis of architectural space, Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design 28(1). Uğur, H., 2004. A systematic approach for the evaluation and conservation of traditional urban spaces -Gaziantep case. PHD Thesis, ITU Graduate School of Science, Engineering and Technology. Vaughan, L., 2007. Suburban Urbanities, Suburbs and the Life of the High Street. London: UCL Press, University College London. Yüce, B., 2010 Changes in architectural pattern in Gaziantep from late Ottoman Empire to Early Republican Period (18391950). Master Thesis, ITU Graduate School of Science, Engineering and Technology.

SUSTAINABLE PLANNING IN HISTORICAL ENVIRONMENTS, A CASE STUDY IN BURSA CUMALIKIZIK MERYEM ALAGÖZ, AYSU ÖZDOĞAN Meryem Alagöz, Research Assistant, Necmettin Erbakan University, Aysu Özdoğan, Research Assistant, Necmettin Erbakan University

ABSTRACT Due to the fact that we are located in a historical geoghrapy, there has always been debate as to which criteria are needed for planning without disrupting the cultural texture. In order to provide those who, live in a historical environment with the opportunities of contemporary life and to adapt the buildings and places into today’s needs and contemporary lifestyle, an interdisciplinary study is required. Today, unplanned urbanization and excessive increase in the heights of buildings with the recent development zoning rights have negatively affected historical buildings and even made them impossible to be perceived. Due to being surrounded by extremely high constructions, the effects of historical spaces on the silhouette have considerably decreased. Likewise, density has been causing pressure on the extension of narrow streets in historical settlements. Not to mention the fact that visual integrity and and harmony of historical environment has been fading away since the undesired technological elements got involved. Cumalıkızık Village, however, has been added to UNESCO World Heritage List by the year 2014. Established in Bursa in the context of waqf (public endowment) by Ottoman Empire founder Osman Gazi, Cumalıkızık is one of other seven villages that are located between the foots of Uludağ Mountain and valleys. The villages were named after ‘’kızık’’, which represents one of the clans of Oghuz Turks. Besides having a strong cultural heritage and involving many natural beauties, Cumalıkızık is one of the most significant examples of Ottoman rural civil architecture. It still preserves its presence by carrying the past towards the future with its historical mosques and hamams, plane trees, organic street texture and characteristic houses. Made of rubble stone, wood and adobe, Cumalıkızık Houses are triplex buildings which involve iron-made doorknockers and handles on the street doors. The houses have different colours ranging from white, yellow, red to purple. There are narrow, stony streets with no pavements where corner walls of the streets are beveled suitably for organic settlement. So far these asymmetric walls have changed depending on the stylistic features of different periods. The most prominent architectural style of Turkish Houses, “Exhedras”, which were used as living room and had a great importance on Turkish life also reflect the characteristic features of these traditional houses. In accordance with these criteria, traditionality must be protected in the architectural designs that will be made in Cumalıkızık in the future. Additionally, these designs should preserve the building culture and physical texture of the area while responding against changing demands and functions of different periods. This study analyzes recently constructed sample buildings in terms of their accordance with cultural texture, by using scanning and evaluation methods. 1. INTRODUCTION The awareness on the preservation of historical environments which are part of urban heritage have recently decreased depending on the preservation period, decisions and implementations. That situation brings about many problems including physical deformation in the environment, socio-cultural change and low quality of life. The reason why our cultural heritage cannot be well protected may not only result from society’s approach to the cultural heritage and historical environment, unconsciousness and financial troubles; but also political reasons, inadequacy between preservation and planning and benefit-oriented approaches. It is a natural process that new constructions emerge in old city texture due to human necessities, environmental conditions, economic changes and developing technology. In this context, the main problem is the designing of the structures without paying attention to the historical environment. Deficiency in preservation is also one of the problems. Changing socio-economic conditions and demands of current point of time have lead to new constructions in historical environment, causing deterioration in the integrity and sustainability of the old city texture. It may also cause these heritage areas to lose their physical and cultural identity. The issue of how constructing and transformation in historical environment can be made without damaging the physical and cultural identity of the city remains as one of the main problems.

Involving the experiences of the residents, historical environments also reflect social and economic conditions and technological levels of societies who lived in former periods, Preserving the past and implementing today’s demands are equally important for a sustainable historical environment (Düzgün, 2010 p.1). 1. 1. Aim The study aims at raising awareness on the significance of the concepts of historical environment and cultural heritage and sustainable planning approaches on the new constructions in historical environments by determining the situation of new structures in Cumalıkızık, which has recently been added to UNESCO World Heritage list. 1.2. Content The study involves the new structures which have been made in historical environment in Bursa, Cumalıkızık. In this context, newly constructed buildings have been selected in the rural settlement which has existed for 700 years. Aforementioned buildings have been separated into two categories as the ones having recent past (0-10 years) and others having distant past (40-50 years). 1.3. Method The topic of the study will be elucidated by using written sources, internet database and the information taken by state institutions such as Bursa Metropolitan Municipality. Furthermore, visual elements such as photos and graphics will be used. 2. THE CONCEPTS OF PRESERVATION, HISTORICAL ENVIRONMENT, CULTURAL HERITAGE AND THEIR SIGNIFICANCE “Urban Preservation Areas are defined as the areas that are still in existence today without any change in their social texture and function even after a number of infrastructure and superstructure facilities. This general definition points out the urban regions where there is no physical (deterioration ininfrastructure and superstructure due to the time and the abrasive effects of nature), functional (transformation of the structure into a different function due to not being able to meet the demands against changing life conditions) and economic (negative effect of deteriorative environment conditions on land prices)” (Akın, 2013 p.76,82,95). Classified as prehistoric settlements and historical settlements, archeological settlements involve historical environments which include historical trade centers, historical housing texture and historical areas where there occured a historical incident before. Preservation can allow all the values in historical environments to be well preserved and transferred to the next generations. The main objective of preservation is to be able to control the effects of changes in social and economic environment towards physical environment. In this context, the areas where preservation is required must be handled within the conditions of the current period in a holistic approach (Üçer, 2004 p.51,43). Cultural Heritage is defined as a set of values which have been created by humanity and nature within thousands of years of civilization history since the beginning of the history of humanity. [4]. Within the Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Culturaland Natural Heritage, lead by UNESCO in 1972, both cultural artifacts built by humanity and others created by nature and humanity together, were included to the cultural heritage (Tuncer, 2012 p.36,44). Preservation, restoration and renovation processes are all significant on ensuring cultural sustainability and enabling new living opportunities for the society while they also enable historical legacy to be transferred to the next generation, could be enabled, 3.SUSTAINABLE PLANNING APPROACHES IN HISTORICAL ENVIRONMENTS Sustainable preservation means preserving cultural heritage by balancing the change as rational as possible. Main objective of sustainable preservation includes quality of life, legacy issues, social harmony, economic growth and environmental efficiency (Günay, 2010 p.). 3.1. Identity in Historical Environment Urban identity is the concept which has its own distintive features in every city, shaped by physical, cultural, socioeconomic, historical and formal factors emerging in a very long period of time (Url 1). Urban identity is the spirit of a city. It arouses sense of belonging among those who live in that environment. Therefore, any intervention must be made originally without deteriorating the identity of the region and all components of the environment must be paid attention Recently, cities have received new identities and become more and more similar due to the growing and changing socioeconomic structure (Kaypak, 2010 p.373-792).Construction of a new structure and demolition of a historical structure have been substantially damaging the authentic identity of a city. Therefore, the structures which has a significant value in urban identity must be approached sensitively.

Main aim of design is to build a harmony between physical and cultural assets and to determine the needs of modern society, by analyzing the characteristic features of historical environment (Okyay, 2001 p.78-96). 3.2. “New Structure” Design in Historical Environment New designs which are planned to be made in historical environments must be implemented after evaluating urban and architectural scale. Such an evaluation ensures the recognition of the historical environment and help the new structure to adapt the environment. Morphological and typological analyses in urban texture analyses means analyzing the authentic geometrical structure of squares, spaces, streets, backyards and areas that are visually less perceived due to the structures. In textural bond, however, analysis ofmass and facade compositions such as ratio, scale, balance, rhythm is made (Aydınlı, 1992). In architectural scale analyses, a similar or an opposite approach to the existing texture might be the matter (Enç, 2010). As seen on the image 1, urban texture and architectural approach design parameters have been stated as subsidiary parameters on deciding the method and style of the new structure (Bayraktar, 2015 p.44,55). In urban texture scale Relationship Between Location and Environment Location, Identity and Function Historical Development and Monumental Structures

Molar Motion

Scale-Ratio and Rhythm

Sructure Form

In architectural Design Scale

Facade Arrangement Sysyem

OccupancyVoid Ratio of the Door and Window Material, Colour and Texture

Harmonious Approach

Reciprocal Apprach

Imitation

Interpretation

Neutralization Topography and Urban Landscaping Urban Silhouette Roads, Squares and Array of Property Forward and Backward Construction Structure-Road Relationship

Inclining Figure 1. New Structure DesignMethods in Historical Environment (Bayraktar, 2015 p.43).

Free Approach

Following the evaluation of these parameters, three new design methods have appeared. These are similar approach methods (imitating, contruction, neutralization), reciprocal approach method and free approach method. 3.2.1. Similar Approach Method in Historical Environment The most fundemantal principle for the integrity of existing structures in historical environment is to make complience among the arrangements that provide similarity in designing practice in terms of scale, ratio, direction, colour, style and texture. To build a balance between old and new structure in historical urban texture, either similar structural styles, ratios, components and materials are used or new designs are made by imitating the preceding structure (Birlik and Ertürk, 1999, p.40-46). Such kind of method aims at copying the historical environment of new structure, imitating the traditional features and materials of historical structures and adopting facadism approach, which adopts building traditional facades on modern structures (Ökesli, 2011 p.16,17). There are three different methods for that method: -Imitation of Historical Styles; At this approach, forms, materials, colours and facades of traditional structuresare identically imitated (Karatosun, 2010). - Interpretation of Historical Forms; This approach relies on thorough analysis and interpretation of common architectural elements, components and forms in historical urban texture, then to design the structure by using available material and technology (Altınöz, 2010 p. 18-27). - Neutralization Method; The structures that are constructed as a background for historical structure in a quite respectful and unsophisticated manner, thus allowing the historical structures to involve more emphasis. In this approach, the new structures require to remain in the background of historical structure while they must reflect the stylistic features of their period (Zeren, 2010). 3.2.2. Reciprocal Approach in Historical Environment Reciprocal Approach is defined as a method where consciously the data which are not available in existing texture are used among the design elements such as scale, ratio, colour, style and texture . A reciprocal new structure can only be effective if constructed proficiently (Livtopuz, 1988). 3.2.3. Free Approach Method in Historical Environment In this method, harmonious and reciprocal approaches are combined in order to enable the connection with historical city texture. This appoach can also be claimed to cause uncertainity in design due to emerging concidentally. Besides having no connection with any movement or environmental value, historical texture is also ignored in free approach. After thee examination of each and every approach, historical texture and its whole components must be analyzed thoroughly, and either harmonious or reciprocal approched must be implemented (Velioğlu, 1992). 4. EXAMINATION OF BURSA-CUMALIKIZIK VILLAGE AND SAMPLE AREA IN TERMS OF SUSTAINABLE PLANNING 4.1. Bursa-Cumalıkızık Involving many historical, cultural, archeological and natural sources, Cumalıkızık Village is a quite significant settlement in a local and national scale. (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Cumalıkızık Village [16]

4.1.1. Location and Identity of Cumalıkızık Village Dating back to 14. Century, Cumalıkızık is one of the other Kızık villages which are located nearby the eastern valleys. Located at 10th kilometers of Bursa- Ankara highway, and 3km south of Uludağ Mountain, with 340 km altitude from the sea level. Cumalıkızık is one of the most significant examples of Ottoman rural civil architecture. It still preserves its presence by carrying the past towards the future with its historical mosques and hamams, plane trees, organic street texture and characteristic houses. The area was gained an international reputation after being added to UNESCO World Heritage List. Today there are totaly 290 houses in the region where 180 of them are currently used by nearly 850 residents. As young population migrated to the city center for a better job opprtunities, majority of the population is elder people in Cumalıkızık (Url 3). Surrounded by houses, primary school and cemetery, the square of the village is first to be seen during the travelling through the foots of Uludağ. There are two monumental plane trees in the square (Figure 3).

Figure 3. Cumalıkızık Village Square 4.1.2. Roads and Relationship Between Road and Structure There is no main street in the village. Streets do not intersect vertically, there are even blind streets. With 2-2,5 width, the streets are only suitable for people and horse-drawn vehicles. “Cin Aralığı”, one of the narrowest streets in the world, is a cut-off with 55-60 cm of width where only one person can walk through (Yerel Gündem, 2003).

Figure 4. Cin Aralığı [16] That street is claimed to have been built during when Ottoman wars were continuing, so that people could escape from he enemy raids. Due to involving yard walls, double-wing wooden entrance doors, different types of exhedrasand the inlaid gussets that hold them, streets have a substantial features. The only connection between houses and the house are the street doors that are opened to the backyards (Figure 5).

Figure 5. House-Street Texture relationship [21].

4.1.3. The Characteristic Features of Houses Traditional Cumalıkızık houses reflect the traces of Tukish type of housing scheme. These duplex or triplex houses are entered by passing through the yard with a double-winged door. The heights of upper floors of these structures are much lower than ground floor (Yerel Gündem, 2003). Exhedras have been constructed for a minimum disconnection between the inner and outer space. The windows are covered with frameworks. Roofs are made as wide thrummy fractures. Generally, there is no window for outer space on the ground floor due to privacy purposes. On the upper floor, especially in main room, however, there are windows to see the street. The top windows of upper floors were covered with colourful glasses so that there could be light and the room could look better. That style was seen in Turkish Houses during the second half of the 17. Century. There are approximately 10-12 houses with top floor (Yerel Gündem, 2003). Windows and doors of the winter rooms that survived more against cold and rainy climate were much smaller. Designed as a mezzanine, height of these rooms were reduced, and they were located on the barnfor a better heating (Yerel Gündem, 2003). Soil, slate and woden bond beam are the materials used on the construction of the buildings. Rock was also used on the walls of the buildings. Ground floors of the houses involve traditional stone material with lateral wooden bond beam. Upper floors involve adobe material within wooden construction. Roofs, however, were made of wooden material which is covered with alaturca roof tiles. The colours of walls of the houses are generally yellow, white, blue, purple and green (Akıncıtürk, 2012), (Figure 6). While floor and ceiling coverings involved wooden material, decoration was not paid too much attention.

Figure 6. Structure-Material Relationship (Akıncıtürk, 2012) 4.2. Examination of Sample Area in Terms of Sustainable Planning Approaches New designs which are located at the junction point of Eğrek Street and Orta Sokak have been selected Sample Area 1 and new designs which are located at the junction point of Dinç Çıkmazı and Cumalıkızık Hammam have been selected Sample Area 2 (Figure 7).

Figure 7. The Location of New Sample Designs in Cumalıkızık

Below there are Sustainable Planning Approach Analyses of Selected Buildings (Figure 8, Figure 9):

Figure 8. Model Area – 1 Sustainable Planning Aprroach Analysis

Figure 9. Model Area – 2 Sustainable Planning Approach Analysis 5.CONCLUSION This action plan points out the fact that Cumalıkızık, one of the most prominent examples of Ottoman rural architecture, could be preserved without being demolished, what more, the people of our country may gain many economic advantages by protecting this legacy. While implementing that tourism-oriented action plan, however, it is quite important to consider the identity, the culture and the facts of historical environment. As a result of sustainable planning approach analyses, all the new designs have been proved to comply with the uncertainity situation that has existed coincidentally. Free approach has been used. It is clearly seen that these designs do not comply with historical environment as required by 6360th law, new designs which were constructed before 2012 were given licence right after being assessed with building assessment form (Url 4). It can be argued that such kinds of designs on this historical environment, which has been added to UNESCO World Heritage List, are discourtesy for our cultural heritage.

REFERENCES Akın, O., 2013, Environmental and Urban Preservation, World Heritage Sites and Management Plan, Anadolu University Publishing, Eskişehir Akıncıtürk, N.,2002, Physical Dimension of Sructural Problem in 700 years old Cumalıkızık Village, Uludağ University, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture Journal, 7-1 Altınöz, A.G.B., 2010, Construction of the New in Historical Texture, İzmir Chamber of Architects, Ege Journal of Architecture, (75):18-27 Aydınlı, S.,1992, Sosyal Analysis in Architecture, Istanbul Technical University, Faculty of Architecture, Printing Works, Istanbul Bayraktar, G., 2015, Evaluation of Tranformation Concept in Historical Environments in the context of New Texture and New Structure, Istanbul Demiroren Mall as an Example, Yıldız Technical University, Institution of Science, Ma. Thesis, İstanbul. Birlik, S., Ertürk, Z., 1999, Design in Historical Environme Arkitekt Journal (465): 40-46 Düzgün, H., 2010, Examination of Relationship Between Scale and Context in Terms of Basic and Existing Concepts of Design, Yildiz Technical University, Insitute of Science, M.A Thesis, Istanbul Enç, G., 2010, New Scales of Structure Design in Urban Historical Texture and Examination of Its Applicability in Fener District Example, MA. Thesis, Yildiz Technical University, Institute, Istanbul Günay, Z., 2010, Sustainability in Historical Environment Within the Scope of Neoliberal Urbanisation Dynamics: Sustainable Urban Preservation Model, PhD Thesis, İstanbul Technical University, Institute of Science, İstanbul. Karatosun, M.B., 2010, Designing of New Structure in Traditional Textures, Examination of Alaçatı Example, Ege Architecture Journal, 32. Kaypak, Ş., 2010, Examination of Antakya in the Context of Urban Identity, Mustafa Kemal University, Institute of Social Science Journal, 7(14):373-792 Livtopuz, M. N.,1988, Renovation and Preservation in Old Urban Textures, Yildiz Technical University, Insitute of Science, M.A Thesis, Istanbul. Okyay, İ., 2001, Preservation of Urban Site Areas, Malraux Law Yem Publishing,78-96, İstanbul. Ökesli, F.D.S., 2011, Legal Disputes Over the Cultural Legacy and Preservation and New Structure in Historical Environment, Guney Architecture Journal (3) :16-17. Tuncer, O. C., 2012, Relief and Restoranını, Diyarbakır University, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture Publishing 1(28):36-44 Üçer, Z.A. ve Yılmaz, G., 2004, Evaluation of Civil Societies and Institutional Structure in Urban Preservation Process in Turkey Ege Architecture Journal 51:43 Velioğlu, A., 1992, A Study on Arcitectural Design and Designing Process in Historical Environment, PhD Thesis, K.T.Ü. Institute of Science, Trabzon. Zeren, M.T., 2010, New Structure Concept in Historical Environment, Examples Contemporary Approach,Yalın Publishing, İstanbul. Url 1: Urban Identity; http://www.solencol.com/b1htm, 18.01.2016. Url 2: http://www.arkitera.com/gorus/692/bursada-gerceklesen-koruma-calismalari Url 3: Cumalıkızık; http://sehirmedya.com/kultur-sanat/dunya-mirasi-cumalikizik/, 18.01.2016 Url 4: http://www.tbb.gov.tr/storage/userfiles/rehber_ve_bilgi_notlari/6360_torba_personel_rehber.pdf

AN ALTERNATIVE APPROACH FOR THE LOW-INCOME HOUSING PROJECTS IN TURKEY: THE EXAMPLE OF QUINTA MONROY, CHILE EMRE DEDEKARGINOĞLU Emre Dedekargınoğlu, Research Assistant, Interior Architecture and Environmental Design Department, Hacettepe University ABSTRACT Like most of the developing countries, Turkey faces the problem of rapid urbanization and urban sprawl in many of its cities. The migration process from the rural areas to the urban districts, started with the 1950s due to the economical, technological and sociological changes, created a demographic oversaturation in metropolitan areas and resulted with an enormous demand of housing and employment in a short period of time. The lack of proper housing and employment opportunities had conditioned the rural population to apply their own solutions with their own facilities. As a result, gecekondus, the squatter settlements similar to favelas or slums, were started to be seen in various amounts on the peripheries or the inhabited estates within İstanbul, Ankara and İzmir. Being an important issue in Turkey for nearly sixty years; gecekondus are still being built and used by the low-income people. Since 2003, the state institution TOKİ has been regulating urban renewal projects throughout the country in order to revitalize and improve the conditions of the gecekondu areas. As of 2016, TOKİ had applied over 500.000 social housing projects and in the long term, the institution is planning to transform all gecekondu districts. In spite of its important statistical performance, TOKİ receives critical feedback for its urban renewal projects and regulation policies. Architects and designers continuously point out the single-type design approach of the applied projects and the applicability of the preferred spatial settings for different range of users. The projects are also a matter of debate for the gecekondu dwellers, as they cannot settle for the idea of living in a high-rise apartment and fail to achieve the sociocultural unity they have had in gecekondu districts. For these reasons, the state and its institutions will need to re-evaluate the general urban renewal approach and policies in order to strengthen their applicability and success rate. Since squatter settlements are also a world-wide issue, there has been some alternative architectural approaches in order to solve them for good. The urban renewal project of Quinta Monroy, which is located in the city of Iquique, Chile, is an important example of incremental housing and now seen as a successful project which provides a solution as a result of careful analyzation of the needs, user cooperation and collaboration and conscious design. Due to the respectful feedback, the project has been implemented into various low-income areas in Chile and acts as a role model for a refined urban renewal solution. Consequently, this paper will provide a summarization of the spatial typologies held in gecekondus and urban renewal projects which are applied by TOKİ and an analyzation of Quinta Monroy project in terms of its design and construction process. It is the main aim of this paper to present an alternative urban renewal approach for Turkish low-income population which is more inclusive, collaborative, responsive to the user needs and respectful to traditional spatial configurations. INTRODUCTION The concept of housing is crucial in order to provide sheltering in a secure and healthy environment. According to its user, a house bears a sociocultural importance and a personal meaning. Tekeli (2012) states that a house owns various roles such as being a shelter, a product, an investment, a tool for securing the tenure and a dynamic device that organizes social relationships and cultural environment. A house is the result of the economic, social, political and humanistic necessities and acts as a basic requirement of the societies. The urbanization process, which became common after Industrial Revolution, had affected nearly all countries in a growing pace. While most of the developed countries handled the urbanization process harmoniously, developing countries faced an instable period resulting with poverty, mandatory migration and irregular urbanization. As the industrialization in greater cities of the developing countries rendered the agriculture-driven economy less popular, migration movements from rural to industrialized areas started to occur in order to sustain the rural-based people economically. Since the industrialized cities fail to absorb the heavy population intake, the demand for housing stock also could not be satisfied by the local administrations. On the other hand, limited economical means of the migrated population also paved the way for housing stock problems. The Challenge Of Slums, a report which is published by UN-

HABITAT (2003), implies that nearly one-third of the world population lacks adequate housing and proper sanitary installations and low-income populations in the developing countries are even unable to fund themselves for the cheapest housing units available. As a developing country, Turkey also went through the similar pattern and faced the lack of proper housing stock starting with 1950s. After II. World War, the proposal of Marshall Aid helped the state to introduce machine-driven agriculture and the industrialization in greater cities but it therewith decreased the need for raw man-power and created an unemployed population in rural areas. Since the metropole cities like İstanbul, İzmir and newly-founded capital city Ankara were developing both industrially and socioeconomically, Turkey’s demographic dynamic was reshaped with the pushing effect from the rural areas and pulling effect from the urbanised regions. The early 1950s brought a heavy population intake to Turkish metropole cities as well as problems like poverty, unemployment and most importantly the lack of housing stock. Keleş (2012) states that insufficient housing stock and limited economic capabilities of the rural population rendered them to provide a solution on their own. The result was gecekondu (built-overnight) buildings, the squatter settlements built upon empty lands on the peripheries of cities with any material available. The Turkish word gecekondu is a local term offered by the locals and its formation consists of two words, gece (night) and the verb, konmak (to settle) which means that “the dwelling was built in one night” (Yörükan, 2006; Çakır, 2011). In 1966, gecekondu houses were officially recognised by the state with the legislated Gecekondu Law. The law, which is still in force with some additions, defined gecekondu houses as “the illegal buildings built upon the lands without the permission of the legal landowner and without obeying to the general provisions and the town planning and construction legislations”. The lack of an effective policy and the constant compensation from the state administrations had transformed gecekondu houses to a housing type which has its own sociocultural structure and lifestyle and solidified their existence in many Turkish cities. According to Tatlıdil (1989), gecekondu derives its dwellers “a social and economic insurance, which the city life fails to provide, with the value-norm relationships it had conceived in its essence”. Thus it can be said that gecekondu houses, in time, started to carry different sub-meanings and became a multidimensional phenomenon. Though no official reports are provided by the Turkish state, UN-HABITAT’s statistical information on the official website imply that in 2009, Turkey had 6.7 million people living in gecekondu houses, creating %9 of the total population then. Most recent report from Ankara Metropolitan Municipality in 2013 reports that the capital city held over 150.000 gecekondu houses and roughly 640.000 people living inside these settlements. According to these statistics, it can be said that gecekondu houses are still an important problem in Turkish cities. After 1999 İzmit and Düzce earthquakes, urban renewal concept became an important agenda owing to the Turkey’s landscapes’ proneness to earthquakes and the insufficient quality of the existing building stock in many areas, primarily gecekondu settlements. Founded as a state institution in order to supply funds for housing projects in 1984, TOKİ was assigned with extensive warrants by the government and became the leading actor for the proposed urban renewal projects in 2004. Since then, TOKİ has constructed over 700.000 buildings within the scope of various urban renewal projects. However, the role of TOKİ in transforming gecekondu settlements into urban renewal projects with high-rise social buildings had also received critical backlash. Main criticism towards the institution was the proposal of a singletype spatial typology to gecekondu dwellers without respecting their sociocultural structure and lifestyle routines. This enforced situation, as Heper (1978) underlines, results as “relocation of the gecekondu dwellers from a social building to another gecekondu area”, therefore it raises a question mark upon the effectiveness of TOKİs urban renewal policies. Since the multidimensional contexture of gecekondu concept brings various needs to be analysed, the general urban renewal policy and approach in Turkey has to be re-evaluated and transformed according to the needs and lifestyle patterns of its main targeted population. With all these points in mind, this study will provide the Quinta Monroy project as an alternative to the urban renewal projects in Turkey. The study firstly presents definitive information about the gecekondu as a Turkish squatter experience and TOKİ as the main conductor of urban renewal projects in Turkey. The latter chapters focus on spatial analyzation of a selected TOKİ social housing project and analyzation of the key subject of the study; Quinta Monroy project. Gecekondu Phenomenon Squatter settlements are a common problem in many developing countries. As a result of the intense migration movements by the rural population who wants to have better life and job opportunities; these settlements are built on the empty lands in peripheries or centre regions of the cities, without taking the legal permissions from the state or the landowners. In time, squatter settlements started to form neighbourhoods in their surroundings as the state authorities’ overlooked and understood them as “a temporary situation”. However, the progression of these dwellings proved them to be permanent, therefore squatter settlements commenced to get recognition and basic infrastructure services were introduced by the local administrations in time. The formation of squatter settlements is shaped by common characteristics. The construction process of a squatter house is depending on the financial possibilities, technical information and available resources of the constructor. The housing

units are constructed with the simplest construction methods in a time span short as possible. According to these factors, squatter houses generally bear similar spatial typologies and the interior space acts as a multifunctional environment in which the family members continue their daily life routines. The materials which were generally used in the construction process could be mud brick, concrete brick, straw, wood planks and recycled materials, which are easy to obtain and can directly affect the construction quality. As it is pointed out by UN-HABITAT (2003, p. 82), many countries have introduced specialized terms in their languages in order to identify the squatter settlements within their territories. These terms can be exemplified as barriadas, pueblos juvenes (Peru), villa miseria (Argentina) or ciudades de refugio (Columbia) in Spanish; bustee (Kolkata and Delhi) or chawl (Mumbai) in Indian languages; bidonville (Morocco and Algeria) in French; favela, morro or comunidade (Brazil) in Portuguese and gecekondu in Turkish (Karpat, 1976, p. 11).

Figure 1. View of a gecekondu district in Ankara Gecekondu is an important phenomenon in Turkey’s sociocultural structure. First appeared on the outer edges of main cities in post-II. World War era, gecekondus spread quickly and developed gradually. Primarily owning a sheltering function to its residents, gecekondu also bears different symbolical meanings, such as acting as a social insurance device for the family or providing an important social environment with strong relations. Also the dwellers’ “participation in the construction of their houses can create emotional ties to them” (Erman, 1997, p. 99). According to Acaroğlu (1973, p. 5), gecekondu is a buffer mechanism that sustains social security and lowers the tension which can occur in economy and industry as a result of the rough transition from agriculture-based economy towards industry-based economy. Keleş (2012, p. 498) states that gecekondus are “an unequivocal product” of population floods from villages to the cities in relation with the social and economic development ranges of the respective countries. As an alternative thought, Şenyapılı (2004, p. 273) supports that gecekondus and gecekondu dwellers have provided their own solution contrary to a potential problem of disintegration from the city. Regarding the spatial properties of a gecekondu, Ray (1997, p. 165) shares the idea of “an architecture that was quick and nimble on its roaming feet”. This statement underlines two crucial points of gecekondu construction. First, a gecekondu must be built rapidly in order to inhabit it as soon as possible and prevent demolition by the municipality. Second, a gecekondu is a housing unit which has a continuous construction process, therefore it can be expanded when there is a need and necessary resources and land area are available. This additive process provides a flexibility to the gecekondu on the horizontal surface, consequently as the family grows, the need for additional spaces can be met through introducing new ones adjacent to the main space.

Figure 2. The expansion of a gecekondu unit The term, oda (room) is the basic element of Turkish housing culture. In a traditional Turkish house, the room can serve for multiple functions like eating, sleeping or resting and has the obligatory accessories for fulfilling these functions. It is a large space in where most of the daily life runs and it offers a flexibility for the dweller to expand or diminish the space size when needed. The room also acts as the main space type for a gecekondu, however its functional identity is different

and it lacks necessary accessories which help to run daily life inside. The room in a gecekondu is a space which is to be used mainly for sheltering. The main characteristic for the gecekondu is the spatial typology that consists of rooms with 25-35 m2 size and the flexibility to add new rooms to the core structure according to the need and facilities. Şenyapılı (1986, p. 156) offers an equation (P = f (A, F, M, T, Y)) that explains the criteria for a gecekondu’s interior space organization. Accordingly, the plan of gecekondu (P) is shaped by its relation with the land (A), financial capabilities (F), the quality of available materials and their stock (M), the availability of obligatory technical construction information and experience (T) and the possibility for demolishment of the dwelling (Y). In reference to the equation, it can be understood that a gecekondu is not constructed with a proper plan in mind, instead its spatial typology and organization is designated mostly instinctively with a need for new spaces and to achieve the most minimal financial loss in a possible situation of demolition. In later years, as the gecekondu dwellers were able to live in more stable conditions, a specialized room for the parents was introduced. Kitchen became an integral part of interior configuration, whereas bathrooms, which were thought as a small space for taking baths instantly, started to be integrated within the core structure. Dimensions of spaces and openings had remained similarly minimal in order to reduce the heat loss. Since the gecekondu was used mainly for sheltering purposes, the plots which surround the gecekondu were started to being used as gardens and became a social gathering point for the gecekondu dwellers. Nevertheless, being a distinctive solution towards insufficient housing options, gecekondu was never regarded highly by the society and government. In time, political parties have recognised gecekondu districts with their vote potential and made promises of municipality services. Soon, the gecekondu problem was stuck in “demolish-rebuild” continuum and a satisfactory solution both for the dwellers and the society could not have been achieved. Urban Renewal in Turkey and TOKİ Urban renewal is an important and contemporary subject throughout many countries. As the cities grow, areas with illegal settlements, regions that are prone to natural disaster effects or divisions which are economically unsustainable can be built, hence there occurs a necessity to renew or rehabilitate these kind of territories for recovering them. In the present day, many developed and developing countries are implementing urban renewal projects in the major cities. The aim of these projects are to raise the spatial quality and to provide the residents healthier life conditions within the cities. Urban renewal concept in Turkey first come into question in the beginning of 1980s and the main concern was to provide regulations for city centres and gecekondu regions. The article no. 57 in 1982 Constitution of Turkey points out that the Turkish state is to take necessary precautions to fulfil the necessary housing demand and to support the social housing ventures within a planning framework which would conserve the city characteristics and environmental conditions. During the 1990s, first urban renewal attempts in Turkey; Portakal Çiçeği and Ankara Vadisi projects were applied in capital city Ankara. After 1999 İzmit and Düzce earthquakes, the quality of the available building stock in Turkey was publicly questioned and criticized. According to Kahya and Töre (2014, pp. 648-649), current building stock was started to take form in 1950s, in time when the state failed to support its industrialization policy with equivalent housing policies and investments. As a result, regions which hold low-quality building stock, as well as gecekondu regions, were placed under high-risk category and possible urban renewal projects became a current issue in Ankara, İstanbul and İzmir. TOKİ (Toplu Konut İdaresi Başkanlığı - Housing Developing Administration) is currently the most important actor in construction sector and leading institution for the production of social housing projects in Turkey. Founded in 1984 by the state for providing financial support to housing production and cooperatives, it has been refunctioned by the 58. Government in 2003 and granted with extensive warrants for the planning and application of upcoming housing projects. In TOKİ’s 2010-2011 Corporate Identity Report, it is clearly stated that urban renewal projects are an official state policy (T.C Başbakanlık Toplu Konut İdaresi Başkanlığı, 2011). According to official operational report of May 2016, TOKİ had constructed over 710.000 housing units and %85 percent of its total production belongs to social housings projects. TOKİ generally cooperates with municipalities in the planning process of an urban renewal project. Several parameters like legal issues, geological properties of the project region and socioeconomic conditions of the target population are taken into consideration and a proposal is made accordingly. After both parties’ agreement, the proposed region is announced as an urban renewal area by the municipality and every householder residing in the region is accepted as a beneficiary. TOKİ implements two different models while applying the urban renewal projects. First model is “renewal with relocation”; which means that the householders will be relocated to another region in the city and will be warranted with an equivalent estate. Second model is “renewal on site”; which means that the householders will be in the same region and will have its house when the project is complete. The implementation of these models varies according to the agreement between the householders and TOKİ. The urban renewal projects cleared many old squatter settlements in metropolitan cities and resulted with nearly 100.000 houses that offer better living conditions with easy payments. But the projects that TOKİ had built in Turkish

cities often get criticism in context of architectural design and socioeconomic conditions. Critics are commonly concentrated on one-sided and repetitive spatial design approach, the lack of user participation in design process, the incompatibility of constructed buildings with the urban fabric and the mechanization of neighbour relationships. According to Tekeli (2014, p. 162), TOKİ’s projects put gecekondu dwellers into an envisaged lifestyle which they cannot easily settle in. Another critic states that TOKİ housings are offering a renewal that is only on physical level and the social, economic and cultural properties of the people living in the target regions are not being considered (Bektaş & Yücel, 2013, p. 128). A remarkable criticism underlines that the projects are aesthetically and authentically unappealing and constructed with the minimum expenditures, moreover they fail to provide qualified daily life standards (Savran & Bay, 2014, pp. 1080-1081).

Figure 3. TOKİ social housing apartments in Bursa While being statistically successful, TOKİ’s projects, with their simplistic and monotypic façades and interior space organizations, created radical structural clusters which really stands out in the cityscape. Davis points out that “the incompatibility of peripheral, high-rise housing with the social structures and informal economies of poor communities is, of course, ancient history: it’s an original sin repeated over decades by urban reformers everywhere” (2007, p. 64). This statement also questions how effective is the high-rise social housing for gecekondu dwellers since they cannot recreate the interwoven social relationships and fail to settle for the lifestyle in a high-rise apartment. As a result, it can be said that TOKİ’s urban renewal policy would benefit from an overhaul and can be transformed into a multifaceted approach that would respect Turkish lifestyle, housing culture and values. The institution had recently made changes in its policy accordingly and declared that upcoming social housing projects would no longer use verticality but opt for horizontality with maximum 4 or 5 storeys, with façade designs presenting the local architectural characteristics of the targeted regions. A Spatial Analysis of a TOKİ Social Housing Project TOKİ’s urban renewal projects share common spatial configurations and organization schemes that led to a monotypic architectural language. The institution generally preferred tunnel formwork method during construction and applied standardised plan schemes in interior space organization. The apartments were categorized as high-rise structures which have minimum twelve storeys or higher. TOKİ’s current urban renewal policy is emphasizing horizontality of apartments with maximum 4 or 5 storeys and façade designs which borrow elements from local architectural features. It should be noted that this proceeding paper will not mention about this up-to-date policy since the related projects are in construction process, correspondingly measurable data of the projects is not yet available. This subsection will provide a spatial analysis of a social housing project which was applied in Ankara to a gecekondu district, Çinçinbağları. In Figure 4, gecekondu settlements prior to the project’s application and the final state of the project can be seen.

Figure 4. Gültepe district before and after the urban renewal project The exemplary apartment plan in Figure 5 shows symmetrically arranged houses which are aligned around two linear axes. The interior service area which has a hall, elevator, stairs and gallery space has a linear plan and placed in a central location. The linear axes cut through the longitudinal and transversal midpoints of the plan scheme and organize the placement of housings. All storeys have four houses and their plan schemes are completely identical.

Figure 5. Plan scheme of TOKİ Gültepe 2. Phase project, Apartment Type C The plan schemes for the houses do not represent an ordinated spatial design idea. Entrance area acts as the main centre inside the house and provides a transitional area for other spaces. In terms of interior dimensions, hall area has a significant importance since most of the daily life runs inside halls. Bathroom and WC are placed across the hall area and close to the entrance of the house. Kitchen has a rectangular plan and offers one-wall kitchen layout for its users. The rooms are located behind the hall/bathroom axis but only the room adjacent to the hall has more privacy since the other two rooms are directly opening to the hallway.

The interior organization inside the houses is preferred to be arranged with functions in mind. Hall, as the main daily life hub inside the house, has nearly 22 m2 space. The second largest area in terms of dimensions is the entrance/hallway and it covers an area of 14 m2. The rooms and the kitchen are planned to have more compact dimensions and secondary space roles. The location of bathroom and WCs are debatable, since they are very close to the entrance and provide little privacy for the users.

Figure 5. TOKİ Gültepe 2. Phase project, Apartment Type C, a house plan scheme The interior space organization of TOKİ projects could be summarised as; 1) a hierarchically central service area which organizes the main plan organization in the apartment; 2) a grid-based and symmetrically arranged structural system; 3) house plans that were arranged according to the spatial functions. It is possible to see the similar spatial typologies in other housing projects which were constructed under the supervision of TOKİ. The general approach towards social housing projects were to implement basic spatial organizations with little variations, thus TOKİ projects would not differ radically and convey a similar architectural character both in interior and exterior spaces. High-rise apartment solution in urban renewal projects is a critical decision which is still being debated in Turkey. Nevertheless, the recent policy change of TOKİ, which took horizontality as the main priority in housing construction, also solidifies the judgmental public opinion concerning high-rise buildings. An Alternative Social Housing Approach: Quinta Monroy, Chile Many countries are facing squatter settlements issue especially in Asia, Africa and South America. While the governments’ tactics and the application of urban renewal remain roughly same for the majority of the countries, there are also several attempts which handle the squatter settlement problem in a different way. Incremental housing is a remarkable transformation model, which was first applied in India with Aranya Social Housing project. The main idea behind the incremental housing model is to build a core house with horizontality in mind, so that the house must own spaces for services areas and openings that would allow the dweller to expand the house according to his needs in the middle or long term. In other words, it represents an economically viable way to adapt the house to the changing number of total dwellers (Neves & Amado, 2014, p. 2). Incremental housing also provides a flexibility to the urban designers, as it makes the possible expansion process more predictable and controllable. Quinta Monroy project is an important example of incremental housing and had also been widely acclaimed worldwide. Constructed between 2002 and 2004 in Iquique, a town close to Santiago, to a region where squatter settlements were existing nearly for thirty years; the project concluded with providing houses for 93 families that have been residing there in shanty houses.

Figure 6. Quinta Monroy region before the project Chilean architecture firm, Elemental conveyed a different approach in order to meet the demands of the people living in the region since there was a tight budget available for the project. The firm defended that instead of building a house with low-quality materials and small dimensions, it would be more beneficial to build “half of a good house”; which means that the firm is to construct the core structure and the service areas, which the dwellers cannot build with their own capabilities and to provide empty areas within the lot for future expansions. (Aravena & Iacobelli, 2012, p. 17). They also offered that social housing must be low-rise and serve to enough density of population and must not include features like elevator, which demand periodic maintenance and degrade the house’s worth in time. The house’s expansion capability is also necessary for setting middle class standards in the long term (Aravena & Iacobelli, 2012, p. 21). During the planning process, the firm made an extensive research about the spatial typologies which can be commonly found in Chilean cities. Their findings implied that none of the existing typologies could offer a suitable solution for Quinta Monroy. As a result, Elemental came up with a unique typology offering that promotes the placement of the families into a durable city region; an incremental housing approach that would not hurt the social structure, feasibility of secure and economic expansions and participatory design process with the dwellers. In order to fund the land cost, the firm coined the term, “parallel house”. Accordingly, a parallel house would contain two different housing units in one total structure in a rectangular plan. The house on the ground floor would provide a horizontal expansion, while the house on the upper floor would also have a vertical expansion option since it was to have two-storey structure. By this means, an optimum land usage would be achieved for a neighbourhood which would hold nearly hundred families intact on the land.

Figure 7. Construction process of the ground floor

The construction process of the project started with the division of region into 9x9 meters square lots and the construction of 6x6 meters floor bases. The house on the ground floor has a horizontal expansion area and has built-in service areas.

Figure 8. Construction process of the structure In order to separate ground floor from the upper floor and provide a base for the upper housing, a reinforced concrete slab was built. The slab also defines the expansion area of the ground floor house.

Figure 9. Construction process of the upper floor The house on the upper floor has two storeys, therefore it is suitable for horizontal and vertical expansion. The C-shaped structural wall acts as a dividing element that adds rhythm to the façade and it also provides sound insulation and fire protection to the general structure. The access to the upper floor is ensured with the stairs in order to cut an extra expenditure and prevent any aesthetical incompatibility within the main structure. The stairs’ placement was also carefully considered in order to not hinder the entrance to houses on the ground floor.

Figure 10. Interior view from the house. The interior organization of the houses were evaluated and decided with the participation of squatter dwellers. This approach enabled both the designers and the dwellers to reach satisfactory results. The interiors do not have distinct room identifications and the spaces were left undivided (see Figure 11) in order to provide the flexibility to be shaped by the user. Instead, the firm had chosen to construct the service areas from the budget since a service area cannot be built without professional assistance. The material selections or decoration details in interior spaces were left to the dwellers’ choice, in order to enable them to furnish and personalize their houses according to their demands, thereby the dwellers inhabited the building in its rough work state. The firm also organized workshops and seminars in order to educate the dwellers on how they can build expansion areas and sustain their homes in a secure and healthy environment.

Figure 11. Plan of a ground floor house Briefly, Quinta Monroy project is a forethoughtful attempt to re-evaluate the concept of social housing. The incremental housing idea derives a secure structure that is open to future expansions in the most economic and simplistic way. The project also underlines the importance of the careful analyzation of the needs and demands of the low-income population and collaborative design process which includes the users of the house as the main decision makers.

Figure 12. General view of Quinta Monroy houses CONCLUSION Gecekondu is still an important issue in Turkey. While the country had seen a dramatic increase in the construction market since the last decade, an effective solution for the gecekondu dwellers is yet to be reached. Although TOKİ has transformed many gecekondu regions with urban renewal projects, the gecekondu problem continued to exist in a different context. The critics for TOKİ concentrate on the lack of participatory design, monotypic architectural language and the incompatibility of the projects with the city fabric. Specifically, for gecekondu dwellers, the obligation of living in high-rise apartments creates a sociocultural problem since they cannot experience the social life they had in gecekondu regions. For these reasons, the current social housing production in Turkey can benefit from a proper re-evaluation in order to functionalize better. Quinta Monroy project in Chile is a prominent example of conscious social housing. The incremental housing principle provides a responsive solution for the formation characteristics and spatial properties of a gecekondu house. With an economic and simplistic design approach, the squatter dwellers in Quinta Monroy region benefit from a proper house that has a well-set infrastructure and a secure and healthy construction. The low-rise character of the buildings also led them to sustain their distinctive social life. The project also contribute to the technical awareness and sustainability of the built environment since the residents are, by the workshops and seminars, educated for constructing their own expansion units. As a result, Quinta Monroy project is an important example of contemporary social housing that would also provide hints for the urban renewal projects in Turkey. Recently announced urban renewal policy of TOKİ favours low-rise apartments with local architectural features within mahalle (neighbourhood) formations and nineteen new projects have been planned in seventeen Turkish cities. It is expected from the upcoming urban renewal projects to present more conscious, sustainable and forethoughtful solutions for the low-income population in Turkey. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author would like to thank Assoc. Prof. Bilge Sayıl Onaran and Assoc. Prof. Nur Ozanözgü for their guidance and valuable comments on this proceeding paper.

REFERENCES [1] Acaroğlu, İ., 1973. Türkiye'deki Kentlerde Gecekondu Önleme Bölgeleri İçin Yer Seçimi Ölçütleri: (Gecekondunun Özellikleri ve Planlama Yaklaşımları). Ankara: TÜBİTAK Yapı Araştırma Enstitüsü. [2] Aravena, A. & Iacobelli, A., 2012. Elemental: Incremental Housing and Participatory Design Manual, Ostfildern: Hatje Cantz Verlag. [3] Bektaş, Y. & Yücel, C., 2013. Ankara-Altındağ Tepesi Gecekondu Bölgesi’nde Mekansal Ayrışmanın Gözlenmesine Yönelik Bir Araştırma. Megaron, 8(2), pp. 115-129. [4] Çakır, S., 2011. Türkiye'de Göç, Kentleşme / Gecekondu Sorunu ve Üretilen Politikalar. SDÜ Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, Issue 23, pp. 209-223. [5] Davis, M., 2007. Planet of Slums. New York: Verso. [6] Erman, T., 1997. Squatter Housing versus Apartment Housing: Turkish Rural-to-Urban Migrant Residents's Perspective. Habitat International, 28(1), pp. 91-106. [7] Heper, M., 1978. Gecekondu Policy in Turkey. İstanbul: Boğaziçi University Publications. [8] Kahya, N. & Töre, E., 2014. TOKİ'siz Bir Dönüşümün Tahayyülü: Şanlıurfa Kültür Eksenli Dönüşebilir mi? Kocaeli, Kocaeli Üniversitesi, pp. 645-661. [9] Karpat, K., 1976. The Gecekondu. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [10] Keleş, R., 2012. Kentleşme Politikası. Ankara: İmge Yayınevi. [11] Mahmud, S. & Duyar-Kienast, U., 2001. Spontaneous Settlements in Turkey and Bangladesh: Preconditions of Emergence and Environmental Quality of Gecekondu Settlements and Bustees. Cities, 18(4), pp. 271-280. [12] Neves, S. O. & Amado, M., 2014. Incremental Housing as a method to the Sustainable Habitat. Admedabad, CEPT University, pp. 1-8. [13] Ray, M.-A., 1997. Gecekondu. Architecture of the Everyday. New York: Princeton Architectural Press, pp. 165-177. [14] Savran, S. & Bay, E., 2014. Kentsel Dönüşüm Uygulamalarının Kentsel ve Mimari Estetik Bağlamında Değerlendirilmesi. Kocaeli, Kocaeli Üniversitesi, pp. 1069-1100. [15] Şenyapılı, T., 1986. On Physical Aspects of Squatters in Turkey. ODTÜ Mimarlık Fakültesi Dergisi, 7(2), pp. 143-166. [16] Şenyapılı, T., 2004. "Baraka"dan Gecekonduya - Ankara'da Kentsel Mekanın Dönüşümü: 1923-1960. İstanbul: İletişim Yayınları. [17] T.C Başbakanlık Toplu Konut İdaresi Başkanlığı, 2011. TOKİ Kurum Profili 2010-2011. [Online] Available at: http://www.toki.gov.tr/AppResources/UserFiles/files/TOKI-11_TRK.pdf [18] Tatlıdil, E., 1989. Kentleşme ve Gecekondu. İzmir: Ege Üniversitesi. [19] Tekeli, İ., 2012. Türkiye'de Yaşamda ve Yazında Konutun Öyküsü (1923-1980). İstanbul: Tarih Vakfı Yurt Yayınları. [20] Tekeli, İ., 2014. Türkiye'nin Uyguladığı Kentsel Dönüşüm Yaklaşımını Değerlendirmek. Kocaeli, Kocaeli Üniversitesi, pp. 151-163. [21] UN-HABITAT, 2003. The Challenge of Slums: Global Report on Human Settlements 2003. London: Routledge. [22] Yörükan, T., 2006. Gecekondular ve Gecekondu Bölgelerinin Sosyo-Kültürel Özellikleri. Ankara: Nobel Yayın Dağıtım

PIECEMEAL AESTHETICS: POETICS OF PARTS IN USONIAN AUTOMATIC HOUSES EZGİ İŞBİLEN PhD student WAAC, Virginia Tech

ABSTRACT In 1950s a small number of houses, which their architect Frank Lloyd Wright called Usonian Automatic Houses, were built across the country. As the name also suggests, these were single-family houses built along the spatial organization principles of Usonian houses. However, unlike earlier Usonian houses, they were made of custom concrete blocks that can be produced on site, and assembled in a variety of ways. These houses, like previous examples of Usonian Houses, were part of Wright’s solution to small house problem, but with them he opens a new page as he aims to eliminate the role of the contractor, so that the house owners would have flexibility over construction period and cost. Usonian Automatic houses have been considered a negligible part of Wright’s career as they were never studied as a category, and decisively left out in studies concentrating his work as a whole –or his residential buildings as theme. Studies upon any one of them is occasionally included in studies framed by materials or methods. Only a few studies, concentrating on Usonian houses, briefly mention them as a category of their own. And even then, neither the number and identification, nor the way they are treated is settled. They are represented as a marginal fraction, or experimental projects on the way towards prefabrication, which matured in panel construction houses. This paper is a re-reading of their history as an aesthetic paradigm as well as a technical one. INTRODUCTION In 1950s a small number of houses, which their architect Frank Lloyd Wright called Usonian Automatic Houses, were built across the country. As the name also suggests, these were single-family houses built along the spatial organization principles of Usonian houses. However, unlike earlier Usonian houses, they were made of custom concrete blocks that can be produced on site, and assembled in a variety of ways. These houses, like previous examples of Usonian Houses, were part of Wright’s solution to small house problem, but with them he opens a new page as he aims to eliminate the role of the contractor, so that the house owners would have flexibility over construction period and cost. Although they did not receive much attention in their glory days, when they showed up in the market around five decades later, they attracted collectors, as well as conservationists. Media coverage, made them visible for a while, yet it did not extend the scholarly interest in these houses. This paper is a re-reading of their history as an aesthetic paradigm as well as a technical one. In following pages Usonian Automatic Houses are identified, and contextualized within the larger frame of Wright’s work. Instead of a technical framework that casts them as a marginal fraction, a theoretical framework that re-connects them to rest of Wright’s works is proposed. Identifying Usonian Automatic Houses Usonian Automatic Houses, were initially proposed for small, owner-built houses, and built across a large geography. As construction was not closely supervised by Wright’s office, documentation about these houses are scarce. Compared to prairie houses and the earlier Usonian examples, these houses are almost invisible in any selection of Wright’s works, or compendiums. Therefore, the no complete list of Usonian Automatic houses was ever published. The work in this paper began by tracking down any reference to Usonian Automatic Houses, scholarly sources, as well as the rather new interviews made available during sales.1 It is not only the lack of interest but also an apparent confusion that made these houses unaccountable. Wright has starting using concrete blocks long before the first Usonian Automatic House was built. Earlier uses differed in two ways. Either the concrete masonry walls were for enclosure, but they were not load bearing, or they were load bearing, but were used in presence of other cast on site elements, and elements of other materials, such as wood beams or roofs. Often, earlier uses of concrete blocks are listed as Usonian Automatic Houses, or well-known unbuilt examples were omitted. Therefore, rare existing accounts differ substantially. Here, the basic criteria used for identifying Usonian Automatic houses were the continuous use of concrete blocks through all of buildings surfaces, horizontal and vertical. Through critical comparison of existing accounts, and survey of the comprehensive selections of Wright’s works, list of Usonian Automatic Houses was re-identified. Only six of these houses were ever built: Benjamin Adelman House (Phoenix AZ, 1951), Gerald Tonkens House (Amberly

Village OH, 1954), W. B. Tracy House (Normandy Park WA, 1954), T. A. Pappas House (St. Louis MO, 1955), Toufic Kalil House (Manchester NH, 1955), and Dr. & Dorothy Turkel (Detroit MI, 1955) (figs. 1-6).2

Figure 1: Benjamin Adelman House (Phoenix AZ, 1951), viewed from the North, circa 1968. Photographed by William Storrer, Source: Oak Park Public Library.

Figure 2: Gerald Tonkens House (Amberly Village OH, 1954), Photo Credit: William Allin Storrer, 2003.

Figure 3: W. B. Tracy House (Normandy Park WA, 1954), Photo credit: Jaydec, 2011.

Figure 4: A. Pappas House (St. Louis MO, 1955), Photo: Pappas, B. K. (1985) Frank Lloyd Wright: No Passing Fancy: A Pictorial History. St. Louis: Bette K. Pappas.

Figure 5: Toufic Kalil House (Manchester NH, 1955), Photo: Douglas M. Steiner, 2007.

Figure 6: Dorothy Turkel House (Detroit MI, 1955). Photo: Jason Keen, Source: http://www.freep.com/story/money/business/michigan/2015/05/16/wright-architecture-detroit-ltu/27359829/

Four projects, namely Louis B. Frederick House (Barrington IL, 1954,) Robert Sunday House (Marshalltown IA, 1955), Paul Trier House (Des Moines IA, 1956) and Andrew B. Cooke House3 (Virginia Beach VA, 1956) were designed as Usonian Automatic Houses but their plans were revised later to build with rather conventional means of construction associated with Usonian Houses. (Pfeiffer, 2011) (Morse-Fortier, 1994). Wright proposed Automatic Usonian blocks for two non-residential projects. Pieper-Montooth Building, which was the house of Horizon Builders Company (Scottsdale AZ, 1953); and the Clinic for Dr. Kundert and Dr. Fogo Scheme I, (San Luis Obispo, CA, 1955). While appropriation of Automatic Usonian blocks for non-residential buildings seems to justify the accounts that treat them as experimentation with a structural system, rather than a derivations of Usonian houses, it should be noted that these two buildings were comparable to the residential examples listed above in their size, plan organization and their look.4 In fact, the striking similarity was not a mere outcome of shared material and structural system. They were intended as model buildings. The Horizon Builders was a company founded by two of Wright’s apprentices from Taliesin Arthur Pieper and Charles Montooth, who wanted to produce Automatic blocks and serve as a contractor for automatic houses. As such, the building was a showcase as well as office space. This business adventure never took of, but the idea that Automatic building blocks can be a mode of construction adopted for detached buildings lingered. Kundert Clinic was designed with that idea in mind. Later, the plan was revised and implemented with brick and wood. There is no complete list of unbuilt Usonian Automatic projects published. The projects identified during this study are as followed: Arthur J. Levin House (Palo Alto CA, 1954), Oscar Miller House (Milford Village MI; 1955), Mel R. and Carole Blumberg Residence (Clinton, IA, 1955), Gerald Sussman House (Poundridge, Westchester County, NY, 1955)5, J.L. Smith House (Kane Country IL; 1955), David Hunt House, (Scottsdale AZ, 1956), Gate Lodge for Edgar J. Kaufmann Jr. (Fallingwater, Mill Run PA, 1956), Leonard Jankowski House Scheme II (Oakland County MI, 1956), and Usonian Housing Project for Walter Bimson (Phoenix AZ, 1957).6 Literary Survey Usonian Automatic houses seem to have been considered a negligible part of Wright’s career. They were never studied as a category, and decisively left out in studies concentrating his work as a whole, or his residential buildings as a category. For instance, neither Vincent Scully, nor Neal Levine, both prime Wright scholars, incorporates automatic houses to their historical surveys of Wright’s work.6 Reflection on any one of them is occasionally included on studies framed by materials or methods. 7 Yet, with the exception of Leonard J. Morse-Fortier’s "From Frank Lloyd Wright's Usonian Automatic Building System: Lessons and Limitations in a Lost Paradigm,” (1994) 8 only a few studies concentrating on Usonian houses briefly mention them as a category of its own. And even then, neither the number and identification, nor the way they are treated is settled. 9 They are represented as a marginal fraction, or experimental projects on the way towards prefabrication, which matured in panel construction houses.10 The reason behind these later works of Wright being slippery ground for researchers might be a conceivable, yet never conducted, discussion of authorship. With the founding of Taliesin Fellowship Wright had a steady workforce of reliable drafters that he trained. Design drawings from that period were authorized by Wright with a red square aligned with drawing title, located on the bottom of the paper. While this was the custom for a few decades, the fact that he was over eighty years old when these buildings were designed and built puts them in a questionable position. It is not only his age that makes his supervision questionable, but also his active involvement with the construction of Guggenheim Museum throughout 1950s. Wright had put his energy and efforts into Guggenheim Project in a level that he might have put himself in a situation similar to his once-beloved master and former boss Louis Sullivan, who, by concentrating on public buildings and assigning residential ones to Wright, have opened up and directed Wright’s career. Precedents While the question of authorship remains to be dealt with, these projects are not as marginal within his oeuvre as they are presented. Concrete building blocks, which distinguish these houses from earlier Usonian examples, can be categorized as continuation of the textile blocks that Wright have designed and built with, in 1920s. 11 Interestingly, one of those buildings is pointed out by Wright as the first Usonian House, making it a possible intersection of Usonian Houses and concrete block construction. Although the list is never fixed -for Wright or Wright scholars-, Wright calls Millard House,12 a textile block house built in 1923 in Pasadena CA, as the earliest Usonian house (Wright, 1977,262-74). (fig.7) While Wright’s reference is the only possible connection between Millard House and Usonian Houses, 13 as a concrete block house, Millard house is a relative of Automatic houses if not family of first degree.

Fig.7: Millard House, (Pasadena CA, 1923), View from pond. Photo: Scott Mayoral. /Crosby Doe Associates Fig.8: Textile Block

construction system, c.1922. Fig.9: Corner detail from Samuel Freeman House (1923, Hollywood Hills, LA). Concrete blocks used in Millard House –and other textile block houses– differ from the blocks used in Usonian Automatic Houses in two aspects: their tectonic and symbolic character. Early concrete blocks were produced by pouring concrete in wooden molds. While molds shaped one side, the other side, top of the block in mold, was plain. 14 They were produced with mirrored textures and were laid as double skin walls, textured side facing inwards on the interior skin, and exterior on the outer skin. Like Usonian Automatic House blocks, they were reinforced along the vertical and horizontal lines, where blocks would meet but needed extra elements to bond two walls. 15 (fig.8)

Figure 10: In Benjamin Adelman House (1951), two different kinds of openings are located side by side. Both are fixed windows. The differences are the sizes and locations of the openings. Photo: Shuttermike Photography, 2012.

Figure 11: Toufic Kalil House (1955). View of the inner corner of L-shaped layout shows the units of operable, and fixed windows used interchangeably. Photo: Dave Williams, Flickr.

The openings of the double skin system used in Textile blocks were similar to frame systems with curtain walls rather than the Usonian Automatic blocks. Textile blocks were exclusively used for walls, which were visibly distinct from the rest of structural elements such as reinforced concrete beams and roof slabs. In addition to this disparity, units were occasionally subtracted for façade organizations, which resulted in images that contrast with the idea of weaving of parts and supports tile like character. (Fig. 9) While both systems required openings for doors, in late automatic houses windows were mostly integrated into the walls as a module. In Adelman House, both kinds of openings are visible, in later examples, like Kalil House, modularization is developed to the point of total integration. (Fig.10-11) Textile blocks and Automatic blocks also differ in their symbolic character. The period Wright experimented with textile blocks coincides with the re-discovery of civilizations on American continent (Amerindian) and their visual reproduction in publications. (Levine, 1996) It is also right after his adventures in Japan for Imperial hotel. Although, Wright never confesses such a link -except the visible link of nomenclature- the exposure to distinct cultures may have inspired a Semperian understanding of buildings’ vertical surfaces as bearers of symbolic meaning as much as means of physical enclosure. (Frampton, 1995) Unlike the textures of automatic house blocks, that are continuous and repetitive throughout the building, and organize and make up features of the walls -such as lighting screens or windows- the patterns of textile blocks are not continuous throughout the building. Textile blocks were paired with plain blocks and concrete walls that support the structure, and were often visible on the façade (fig.7). The blocks were laid to form stripes or shapes on the façade. They sometimes ran along the entire surface but due to their mirroring and countering patterns they create seamless looking patterns that are distinctly different than the expression of automatic blocks.

Figure 12: Living room of the Tracy House (Normandy Park, WA, 1954). Photo: Larry Woodin, Echome Foundation, Ochsner J.K., “Making Your Own House, One Block at a Time,” Arcade, 30.4, Fall 2012. Automatic building blocks were not cast to have patterns. As a possibility it was acknowledged by Wright, yet he never proposed. On the other, hand they created a distinct pattern. The blocks were hollowed out on one side or both to make them lighter. The repetition of profiles of blocks themselves as well as the hollowed shapes creates a pattern. In addition to its non-representational character, his pattern also differs from textile block patterns in its three dimensional character. While Textile blocks would create planes, on the interior side, these surfaces would be interrupted by structural elements. Automatic building blocks can create structurally reliable surfaces that are continuous through out the building envelope and ceiling. Although there are still beams carrying the flat roof and making its generous overhangs possible, they are hard to distinguish from the rest of the surfaces of enclosure. For instance, inside Tracy House, one can distinguish the parts of the ceiling that act as beams, yet no separate element is there. Visually, beams are simply a set of blocks that are of the same size with the ones making coffered slab, spanning the rest of the ceiling. Similarly, the piers, constituted of perforated blocks, located between doors, act like columns, delivering the load transferred by beam to

ground, but transparency of perforated blocks contrast the image of solid columns. Compared to columns built with conventional means, they are barely there. (Fig. 12) Figure 13: William Tracy positioning the Automatic Blocks of the piers of Tracy House. Photo: Estate of Martha (Elizabeth) Tracy. Included in Ochsner J.K., “Making Your Own House, One Block at a Time,” Arcade, 30.4, Fall 2012. Towards A Theoretical Framework

Usonian Automatic Houses are often characterized by their economic (as a mode of affordable housing) or technical (modularity, flexibility, self-building) performance; rarely, by both. What differentiates these buildings form both textileblock houses and other Usonian Houses was their aesthetic appeal as well as their tectonic character. Integration of different parts of building into each other through use of modular units, assembled in various ways, and integration of visual and structural character of the building, secured by use of single material, are not a mere outcome of economic and technical goals set.16 On the contrary, this integrity was intentional in the first place. It is a desired quality that Wright emphasized independently. Around the same time with the construction of these houses, Wright wrote: “Every house worth considering as a work of art must have a grammar of its own. `Grammar,' in this sense, means the same thing in any construction whether it be of words or of stone or wood. It is the shape relationship between the various elements that enter into the constitution of the thing. The `grammar' of the house is its manifest articulation of all its parts.” (Wright, 1954, p.181) For Wright, such a grammar would hold a building’s separate parts together and create harmony between parts, and between parts and whole. (Wright, 1954) It would be misleading to claim that such grammar, was unique to Usonian Automatic houses. It was an inherent component of Wright’s design throughout his career. Yet, it became clearer, and finer towards the end of his career. While both Prairie houses and Usonians speak a certain spatial language, in the latter, materials were used unfinished, and joints were left exposed. The more visible this language became, the more tangible it was to human mind. The question of tangibility was related with the buildings’ capacity to transmit meaning. He states that one ‘must be consistently grammatical for [building] to be understood as a work of art.’(Wright, 1954) Understanding house as a work of art, stated both in the text and the title, is an unmarked reference to John Dewey’s aesthetic theory.17 In Art as Experience, Dewey argues that aesthetic value is not inherent in the object, and readily accessible by an occasional look at the object. It is reproduced by the subject, who traces the marks left from the process of creation. In other words, it is discovered by the subject, who is willing to follow the footsteps of the artist, whether they be brush strokes, chisel marks, gesture of model or construction of the viewpoint. (Dewey, 1934) In the case of Usonian Automatic Houses, the grammar is visible through the omni-present grid that holds individual elements together. Grid is the index of its construction for the subject willing to discover. When the owner is also the builder, grid is not just an index, or a frame that holds pieces together, but using the linguistic analogy Wright employs, it becomes a language that owners speak.18 Therefore, the ‘automatic’ in the nomenclature, can also be interpreted as the cyclical nature of aesthetic experience owners of Usonian Automatic Houses has experienced. (Fig. 13)

Although there is no way to know, or test, what they meant to their owners, one could claim that these houses were beyond shelters and pragmatic enclosures. They stood for a way of living and were an aspect of their identity. They were mostly used by their initial owners until the owner passed away or the house became hard to maintain.19 In the exceptional case of Pappas House, owners’ fascination with their house was strong enough to motivate them to document and publish how it was built. Post WWII housing proposals are often associated with a housing shortage, which entails discussions of affordability, technical competency, availability of materials and labor but it is worth nothing that need was not the only determining factor of the construction activity. As Sargent pointed out, referring to a survey conducted by House and Home in 1958, desire for better housing and trading up was an important drive behind housing sector. (Sargent, 1984. p.148) When discussed in the framework of necessity or performance, the fact that these houses were not considered as mere shelter or commodity by their owners is overseen. They were parts of a discourse that transcended their scale; and objects of desire whose owners did not only possessed and inhabited but also loved and were affected by. Dewey’s theory of art as experience, and pleasure as a dialogue between the work of art and the subject experiencing it, is one of possible interpretations that would make the aesthetic appeal of Usonian Automatics tangible, and help demonstrate an alternative reading, which these buildings truly deserve. NOTES 1. Interviews with the owners of Tracy house and late owner of Tonkens house became available during the time houses hit the market for the first time in 2012 and 2013 after decades of continuous residency (Taylor, 2003) (Cincinnati.com, 2013). 2. In addition to the built examples listed above, Arthur Pieper House (1952, Paradise Valley AZ) is included in the list of Usonian Automatic Houses by Wright and multiple scholars. It was designed as a Usonian Automatic House, which would provide hands on experience to its owner, whom also had the commission to build Benjamin Adelman House. Although it has walls built with Usonian Automatic blocks, its roof that is built upon wooden beams, and corner blocks, which were cast-on site due to technical problems, make it an odd example among others. 1 Pieper house stands in the mid-point between the projects were concrete blocks were used as a kind of masonry and Usonian Automatic Houses where they seamlessly integrate structure and enclosure. Despite intensions of Wright and its owner, Pieper house is a close precedent rather than a Usonian Automatic house per se. 3. Unlike other three, the Usonian Automatic version of Cooke House was not the first proposal but the revised version upon request of the owner who found the first proposal too costly. He later refused the revised plan and built earlier version without consulting Wright. (Pfeiffer, 2011, p.444.) 4. Pieper-Montooth Building had only two offices and a drafting room. Clinic for Dr. Kundert and Dr. Fogo was slightly larger than Pieper-Montooth Building but still comparable to the residential ones. For, instance it was smaller than Turkel House. 5. There is also Dr. Robert G. Walton House (Modesto CA, 1957), which was originally proposed as a Usonian Automatic house but later changed into standard concrete block structure and built. Since Wright did not live to see the working drawings complete, which were signed in 1959 by William Wesley Peters, this project is omitted from suggested lists. 6. The last decade of Wright’s life and career is characterized by projects geometrically constructed with circles and arcs. Although they differ in scale, covering individual blocks, clusters and master plans, they seem to trace back Guggenheim rather than survey his projects from that period. (Scully, 1960) (Levine, 1996) 7. See for instance, Terry L. Patterson, Frank Lloyd Wright and the Meaning of Materials (1994); or Kenneth Frampton’s Studies in Tectonic Culture: The Poetics of Construction in Nineteenth and Twentieth Century Architecture (1995). 8. Although it offers a comprehensive introduction, and remains the most comprehensive study on Usonian Automatic Houses up to date, the study frames and evaluates Usonian Automatic Building System as a construction method. Moreover, it predates the personal and institutional accounts that became available when the buildings hit the market in 2000s. 9. For instance, Sargent extends the list to include self-build houses in Galesburg and Parkwyn Villages, near Kalamazoo Michigan. He includes a photo of McCartney House (1951, Parkwyn Village). Although it was built with concrete blocks, the way concrete blocks were used is more aligned with masonry construction than a modular building block system. McCartney house has a triangular plan and no corner modules. The blocks were shaped on site to meet the requirements of the plan. The house has a wooden roof that is supported by concrete block walls, the way they would be supported with any load bearing wall or frame structure. (Sargent, 1976) 10. In 1956-58 he designed four types of prefabricated wood frame and panel construction houses, which were manufactured by Marshall Erdman Company in Madison Wisconsin. (Sargent, 1976, pp.145-47) 11. Presumably it can be traced back to the Midway Gardens Project of 1913, but this link is through visual expression rather than tectonic character.

12. Also known as La Miniatura, Millard house (Pasadena, California 1923)was commissioned by Alice Millard, a rarebook dealer, who previoulsly commisioned Wright for another house. It is first of its kind just like Benjamin Adelman House was when it was built. Adelman House was the second house the owner commisioned. This seems to be a pattern that falls in line with the label ‘experimental’ associated with these buildings. 13. Its generous size (220 m2), and plan providing space for servants in addition to living quarters puts Millard House in a different category than Usonian houses. 14. A detailed description of how blocks were produced and assembled is given in relation to each other in Wrights’s The Natural House (1954. pp.196-205). Although they differed in terms of structural performance and symbolic expression, both concrete blocks and textile block were meant to be produced in standardized manner, as precise as possible but not necessarily ‘factoried’ away from the site. They were conceptualized as parts of a system that would allow multiple outcomes different in size, organization and relation to site. 15. The gap between two walls was thought as an insulating barrier running along the periphery, and a shortcut for rain that might penetrate the outer skin to be discarded. In some cases when the walls were furnished with wood – woodplates, bookshelves or other furniture for storage– inside, it was laid as a single wall and isolating layers were placed between the wall and the wood plates Their Performance did not meet the expectations of the owners. (Morse-Fortier, 1994.) 16. On the contrary, these buildings proved not to be as economical when they were built and, in the decades past they had a series of structural problems, mostly related with the concrete flat roof. (Morse-Fortier, 1994.) 17. John Dewey and Frank Lloyd Wright were contemporaries. Wright had a downtown office in Chicago while Dewey was a faculty member at the University of Chicago. They traveled the orient around the same time. (McCarter, 2006). This connection may look speculative, as neither side ever acknowledged the other. However, Dewey’s ‘Organic Democracy’ which he defines as a uniquely American form of democracy, that is beyond a system of governance, and more of a moral code, is very similar to Wright’s Notion of Organic Architecture. 18. The idea ‘knowledge being embodied in experience’ is in line with Dewey’s ideas on learning and education. (Dewey, 1938) 19. Except Adelman House, which was transferred to a foundation by its owner, and Pappas House whose date of construction is a decade after the rest, they re-surfaced through sales in 2000s, and were mostly in need of serious restoration due to structural deficiencies. Five decades is in line with their expected lifespan as concrete buildings.

REFERENCES Dewey, J. (1934). Art as experience. New York: Minton, Balch & Company. Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and education. New York: Macmillan. Frampton, K. (1995). Studies in tectonic culture. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. Levine, N. (1996). The architecture of Frank Lloyd Wright. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. Morse-Fortier, L. (1994). “From Frank Lloyd Wright's Usonian Automatic Building System: Lessons and Limitations in a Lost Paradigm”. Journal of Architectural and Planning Research, 11(4), pp.274-293. Pappas, B. K. (1985) Frank Lloyd Wright: No Passing Fancy: A Pictorial History. St. Louis: Bette K. Pappas. Patterson, T. (1994). Frank Lloyd Wright and the meaning of materials. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. Pfeiffer, B. B. (2011) Frank Lloyd Wright Designs: The Sketches, Plans and Drawings. New York: Rizzoli. Sargent, J. (1976). Frank Lloyd Wright's Usonian Houses: Thecase of Organic Architecture. New York: Whitney Library of Design. Scully, V. (1960). Frank Lloyd Wright, New York: G. Braziller. Wright, F. L. (1977). An autobiography. New York: Horizon Press. Wright, F. L. (1954). The natural house. New York: Horizon Press. Wright, F. L. (1945) When Democracy Builds. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

STRUCTURAL EVOLUTION OF HIGH-RISES: FROM HOME INSURANCE BUILDING TO BURJ KHALIFA GÖRKEM ARSLAN KILINÇ, AYŞİN SEV Görkem Arslan Kılınç, Research Assistant, Mimar Sinan Fine Arts University, Prof. Dr. Ayşin Sev, Faculty Member, Mimar Sinan Fine Arts University.

ABSTRACT High-rises are becoming one of the most demanded building typology worldwide. The source of this intense interest can be listed as growing population in city centers, high land prizes and countries’ desire to show economic and technologic status. However, it is a common knowledge that the first step of constructing a high-rise is to achieve structural stability. Home Insurance Building (1885) which is accepted as the first high-rise building, has cast iron and wrought iron columns, wrought iron beams and girders, and thick masonry walls which provide lateral resistance to wind loads. In 1899, Park Row Building reached 30 stories in New York. In 1903, the first concrete high-rise, 15 story Ingalls Building was constructed. Through the 19th Century, various building materials as concrete, steel and structural capacities of these materials were developed. By the 1910’s steel work started to encase in concrete to provide fire resistance. And also concepts of prestressing, using high-tensile steel become available in 1920’s. In the first half of the 20th Century many iconic buildings constructed with steel rigid frames with wind bracings as Wool Worth Building with 57 stories (1913), Chrysler building with 77 stories (1930) and Empire State Building with 102 stories (1931). On the other hand, it is observable that the increase in the heights of the buildings carried out without any important structural development and drawn on excessive material use. In other words, these building structures was designed ignoring structural efficiency. In 1963, Kahn introduced tube systems by his DeWitt-Chestnut Apartment design with 43 stories. In 1969, he put forward a classification for concrete and steel skeletons concerning efficiency of structural systems. And, this accelerate the seeking of efficient structural systems. Tube, core outrigger and diagrid systems were started to develop accordingly. Second half of the 20th Century witnessed construction of numerous high-rises with core-outrigger systems, diagrid systems and mega frames. Today, in the 21th Century, architects and engineers are designing unique structural systems for unique buildings. Indeed, in some cases unique software programs are designing for construction of a single high-rise as 30 St Mary Axe building. Today, the highest high-rise of the world, Burj Khalifa (2010), has a height of 828 meters with 163 stories. With a retrospective view, from Home Insurance Building (1885) to Burj Khalifa (2010), this paper reviews the evolution of high-rises and gives a brief explanation about structural systems by a number of high-rise building case studies. INTRODUCTION High-rises, which initially emerged in their elementary form in Chicago and subsequently developed in New York have now spread throughout the world at an ever-increasing rate. This dramatic increase beginning with the 19th century and running through the 21st century has been fueled by a large variety of local and/or global motivations, and therefore cannot be directly related to any single reason, such as population growth, density, land preservation, global competition, and etc. There are opinions, which criticize high-rises as intrusive and interfering with our organic way of living. On the other hand, there are fair causes for high-rises that these buildings provide opportunity for accommodating more people on less land, and continue as a building type to resolve the problem of increasing density of cities unless an alternative solution is found. Historically, the development of high-rises has been dependent on technological advancements. As the recent technologies become increasingly sophisticated, architects have the chance to design and build taller and also unique buildings that could never been possible previously. The primary constraints for these unique high-rises were the structural system and the construction technology. In this study, development of structural systems will be investigated and a brief explanation about structural systems will be put forward by a number of high-rise building case studies. History of High-rises The high-rises with habitable floors emerged within the context of two distinctive urban environments, those of Chicago and New York. The first high-rises in the second half of the 19th century arose from the simple fact that, people willingly

congregated in large numbers in these growing cities. Development was accelerated by large industrial and financial organizations as headquarters and office buildings. As a result of industrial revolution, cast and wrought iron started to use in construction and together this two forms of iron predominated in most early tall building construction (Leslie, 2010). Especially after the great fire (1871) which had destroyed 9 km² of the city from Sunday to early Tuesday, Chicago was started to rebuild by the “Chicago Frame” structures. Iron companies, as well as architects and engineers moved to Chicago, where there was much to be done after the great fire. In the late 19th century, early tall building developments were based on economic equations, such as to increase rentable area by stacking office spaces vertically and maximize the rents by providing much natural light as possible. The iron frame structure which minimized the depth and with of the structural members was efficient enough to provide this lightness. Consequently, the larger openings were filled with transparent glasses, where the frame elements were clad with solid materials brick or terra cotta. Different from traditional masonry walls, these claddings did not carry any loads from the building, except for their weights and the lateral loads.

Figure 1. Home Insurance Building 1885, Chicago (Craighead, 2009). Home Insurance Building (1885) which is accepted as the first high-rise building (Fig. 1), has cast iron and wrought iron columns, wrought iron beams and girders, and thick masonry walls which provide lateral resistance to wind loads (Jayachandran, 1991). The era of rapid development was 1880s and 1890s. During the 20 years after the 1880 illustrates the introduction and development of steel-framing technology (Friedman, 2012). At this era, the “skyscraper” was a popular term and Chicago’s fireproofed, steel-framed construction dominated the skylines of Chicago and New York. A series of high-rises were built by the end of the 19th century. In the 1890s, most European cities like London, Paris, and Rome rejected high-rises in their historical city centers and adopted for height control regulations to maintain their low skylines. Today, however, we witness Paris and London giving away their horizontality in favor of the vertical scale (Craighead, 2009). With the Great Depression (1930s) and the World War II (1939-45), there was a decline in tall building construction until the 1950’s. Following the World War II, the advent of computers in conjunction with a boom in the construction industry, facilitated the development of new structural systems and forms. It was now possible to analyze and investigate different structural systems and components with the aid of the computer, which had never been possible before. Conventional rigid frame systems were the prevalent structural systems for high-rises until then. In this era, the major driving force of tall building developments was simplicity and economy, which were aided by mass production. In terms of shape and form, high-rises of this period were predominantly large rectangular boxes, with deep office floor plans as a response to the economics of property in city centers. The skeleton of the buildings was clad with a curtain wall of glass and aluminum.

Figure 2. Lake shore drive apartments (Wigginton, 1996). Figure 3. Lever house (Wigginton, 1996). According to Butera (2005), with the development of glazed curtain wall and also impression of modern architecture, a number of architects designed and built many buildings as Lake Shore Drive Apartments (Fig. 2) and Lever House (Fig. 3), with poor thermal performance single-glazed curtain walls using these new materials without considerations about physical comfort and/or energy consumption. High-rises, such as Seagram Building (1958) in New York and IBM Building (1972) in Chicago were all clad with glass curtain walls with no shading devices, and also fully air conditioned to cool down the working places during the summer and heating during the winter. Also, with the impact of economic crisis at 1970’s new terms as “sustainability” and “energy consumption” started to become a current issue. Additionally, 1970s were the era of major structural innovations. The young engineer Fazlur Khan, utilized new methods of computer calculation to three-dimensionally analyze the effects of wind on structures and put forward a new structural idea: tubular systems. With this new structural concept, numerous giant structures such as the World Trade Centre and Sears Tower was built by the advance of tubular system. Another innovative structural system developed at the end of the 20 th century: Mega frames. Mega frames configured with mega columns on perimeter, a rigid core and outriggers linking the core to the mega columns. The MFs are considered to be reliable and efficient for high-rises of ultra-heights, since they offer the structural efficiency of providing high rigidity against lateral loads, with a minimum amount of structural materials. Today most of the super high-rise buildings taller than 70 stories are supported by mega-frames. The Petronas Twin Towers (Kuala Lumpur, 1998), Jin Mao Tower (Shanghai, 1999), Taipei 101 (Taipei, 2004) all utilize the concept of mega frames. The structural concept will be followed by new systems, such as the buttressed core system, which is applied in the tallest building of the world, the 828 meters tall Burj Khalifa (2010) in Dubai. Rigid steel system, tubular system, core and outrigger system and buttressed core system will be discussed in detail in the next chapter. From another point of view, it is obvious that besides structural developments, high-rises have undergone dramatic changes in number, location, height and technology throughout the world by the history. Behind this transformation are the population increase, rapid urbanization, economic and environmental reasons, as well as the iconicity and symbolic value of high-rises in urban skylines. The incremental increase in the construction of high-rises with the beginning of the 21st century was impressive, especially with the intense periods of construction in specific regions, such as Chicago and New York cities.

# Building Name 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 8 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Burj Khalifa Shanghai Tower Makkah Royal Clock Tower One World Trade Center TAIPEI 101 Shanghai World Financial Center International Commerce Centre Petronas Twin Tower 1 Petronas Twin Tower 2 Zifeng Tower Willis Tower KK100 Guangzhou International Finance Center 432 Park Avenue Trump International Hotel & Tower Jin Mao Tower Princess Tower Al Hamra Tower Two International Finance Centre 23 Marina

City

Height (m) Floors Completed Material

Use

Dubai (AE) Shanghai (CN) Mecca (SA) New York City (US) Taipei (TW)

828 632 601 541.3 508

163 128 120 94 101

2010 2015 2012 2014 2004

steel/concrete composite steel/concrete composite composite

office / residential hotel hotel / office other / hotel office office

Shanghai (CN)

492

101

2008

composite

hotel / office

Hong Kong (CN) Kuala Lumpur (MY) Kuala Lumpur (MY) Nanjing (CN) Chicago (US) Shenzhen (CN)

484 451.9 451.9 450 442.1 441.8

108 88 88 66 108 100

2010 1998 1998 2010 1974 2011

composite composite composite composite steel composite

hotel / office office office hotel / office office hotel / office

Guangzhou (CN) 438.6 New York City (US) 425.5

103 85

2010 2015

composite concrete

hotel / office residential

Chicago (US) Shanghai (CN) Dubai (AE) Kuwait City (KW)

423.2 420.5 413.4 412.6

98 88 101 80

2009 1999 2012 2011

concrete composite steel/concrete concrete

residential / hotel hotel / office residential office

Hong Kong (CN) Dubai (AE)

412 392.4

88 88

2003 2012

composite concrete

office residential

Table 1. Top 20 high-rises of the world (The global tall building database of the CTBUH, 2016). The boom of 1990s and 2000s has been also noteworthy. The tall building type has shifted to Asian Countries, such as China, Korea, Japan and Malaysia. Finally, the Middle Eastern countries, such as United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia and Qatar, are taking the benefits of tall building construction. Today, as seen in Table 1 only four of the top 20 high-rises of the world in the United States of America. With the shift from West to East, many characteristics of tall building design and construction have also undergone dramatic changes and progressed with the advent of innovations in design and construction technologies, as well as new materials and aesthetic perceptions. Advancement in structural systems, building materials and information technologies are the main driving forces, which shape the modern skyscrapers of our current time. Structural Developments in High-rises The developments in structural design of high-rises essentially occurred by the advance of development of mechanics, which enabled the study of design on a more rational basis, and the introduction of a new manufactured material “steel”. Previous to development of steel, building construction was driven by materials such as stone and brick laid in mortar and design methods were mainly based on empirical design rules. By the 15th and 17th centuries steel was used only as iron rods for tensile strengths in arches and vaults. By the 18th century iron was started to produce in commercially scale in England (Jayachandran, 1991). At this period cast iron was used for column production (1750-1850) and wrought iron was used for beams (1850-1900) because of its ductility. The academic studies on structural mechanics started in the second half of the 19 th century. And also first major cast iron arch structure, “Severn River Bridge”, was constructed in England (Deplazes, 2005). At the beginning of the 19th Century, a typical industrial building framing system consisted of the following: cast iron girders supported on solid brick walls or cast iron columns, the floor system made up of brick jack arches spanning the girders, with the spandrels filled with rubble or weak lime concrete (Jayachandran, 1991). In line with zeitgeist of the 19th century, factories and ware houses were started to build. Crystal Palace in London with its frame work structure and iron beams and columns was one of the most important example of iron structures. Although iron and steel had eliminated the need to use brick structures to resist gravity forces, lateral loading was still a problematic for high rise structures. To resist lateral loads masonry shear walls used by rules of thumb at this period. Here the world of bridge engineering, where large iron and steel cantilevers were common, showed the way forward. By taking bridge trusses and standing them on end, engineers had a valid model for designing against wind loads. Masonic Temple (1892), Old Colony (1895), Reliance Building (1895), Fisher Building (1896) were the buildings which provide empirical inputs for resisting lateral loads by their steel bracings. Cross or sway bracings, knee braces, and portal frames were used and tested at this period (Leslie, 2010). Shortly, just as iron had eliminated the need to use structures made of brick to resist gravity, so steel eliminated the remaining need to employ masonry to brace buildings against the wind. Freed from massive masonry walls, steel frames could then fulfill the promise of metal to create light and open structures that occupied negligible floor and sectional space (Leslie, 2010).

By the first half of the 20th century iron and steel rigid frame structures served as the backbone for nearly all skyscrapers. İconic skyscrapers as Chrysler Building (1930) and Empire State Building (1931) was reached 77 and 102 stories without any structural development depending on excessive material use (Ali & Moon, 2007). On the other hand, concrete played second fiddle in the development of high-rises. Although reinforced concrete was developed in 1867, the first multi-story building “Ingall Building” was built in 1903 and concept of prestressing, using high-tensile steel was become available in 1920. In the mid-1960s building higher than 50 or 60 stories became possible only with the development of an entirely new framing system. As afore said, a structural engineer Fazlur Khan put forward a new structural idea, “tubular systems”, which designed to both carry gravity loads of the building and resist the lateral loads upon it (Ascher, 2011).

Figure 4. Steel Structures (Ali & Moon, 2007). Figure 5. Concrete Structures (Ali & Moon, 2007). In 1969 structural system for high-rises classified in relation with their heights by Khan. With some revisions committed in 1970’s, two schemes for both steel and concrete which still use in today were put forward (Fig. 4-5). According to him, the rigid frame that had dominated tall building design and construction so long was not the only system; he also reasoned that the structure could be threatened in a holistic manner, that is, the building could be analyzed in three dimensions, supported by computer simulations, rather than as a series of planar systems in each principal direction. Feasible structural systems, according to him, are rigid frames, shear walls, interactive frame-shear wall combinations, belt trusses, and the various other tubular systems (Sev, 2015).

Figure 6. Interior Structures (Ali & Moon, 2007). Figure 7. Exterior Structures (Ali & Moon, 2007). It should be noted that, although various classifications were made after Kahn’s structural scheme’s as Ali and Moon’s (2007) interior and exterior structures (Fig. 6-7), Kahn’s structural schemes are still protecting their popularity.

Figure 8. Plan of the De Witt Chestnut Apartments (URL-1). Khan in relation with his structural researches, tested his own engineering breakthrough. The “tubular system” for the first time in his reinforced concrete De Witt Chestnut Apartments (Fig. 8) in Chicago, built between 1962 and 1965 (Ascher, 2011). By the 1970’s three giant buildings were all built with the advance of tube technology: John Hancock Centre (1970, braced tube), The World Trade Center Tower (1972, framed-tube), Sears Tower (1974, bundled-tube). Although tube systems enable required rigidity and heightens, blocking view because of perimeter tube cause suspicion among architects and engineers. Accordingly, based on tube idea, a new structural system was devised in the 1990’s: Outrigger System (Ascher, 2011). In perimeter or bundled tube structures majority of the lateral load resistance was provided by the exterior frame, with little or no contribution from the building core. In outrigger systems, in place of myriad exterior column which tubular systems have, the building perimeter feature a smaller number of super columns attached to a high-strength core by massive outrigger arms that stretched horizontally across the building at various levels. Super columns are attach to one another by belt walls at regular intervals.

Figure 9. Interaction of core and outriggers (Choi, Ho, Joseph, & Mathias, 2012). Basically, in an outrigger system outriggers act as stiff arms engaging outer columns, when central core tries to tilt, a tension-compression couple occurs at the outrigger level and building perimeter (Fig. 9). Thus, while core horizontal shear forces are increase in outrigger stories, core over turning moment is shortened (Choi, Ho, Joseph, & Mathias, 2012).

Figure 10. Tour de la Bourse outrigger layout in plan (Choi, Ho, Joseph, & Mathias, 2012).

A very early example of this structure is 47-story Tour de la Bourse (1965) in Montreal. This building is 190 meters high and was the first concrete structure to integrate outriggers. As seen in Fig. 10 Tour de la Bourse have 4 large corner columns, a central core and four levels of X-braced transverse outrigger trusses connecting the core to the corner columns. Later, the core and outrigger system was extended to steel-framed towers. First examples of steel-framed coreand-outrigger systems can be seen in 140 William Street and US Bank center.

Figure 11. Taipei 101 plan and section layout (Sev, 2015). Although numerous building was constructed by core-and-outrigger structure (Millennium Tower, Dearborn Center, Chicago Spire, Jin Mao Center, Two International Finance Center, Shanghai Tower and so on) until today, among them most notable is Taipei 101 (2004) in Taiwan (Fig.11). The 508meters tall tower’s all steel structural system comprises a braced core of chevron and diagonal braces, multi-story and dingle-story outriggers, belt trusses and eight super columns. Within the core, sixteen columns are located at the crossing points of four lines of bracing in each direction. The columns are boxes of steel plates filled with concrete for added stiffness at lower levels. A mix of single, double and triple story outriggers are distributed every eight to ten floors along the building height. On each building face they engage two vertical mega columns. Below the 26th floor, additional outriggers engage two more columns on each façade, and belt trusses engage corner columns, as well. The core was designed as a concentric braced frame (Sev, 2015).

Figure 12. World’s tallest buildings. Shortly, until 2008 tall building structures evolved by the time from the masonry-iron structures to the core and outrigger system. Fig. 12 illustrates this structural evaluation process through the tallest structures of the world. As seen in Fig. 12, by the 2008 a new structure “buttressed core” added to list by the completion of Burj Khalifa. The tallest building of the world “Burj Khalifa” will be discussed in details in the next section. Tallest Building of the World: Burj Khalifa

Figure 13. Burj Khalifa, 2008 (Aldred, 2010). Burj Khalifa (828 m) is the tallest structure ever built by man (Fig. 13). Tower has 165 stories, and include residential, hotel, commercial, office, entertainment, shopping, leisure, and parking facilities. The average daily occupancy of the building is excess of 6000 people. The inspiration of the design concept was the “Hymenocallis” a desert flower, which has an organic form with tri-axial geometry, also applied in traditional Islamic architecture. The plan shape of the tower consists of an hexagonal core in the center and three wings linked to the core forming a Y-shaped floor plan, which is inherently stabile and suggests many architectural and structural advantages. The three wings act as a buttresses supporting the core and stabilizing the structure against lateral loads, and offer panoramic views of its surrounding, including the Persian Gulf. The plan shape also enables the maximum amount of perimeter, providing accessibility to views and daylight without allowing tenant to look into neighboring units, which would be culturally unacceptable. Each wing, consisting of four bays, steps back at

every seventh floor, and varying the distance in height between steps, the tower appears to grow at a constant accelerating rate as it reaches for the sky, emphasizing its extreme height. Varying the plan shape as the tower rises tends to “confuse the wind”, thus preventing the wind vortexes becoming organized and allowing a very efficient and economic structure.

Figure 14. Burj Khalifa plan layout (Abdelrazaq, 2011). As a mixed-use mega-tall building, the Burj Khalifa required floor plates with shallow lease spans that maximize the amount of exterior glazing area in the living spaces. Therefore, a wide footprint to provide sufficient stability to resist high wind loads was designed at the bottom of the tower. The result as a system consisting of a hexagonal reinforced concrete central core with three wings, named a “buttressed core”. Loads from one are transferred to the other two wings via the core. Corridor walls extent from the central core to near the end of each wing, terminating in thickened “hammer-head walls”. Perimeter columns on the end of each wing and flat plate floor construction complete the system (Fig. 14). Reinforced concrete walls in each wing are arranged in a 9-meter module that matches the setbacks of the tower. This allows the building to be shaped without transfers; the columns in the end of each wing sit directly on the walls below. The thicknesses of these walls vary between 1300 mm and 500 mm, and typically linked through a serious of 800 mm to 1100 mm deep reinforces concrete link beams at every level. Due to the limitation on the link beam depth, ductile composite link beams are provided in certain areas of the core wall system. There are 27 reductions totally in floor size to control wind shear and vortex shedding. To increase lateral resistance and strength of the frame, concrete outrigger walls tie the vertical structure at every 30 floors, where mechanical equipment’s are placed. The result is an extremely efficient solution to the potentially conflicting structural requirements. The tower is built with reinforced concrete to level 156, and then structural steel to the pinnacle. High-performance concrete was utilized for the tower, with wall and column concrete strengths ranging from C80 to C60 cube strength. Additionally, in order to provide increased stiffness to the system, C80 wall and column concrete was specified as a highmodulus concrete. The concrete mix was designed to provide low permeability and high durability, and contained 13% fly ash and 10% silica fume with a maximum aggregate size of 20 millimeters. The mixture is virtually self-consolidating with an average slump flow of approximately 600 millimeters. The top section of the tower consists of a structural steel spire using a diagonally braced lateral system. The height of this steel spire is approximately 230 meters. The exterior exposed steel is protected with a flame-applied aluminum finish. CONCLUSION As a result of social, economic and technologic developments high-rises, with their benefits, were gained popularity through the history. The demand for high-quality high-rises has resulted in the increase in design intelligence and advancements of science and engineering. These advancements push the boundaries of how architecture is perceived by the society and architects’ potential for unconventional design through visionary projects and technological innovations. In addition, the utilization of information technologies worldwide has fascinated the design and construction of high-rises with limitless possibilities. The search for higher quality buildings with better living and working environments encouraged innovations in areas, such as structural systems, service engineering, façade technologies computer sciences, and sustainable building technologies, as well. These innovations enabled designer to design, build and operate high-rise buildings, which are environmentally and economically sustainable, and also provide healthier and comfortable indoor environments. However, it should be noted that only the innovations in structural systems is included in this study.

The design and construction of the World’s tallest building “Burj Khalifa” represents the state-of-the-art in mega highrises. It capitalizes on the latest advances in wind engineering, construction materials and methods to result in a structure that goes beyond anything that has been achieved before. The tallest structure ever built, it realizes the aspirations of mankind to reach the sky. Lessons learned from the design and construction of Burj Khalifa will help future mega highrises increase the efficiency and reduce environmental impact associated with construction and raw material extraction. REFERENCES (2016, April 05). The global tall building database of the CTBUH: http://skyscrapercenter.com/buildings Abdelrazaq, A. (?). Validating the structural behaviour and response of Burj Khalifa: synopsis of the full scale structural health monitoring programs. Abdelrazaq, A. (2011). Validating the dinamics of the Burj Khalifa. CTBUH Journal, 18-23. Aldred, J. (2010). Burj Khalifa–a new high for high-performance concrete. Proceedings of the institution of civil engineers (s. 66–73). Sydney, Australia: GHD Pty Ltd. Ali, M. M., & Moon, K. S. (2007). Structural Developments in High-rises: Current Trends and Future Prospects. Architectural Science Review, 50(3), pp. 205-223. Ascher, K. (2011). The Heights: Anatomy of a Skyscraper. New York, USA: Penguin Group. Butera, F. M. (2005). Glass architecture: is it sustainable? Proceedings of the International Conference Passive and Low Energy Cooling for the Built Environment. Santorini-GREECE. Choi, H. S., Ho, G., Joseph, L., & Mathias, N. (2012). Outrigger Design for High-Rise Buildings. Routledge. Craighead, G. (2009). High-Rise Security and Fire Life Safety. Burlington, USA: Elseiver. Deplazes, A. (2005). Constructing Architecture: Materials Processes Structures a Handbook. Berlin: Birkhauser Verlag AG. Friedman, D. (2012). Hidden Intricacies: The Development of Modern Building Skeletons. APT Bulletin, 43(4), 13-21. Jayachandran, P. (1991). A Historical Perspective of Structural Engineering. Leslie, T. (2010). Built Like Bridges: Iron, Steel, and Rivets in the Nineteenth-century Skyscraper. Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, 69(2), 234-261. Oldfield, P., Trabucco, D., & Wood, A. (2008). Five energy generations of high-rises: A Historical analyses of energy consumption in high rise building. Dubai: 8 th CTBUH World Congress 2008. Sarkısıan, M. (2012). Designing High-rises: Structure as Architecture. New York: Taylor&Francis Group. Sev, A. (2015). Innovations in Tall Building Design nd Technology: From Balloon Frame to the Megastructures. Saarbrücken, Germany: Scholars' Press. URL-1. (tarih yok). http://www.chicagoarchitecture.info/Building/4272/The-Plaza-on-Dewitt.php URL-1. (tarih yok). https://www.wbdg.org/references/cs_timbertower.php Wigginton, M. (1996). Glass in architecture. Hong Kong: Phaidon Press.

FOCUS ON LIVED SPACES AND IDENTITY: THE PARADIGM OF THE URBAN DESIGN WITH RESIDENTIAL HIGH-RISES IN ENGLAND ELENA KALCHEVA, YURI HADI, AHMAD TAKI Elena Kalcheva, Miss, Leicester School of Architecture, De Montfort University, Leicester, LE1 9BH UK, Ahmad Taki, Mr, Leicester School of Architecture, De Montfort University, Leicester, LE1 9BH UK, Yuri Hadi, Leicester School of Architecture, De Montfort University, Leicester LE1 9BH UK ABSTRACT Residential high-rises find more and more often their place in central parts of the big British cities. Due to intrinsic characteristics of the typology, they are bound to be observed, evaluated and discussed. Therefor the purpose of this research is through observation of nine prominent high-rise buildings in Manchester, Birmingham and London, subjected to rigorous analysis, to evaluate their ability to maintain identity and to be decisive part of the lived spaces around them. The research achieves this goal through four research questions: how is the design addressing the creation of strong identity of the researched buildings; are the identity-creating features of the design contradicting major placemaking principles; what characteristics have the lived spaces around the residential high-rises; what messages send the design of the lived spaces? The methodology relies on observational survey of the researched areas with the help of structured questions, to evaluate the external qualities of the residential high-rises and their surroundings. Visual information can construct the basis to identify the shortcomings and the downsides of the examined project examples. It can provide insight on how can be improved imageability, legibility and the sense of place. In this connection, the results show that even though it was found that the high-rises with their abstract form, memorable design and creative use of materials and architectural techniques maintain strong identity, the functional quality of the lived spaces around them is low, there are missing squares, gardens and playgrounds in close proximity and the only experience provided for the users is street life, which however exciting is too limited to only few activities such as eating, drinking, shopping or just walking and looking at limited typology of spaces. The implications of this research are that the British planners will address these problems and future projects will have better placemaking component. Keywords: British architecture, identity, high-rise, placemaking INTRODUCTION Global universalization and internationalisation place the challenge in front the architectural practice to create meaningful places and tall buildings with strong identity that fit into their context. It is common to see contemporary high-rises that disrupt their surroundings and have little respect for decades of traditional architecture. The pace with which England embraces the high-rise construction raises the question if it is possible to create new tall buildings that take an active part into the placemaking process and introduce quality and new meaning into their locus, without compromising their identity and the identity of the context. From an artistic point of view, it is not defensible to simply implement traditional form for the sake of preserve identity since poorly executed traditionally styled building is a failure for the tradition and our senses. The designers need to understand how to respect, preserve, and reuse the old to create new communities that are lively and diverse. Architecture should enhance the surroundings by embracing and respect local design considerations, cultural themes and materials, and be in harmony with the local environment (Zhang, 2008). To design vertical offers as many opportunities as threads, but there is no doubt that the high-rises are the symbol of modernity and the future. High-rises often represent landmarks, since their significant vertical dimension naturally attract attention, but this is not enough, abstract form and memorable design also need to be present. They need to create sense of place identity that engages the observer. This is not only a task for the visual characteristics but also for the functions of the buildings. A sense of place identity originates from the multiple ways in which place functions to provide a sense of belonging, construct meaning, foster attachments, and manage change. The place identity of a person can inform their experiences, behaviours, and attitudes about other places (Proshansky, Fabian, and Kaminoff, 1983). Without vivid public realm, high-rise complexes are often characterized by anonymity and social isolation. The urban space as the space for social life of the people is influenced by the existence of tall buildings. Many experts stress on three main characteristics of the urban space: the space being confined; the space has aesthetic quality; social functions and activities are executed in that space. But to create lived space we need images and symbols. Lived space is a space

of pure subjectivity, of human experiences. It is mainly through the specific relationship that the environment attains its symbolic significance as a substrate of social, emotional and action-related contents. The relationship with the physical surroundings is particularly considered as bound up with specific experiences (Lalli, 1992). There is a danger of simple “image-making”: the designers need to create deeper connection between the user and the result of the design. Neighbourhood perception, ideas of community, sense of belonging and a sense of place need to be enhanced. The public spaces of high-rise complexes are vital places that enable residents to develop social interaction and recognition. In other words, they are interactional spaces and “social arenas”. Residential outdoor spaces are an extension of living space and part of the home (Huang, 2006). To create regional identity, designers need to develop an identity map for each planning area. The identity map includes icons, activity nodes, focal points, essential routes and gathering places, which are landmarks in the social landscape. Such landmarks could offer stability amid change and renewal. Preserving and implementing them into the new plans is a way to reinforce the identity of the area (Kiang, 1995). Appearances can also communicate between the members of a society by providing social meaning and common experience. Historically, urban spaces are loaded with symbolic value for citizens, in ceremonies and festivals as well as in protests and conflicts. Some places and landmarks have been used as symbols of collective identity, or as markers for navigating the city. Welldesigned urban environments are bringers of social meaning for the people of a city, providing a basis for social identities in the globalized, urbanized societies (Madanipour, 2006). Culture is a more prominent feature of the urban landscape. Locally and globally, it is regarded as playing a significant part in place-marketing strategies by representing the identity of a city and, by expression, displaying the city’s qualities, resulting in both attracting investment and strengthening civic pride (Wansborough and Mageean, 2010). The aim of this study is to evaluate through observation the lived spaces and the identity of nine residential high-rise buildings in London, Birmingham and Manchester. The study achieves its goal through four research questions: a. b. c. d.

What are the design means by which identity is achieved for the researched buildings? Are the identity-creating features of the individual buildings and the placemaking in conflict? What are the characteristics of the lived places? What are the major massages conveyed by the lived spaces?

Literature review The architecture exemplifies the project of modernity in all its creative ambivalence more than any other field. In many cases the tensions which are so typical for modernity are given specific form by architectural projects. The universalistic ambitions of European modernity reached a built embodiment in modernist architecture which imposed form – combining aesthetic form and functionality– on the multi-cultural civilization. Although many of these civilizational styles – for example there was a German and a French Rococo – reflected culture, the universality of architecture as an expression of European civilization is doubtless (Delanty and Jones, 2002). It is very significant that modernist architecture, distributed in the name of “International”, was embraced in many Third world countries: Turkey, Brazil, Morroco, Ghana, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Indonesia, Singapore among others-to represent nationhood, which was generally decided as stemming from remote antiquity and grounded in cultural uniqueness. A careful analysis shows that the mechanisms behind this are multi-layered: first the modernity became the nation’s new identity and secondly: stylistic differentiation served as an important strategy in the art of identity making (Lu, 2011). Nowadays cities challenge designers to create outdoor environments as collective, unifying frameworks for new developments. Too often the designer’s contribution is limited to after-the-fact cosmetic treatment of spaces that are illshaped and ill-planned as a public realm in the first place. The common process of urban development regards buildings as isolated objects situated in the site, not as a part of the larger fabric of streets, squares and viable open space (Trancik, 1986) The skyscraper developed from being an icon only of American identity and corporate power to become representative of modernity in other parts of the world. The mere height of a building was never the determinative characteristic of what became known as the “Modern Movement”. Still, for reasons mimetic of the United States, the iconic high-rise has become a metaphor of modernity (King, 2004). Innovative design of space can effectively generate place identity in the same ways built heritage has been used in modern—culturally interrelated and nation-state-oriented—European societies. The outcome of Gospodini (2004) research supports the statement that innovative design schemes: (1) can allow divergent interpretations by individuals thereby fitting into the ‘diversity’ and ‘individualization’ of new modernity; (2) can synchronize different ethnic/cultural/social groups by serving as a new common terrain for experiencing and familiarizing with new forms of

space; (3) by becoming landmarks and promoting tourism/economic development, can promote new social solidarities among inhabitants based on ‘civic pride’ and economic prospects. METHODOLOGY An observation based on observation template with several urban design and architectural questions has been implemented in order to achieve the research goal. Observation is a powerful method to use when the subject features are ready to see. The observation conducted for the study is covert, so the observed people continue with their daily activities undisturbed and there is no need for obtaining respondents’ agreement to participate in the study. There are potential ethical problems. However, an effort to preserve the privacy and anonymity of all the participants was made and the observation focused on the built environment, not the people. The observation was carried out in January, 2016. RESULTS Nine buildings in England were examined for their architectural features promoting identity and for their contribution to the lived spaces around them. The buildings were Ontario Tower, The Shard and The Strata in London; Orion Building, The Cube, The Rotunda in Birmingham; Skyline Central, 1 Deansgate and ISIS Wharf Tower in Manchester.

Fig. 1 a) The Shard

b) Ontario Tower

c) The Strata

All the buildings are exemplifying abstract form that is unique and promotes the strong expression of values such as vigour, diversity and power. The Shard has a pyramidal structure that combined with the significant height of the building strongly impresses the viewer. Ontario building and the Strata are cylindrical prisms with cut top. Skyline Central and ISIS Wharf Tower rely on memorable massing for relentless mental image in the viewers. This is a part of the designers’ strategy to use form to evoke identity. Memorable design is also implemented to create strong architecture. However, the means to do this are different. 1 Deansgate is not so high, but the distinctive inclined columns over the basis of the buildings create unforgettable image of prominent, modern building contributing to the cosmopolitan reputation of Manchester. The Shard is a slick, elegant high-rise designed as a spire-like structure emerging from the River Themes, a positive addition to the London skyline. The design of the Cube and the Strata relies on artistic treatment of the facades with diverse shapes and colours. Ontario Tower and the Rotunda have memorable modern facades, while the Orion Building is classic and minimalistic in the façade design. ISIS Wharf Tower and Skyline Central creates uniqueness by contrasting colours of the external walls and the glazing to stress on their impressive massing. The placemaking with residential high-rises in England is somehow problematic due to planning reasons. Most often, the high-rises are fitted into the existing urban fabric, without providing them with enough space for social functions. Because of this, the lived space for the reviewed examples is the street.

Fig. 2 a) Orion Building

b) The Cube

c) The Rotunda

However, the buildings manage to exist in harmony with their surroundings, contributing for the positive image of the urban setting by their form and memorable design. There is contrast in heights and materials in some of the cases (The Rotunda, The Shard, The Cube) which makes the relationship with the context dramatic but the result remains aesthetic. The sense of place is mostly created by the strong presence of the high-rises. The human scale is respected by difference between the bases of the buildings and the rest and sensitive tower articulation. Because of their unique shape and contrast with the context, the high-rises can be considered landmarks. There is a problem with spacing: not all the buildings (Skyline Central, The Shard, The Strata and Orion Building) are arranged along the paths in structured and balanced manner.

Fig. 3 a) 1 Deansgate

b) ISIS Wharf Tower

c) Skyline Central

Their dispersed manner of arrangement damages imageability. The unique façades also lack coherence with the lower buildings around, there is chaotic mixture of styles and designs. The lived spaced around the high-rises in the research are mostly the street. They are in active use, offering many services and amenities on the ground floors of the high-they are massively used by pedestrians too. The users can enjoy prominent modern design that evokes feelings of civic pride, challenges perceptions and offers rich urban experiences. The highrises turn the common existing part of the city into a place worth to see and in cases of proximity to historical objects, into a palette of architectural excellence. The messages conveyed by the lived space in conjunction with high-rises are that social interactions and active life-style are vital for the British society. The attachment to the city environment is also embedded into the message of the city street with high-rises. Going for a coffee, freedom to shop are all valued experiences that are empowered by the design of the urban space with high-rises. Discussion The search of the “own” and the preservation of values is in the roots of the formation of identity. Incorporating transcendent values in new buildings is a winning approach. According to Torabi and Brahman (2013) there are several factors to be considered when aiming at achieving architecture with strong identity: Spatial Organization: there must be different relationships between defined spaces in different environments. Thus using the space to affect the perception of the audience is crucial. Unfortunately, the spaces around the towers are mostly the street so there is no real differentiation and transition between different spatial functions. This is a step back in creating memorable environment with identity. However, the streets are busy and with active frontages, which enhances identity for the users. Semantic Organization: Feelings, perceptions and experiences of a community promote shared ideas leading to definite cultural symbols known by the people. Understanding these signs is vital for the preservation of the identity in architecture. The researched towers are representing vigour and power which is typical for the high-rise architecture in England and is a trend that maintains certain image, thus promoting strong identity. The green design is also a trend expected by the users. Strata’s green power by wind turbines implemented on the roof not only contributes to unique looks but also shows that England is a nature friendly nation. Rich architectural styles in one place is also loved by the British so the researched towers implement it. Shape and Forms: using meaningful form in creating architecture spaces can be a way to achieve identity-oriented construction in contemporary architecture. All the buildings have an abstract, engaging form that maintains unforgettable image in the viewer which helps build a strong architectural identity. Building Materials: understanding and proper using of semantic features and materials are vital for architecture identity. The materials used are standard glass and steel, but their visual properties are quite unique which breeds diversity and identity.

Relationship with Context: Harmony between design and the surrounding environment and the minimum intervention in the context natural environment is the way for creating identity –oriented works. The relationship with the context is dramatic due to the differences in height and the styles, while natural environment is almost missing, however the highrises manage to create a delicate balance that is accountable for the promotion of strong place identity. The lived spaces around the buildings are busy streets with active frontages that relate to a loved life-style and values such as prominent design and culture society. The buildings offer services and amenities on the ground floor, some more successfully than others, such as 1 Deansgate which is perfectly exemplifying modern city high-rise design, attachment to the city life and bond to the British architecture. CONCLUSION The high-rise architecture is spectacular and if properly designed, offers the opportunities to create strong identity. The observation of nine high-rise buildings in England led to the notion that there were created architectural objects which form and memorable design contribute positively to the image and identity of the cities they are situated in. Even though there are some problems with harmony with the context, the factors that lead to achievement of identity has been considered and the buildings manage to serve successfully their social function in the urban fabric. A serious downside is the lack of squares, gardens and playgrounds in conjunction with the high-rises which would create more value for the lived space around them. The implications of the research are that in the future planners will fix this omission and better lived spaces will be created.

REFERENCES Delanty, G., Jones, P., 2002, European identity and architecture, [online] Available at [accessed 25/12/2015] Gospodino, A., 2004, Urban Morphology and Place Identity in European Cities: Built Heritage and Innovative Design, , [online] Available at [accessed 25/12/2015] Huang, S., 2006, A study of outdoor interactional spaces in high-rise housing, [online] Available at [accessed 25/12/2015] Kiang, H., 1995, From Architectural Heritage to identity in Singapore, [online] Available at [accessed 25/12/2015] King, A., 2004, Spaces of Global cultures: Architecture, Urbanism, Identity, Routlegde, London Lalli, M., 1992, Urban-Rlated Identity: Theory, Measurement and Empirical Findings, [online] [accessed 25/12/2015] Lu, D., 2011, Third world modernism: Architecture, Development and identity, Routledge, Oxon Madanipour, A., 2006, Roles and challenges of urban design, [online] [accessed 25/12/2015] Proshansky, H., Fabian, A., and Kaminoff, R., 1983, Place and Identity. IN: The People, Place, and Space Reader, ed. GiesekingJ., Mangold, W., Katz, C., Low, S., Saegert, S. Torabi, Z., Brahman, S., 2013, Effective Factors in Shaping the Identity of Architecture, [online] [accessed 25/12/2015] Transic, R., 1986, Finding lot space: theories of urban design, John Wiley&Sons, Canada Wansborough, M., Mageean, A., 2010, The Role of Urban Design in Cultural Regeneration, [online] [accessed 25/12/2015] Zhang, M., 2008, Building brand identity: sustainable yet iconic high-rise design for China’s power companies, [online] Available at [accessed 25/12/2015]

NANOTECHNOLOGY IN CONSTRUCTION: A MATTER OF FASHION OR REAL POTENTIALITIES? MANFREDI SAELI Department of Architecture (DARCH), Polytechnic School, University of Palermo [email protected], [email protected]

Key words: nanotechnology, nanomaterials, nanocomposite materials, construction industry. ABSTRACT Generally speaking, the prefix nano- means a billionth, that is to say 1 x 10-9. The word “nanotechnology” deals with everything having dimensions of the order of a billionth of a meter, the “nanometre” indeed, and refers broadly to a field of applied science and technology whose unifying point is the possibility to control the matter on the molecular or atomic scale – generally ranging from 1 to 100 nanometres [nm] – and the fabrication of materials, devices and systems within that size range. The history of nanotechnology began in 1959, when Richard Feynman indicated to scientists a new route of investigation: “There is plenty of rooms at the bottom”. Understanding phenomena and materials on a very small scale could have complemented the prevailing interest in “big science” of that time. Ever since, nanotechnology has been regarded as an emerging field of investigation, introducing a new dimension to science and technology with the possibility of manipulating matter, atoms and molecules, at the nanometre level. During the last decade, in particular, nanotechnologies had an amazing boost in all the fields of science and technology and, if since some years ago “insiders” only knew its real and intrinsic significance, nowadays such a word entered our dictionaries in an unbridled way and almost everybody imagine its possible meaning. Nano- can be found in materials, in medicine, in make-up, in clothes, in sport, and even in food or in our smartphone having some (erroneous) “nano-sims” that have nothing to do with nano-, or at least in their general meaning. But, what can be considered a real nano-stuff? Is it a matter of fashion? Or does nanotechnology show some real potentialities? Object of this paper is the construction sector that represents one of the major human activities and a worldwide massive sector of production. Recently, with the developments of technology and the advances in materials science and engineering, a new generation of products, that are both of higher performance and more economically viable, is to be realizing as a competitive route to achieve a real sustainable growth and innovation. Nowadays there are many interesting developments, based on nanotechnology, available on the market that can be successfully applied to the construction industry: nano-materials, smart-materials, nano-composite materials, nano-devices, etc. Many other (nano)technologies enable new developments: materials and products are fast emerging or already exist in bulky and expensive forms in other different industrial sectors, but a great deal of research should still be developed. Starting from some international surveys, we will discuss such an increasing trend showing how nanotechnologies not only are truly applicable in construction but also represent a real natural solution to the number of problems that have afflicted such an industry for years. We will report many examples of successful applications and how such a new materials and technologies may improve in a sustainable way the development of this massive industry. Furthermore, we will outline the most popular lines of research undergoing deeper analyses around the world. Finally, the acquisition of the knowledge on nanotechnology, nanostructured materials and multifunctional/smart materials in construction will allow to formulate a judgment on the real applicability and convenience on high technologies’ usage in comparison to the traditional systems, consolidated by now in the practice

EMERGENCE OF NANOMATERIALS IN INTERIOR ARCHITECTURE OF HEALTHCARE DOMAIN AHOU AKBARİ HAGHİGHAT, EMİNE GÖRGÜL Ahou Akbari Haghighat, Architect M. Arts, Istanbul Technical University, School of Architecture Emine Görgül, Assoc.Prof.Dr., Istanbul Technical University, School of Architecture.

ABSTRACT In the light of contemporary advancements in technology, architecture and interior design have been immensely progressing every day. While emphasizing the superiority of nanomaterials in favor of sustainability and maintenance, this paper focuses on these advanced materials and their specialties through their use in healthcare design, specifically their use in the patient rooms. The key reason behind this decision is that, healthcare centers are the most energy consuming building type after food industry, which use more material and resources. For this purposes the role of embodied energy and embodied carbon emissions are getting important for this case. The aim of this research is the analysis and discussions about the types of the nanomaterials that are used particularly in the patient rooms, and reveal their impacts in relation with indoor comfort conditions regarding self-cleaning and hygiene; thermal comfort (insulation as well as filtration of excessive natural light); indoor air quality (not causing pollution, lack of VOC's) etc. This paper further deploys case-based research methodology by selecting the contemporary hospital examples from Istanbul, where both nanomaterials and conventional materials are utilized, in order to set the material performance comparisons. Istanbul based LIV, Kolan and Medicana hospitals' patient rooms have been chosen as the case studies of this paper to reveal the discussion. Keywords: nanomaterial, interior architecture, healthcare design, case studies I. INTRODUCTION By playing a significant role in the field of architecture and interior design, materials not only affect building forms and functional performances, but also perform immense impacts on environment as well as human health. Earlier times, materials appear as simple followers of the functional and formal configuration of space, and reciprocally affecting the form language of the design output due to their characteristics. However, technological advancements and rapid developments in the realm of material sciences have paved the way to the emergence of new design practices like in the case of shifting aspect from modern architecture into nano-architecture. These technological advancements have also triggered the development of novel synthetic materials, such as composites and nanomaterials, whereas these novel materials have begun to play an active role in both early phases of design process, as well as the thought of architecture and the way how architects think. Materials that are made out of nano-matter that are the substances, which possess extraordinary physical and chemical characteristics in the nano-meter scale in terms of intrinsic and extrinsic capacities. These differences of characteristics cause the differentiation of the nanomaterials in type. This paper, describes and analyzes particularly these different types of nanomaterials, and discusses their impact within the architecture and interior architecture realm at first by generally, then by specifically through the contemporary cases from healthcare facilities, meanwhile particularly by focusing on the use of nanomaterials in the patient rooms. Recently, the manufactured nanomaterials (MNMs) or nano-composites, which are produced by manipulating their physical and chemical properties have been deployed in diverse fields of construction and design. These materials in architecture and interior architecture are mostly utilized as coatings, like insulators and air-purifying surfaces; or in furniture and related products, which enhances flexibility, physical durability and strength of the materials; or in the implementations related with the maintenance like energy conservation, self-cleaning and anti-bacterial properties. Therefore, nanomaterials open up a brand new page in design, both by being reliable and sustainable alternative for natural materials, as well as for the environmental sustainability in global terms in the presence of counter and indirect relations of consumption and maintenance facilities. Departing from these facts, this paper focuses on majorly unfolding the range of the nanomaterials and their properties and the frequency of their use in interior architecture, particularly in the milieu of healthcare domain and the patient rooms. The key reason behind this decision is that, healthcare centers are the most energy consuming building type after food industry, which use more material and resources. For this purposes the role of embodied energy and embodied carbon getting important for this case. This paper also deploys case-based research methodology by selecting the contemporary hospital examples from Istanbul, where both nanomaterials and conventional materials are utilized, in order to set the material performance comparisons.

In this regard, LIV Hospital-Istanbul, Kolan Hospital-Istanbul and Medicana Bahçelievler Hospital-Istanbul are selected as the case-studies, to dismantle the use of nanomaterials in the patient rooms; the material characteristics, the frequency of the material use, and the financial dimension of the material use, in order to highlight the superiority of nanomaterial use in healthcare design. II. TYPES OF MATERIALS DEPLOYED IN ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION Nanotechnology has been an essential and the foremost technological step in 21st Century, it is worthwhile to notice that significant properties of nanomaterials as well as their characteristical attributes in favor of environmental factors do clearly indicate a vast promise in every fields of architecture and interior design. We observe wide range of supplementary use of nanomaterial, which are targeted or oriented to enhance the material qualities on behalf of improvement, long term use and maintenance purposes such as: self-cleaning (Lotus Effect and Photocatalysis); air purifying; anti-fogging; thermal insulations (Aerogel); temperature regulation (PCMs); solar and UV protection; protection; fire-proof; anti-graffiti; anti-reflective; antibacterial; anti- fingerprint; scratchproof and abrasionresistance, which are briefly explained as follows. a) Self-cleaning qualities a1) Lotus effect: Lotus effect is one of the best-known means of designing surfaces with nanomaterials. Self-cleaning behavior is normally achieved using hydrophobic surfaces with nanostructured features (Anous, 2014). These products are inspired by the lotus flower leaves that combine a surface roughness at the nanoscale and the water repellent wax at the same time (Leydecker, 2008). The leaves of Lotus plants are coated with minute wax crystals around 1nm in diameter, which repel water droplets falling onto them bead up and, if the surface slopes slightly, will roll off (Leydecker, 2008). So, lotus effect surfaces with water-repelled property could clean the organic dirt, while water droplets are rolling down. For this reason, these products are better to apply on the materials which have more contact with water such as building facades, bathrooms, and toilets etc. surfaces that are open to water contamination. a2) Photocatalytic: Photocatalytic self-cleaning is the property of surfaces coated with titanium dioxide (TiO2) nanoparticles (Anous, 2014). Its properties are super-hydrophilic of the surfaces witch are created by oxygen gaps on the TiO2 surface (Anous, 2014). In fact, this substance significantly decreases the number of cleaning times by extending the intervals between cleaning periods (Leydecker, 2008). When the sunlight reaches to the material, the existing organic dirts on the surfaces decompose with the help of catalyst reaction and dirts are cleaned by means of rain water (Leydecker, 2008). Self-cleaning photo catalysis substances are invisible nano-based products, that could be added into concrete or could be applied onto facade panels made of glass and ceramic or to membranes (Leydecker, 2008). For this reason, these products are more effective at outdoors use such as facade design and glass patios than indoor environments. a3) Easy-to-clean (ETC): Easy-to-clean surfaces, which are mostly confused by other self-cleaning functions are waterrepellent products (Leydecker, 2008). Yet, when material qualities are examined, it is observed that there are major differences between ETC with Lotus-Effect and Photocatalysis surfaces (Leydecker, 2008). In one hand, ETC surfaces, at the microscopic scale are smoother rather than rough, and because of their smooth surfaces, easy-to-clean coatings do not have adhesive properties; and furthermore this causes water to be repelled by forming droplets and running off (Leydecker, 2008). b) Air purifying qualities The air-purifying nanomaterials have significant impact on improvement air quality and play an important role both for indoor, and increasingly for outdoors environments (URL 1). Air-purifying nano-surfaces not only reduce the unpleasant smells from environment, but also they could decrease air-pollution, such as pollution from smoking or unpleasant food smell etc. (URL 1). This system functions properly, if the volume of implementation of these products are proportional with the volume of environment, which is designed for this purpose and these surfaces should be in contact with air (URL 1). Air-purifying technologies are mostly applied on paints and textiles (URL 1). c) Anti-fogging qualities Anti-fogging nanomaterials are ultra-thin coatings of nano-scalar titanium di oxide. While they are performing higher surface energies, they also exhibit grater moisture attractions (Leydecker, 2008). On these hydrophilic coatings, moisture forms an ultra-thin film on the surface instead of water droplets, which causes spots on surfaces (Leydecker, 2008). These films still settle on the surfaces, but remains invisible. Thus, as the film is transparent, it creates fog-free clear appearance. Particularly in indoors, especially bathroom mirrors and glass panels are the ideal surfaces to apply such coatings. These coatings are also suitable for glass surfaces of air-conditioned rooms in the tropic climates, which tend to cloud as soon as outdoor air streams into a room.

d) Insulation qualities d1) Thermal Iinsulations (aerogel) qualities: Nano Thermal Insulation, which is known as nanogel (a form of Aerogel), not only provides high performance in thermal insulation, but also performs as an effective sound insulation at the same time (Leydecker, 2008). Aerogel composed of air (about 95-99.9%) and silicon dioxide (silica) (Leydecker, 2008). Aerogel thermal insulations are used both in exterior environments such as facade panels, and in interior environments such as separators in conference areas in offices. The main goal of producing this nano-based product is attaining energy efficiency, which reducing life expenses of the built systems in order to reach sustainability. d2) Temperature regulating qualities: Latent heat storage, which is known as Phase Change Material (PCM), can be used as effective means of regulating indoors temperature (URL 1). Thermal retention of PCMs could be applied not only on new constructed buildings, but also to the old ones (Leydecker, 2008). These products also act as a thermal insulation and prevent unwanted air infiltration and exfiltration. The main substance of PCMs is paraffin and salt hydrates (Leydecker, 2008). “Minute paraffin globules with a diameter of between 2 and 20 nm are enclosed in a sealed plastic sheeting”, which could be injected into typical building materials (Leydecker, 2008). e) UV and solar protection qualities Titanium di Oxide (TiO2), Zinc Oxide (ZnO), Cero Oxide (CeO), are the main three elements of these products (Leydecker, 2008), which are well suited for this purpose and each of these combination have their own tasks, to maintain the protection against powerful and harmful UV-A (Ultraviolet long rays) and UV-B (Ultraviolet short rays) that damage building materials and also causes skin cancer (URL 1). UV protection products, like other nano-coatings are transparent, so the coloring and structure of material beneath is restored (Leydecker, 2008). This product could be a proper selection for exterior use on the facades, as well as in interiors like, patios, atriums, exhibition areas, offices and etc. f) Fire-proof qualities Nanotechnology researchers have also developed fireproof glass panels with 3mm thickness, which resist to flames with a temperature of more than 1000 degrees centigrade for more than 120 minutes (Leydecker, 2008). The main element of this product, which causes to emerge fireproof quality, is Flerosil (pyrogenic silic acid), and this element is injected between two glass panels (Leydecker, 2008). In case of fire, the fire resistant layer between the two glass panels expands in the form of foam, to prevent fire spreading and keeps the roots accessible for people and firemen (Leydecker, 2008). This product is also known as a proper material for interior design, especially in exhibition stands, foyers, corridors, meeting areas and places, where fire safety is of utmost importance. g) Anti-graffity qualities Anti-graffiti nano-coatings are intended as a protective layer on materials to prevent unsightly graffiti on buildings or constructions such as noise barriers, walls, and bridge piers. These materials when applied on other existing surfaces, are sealed with object material and it is impossible to remove it again (El-Samny, 2008). This act causes the emergence waterrepellent (hydrophobic) and anti-graffiti materials (El-Samny, 2008). This extremely hydrophobic property provides the removal of graffiti more easily with appropriate detergents. It could be suitable to apply on floor surfaces indoor and outdoor environments. In this situation, rain will have a certain rinsing, self-cleaning effect. h) Anti-reflective qualities Recently, it is observed that, anti-reflective glasses are utilized in larger amounts in the construction realm in order to benefit from the increased solar transmission resulting from broadband spectral de-reflections (Leydecker, 2008). Transparent nano-scalar surface structures, consists of minute 30-50nm large silicon dioxide (SiO2) balls, which offers not only an innovative but also a cost effective and efficient anti-reflective solution (El-Samny, 2008). These products could be appropriate selections for the places such as patios, glass atriums, for glass cabinets in exhibition design, or in treatment rooms for those who need more sunlight like the specialized spaces in hospitals that need to prevent the spread of radiation (Leydecker, 2008). i) Antibacterial qualities Based on silver nanoparticles, antibacterial nano-products destroy microbes and bacteria that emerge on the surface of the objects. For this reason, in order to prevent this act, which new bacteria could eventually grow up, the surfaces are modified with an anti-stick function (Leydecker, 2008). In addition, antibacterial nanomaterials not only reduce the need of chemical disinfectants, but also decrease the amount of cleaning time period (URL 1). In interior design field, all interior surfaces, such as walls, floor, ceiling, furniture, finishing and textures are suitable for being covered by antibacterial nano-surfaces. Especially healthcare centers are more appropriate cases to use these products, because in these places, harmful bacteria abound in one hand, and weaken patients are on the other.

j) Anti-fingerprint qualities Anti-fingerprint surfaces are ultra-thin steel coatings that could be easily applied on to objects without any breaking and fracturing (El-Samny, 2008). These product, “alters the refraction of light in the same way the fingerprints itself does, so that new fingerprints have little effect – one can think of the coating as a kind of enlarged fingerprint” (Leydecker, 2008). The light reflections on the coating make steel or glass surfaces appear smooth, giving the impression of cleanliness that many users have come to expect. These products could be favorable selection for both outdoor and indoor environment, where easy to touch such as; facades, kitchens, bathrooms, hospitality and healthcare centers and furniture. k) Scratchproof and abrasion-resistance qualities Materials usually are wear out and tear down by being walked on, or by scrubbing and cleaning or similar acts. For this reason, nanotechnology produced nano-based transparent scratchproof Abrasion-Resistance coatings to solve this problem. These products could be applied on different kinds of materials such as wood, metal and ceramics and also they are resistant against corrosion and abrasion. (El-Samny, 2008) In the architectural context, scratch-resistant stainless steel coatings are also available in transparent or colorful form (Leydecker, 2008). These nano-based products make materials durable, while helping to preserve their original appearance. But, it is also worth to note that, scratch resistance does not mean protection from major mechanical impact such as scratches caused by keys or other damaging implementations (Leydecker, 2008), III. NANOMATERIALS IN HEALTHCARE DOMAIN AND CASE STUDIES Nanotechnology has been an essential and the foremost technological step in 21st Century, it is worthwhile to notice that significant properties of nanomaterials as well as their characteristical attributes in favor of environmental factors do clearly indicate a vast promise in every fields of architecture and interior design. We observe wide range of supplementary use of nanomaterial, which are targeted or oriented to enhance the material qualities on behalf of improvement, long term use and maintenance purposes such as: self-cleaning (Lotus Effect and Photocatalysis); air purifying; anti-fogging; thermal insulations (Aerogel); temperature regulation (PCMs); solar and UV protection; protection; fire-proof; anti-graffiti; anti-reflective; antibacterial; anti- fingerprint; scratchproof and abrasionresistance, which are briefly explained as follows. Healthcare centers are the public facilities, which everyone in the society could be a possible user, without an exception of age or gender, socio-economical status or accessibility. Therefore, both physically and psychologically creating healthy places for all users is essential. Medicine and healthcare alone, may not always provide complete physical and mental well-being, therefore especially from the stage of material selection until the final product, the design has a major role on the healing process (Markkanen and Calligan, 2015). On the other hand, according to a research in USA, healthcare buildings are the most energy and source consuming commercial buildings after the food industry (Kararkaş and Altın, 2015). Since these public amenities, operates 24 hours and 7 days a week, therefore, they consume myriad amount of power and energy, which also means producing CO² emulsions and toxic gases, both to its inside and outside environments. By considering environmental issues, architects and designers, should be careful about the great impact on both patient health and sustainability. As a simple example, healthcare settings require intensive and frequent cleaning with a wide range of products to provide hygienic, safe environments and aesthetic benefits for its users. For this reason, cleaning and disinfection play an essential role in healthcare, while highlighting a serious responsibility and critical determination within this domain. Yet, almost all of the cleaning products are complex mixtures of chemicals and hazardous components, which affect human health and environment. These products, have potential to cause adverse health effect such as serious respiratory ailments, eye and skin irritation, central nerve system disorders, reproductive disorders, blood disorders and even cancer (Markkanen and Calligan, 2015). Thus, ETC and antibacterial surface qualities of nano-materials reduce the number of times needed for cleaning and the amount of chemical detergents, and extends the cleaning period, which cause CO² emission and damaging to building materials and in some cases, are not healthy for the patients. Besides, another basic urge for the deployment of nano-based air-purifying materials in most parts of healthcare centers is the indoor air in hospitals, which contains fungi, bacteria and viruses, usually caused and distributed by poor ventilation and over-heating (URL2). Besides, as CO² accumulates due to lack of ventilation inside the rooms and on the corridors, it is examined that this leads to all kinds of complains from patients, staff and visitors. After all, as it is known the daylight has tremendous impacts on the recovery of a sick person or on the mood and comfort of an elderly person. Thus, it is important for a patient to always maintain the contact with the environment. For this reason, it is important to use UV and Solar protection glass panels to not only, filter the dangerous radiations of ultra violet light which damage both building materials and human body specially the patients, but also allowing the patients to get enough sunlight. By taking all these parameters into account, using nanomaterials in healthcare facilities not only provides great support in making it sustainable, but also posseses a strong healing impact on patients, staff and visitor’s environment. These

materials reduce the use of natural resources and cause energy conservation on heating, cooling, lighting systems and etc. Therefore, within the framework of this research, LIV Hospital Ulus, Kolan Hospital and Medicana Bahcelievler Hospital, which are all located in Istanbul, are selected as case studies to identify the nanotechnological applications in interior space, specifically narrowing down the focus to the utilization of particularly deployed nanomaterials and their properties within the patient rooms. Besides, the other reason for selecting these mentioned hospitals as case studies, is to draw out a basic comparison of embodied energy and embodied carbon emissons of nanomaterials and conventional materials and to analyze their environmental impacts. Thus, in terms of examining the qualitative and quantitative use of nanomaterials in all cases, the related data have been collected through the close contact with the design office, by obtaining the first hand information both through the project documentations and the targeted interviews with the leading design team. The collected information has been blended with the onsite examinations for each cases, and then synthesized accordingly. The goal of the evaluation process is to demonstrate the materials deployed in each design; their essential properties, the specific location of use as well as the amount of use, of the nanomaterials that are utilized in the patient rooms of each hospital, while at the same time, depicting the repetition of the deployed materials in various healthcare projects of the same practice. IV. CASE STUDY 1: LIV HOSPITAL ULUS, ISTANBUL LIV Hospital Ulus is located in the center of Istanbul; Ulus, Besiktas, providing a distinctive concept in hospital design, treatment and care focusing for both national and international patients (URL3). The hospital is best known for its expertise on the services of cardiology, oncology, orthopedics and traumatology, neurosurgery, general surgery, and the treatment of eye diseases (URL4). This Hospital is designed with a patient-based approach, consists of 154 beds, 8 operation rooms and 50 departments in 30.000m² indoor area (URL4). It is designed by ZOOM Office in 2012. The implemented design concept of the hospital is inspired from miraculous “self-recovering” ability of human body diseases (URL5). Designating impenetrable internal fronts due to human body’s tremendous self-protection and analyzing tissues and cell behaviors, organic geometrical forms are designed and applied to the architecture structure in terms of aesthetical aspects and functionality as the visual theme for the group’s hospitals for higher segments profile (URL5). Furthermore, natural, conventional and nano-based materials are used within the interiors of the hospital not only to provide healthy environments to patients, staff and visitors, but also for attaining sustainability. Yet, in addition to composite materials, like it is indicated in the Table 1, an extensive use of nano-materials in interior design of hospital is clearly observed. On the other hand, fire proof or easy to clean properties are missing in most of the nanomaterials. Doubtlessly, there are alternatives to prevent accidents and hazards of a fire conditions, but if this property was considered during the design and material selection, there would be no need for additional prevention for this solution. In addition to that, although the air-purifying quality has been the essential demand in the healthcare centers, especially in a patient room, particularly for this case it is observed that this property adjusted mainly on the flooring surface. Besides, one of the most important properties for materials in the case of healthcare facilities is antibacterial property, which in this case is used flawlessly, creating a hygienic atmosphere for the users. Moreover, nanobased glass panels with heat and sound insulation as well as solar protection properties, are also deployed as other complementary elements of the patient rooms design. Furthermore, furniture and finishing elements, acrylic immobile furniture, as well as the curtains with anti-bacterial and fire-proof properties are also selected as nano-based materials throughout the design process.

Table 1. Comparative material use matrix in LIV hospital patient rooms’ interiors. On the other hand, when focused on the bathrooms inside the patient rooms, like indicated on the Table 1, all finishing elements in patient bathrooms are selected from nano-based materials: acrylic finishings with anti-bacterial, easy-toclean, fire-proof and easy-to-maintain properties; ceramics with anti-bacterial, easy to maintain and wear-proof qualities. In addition to finishing elements, the team has selected the nano-based furniture with common anti-bacterial, easy-toclean, anti-fingerprint and wear-proof properties. As it is known bathroom are the places, which require further cleaning and disinfection efforts through chemical detergents, therefore, using nano-based materials and finishings with the mentioned properties reduces the period of cleaning cycles and the amount of hazardous chemicals and detergents used, which all have negative impact on both patients and environment. Besides, the lower embodied energy levels of the selected nanomaterials in comparison to the conventional ones are indicated on Table 2 approving the sustainable and environmental friendly properties of the materials. Material Acrylic finishing Wallpaper Paint water-borne

Brand Name LG HI-MACS Matrix Jotun

Embodied Energy Mj/Kg

Embodied Kgco2e/Kg

22.17

0.94

34.52 NA

1.02 2.33

Carbon

Glass Vinyl finishing Ceramic Acrylic surfaces Curtains

Majestic Saint-Gobain Tarkett Villeroys & Boch LG S001 satin white Creative bauman

20.84 NA 10.81

NA 0.20 0.66

23.17

NA

NA

NA

Table 2. Embodied energy and embodied carbon emissions figures of LIV hospital. There are no doubts that this case is not one step, maybe way ahead of the conventional rooms and offers far more features than a room built with conventional materials. But, this does not mean that there is no progress left to be made. This case is a pure example of what difference using nano-based materials can make. V. CASE STUDY 2: KOLAN HOSPITAL, ŞIŞLI, ISTANBUL Kolan Hospital is located in Şişli, Istanbul providing relaxing and healing environments for its patients with its modern interior design. It is also known for its cardiology, pediatric cardiology, general surgeries, heart and vascular surgery, internal and eye dieses healthcare services (URL6). This hospital is distinguished not only with its patient-oriented approach, medical staff, modern medical technologies, but also with its modern interior design, sustainable and healthy environments, considering patient, staff and visitors comfort (URL6). The Kolan Hospital consists of 174 beds, 6 operating rooms, internal surgical, coronary and cardiovascular surgery intensive care units with a total capacity of 58 beds, neonate intensive care unit with 31 incubators more than 40 departments in 20.000 m² indoor area (URL6). Kolan Hospital Şişli, is also designed by Zoom Office in 2013. The main concept of this design is transforming the existing structure by use of technological manufactured materials such as nanobased materials in addition to natural and composite ones, to an environment designed as a “flora”, where makes patients relax and sure about they are in a healing place (URL7). As it is mentioned on Table 3, natural and composite materials, nano-based wallpaper with anti-bacterial and scratchproof properties, nano-based PVC finishing with anti-bacterial, easy-to-clean and anti-fingerprint qualities, nano-based laminate finishing with anti-bacterial, easy-to-clean, fire-proof and scratch-proof properties have been utilized in this patient room. Unfortunately, in this mentioned case, air-purifying property has been missing. The lack of this feature in this place not only causes an increase in indoor ventilation, but also supports the need of artificial ventilation systems, where as in most cases it leads to further energy consumption and increases on the maintenance costs at the end. In some cases, this systems are not healthy for patients also, because it requires fresh filters on the system constantly and dirty filters would increase indoor pollutions, which directly affect the patient’s health. In addition to finishing elements, just acrylic part of immobile furniture with anti-bacterial, easy-to-clean and fire-proof properties is selected as nanobased materials. As it has been summarized on the Table 3 most of the finishing elements in patient bathrooms are natural materials, but the team has selected the nano-based furniture with common anti-bacterial, easy-to-clean, anti-fingerprint and wearproof properties.

Table 3. Comparative material use matrix in Kolan Hospital patient rooms’ interiors. Besides, as it is examined from the Table 4 the embodied energy and the embodied carbon figures of implemented nanoenabled materials in this room are once again appear lower than the conventional ones. Although in some instance, figures are missing, but through a broader reading, most of the figures are verifying the general statement. As an example, the embodied energy of floor cover is unknown, in this case, by focusing on its embodied carbon figure compared with

conventional one, it could be said that, this material by lower embodied carbon figure, is appropriate to use in finishing specially in healthcare centers. As another example, because of missing information about the embodied carbon of nanobased wood laminate strip, just by comparing the embodied energy figure (9.5 Mj/Kg), of this material with the embodied energy figure (16.30 Mj/Kg) of conventional laminate, it could be said that, this material is more sustainable than conventional one. Material Paint water-borne Wallpaper Pvc finishing Wood laminate strip Acrylic zenith unit

Brand Name Jotun Ral 9003 Vycon Y46399 Yaktas Gerflor Gentas Corian

Embodied Energy Mj/Kg

Embodied Kgco2e/Kg

53.31

NA

33.16

1.18

NA

3.04

9.5 NA

NA 2.54

Carbon

Table 4. Embodied energy and embodied carbon emissions figures of Kolan Hospital. VI. CASE STUDY 3: MEDICANA HOSPITAL, BAHCELIEVLER ISTANBUL Medicana Bahçelievler Hospital, which is located in Bahçelievler, Istanbul, has been established in 2003, in 1000 m² indoor area (URL8). This hospital with the 100 bed capacity consists of 6 operating rooms, 2 delivery rooms, coronary cardiac and general intensive care units, a cardiovascular intensive care unit, neonatal intensive care unit and a dialysis unit with 30 beds and etc., which enfolds all the recent requirements and technologies. This hospital is well known for its cardiology and angiography, cardiovascular surgery, physiotherapy, kidney transplantation, dialysis, obstetrics and IVF Unit, medical oncology and laser treatment center for varicose veins and intensive care units (URL9). This hospital is designed by Group Medicana’s in-house design team. By focusing on the patient rooms, it could be stated that rooms are designed with conventional materials, which are mentioned in Table 5 and there is not any nano-enabled materials in this room. The main goal of selecting this hospital as the third case study is to compare the implemented materials between this case with the used materials in LIV and Kolan hospitals. Material

Brand Name

Acrylic finishing Wallpaper Paint water-borne Glass Vinyl finishing Ceramic PVC Finishing Laminate (Wood Strip) Cotton Fabric

Conventional Conventional Conventional Conventional Conventional Conventional Conventional Conventional Conventional

Embodied Energy Mj/Kg 25.04 36.40 59 23.5 68.60 12 77.20 16.30 143

Embodied Kgco2e/Kg 2.58 1.93 2.54 0.91 3.19 0.78 3.10 NA 6.75

Carbon

Table 5. Embodied energy and embodied carbon emissions figures of Medicana Hospital. VII. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS In this present time, where energy-time-cost-saving-environment and natural sources are the subsets of sustainability, they are all considered as important issues in design. In this regard, the crucial role of nano-technology and nanomaterials emerges in architecture and design discipline. Doubtlessly, the main goal of deploying nanotechnology in architectural realm is about attaining advanced efficiency and functionality in spatial solutions. This act may also be a bridge to achieve sustainability and higher benefits to humans, environment and economy. The benefits of nanomaterials in design and construction industry are appealing as providing lighter buildings, resistant and robust in front of natural phenomena’s, provide a greater economy, saves a flat earth for future generation, maintain the natural resources by reducing the consumption of raw materials and energy, minimize waste and pollutions and comfort. To summarize, departing from the extensive benefits of the nanotechnology in design and construction industry; this paper revealed the properties, range, and the frequency of the nanomaterials used in healthcare domain particularly in the patient rooms. According to numbers, it is explicit that the acrylic finishing, which is used both in LIV and Kolan hospitals, has lower embodied energy and embodied carbon emission figures in comparison to conventional ones. Besides, ceramic and vinyl finishings that are also used as nano-enable form in LIV Hospital has lower embodied energy and carbon emission in comparison to the conventional form, which is used in Medicana Bahçelievler Hospital. In addition to these, water-borne paint, wallpaper, laminate, glass and cotton fabric, which are used in all case studies, have lower embodied energy and embodied carbon emissions in comparison with conventional one; approving their lesser need for

energy during their lifecycle, on behalf of low-cost and low-pollution and etc. than composite or conventional materials. Therefore, nanomaterials emerge as more sustainable and eco-friendly materials. Although, importance of sustainability and energy efficiency have been increased these days, yet there aren’t enough precedents of nanotechnology use in the realm of architecture especially in developing countries. It is not surprising to observe, how most of the invertors and the contractors seek to reduce the initial building costs, without concerning about the long-term effects. To broaden the discussion; imagine designing other spaces within the hospital such as surgery rooms (with use of these properties), or entrance and check-in spaces etc. Without a doubt the impact of every single unit would be massive. Even just by adding for instance, the anti-bacterial material feature, like demonstrated earlier in the studied cases, the need for chemical detergents are almost fading away. Leading towards a more sustainable environment and with a progressive view, it is recommended to use this limitless possibilities of nanotechnology in all aspects of architecture and be more innovative and create environmental friendly designs. With the growing population rate of the world and increasing consumption of natural resources, there are not so many options left. With the features that this technology hands over, as studied, it is possible to add any property to any kind of materials with a little more initial cost at the beginning, but being totally aware of the long term benefits about energy-savings and long-term maintenance costs, where it becomes the definite answer towards sustainability. To conclude, like Carl Elefante [16] mentioned; “the ‘greenest’ building is the one that is already been built!” (URL 10). So, taking these words into account, nano-technology increases the lifecycle of buildings by eliminating the need for reconstruction of what is already been built. REFERENCES Anous, I. H. I., 2014. “Nanomaterials and Their Applications in Interior Design”. American International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences, 7(1), June-August, 2014, pp. 16-27. Elefante, C., 2007. “The Greenest Building Is... One That Is Already Built”, Forum Journal: The Journalof the El-Samny, 2008. NanoArchitecture Nanotechnology and Architecture, Master of Science Degree Thesis, University of Alexandria, Graduate School of Engineering. Karakas, G., Altin, M. “Yesil Bina Degerlendirme Sistemlerinde Saglik Yapilari”, 2. Ulusal Tesisat Mühendisliği Kongresi, 2015. Fahmy, M.H.M.2010. “Nanomaterials and Architecture Sustainable Nano Architecture”, Master of Science Degree Thesis, University of Alexandria, Graduate School of Engineering, 2010. Leydecker, S., 2008. Nano-Materials in Architecture, Interior Architecture and Design, Birkhäuser. Markkanen, P., Galligan, C., 2009. Cleaning in Healthcare Facilities, Reducing Human health and Environmental Impacts, Healthcare Research Collaborative University of Massachusetts Lowell. URL 1 https://upstyleindustries.files.wordpress.com/2014/08/materiallife-embodied-energy-of-building-materials.pdf URL 2 http://export.renson.eu/solutions-for-ventilation-and-sun-protection-worldwide-ventilation-and-shadingprovide-healthier-air-in-hospitals-and-care-centers.html URL 3 http://www.intmedtourism.com/en/companies/LIV-hospital-istanbul/ URL 4 http://www.patientsbeyondborders.com/hospital/liv-hospital URL 5 http://uk.archello.com/en/project/liv-hospital-ulus# URL 6 http://www.kolaninternational.com/corporate/corporate/ URL 7 http://www.zoom.com.tr/tr/projects/kolan-hospital-sisli URL 8 http://www.medicanainternational.com/index.php/medicana-bahcelievler-hospital URL 9 http://www.medicana.com.tr/HastaneDetay.aspx?HospitalID=2 URL 10 http://www.fox-arch.com/category/sustainability//

NANOTECHNOLOGY PROVIDES NEW DYNAMICS IN ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN NIKOLETA K. PARTHENOPOULOU Architect Engineer (Diploma, A.U.Th.), M.B.A. University of Macedonia, MSc in Construction Management A.U.Th., PhD Candidate in Architectural Design and Architectural Technology (35th Department of School of Architecture, Faculty of Engineering, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, University Campus, Postal Code 541 24, Thessaloniki)

ABSTRACT Materials have been affecting architectural design since the beginning of human civilization and architectural expression. The use of advanced technology has provided a wide range of possibilities in implementing architectural design. Nanotechnology has already revolutionized a lot of industrial fields. The advantages through the implementation of nanotechnology in architecture are multidimensional as they do not limit to the sustainability and energy efficiency of buildings. Furthermore, nanotechnology provides architecture with new, innovative and revolutionary materials that can alter design and performance of buildings. This has led to the launch of Nanoarchitecture, offering new possibilities that affect both architectural design and architectural applications. Nanotechnology integration in Architecture concerns not only the use of nanomaterials and manipulation techniques but also the reconsideration of forms and design methods. Flexibility and dynamics of forms and aesthetics, adaptation in external and internal requirements, protection of quality in living conditions and ad hoc control of microclimate are now feasible. Structures adopt mechanisms from nature and begin to mimic living organisms. Throughout research in existing and potential applications of nanotechnology and use of smart materials in architecture, this study demonstrates the level of influence of nanomaterials on architectural design and attempts at proposing an innovative system of high-performance buildings. Keywords: Nanotechnology Materials, Construction Applications, Architectural Design INTRODUCTION One of the basic human activities from the beginning of civilization was the creation of a shelter. Basic natural materials found in proximity were the first components of human structures. Those conventional, traditional, per se, materials are still in use in architecture creation and construction. The unique characteristic of human nature has always been the ability not only to adapt to the environment but also to adjust environment to their needs. In accordance to the latter, technology has become the infinite manipulation tool. Nanotechnology in particular is a rapidly developing field with numerous current and potential applications in various other fields. Many possibilities that nanotechnology can offer, if combined together, they can promote architectural creation and project realization. Reduced time in implementing architectural plans diminished negative environmental impacts through low emissions from materials production, as well as increased energy efficiency of buildings -that can produce sustainable energy and even perform air purification and water filtering. Even increased positive performance of structures, due to self-assembly and self-repairing features, are some of the objectives to be met. Smart materials and new techniques have already been used, i.e. self-cleaning and air-purifying surfaces, insulating and anti-microbial coatings, sun radiation protection and fireproof membranes. Further ahead, as research is progressing in bio- and nanotechnology, we could combine new features in order to develop systems that mimic nature in the field of construction. The concept of our research represents an effort of combing these new dynamics of nanotechnology in order to create an intelligent system of external bearing structure that can perform multiple functions. A system that will be able to carry structural load and at the same time produce energy and filter the air, one that will have the capacity to transform according to external climatic conditions in order to regulate internal climate and that will have aesthetic dynamics through colour shifting and transparency switching. All this approach is part of the conceptual framework of a dissertation study that aims at concluding in implementing an experimental model system.

Idea

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Technology

Figure 2. A structure is a result that comes from combining three forces.

Technology in Architecture A positive effect of technology in architecture is the computer aided design and the creation of 3D models (CAD, modelling, 3D rendering, and 3D printing). The next step is realized by the introduction of genetic architecture in combination with nanotechnology. Computer design techniques strengthen the interdisciplinary relationship between architecture and other sciences. Also, new building techniques and construction methods have rendered project implementation easier and more efficient. New organic forms inspired by nature can now be digitally produced and constructed. Nanotechnology Nanotechnology is the design, characterization, production and application of forms, mechanisms and systems through controlled manipulation of shapes and dimensions at nanoscale that produces forms and systems with at least one improved or new property [1]. The development of nanomaterials will bring benefits to society [2]: • research on nanomaterials has major influence on health, information technology, energy and other areas, where much economic benefit lies on commercialization of new technologies, • regarding energy efficiency, the research of nanomaterials will lead to new materials that will lead to more efficient operation of power plants and enable the development of new energy systems based on renewable sources, • development of nanomaterials will cause reduction of negative environmental impact from the production process of materials (less pollutants) and form the presence of waste (efficient and enhanced materials don’t need to be replaced often). Nanotechnology is very diverse area and ranges from conventional material-matter manipulation to completely new approaches. It is a rapidly developing field with numerous current and potential applications in various other fields. Many possibilities that nanotechnology can offer, if combined together, can promote architectural creation and construction. Innovative new nanomaterials and nanosensors have already been giving the architect a new tool palette. Properties such as self-cleaning, self-repair and self-assembly have promoted the performance of architectural projects. Functions of nanomaterials, which have high potential for innovation, include: o improved mechanical properties, o new electronic functions, o new magnetic functions, o enhanced thermal properties, o improved chemical properties, o new optical functions, o biological properties. Nowadays, nanotechnology has already been applied to construction materials such as concrete (stronger, greater durability, easy assembly), steel (stronger) and glass (self-cleaning). The use of nanotechnology in the material industry leads to efficient use of raw materials and also reduction of negative environmental effects which emerge from material production processes (less pollutant emissions, less raw materials used [3]). Architecture Architecture in simple words means the science that translates human needs into functional three dimensional structures, the art of synthesis that is the effective way of combining elements to create more complex forms.

Architectural evolution has brought up new demands in performance and energy efficiency of structures and sustainability of buildings. The term Architecture refers to both the process and the product of planning, designing, and constructing buildings and other structures. Architectural works are often perceived as cultural symbols and/or works of art. Civilizations are often identified with their surviving architectural achievements. The word “architect” comes from the combination of two Greek words «αρχή» and «τέκτων» which means “master constructor”. By others, architecture means the origin of arts and crafts. Architecture encapsulates the style, design and construction of buildings and other physical structures, the knowledge of art, science, technology and humanity, the design activity of the architect, from the macro-level (urban design, landscape architecture) to the micro-level (construction details and furniture). Architecture deals with planning, designing and constructing form, space and ambience to reflect functional, technical, social, environmental and aesthetic considerations. It requires the creative manipulation and coordination of materials, technology, light and shadow. Often, conflicting requirements must be resolved. The practice of Architecture also encompasses the pragmatic aspects of realizing buildings and structures, including scheduling, cost estimation and construction administration. Documentation produced by architects, typically drawings, plans and technical specifications, defines the structure and/or behaviour of a building or other kind of system that is to be or has been constructed. Thus, nanotechnology employed in architecture leads to “Nanoarchitecture”, a promising endeavour. Nanoarchitecture The integration of nanotechnology in architecture has led to the launch of Nanoarchitecture, where nanotechnology integration concerns not only the use of nanomaterials and manipulation techniques but also the reconsideration of forms and design methods – ultra high performance buildings (dynamic, interactive) [4]. The process of designing structures is changing, as a material can perform differently and play alternative roles. The size of materials required is smaller, the necessary assembly time is less and the life cycle of structures becomes larger due to the enhanced properties of materials and the use of innovative protective coatings. Material properties control to this extend, evolve architectural design and construction. Thus, construction methods can change as well. Most structures can be created "bottom up", i.e. from material unit to structure elements as some materials have the ability to selfassembly. Augmented features release design, making possible even the most unrealistic solutions. Forms evolve and often mimic living organisms. Architecture operates at optimum levels as it offers innovative solutions. Transformable usage of architectural elements which is at user’s discretion, such as control of transparency of windows or partitions (interior and exterior), give the building a more dynamic form. Furthermore, improvement of living conditions by controlling the quality of internal environment (air purification, thermal comfort, reduced solar radiation, antimicrobial surfaces, effective security and protection against external adverse conditions) restores the role of the architect as a quality supplier of living environments beyond functionality and aesthetics. Ultra high performance buildings retain stability through negative feedback interactions and promote their development by applying positive feedback [4]. In this sense, buildings and structures can be programmed to monitor the environment (internal and external) and to adapt or change their form so that it will be in harmony or symbiotic relationship with nature and man. To a future extend the cooperation of sciences of biology and nanotechnology can provide biological characteristics in materials, structure and morphology. Surfaces will be able to metabolize, respond and adapt to the environment, will have the properties of self-assembly, self-healing and self-repair. All text paragraphs should be single spaced. The position and style of headings and. Sustainability and Innovation Nanotechnology in Architecture involves of course two major areas that nowadays accompany the meaning of technology, i.e. sustainability and innovation. Sustainability Sustainability as a general term refers to the capacity to endure. Sustainable development is the development that meets the present needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs [5]. Currently it is considered as an infinite process through the ecosystem, a dynamic evolutionary way towards the improvement of management of human and natural resources. In the construction field, sustainability is a matter of grave importance. In architecture sustainability describes environmentally conscious design techniques, minimizing negative environmental impact and enhancing efficiency in the use of materials, energy and space. The principles for sustainable design include:  low-impact materials (non-toxic, sustainably produced or recycled),  energy efficiency (less energy in manufacturing and production),  quality,

 durability,  reusability and recyclability [6],  bio-mimicry1,  service substitution2,  renewability and  provision of healthy environments. Thus, sustainable architecture aims to design and produce sustainable buildings. Innovation Innovation enhances sustainability with the following features:  adaptability,  symbiosis,  environmental interaction,  intelligent systems and materials,  ultra high performance structures and  creation of in other circumstances unrealistic projects.

Figure 3. Using organic materials to create artificial skin: Scientists are using organic field-effect transistor (OFET) architecture to build electronic material that mimics human skin. The electronic skin I s a stretchable 2D array of tactile sensors that collect environmental signals and translate those signals into information [9].

Nanomaterials and Applications Materials reduced to nanoscale exhibit different properties compared to those on the macro scale. They tend to be more chemically reactive. Opaque materials become transparent, stable turn combustible, semiconductors become conductors and solids turn to liquids at room temperature. Basic Nanomaterials Carbon nanomaterials are an enabler for technology with seemingly endless potential applications: self-repairing buildings and bridges, creating strong and lightweight structures, filtering water, powering mobile devices from body heat or movement, improving corrosion resistance of conventional materials. Carbon nanotubes are 100 times stronger than steel at one-sixth of the density and 10,000 times smaller than one human hair. Graphene is a carbon membrane that, at just one atom thick, is stronger than steel and can tolerate wide temperature and pH ranges. Carbon nanotubes, single or multi-walled, have tubular form with a diameter of about 1nm – a graphene sheet is rolled into a tube. According to their geometry, they exhibit different properties (armchair geometry shows metallic behavior, zigzag shows semiconducting behavior). A carbon nanofiber has a diameter that ranges at a billionth of a meter and therefore has a large surface-volume ratio. Nanocoatings can be applied as thin films on glass or fabric in order to block solar radiation, as paint in order to attribute insulating properties [10] and as layers of nanoparticles that interconnect with the substrate material, achieving properties such as insulating, stain-resistant, self-cleaning, scratch-resistant, anti-microbial, anti-corrosive and waterproofing. Nanosensors can be integrated into conventional construction materials in order to continuously check for the presence of chemical or biological agents and interact with the control sensor to provide the information to the monitoring system.

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Bio mimicry is an approach that seeks sustainable solutions by emulating nature’s time-tested patterns and strategies [7]. Service substitution: shifting the mode of consumption from personal ownership of products to provision of services which provide similar functions - Such a system promotes minimal resource use per unit of consumption [8].

Nanorobots (or nanobots) have been developed as a means of engineering molecular products. A nanorobot is a controllable nanoscale robotic device (autonomous or semiautonomous) [11], composed of elements at nanoscale and possesses characteristic abilities such as:  swarm intelligence,  cooperative behavior,  self-assembly and replication,  information processing and programmability,  interface architecture and  durability. Organic nanorobots are ATP and DNA based molecular machines whereas the inorganic ones are based on tailored nanoelectronics. Organic electronic devices can do more than transport electronic information. They can also transport optical, magnetic, and thermal information. Indeed, many of the organic electronic devices already on the market are multifunctional. For example, organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs) and organic solar cells are multifunctional optoelectronic devices, i.e. electronic devices that use or produce light in addition to using or producing electrons. As chemists gain better control over the synthesis of organic materials, they and their engineering collaborators will be able to build increasingly sophisticated optoelectronic and other multitasking devices with multiple inputs and multiple outputs. For example, researchers envision multitasking window glazing that function as solar cells that generate electricity and as OLEDs that generate light [9]. There are many advantages of organic electronics. In addition, the development and encapsulation of organic electronic devices in flexible polymer substrates in large scale and with low cost production processes will enable their market applications in numerous fields such as monitor devices, lighting, photovoltaic systems, frequency identification circuits [12] etc. Applications overview

Figure 4. Basic nanomaterials and their applications.

Nanomaterials and techniques have already been under use, such as self-cleaning and air-purifying surfaces, insulating and anti-microbial coatings, self-healing additives and strength admixtures, sun radiation protection and fireproof membranes. Further ahead, as research is being made in bio- and nanotechnology, we could combine new features in order to develop systems that mimic nature in the construction field.

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Figure 4. A typical plan of a hotel room, with the application of basic nanotechnology materials [21]. 01. Curtains: air-purifying nanocoating 02. Window: photocatalytic coating – self-cleaning 03. Window: electrochromic - selfcleaning 04. TV: antiglare 05. Wall painting: air-purifying 06. W.C.: easy-to-clean 07. Mirror: anti-fogging 08. Bathtub: easy-to-clean 09. Walls: ceramic nanoparticle coating 10. Bedding: anti-bacterial 11. Switches: anti-bacterial 12. Wall painting: air-purifying 13. Wall paper: air-purifying 14. Glass table: anti-fingerprints 15. Carpet: air-purifying 16. Sink: anti-fingerprints

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Reality or Fiction? The increasing development of technology will lead to intelligent systems such as self-assembled structures, buildings even entire cities. What seems now science fiction can be feasible tomorrow through the leaping advances of technology. Multifunctionality and innovative properties can be ad hoc combined towards serving the human needs. Some interesting examples are given bellow. Self-assembly: Scientists who are focusing their study on nanotechnology have recognized that some properties of atoms and molecules enable them to arrange themselves into patterns. There are a variety of applications where selfassembling of nanoparticles can be useful. For example, developments of building sensors that detect chemical and biological molecules. In addition, it can also be used on creating computer chips with smaller component sizes, which can then allow more computing power to be stored on a chip. Natural ability of nanoparticles to self-assemble can be replicated in systems that do not intrinsically self-assemble. Directed self-assembly (DSA) attempts to mimic the chemical properties of self-assembling systems, while simultaneously controlling the thermodynamic system to maximize selfassembly. Templates made of microstructures like carbon nanotubes or block polymers, can also be used to assist in selfassembly. They cause directed self-assembly (DSA) in which active sites are embedded to selectively induce nanoparticle deposition. Nanoparticles are often shown to self-assemble within distances of manometers and micrometers, but block copolymer templates can be used to form well-defined self-assemblies over macroscopic distances. By incorporating active sites to the surfaces of nanotubes and polymers, the functionalization of these templates can be transformed to favour self-assembly of specified nanoparticles. Structures that build themselves: a top-down concept of building from nano to meter scale has been developed following certain suppositions. These suppositions suggest the following conceptual solution [13]: The fundamental building process is occurring at the nanolevel by multifunctional nanodevices (nanorobots), which are capable of capturing CO2 from the air and extracting C molecules from it, releasing O 2 back to the air, and building 3D carbon nanotubes arrays with certain characteristics required for a specific area of the building.

Figure 5. The self-assembly process. [31].

Nanorobots are controlled and powered externally by light. Instructions are coded using specific wavelengths. Light is emitted by a projector installed above the site. To avoid interference with light emitted by other sources, an adequate wavelength spectrum has to be chosen. The projector uses the detailed BIM (Building Information Model) as input, and continuously projects the horizontal section, which is constantly moving from the bottom to the top of the model. Openings of the final model are temporarily filled with unstable carbon nanomaterial, which transforms back into CO2 after a specific time period (or under specific conditions), when its function as a supporting structure is fulfilled. All utilities and coatings (if necessary) are built at the same time, together with the bearing structure (e.g. pipelines, power lines, communication lines), and are part of the building. This concept is feasible in theory but it will require many more years of research in the areas of biotechnology (bionanorobots), nanomaterials (3D CNT arrays), physics (light projector), and construction informatics (detailed and appropriate building information models and modeling tools, building technology system) [13]. Interactive material: “living kitchen” is a project in concept. It is in fact about a matter made out of a multitude of small intelligent robots, able to stick and communicate to each other. This would create a shape-shifting, programmable matter, able to transform into whatever shape desired. The matter being reactive to exterior stimuli, people would just have to touch the walls to make faucets, sinks (Figure6a) or cutting-boards appear. The volumes could be stretched, twisted and bend by the user to perfectly fit his needs. Also new shapes could be invented by drawing their silhouettes on the surfaces [14]. Concrete mimicking human skeleton (Figure6b): inspired by the bone's morphology defined by the Wolff's law, adapting the material to force, a reinforced concrete structure becomes truly sustainable using half the material whilst more efficient to withstand heavier earthquakes. As the bone morphology, the concrete skeleton adapts to the environmental inputs [15].

Figure 6. (a) The “Living Kitchen” –a sink and a faucet is made [14]. (b) Bearing structure of a building as bone skeleton [15].

Innovative Architectural Applications There are numerous examples of design projects that make use of nanotechnology, most of which are still in conceptual stage. Some Innovative Architectural Applications (that have been constructed) are the following: Soft House (created by KVA Matx, Hamburg, 2013): The SOFT HOUSE project in Hamburg, Germany is a winning competition entry for the International Bau Austellung (IBA), a prestigious German building tradition that dates to 1901. Completed in March of 2013, it is a set of live/work row house units which offer a new model for low carbon construction and an ecologically responsive lifestyle that can be personalized to meet homeowner needs. The Soft House

demonstrates how domestic infrastructure can become ‘soft’—engaging flexible living concepts, carbon-neutral solid wood (brettstapel) construction, and wireless building controls with responsive and performative textiles which create the public identity of the architecture. Through the conceptual reframing of ‘soft’ and ‘hard’ materials and the integration of architecture, mobile textiles, and clean energy infrastructure the SOFT HOUSE transforms the German Passive Haus typology, offering a more flexible living experience [16].

Figure 7. (a) PV curtains [16]. (b) Front view [16].

They have created a mobile system of PV curtains (Figure 7a) that harvest solar energy while offering solar protection externally and serve lighting purposes internally. They have revolutionized interior design by replacing traditionally steady interior elements with PV curtains. The structure consists of wood panels and flexible solar nanomaterials in a light, smart textile that bends in order to achieve the best angel for solar energy harvesting. The PV curtains offer coverage on a large glass façade (Figure 7b). A three-storey atrium brings daylight deep in the ground floor and regulates inner air circulation with a system of windows and curtains. LEDs in the movable curtains are playful and engaging—allowing people to make new connections between the domestic and natural environments. The Soft House smart curtain LED lighting system allows for real time monitoring and visualization of outside wind and climate conditions. The solid state light that moves along the Soft House curtain

Figure 8. Cross section of the structure [16].

surface in relation to exterior wind levels creates a Visual Breeze— an ambient interior luminous expression of the external environment. The PV curtains channel the produced energy in common household devices [16, 17, 18, 19]. Glass Façade Sur Falveng (Schwarz Architects, Alps, 2006): The “Sur Falveng” (Figure a) building is a house for the elderly in the Swiss Alps and offers 20 rooms with access for the disabled. The south elevation glass façade heats actively or passively the rooms and changes according to climatic conditions. The glass panels consist of 8cm composite glass element - this contains in the middle a hydrated filler material which functions as a latent solar heat storage medium and protects the room from overheating. The glass structure is composed of four plates of 6 mm safety glass, with three intervals. The interval that is located outwardly contains a prismatic plate; it is filled with a noble gas, as the middle one. The gap located inwardly is filled with a latent accumulator: a salt hydrate. With this internal interval containing the salt hydrate, the glazing GlassX provide the necessary heat storage. The integrated prismatic glass protects against summer heat and the latent accumulator is used for winter storage of energy; both are an innovation. In the summer, an integrated prismatic glass prevents overheating by refracting light. Developed by architect Dietrich Schwarz, this glass has solar accumulation rate efficiency up to 40% in winter. Solar radiation is directly converted in a pleasant radiant heat [20]. The heat capacity of that element is equivalent to the heat capacity of a concrete wall with a thickness of 15cm. The glass façade becomes transparent when the material passes from the state of solid to liquid (Figure b) [21]. Therefore, the change of state of the material has a direct impact on the appearance of the building. With the rise of external temperature, the material absorbs heat. As outer temperature drops, the Phase Changing Material will return to its solid phase and reject the absorbed heat. The hydrated salt that is encapsulated in polycarbonate containers has much more latent thermal capacity than conventional materials. This means that solar energy is stored until nighttime (when the temperature drops), reducing the average inner temperature and thus reducing the use of air-conditioning systems [22].

Figure 9. (a) “Sur Falveng” glass façade [21]. (b) Changing states of the PCM [22].

Jubilee Church (Richard Meier & Partners - Arup Guy Nordenson & Associates, Rome, 1996-2003): The Jubilee Church (La Chiesa del Dio Padre Misericordioso) (Figure 9), conceived as part of Pope John Paul II’s millennium initiative to rejuvenate parish life within Italy, is located outside central Rome. The proportional structure of the entire complex is based on a series of squares and four circles. Three circles of equal radius generate the profiles of the three concrete shells that, together with the spine-wall, make up the body of the nave. The materials used in the portico—the paving, the wall cladding and the liturgical furniture—allude to the body of Christ’s church while referencing the fabric of the adjacent residential area. Glazed skylights suspended between the shells are lit by zenithal sidelight, and the nave is enlivened by a constantly changing pattern of light and shade. The light is diffused over the inner volume of the church and varies according to the hour, the weather, and the season, imparting a particular character to the aspects of the interior [23]. Self-cleaning surface systems have been applied here. This church consists of 256 precast and prestressed concrete elements that are assembled into curved white shells of 25m. The concrete elements are made of high performance concrete mix with white Portland-type cement, metakaolin and white Carrara marble. This mixture creates a bright, clean and white concrete. The objective was to create a structure with clean surfaces and pure white color, features that are maintained. This was achieved with the use of TiO 2 in the concrete mixture, offering self-cleaning and smog-eating properties [24]. “Italcementi” developed and patented a new type of white self-cleaning cement, called Bianco TX Millennium. The cantilever reached is impressive, related to the thickness and extension of the “sails” [25, 26].

Figure 10. The Jubilee Church in Rome [24].

Discovery Gardens (Dubai): paints enhanced with Ag nanoparticles were used. Bioni paints achieve their anti-microbial properties from microscopic nano-silver particles. Silver has been used as medicine and preservative by many cultures throughout history. Today, germs, bacteria or fungal spores brought into contact with surfaces coated with Bioni paints are very quickly destroyed when the integrated nano-silver particles react with proteins in the outer membranes of the microorganisms. Unlike other microbial paint systems, where the incorporated anti-bacterial function will lose its effect over time, the nano-particles used in Bioni paints are solid bodies, allowing the paint to retain its antimicrobial effect permanently. Bioni façade paints and roof coatings may also be used to protect the exterior of buildings from attack by algae and moss. When used as an exterior coating, Bioni’s nanosilver technology is also claimed to reduce air conditioning bills due to the low thermal conductivity of the nano-silver particles, and their ability to reflect 93% of incident sunlight. Due to the high demand for a permanent antibacterial solution, Bioni has already been used in a number of significant projects worldwide, including the spectacular 26 million square foot freehold residential community, Discovery Gardens, located in Dubai (Figure 11) [24, 27]. Frost Art Museum (Yann Weymouth of Hellmuth Obata & Kassabaum, Miami, 2008): The structure features a Figure 11. Discovery Gardens [24]. soaring three-story glass atrium entrance and a dramatically suspended staircase leading to the second and third floors containing over 9,000 sq. ft. (840 m2) of exhibition space. Three of the nine galleries are dedicated to the permanent collection, while the remaining six galleries will feature temporary exhibitions. Among various interior design highlights is the prominent use of natural daylight in the galleries. Large “leaves” or “petals” are constructed to diffuse ultraviolet by preferentially scattering light to the walls. This unique gallery lighting was designed by ArupLighting. The glass surfaces are coated with Hydro-NM-Oxide3. It is a nanocoating that is used for reducing heat transmission in buildings. Other than insulating properties, it offers effective protection from mildew and corrosion. It can be applied as paint and is transparent or white. The objective for the use of this material was to allow light while preventing the penetration of heat [24].

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Nansulate® coatings are a patented insulation technology that incorporates a nanocomposite called Hydro-NM-Oxide, a product of nanotechnology. This material is documented as having one of the lowest measured thermal conductivity values.[28, 29]

Figure 12. The Frost Art Museum in Miami [24].

Solar Ivy: Mimicking the form of ivy and its relationship with the environment, this system is called SolarIvy. It was designed by Samuel and Teresita Cochran and consists of thin solar photovoltaic panels (Figure 13b) that resemble the leaves of ivy and generate power. This “skin” can be incorporated on the side of a building. When the sun is shining or the wind blowing, it can generate power [32]. SolarIvy enriches the appearance of a building / structure (Figure 13a), when it is applied on a façade, and simultaneously has the ability of providing energy functioning as photovoltaic system. It is a bi-functional decorative element for external surfaces.

Figure 13. (a) Example of application – 3d model. (b) Form of Ivy leafage [32].

The Living Glass [33,34]: created by “the Living” - the silicone surface embedded with Dynalloy Flexinol wires contracts due to the electrical stimulus, allowing the “gills” to breathe and regulate air quality when carbon dioxide levels are high (Figure 14).

Figure 14. The “Living Glass” [33,34].

 intelligent systems: react – interact – adapt, adjust  organic electronics: photovoltaic, lighting, textiles

Potential Applications Throughout research we came across various interesting materials and innovative properties that we plan to exploit:  n2m construction with the use of nanobots - self-assembly of simple parts [13]

 flexible organic electronics: flexible compounds, filling materials  MM-CNT: stable, strong, light weighted bearing structure  enhanced materials with nanoparticles for aesthetic properties: cleanliness, transparency – opacity, color changing  energy efficiency: thermal conductivity, insulation, production of energy  health: organic and printed materials as microbial indicators, use of sensors for atmospheric pollution  nanosensors: failure feedback Ending this paper, let’s imagine a structure that uses some of the revolutionary properties mentioned before. The exterior of the structure will have skeleton and skin properties. This means it will serve load bearing purposes and protection, isolation – insulation and interaction. We have an oversimplified schematic representation of a structure (Figure 15a) which roughly consists of three parts: 1. Metal structure with joints  MM-CNT  anticorrosive coatings (i.e. TiO2)  nanosensors (feedback) 2. Filler Materials (glass, Plexiglas)  flexible organic electronics (PV)  self-cleaning coatings  microbial indicators (printed)  sensors (best solar beam angle)  PCM, TCM (solar protection, passive heating)  flexibility (shape and size changing) 3. Inner Environment  indicators for climatic changes  PV textiles and lighting elements  antimicrobial surfaces (Ag2O)  easy-to-clean surfaces.

Figure 15. (a)Schematic representation of a structure. (b)Metal structure with joints.

All the materials that are mentioned above could grant energy efficiency, sustainability, high performance features and also aesthetic dynamics. Having that in mind one can imagine how deeply nanotechnology has already influenced architecture. CONCLUSIONS Architecture is considered as a form of artificial life, subject, like the natural world, to principles of morphogenesis, genetic coding, replication and selection. The aim of evolutionary architecture is to create within the built environment symbiotic behaviours and metabolic balance that are characteristic of the natural environment [30]. Nanomaterials constitute a new “language” for architectural expression. New possibilities have emerged in such a sense that we could create bio-mimicking and responsive buildings in the near future and, furthermore, buildings that build themselves. Similar to Le Corbusier, who once quoted that “a house is a machine to live in”; we are able now to describe a house as a living machine or even a living organism. There are nevertheless two important challenges for future research: achieve to combine properties in real life and manage to produce large scale structures within viable cost limits.

Acknowledgements This paper is a part of a dissertation research which is in progress under the supervision of the following advisory committee: M. Malindretos, Professor AUTh (School of Architecture), N. Kalogirou, Professor AUTh (School of Architecture), S. Logthetidis, Professor AUTh (School of Physics). The current study is done under the support of: “ΙΚΥ FELLOWSHIPS OF EXCELLENCE FOR POSTGRADUATE STUDIES IN GREECE – SIEMENS PROGRAM” REFERENCES [1] [2] [3]

[4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] [18] [19] [20] [21] [22] [23] [24] [25]

NanoWerk. (2014). Nanotechnology Introduction. Retrieved from NanoWerk: http://www.nanowerk.com/nanotechnology/introduction GENNESYS. (2009). A NEW EUROPEAN PARTNERSHIP. (H. Dosch, & M. Van de Voorde, Eds.) Stuttgart: Max-PlanckInstitut. UNEP (2010) Assessing the Environmental Impacts of Consumption and Production: Priority Products and Materials, A Report of the Working Group on the Environmental Impacts of Products and Materials to the International Panel for Sustainable Resource Management. Retrieved from: http://www.unep.org/resourcepanel/Portals/24102/PDFs/PriorityProductsAndMaterials_Report.pdf Johansen, J. (2002). NanoArchitecture: A New Species of Architecture. New York: Princeton Architectural Press. World Commission on Environment and Development. (1987). Our Common Future. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Anastas, P., & Zimmerman, J. (2003, March 1). Design through the 12 Principles of Green Engineering. Environmental Science & Technology, 94-101A. The Biomimicry Institute. (2014). What is Biomimicry? Retrieved from Biomimicry Institute: http://biomimicry.org/what-is-biomimicry/ Wikipedia. (2015, May 14). Sustainable Design. Retrieved from Wikipedia the Free Encyclopaedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_design#cite_note-13 American Chemical Society. (2012). Organic Electronics for a Better Tomorrow: Innovation, Accessibility and Sustainability. San Francisco, California, USA: Chemical Sciences and Society Summit (CS3). Elvin, G. (2007). Nanotechnology for Green Building. Indianapolis: Green Technology Forum. Schramm, L. (2014). Nano and Microtechnology from A-Z. Germany: Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH&Co. KGaA. Logothetidis, S. (2008, August 25). Flexible organic electronic devices: Materials, process and applications. Materials Science and Engineering: B, 96-104. Rebolj, D., Fischer, M., Endy, D., Moore, T., & Sorgo, A. (2010, September 18). Can we grow buildings? Concepts and Requirements for Automated nano- to meter-scale Building. Advanced Engineer Informatics, pp. 390-398. Harboun, M. (2012). Living Kitchen. Retrieved from Michaël Harboun: http://www.michaelharboun.com/livingkitchen.html Méndez, W. (2012, December 4). Transtectonica: Filling Cities with Monsters. Retrieved from Institute for Ethics & Emerging Technologies: http://ieet.org/index.php/IEET/more/mendez20121204 KVA. (2013). KVA Projects. Retrieved from KVA Matx: http://www.kvarch.net/projects/87 Welch, A. (2013, April). E-Architect. Retrieved from E-Architect: http://www.e-architect.co.uk/hamburg/soft-house DETAIL. (2013). Das Architekturportal. Retrieved from DETAIL: http://www.detail.de/architektur/themen/bewegliche-pv-membranen-soft-house-in-hamburg-021023.html Lin, J. (2013, March). Otto. Retrieved from Designer Pages: http://media.designerpages.com/otto/2013/03/thesoft-house-opens-in-hamburg/ Schwarz Architekten. (2006). Schwarz Architekten.com. Retrieved from http://www.schwarzarchitekten.com/downloads/alterswohnen/0610_Schweizer_Solarpreis.pdf Leydecker, S. (2008). Nano Materials. Berlin: Birkhauser Verlag AG. GLASSX. (2013). What's the deal with PCM Retrieved from GLASSX: http://www.glassxpcm.com/footer_posts/howthe-pcm-works/ Richard Meier & Partners Architects. (2010). Jubilee Church. Retrieved from RichardMeier.com: http://www.richardmeier.com/?projects=jubilee-church-2 Norton, S. (2011, February). Nanotechnology in Architecture. Retrieved from Caddetails: http://www.caddetails.com/articles/February2011.htm ArchDaily. (2009). Church of 2000. Retrieved 2015, from ArchDaily: http://www.archdaily.com/20105/church-of2000-richard-meier

[26] ArchNewsNow. (2003). Iconic Arcs: Jubilee Church by Richard Meier & Partners. Retrieved 2015, from ArchNewsNow.com: http://www.archnewsnow.com/features/Feature123.htm [27] Bioni. (2014). Intelligent Coatings for Buildings. Retrieved 2014, from Bionics: http://www.bioni.de/index.php?page=news&lang=en#news036 [28] Nansulate. (2015). Thermal Insulation Data. Retrieved from Nansulate: http://www.nansulate.com/thermal_insulation_data.htm [29] Industrial Nanotech Inc. (2015). Nansulate: The Ultimate Insulation & Corrosion Solution. Retrieved from http://www.industrial-nanotech.com/main-page.html [30] Frazer, J. (1995). An Evolutionary Architecture. London: Architectural Association Publications. [31] Logothetidis, S. (2012). Nanotechnology: Principles and Applications. In S. Logothetidis, Nanostructured Materials and Their Applications (pp. 1-22). Heidelberg: Springer. [32] SolarIvy. (2011). Solar Ivy - the Idea. Retrieved from Solar Ivy: http://solarivy.com/the_idea [33] Levesque, T. (2007, June 21). INTERACTIVE “LIVING GLASS” Regulates Air Quality. Rertieved from Inhabitat: http://inhabitat.com/carbon-dioxide-sensing-living-glass/ [34] Libby, B. (2013, October 1). Six Responsive Products That Have a Mind of Their Own—Almost. Retrieved from: The Journal of the American Institute of Architects: http://www.architectmagazine.com/technology/products/sixresponsive-products-that-have-a-mind-of-their-ownalmost_o

A SENSORY EXPERIENCE IN AN URBAN ENVIRONMENT: SOUND-WALKS AND SOUNDMAPS EMINE KOSEOGLU Emine Koseoglu, Assistant Professor, PhD, Fatih Sultan Mehmet Waqf University, ABSTRACT Sensory studies are important to develop an understanding of the relationship between people and the environment and to see the need to relate buildings and the spaces between them. Stimuli from the sense organs are transformed into perception through processes that take place in mind and they are signified by mechanisms, interpreted, and thus perception occurs. The aim of this study is to introduce a way to obtain sensory information from the spatial environment, to understand and realize the methods to express the results of such an experience visually. A case study is conducted with first grade architectural students in Haskoy, Beyoglu in order to acquire auditory knowledge from the environment and to visualize them. The case study consists of three steps: understanding the issue of environmental sounds, acquiring environmental sounds with direct experience, and visualizing the data as forms of sense-maps using various techniques. INTRODUCTION Sound has a crucial role in the definition of space and place. For example, the identity of a space is not a static structure, and can vary from one social context to another (Relph, 1976). The identity of a city is not only defined by its visual, physical features and its appearance but also by its other sensory elements like soundscape. Space turns into a place conceptually when it is shaped by experiences. Wissmann (2014) suggests that sense of place seems an everyday term that is easier to experience than conceptualize. He adopts Tuan’s (1975) approach of sense of place to sound. He argues that we do not listen to sounds, we take them for granted. Thus it becomes the part of sensing the place. Nevertheless, if this process is needed to be analyzed, then sound-walks and sound-maps as the concrete products of the experience can be the methods for conscious sensory experiencing of space. This study aims to reveal a process that consists of three steps (conveyance of the concept of environmental sounds; direct experience of urban sounds by sound-walks; and visualization of the sensory experience by sound-maps) that is conducted as a part of an undergraduate course titled Space Perception and Psychology that is supervised by the author at Fatih Sultan Mehmet Waqf University, Department of Architecture, Istanbul. Urban Sound-walks Urban ambiances are created and experienced as a product of different, sometimes unique, blends of sights, sounds, smells, textures, tastes and thermal conditions (Bruce, et al., 2016). Kekou and Marangoni (2010) argue that buildings and architecture are usually described in visual terms, but it is often our sense of hearing which assists us in experiencing and navigating through urban spaces. Venot and Semidor (2006) noted that all urban noises contribute to the image of the city. They claim that noises which provoke some discomfort because of their intensity or because they blur the perception of the most representative sounds of the city, have to be limited. In contrast to the static image of urban spaces, soundscape occurs as a dynamic process (Leus, 2011), so it can create relative mental pictures. Hallsten (2014) emphasizes the collaboration of the movements of our bodies. Spaces overlap, unfold, are born and fade away with the movements of us. Sound-walks engage and direct our senses actively to the surrounding environment requiring sustained mental and physical focus on the whole environment. This kind of bodily movement advocates an engagement with the environment in which the emphasis lies not solely on the visual and aesthetic, but also on a heightened experience of sound and physical forces (Hallsten, 2014). Sound-walk is a concept that is understood as an excursion on foot with the intention of listening closely and consciously to sounds around (Tausig, 2011). This practice is of interest to urban planners, architects, artists, and educators. Tausig (2011) notes that a review of English-language literature from the 20th century suggest that the term “sound-walk” is started to be used in the mid-1970s and become common in pedagogical texts on topics such as musical development, environmental awareness, and cultural heritage. Composer R. Murray Schafer, leader of the World Soundscape Project and author of the 1977 Sound Studies text “The Tuning of the World”, used portable recording equipment to document and analyze the soundscapes of specific locations (Tausig, 2011).

Sound-walking basically involves walking and listening, but it can be practiced in a variety of forms including walks lead by an artist along a predetermined path; walks with eyes closed or open; walks with pauses to stop and listen or walks involving small sonic manipulations or interventions (Flugge, 2014). Tausig emphasizes pedagogical aim of sound-walks. He argues that listening is a performance that benefits from training and rehearsal like playing an instrument. Wissmann (2014) notes that we consume urban sound, we do not listen to it actively. Through sound-walk exercises, within time, people can learn to interpret the sounds around them (Tausig, 2011). Urban Sound-maps Maps have been considered as instruments of graphic communication using abstraction, representation and design to convey a message to a community of users (MacEachren, 2004). From this perspective on cartography, the role of representation in mapping is as a means for communicating spatial data effectively. Cartography allows us to portray raw data, the graphical combination of disparate data sets and exploration of data and the presentation of results. As a combination of abstraction and representation, cartography is a data-handling and data-communicating method. Most of the techniques used in contemporary scientific visualization have relied on mapping methods to provide their initial model. Beyond its role as a tool for representation, the map is referred to as a metaphor for the presentation and representation of spatial and non-spatial data. It advocates the representation and examination of complex information that can be mapped to display different aspects of spatial environments (Fairbairn, et al., 2001).

Figure 1. Cartography as a process of graphic communication (MacEachren, 2004, pp.5). Sound-map basically refers to pinning the links of sound recordings of specific environmental locations onto a realistic, geographical map revealing the exact location of the recording (See http://www.belfastsoundmap.org/). Those projects are generally interactive ones and constitute of nude and electronical direct reflections of sounds, additionally they are the products of devices conveying the environmental sonic atmosphere. Conceptually and practically, they do not reflect human bodily experience of sensory dimensions of urban space. This type of mapping does not advocate sound-maps which are often considered psycho-geographical maps (See http://www.inenart.eu/?tag=psychogeographic-maps), as “Psycho-geography is defined in the first volume of Situationist International as ‘the study of specific effects of the geographical environment, consciously organized or not, on the emotions and behavior of individuals.’" (1). The map is used to discover the principle paths of movement through cities and their pivotal areas (2). Guy Debord proposed that exploration of the built environment would not include preconceptions and would not be restricted by discussions about architectural styles or residential percentages. The discussions would be based on the

theory inhabiting an urban environment in a new way. Some adopted methods were, for instance, to follow one’s nose by chasing smells or navigate through Paris utilizing a map of London (3).

Figure 2. Debord’s psychogeographical map The Naked City (1957) (4). In a related situationist study, Chombart de Lauwe in 1952 mapped out all of the movements of a student in Paris’s 16th Arrondissement. The spaces she visits through a year are surprisingly limited, and center on her house, her piano teacher, and her School of Political Sciences. The goal of this study was to reveal “the narrowness of the real Paris in which each individual lives within a geographical area whose radius is extremely small.” (5). It can be considered an experiential map of one person.

Figure 3. Chombart de Lauwe’s map. (6) Each experiential loop or line forms a unique experiential map which can be compared to collective image maps of urban space. These contrasting worlds reveal us how various realities exist simultaneously. Forster and his colleagues adopt this

idea to sounds of urban space. They suggest that, in navigating a city visually, we read the city as a text, interpreting the meanings of visual stimulus and drawing correlations between points. If we can read the city as text, it is therefore possible to hear the city as audio and produce an aural “map” (Forster, et al., 2014). So how can we express the sensory map of an urban space? Just by pinning the locations of sounds on a map, or can we think of new ways of, for instance artistic visualization techniques, of mapping experiences? Map-art is new way of such experiments of expressions. Varanka (2006) noted that map art expresses perceptual, aesthetic, and attitudinal qualities about places through mapping and other visual language systems. Universal map-modeling skills are what bring the map to map-art, and are what provide its cartographic foundations. Rather than detract from cartography, the qualities of map art augment and enrich cartography. Because it is art, aesthetics is a high-priority, but like conventional cartography, art maps are also representations of places in the world (Varanka, 2006). Case Study This case study presents the process and products of one of the working modules of the undergraduate course titled “Space Perception and Psychology” supervised by the author of this paper at Fatih Sultan Mehmet Waqf University, Faculty of Architecture and Design. This course consists of three modules: color, sound and smell. Each module takes three weeks; theoretical presentation of the issue, site excursion and data collection, and visualization of the data. The sound module is called Seeing Voices which is the title of Oliver Sacks’s book (1989). In the first week of the module, environmental sounds, how we sense them, and their role in understanding and designing space were presented and discussed at class. In second week, an excursion was conducted with the working groups of 3-4 students. This excursion is called sound-walking and students are asked to focus on the sounds on their routes in the given urban area and both record the sounds and note them down on the physical map using color pens and written explanations. The working area, Haskoy, is located on the west side of Istanbul, on Golden Horn. There are 7 routes in total that scan Haskoy area from west to east. The sound-walks take approximately 50 minutes each. In the last week of the module, students are asked to visualize their auditory experiential data using various techniques. The techniques were the examples of interpreted maps which would possess the features of a visual composition and/or further they would the examples of map-art.

Figure 4. Haskoy area.

Figure 5. A close look at the study area.

Thus three steps in a sensory module provided students to understand the issue theoretically with contemporary topics and examples; to experience environment focusing on sensory and invisible features of urban space through their bodies; and to express the invisible sensory data they collected from the area as a form of visual expression which is called mapart. In this paper student works of Route 1, Route 4, Route 5, and Route 7 are presented respectively.

Figure 6. Routes from left to right: Route 1-Bactar Street Axe, Route 4-Harapcesme Street Axe, Route 5-Haskoy Mektebi Street Axe, Route 7-Merhamet Street Axe. Study 1: Route 1-Bactar Street Axe: Students classified sounds of the route as animal voices, human voices, everyday life voices, workplace voices, and vehicle voices. They used colored pieces of glass to represent the types of the environmental sounds they determined. The visual composition is separated from the actual, physical map of the area, so this composition can be considered having a high-level abstractness. Additionally, the composition shows the intricateness of the environmental sounds.

Figure 7. Study 1-Route 1-Bactar Street Axe work by Tuba Celik, Busra Kadioglu, Dilek Gunes.

Figure 8. Study 1-Route 1-Bactar Street Axe work by Tuba Celik, Busra Kadioglu, Dilek Gunes. Study 2: Route 1-Bactar Street Axe: Students’ classification of the sounds of the route has a quite different approach. The composition reveals two types of sounds: the sound of the students’ steps and other outer sounds. They used two different materials to represent the types: metal wire and metal mesh frame. The metal fire represents the steps, while metal mesh frame shows outer environmental sounds. They reported that at the beginning of the walking they only could hear the sound of their steps, later outer sounds arouse and they got mixed in the end. The visual composition is separated here from the actual, physical map of the area, so this composition can be considered having a high-level abstractness. Also, mentioning only two distinct types of sounds made it more abstract.

Figure 9. Study 2-Route 1-Bactar Street Axe work by Edanur Macit, Fatmanur Cavusoglu, Merve Doyaroglu, Visal Okur.

Study 3: Route 4-Harapcesme Street Axe: In this route, students classified the environmental sounds they experienced as voices of birds; voices of vehicle and klaxon; instant sounds like walking, carpet shake; sounds of yell and whistle; and voices of children. They used colored pipettes to represent the categories of sounds they experienced. The visual composition is separated from the actual, physical map of the area, so this composition can be considered having a high-level abstractness. However, it shows the route as a trace. Additionally, the composition shows the intricateness of the environmental sounds.

Figure 10. Study 3-Route 4-Harapcesme Street Axe work by Didar Buyukkocak, Zeynep Alkan, Seyma Buyukkocak. Study 4: Route 5-Haskoy Mektebi Street Axe: In this route, students classified the environmental sounds they collected as voices of human; voices of birds; voices of dogs; sounds of machines; voices of vehicles; sounds of construction; sounds of klaxon. They used watercolor on watercolor paper to represent the categories of sounds they experienced. The visual composition is separated from the actual, physical map of the area, so this composition is considered having a high-level abstractness. However, it shows the route as a trace. Additionally, the composition shows visually the intricateness of the environmental sounds.

Figure 11. Study 4-Route 5-Haskoy Mektebi Street Axe work by Enes Ulukoylu, Zeynep Merken, Zeynep Ebru Yilmaz. Study 5: Rota 7-Merhamet Street Axe: In this route, students classified the environmental sounds they collected as voices of children; voices of human; voices of construction; sounds of klaxon; voices of dogs; sounds of call to prayer-ezan; sounds of birds. They used two materials-pins and colored threads- to represent the categories of sounds they experienced. The visual composition is separated from the actual, physical map of the area, so this composition is considered having a highlevel abstractness. However it shows the route as a trace. Additionally, the composition shows visually the intricateness of the environmental sounds.

Figure 12. Study 5-Rota 7-Merhamet Street Axe work by Busra Afranur Celik, Rabia Kucuk, Zeynep Beyza Gunduz. CONCLUSIONS Sensory experiences have a prominent role in portraying a deeper understanding and conception of urban environments. Sounds are invisible characteristic elements of urban environments constituting sensory part of environmental identity. Sound-walks, especially in architectural design education can play a role in conceiving and furtherly obtaining sensory data from the urban environment. Sound-maps which allow and force the mind to think on the nude data, is a way of visualization of auditory information collected. Map-art method is an avant-garde approach for processing conventional types of cartographic representations and/or visualizations-maps. This study unfolds the process of a course titled Space Perception and Psychology, conducted by the author, revealing the final products of the auditory study module called Seeing Voices. The final products by the architectural students are the examples of map-art technique. It is asserted that the whole process enhances the sensory awareness of the students towards the urban environments. Acknowledgement Special thanks to Busra Dilaveroglu who prepared the maps of the study area and who discussed the route selections with me while preparing the course. REFERENCES Bruce, N.; Condie, J.; Henshaw, V. and Payne, S.V., 2015. Analysing olfactory and auditory sensescapes in English cities: sensory expectation and urban environmental perception. Ambiances. URL: http://ambiances.revues.org/560 Fairbairn, D.; Andrienko, G.; Buziek, GG. And Dykes, J., 2001. Representation and its relationship with cartographic visualization. Cartography and Geographic Information Science, Volume 28, Issue 1. Flügge, E., 2014. Sonic thinking: how sound-art practices teach us critical listening to space. Invisible Places, 18–20 July 2014, Viseu, Portugal. Forster, S.M.; Gowans, S.; Case, J and Maciej, K., 2014. An examination of the role of sound in defining the city in the context of Edinburgh. European Academic Research, Vol. I, Issue 10.

Hallsten, J., 2014. Sonic movements – spatial reflexivity. Somatechnics, 4.1, pp.133–148. Kekou, E. and Marangoni, M., 2010. A new sense of city through hearing and sound. AMBER art and technology festival: Istanbul. URL: http://www.humbug.me/ANewSenseofCity.pdf Leus, M., 2011, The soundscape of cities: a new layer in city renewal. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 150. Low, K.E.Y, 2015. The sensuous city: sensory methodologies in urban ethnographic research. Ethnography, Vol. 16(3), pp.295–312. MacEachren, A., 2004. How maps work: representation, visualization, and design. New York: The Guilford Press. Relph, E., 1976. Place and placelessness. London: Pion. Sacks, O., 1989. Seeing voices. USA: First Vintage Books. Schafer, R.M., 1994. The soundscape: our sonic environment and the tuning of the world. Rochester VT: Destiny. Tausig, B., 2011 Creative reception in urban space or the art of listening. Journal of Urban Culture Research, Vol. 2, pp.8095. Tuan, Y.F., 1974. Topophilia: a study of environmental perception, attitudes and values. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. Varanka, D., 2006. Interpreting map art with a perspective learned from J.M. Blaut Cartographic Perspectives, Number 53, pp.15-23. Venot, F. and Semidor, C., 2006. The "soundwalk" as an operational component for urban design. PLEA2006 - The 23rd Conference on Passive and Low Energy Architecture: Geneva. Wissmann, T., 2014. Geographies of urban sound. New York: Routledge.

ONLINE REFERENCES (1)http://worldarchitecture.org/architecture-news/hevv/city-perception-through-psychogeography.html (2) http://www.inenart.eu/?tag=psychogeographic-maps (3)http://worldarchitecture.org/architecture-news/hevv/city-perception-through-psychogeography.html (4) http://www.inenart.eu/?tag=psychogeographic-maps (5) http://www.inenart.eu/?tag=psychogeographic-maps (6) http://www.inenart.eu/?tag=psychogeographic-maps

OPTIMIZING PUBLIC SPACES FOR SOCIAL INTERACTION IN DUBAI: RESIDENTS’ PERSPECTIVES DANA NABTITI Dana Nabtiti, MUP, American University of Sharjah. ABSTRACT This paper presents the findings of an empirical research that was conducted to ascertain the factors that attract residents of Dubai in the United Arab Emirates to public spaces in the city. Dubai is one of the most dynamic business and tourism destinations in the world. It is a cultural melting pot and continues to attract people of all nationalities from all over the world. The government of Dubai has declared its vision and commitment to be a sustainable city by 2020, and to remain at the forefront of implementing initiatives that make it a livable, equitable and happy city. For environmental designers, one of the most powerful assets for achieving livability is public space, both quantity and quality. Evidence will be presented that Dubai invest highly in providing residents with public spaces. Yet, as the author of this study’s observation that motivated the study showed, users of Dubai’s public spaces do not reflect the rich demographic and cultural milieu of the city. Also, but for special occasions such as public holidays, public spaces are rarely used robustly or optimally. For the study, 100 randomly selected residents of Dubai were surveyed to find out what attracts them to, and discourages them from, Dubai’s public spaces. Then face-to-face interviews were conducted with professionals in architecture and urban planning to find out how to enhance dynamic use of Dubai’s public spaces. The results of the surveys and interviews were analyzed qualitatively, and the initiatives suggested by both residents and professionals were clustered into policy, design, educational and public relations initiatives. Most of the Specific initiatives suggested by respondents were design policy and initiatives. The paper concludes by discussing the collaborative approach suggested by the survey respondents for implementing the initiatives proposed. Government, developers, residents and other stakeholders must work collaboratively in order to facilitate optimal use of Dubai’s public spaces and, thereby, promote social interaction and social capital. INTRODUCTION: From both planning and sustainability viewpoints, public spaces are a critical resource by which cities try to provide their residents with a good quality of life, promote or attract tourism and economic investment, and improve the natural environment. Planning public spaces is an important function in cities worldwide. This paper explored planning public spaces in Dubai, United Arab Emirates (UAE), from the perspectives of residents who use these public spaces. Dubai is one of the most dynamic business and touristic destinations. It’s a multicultural city and continues to attract people from all over the world. Dubai has been implementing initiatives to make it a livable, equitable and happy city, leading to its vision of becoming the world’s most sustainable city by the year 2020. One of the major investments to achieve that is by enhancing the quantity and quality of public spaces for all residents. Dubai has been developing its public spaces vastly in the past few years. Many of these spaces have been successful, such as the beach in Jumeirah beach residence, kite beach, Dubai Boulevard, box park, the walk, Zabeel park, Al Khour park and Al Safaa Park. In spite of the city’s efforts, the contention in this paper is that public spaces in Dubai are not actively and routinely used by residents. What precisely do these residents want to see in their city’s public spaces, in order to attract or entice them to use these spaces optimally (actively and routinely), and by extension foster social capital through the use of the spaces? This is the question that this paper answered, one, by conducting a face-to-face questionnaire survey of 100 randomly selected residents of Dubai at selected public spaces across Dubai. Two, face-to-face oral unstructured interviews were conducted with selected professionals in the field of architecture and urban planning in Dubai. Three, secondary literature from governmental sources or public records was used to preview or describe public spaces in Dubai. Four, desktop research was conducted on the use of public spaces in urban areas by residents in different parts of the world. Finally, field visits were conducted by the author for personal observation and photographs at the public spaces selected for study. The data from all these sources was summarized and analyzed using qualitative and graphic techniques. It should be pointed out that the demographic profile of the respondents to the survey reflected the demographic profile of Dubai as a global and multicultural or international city. 88 of the 100 respondents specified their nationalities. An interesting diversity of 26 different nationalities was responded to the survey, as shown in Figure 1.

Nationality Pakistan China UK Philippine Sweden Brazil New Zealand Spain Algeria Korea Italy Tunisia Iran Lebanon Somalia France USA Canada Sudan Syria India Iraq Egypt UAE Palestine Jordan

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Figure 1. Nationalities of Dubai residents who responded to the survey Perspective of Dubai Residents on Public Spaces: One of the main questions posed to the respondents asked about their favorite public spaces in Dubai. A total number of 27 different public spaces were mentioned as shown in Figures 2 and 3. The top three favorite public spaces were JBR (The Beach) 47%, Downtown 27%, and Kite beach 21%. (Figure 4) Respondents’ Favorite Public Spaces in Dubai 47

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Figure 2. Favorite public spaces reported by residents in Dubai

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Skydive Dubai

1

Al Qudra Cycling

2

Union Square

2

Madinat Jumeirah

2

Baniyas square

2

Dubai Zoo

3

Global Village

3

Design District (D3)

3

Creek Park

3

Uptown Merdif

5

Bastakiya

5

Safa Park

Desert

6

City Walk

7

Box Park

9

Zaabeel Park

Al Mamzar Beach Park

Marina

Jumeirah Beach Park

Kite Beach

Downtown

9

Barsha Park

13

JBR (The Beach)

50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

Figure 3. Map of favorite public spaces reported by residents in Dubai

26%

47%

21%

Figure 4. Most Favorite public spaces Reported by residents

In order to understand the reason behind the favorite public spaces reported by residents, a following question in the survey asked about the qualities of these public spaces that made them attractive to residents. The main qualities that attract people to these place are; cleanness, availability of food and drinks, safety and the availability of seating areas and shaded areas. Below is an example of JBR.

JBR (The Beach) Good Parking, free 0 Close to my working… 3 Close to my home 6 Good parking, paid 6 Quiet 9 Amenities for Kids 10 Crowded/Busy 10 Not Crowded 11 Shaded areas 17 Benches 24 Safe 28 Food and drinks… 34 Clean 36 0

10

20

30

40

Figure 5, Qualities of the most favorite public space in Dubai (JBR) On the other hand, when asked about their least favorite public places in Dubai, the respondents identified the spaces listed in Figure 6. Interestingly enough, 17% of the respondents ranked downtown as their least favorite public space, 16% ranked JBR and 10% ranked Marina. Respondents' Least Liked Public Spaces in Dubai 18

17

16

16 14 12

10

10 8 6 4

7 5

4

3

3

3

2

2

2 0

Figure 6, least favorite public space reported by residents

2

1

1

1

1

1

1

Figure 7, least favorite public space reported by residents In order to identify the reason behind why Dubai residents do not like these public spaces, residents were asked about the problems of these public spaces. The reasons reported by the respondents are shown in Figure 8. The main problems of the least favorite public space are; noise, crowd, parking issues and Lack of shaded and seating areas. An example below is Dubai Downtown.

Downtown Far From Work… No Parking

1 2

Lack of Kids… Dirty

3 4

Lack of Shaded…

5

Far From Home

6

Lack of Seating…

8

Noisy

13

Crowded/Busy

15 0

5

10

15

20

Figure 8, problems of least favorite public space in Dubai (Downtown) In order to attract resident to use public spaces frequently and optimally, one of the survey questions asked the respondents to list or suggest what they would want provided for them in public spaces. The requirements suggested are shown in Figure 9.

How to make public spaces better in Dubai?

35

32

30 25

23 22

20

20 15

12 9

10

9

9

7

7

6

5

5

5

3

3

2

1

1

1

1

0

Figure 9, Residents’ suggestions to enhance public spaces in Dubai. It was discovered that most of the suggestions by residents are design initiatives to improve public spaces, as shown in the clustering of the suggestions as follows: %

Spatial Design

%

Infrastructure

%

Amenities/ Services

%

Policy

22% 20% 7%

More shaded areas More greenery Walkability

32% 12% 9% 7% 7% 5%

More parking More seating Traffic control Walking / Jogging tracks Transportation Wider pedestrian

23% 9% 5% 3% 1%

More activities Amenities for kids Integrate Art Free wifi Better maintenance

6% 2% 1%

Space for events Allow pets Allow alcohol

Table 1. Design initiatives by Dubai Residents. It can be surmised that the high rating of parking means that most residents need to drive to public spaces, which may need some rethinking by planners about the location of public spaces in Dubai (e.g., more pocket and neighborhood parks people can walk to). Also, some of the suggestions are not realistic in the context of Dubai’s political system and religious belief such as allowing Alcohol in public spaces. The message behind this suggestion could be to give residents more freedom. This can be resolved by allowing it in certain events under security supervision. The beach at JBR and Downtown have ranked the top two in the most and leas favorite public spaces in Dubai. This interesting contradiction reflects the variety of resident preferences regarding public space. It also can give planners the opportunity to examine the problems and fix them. The most important quality of public spaces according to residents was Cleanliness, while busy and crowded ranked as the most important problem of least like public spaces. Although a crowded public space means that it’s a successful public space, planners can rethink about spreading public spaces around the city to reduce this problem. Besides the survey of residents, face-to-face interviews were conducted with selected professionals in the field of architecture and urban planning to get their views about enhancing public spaces in Dubai. One of the architects interviewed suggested that Dubai should take the opportunity to turn Mosques into public spaces. The name of the Mosque in Arabic is Jame’ which means “The Place that brings people together”. This idea of the Mosque is no longer celebrated. In the past, courtyards were major elements in the design of mosques unlike most modern ones. The architect said that Mosques have been always the center of social interaction and cultural activities since it was first established. A mosque is a great opportunity to bring people together for different activities, social, educational and religious purposes. Those activities can be, for instance, local souks selling daily needs. The architect suggested that Dubai could learn from the Mosques in Istanbul that were established in the Ottoman Empire. One of the examples as shown in Figure 10 is Nuruosmaniye Mosque in Istanbul, where the courtyard of the mosque is used as a school with classrooms for children to learn about the Quran.

Figure 10, Nuruosmaniye Mosque, Istanbul. With regards to the challenge of providing a comfortable experience for public space users in Dubai’s harsh environment, the architect interviewed suggested that there should be integration between indoor and outdoor spaces. Dubai has a very harsh environment six months of the year causing a tremendous reduction in social activities and interaction between commuters. So, to improve walking experience, the responsible bodies at the government must provide a suitable combination and integration of those spaces. For instance, visitors parking at Dubai downtown and planning to continue their journey to Dubai mall find it difficult to walk there during summer since there is a lack of integration between the outdoor area (the downtown) and the indoor area (Dubai mall). A good solution as suggested by Hiba is to provide shaded areas along the walking distance and these areas could serve a purpose or an activity such as art galleries. This idea is shown in one of the new developments of public spaces in Dubai such as “city walk”. Figure 11

Figure 11, City Walk, Dubai. (Indoor/outdoor) connection CONCLUSION The findings of the survey reflected the multicultural profile or diversity of Dubai residents. The suggestions that came from residents are design initiatives to improve public spaces in Dubai. Findings of this research could also be helpful for other researchers, stakeholders and planners. In order to optimize public spaces for social interaction in Dubai the residents have listed some ideas that should be taken in consideration by Dubai municipality. In order to attract more people to use public spaces in Dubai and enhance social interaction, residents have suggested that more free parking should be available next to public spaces, more activities and social events should take place to bring people together to interact, more shaded areas, seating areas and greenery should be provided in public spaces, more attention should be given for kids by providing play grounds and kids amenities, encourage people to perform a healthy life style by providing sport fields and walking tracks, make it easier for people to commute to public spaces by solving traffic issues and try to connect public spaces to each other by walking and biking tracks, encourage people to walk by widening pedestrian pathways, enhance the aesthetics of public spaces by providing water features, granary and good architecture, make it more affordable, provide free wifi and allow pets. Other interesting ideas to develop public spaces in Dubai for social interaction came from Architects and planners. Some of them suggested taking advantage of mosques and turn their courtyards into public spaces where people can meet and interact after prayers or even use the mosque as a public space for educational and social purposes. More over, some have suggested creating a dynamic flow of indoor and outdoor connectivity to try overcome the weather conditions we have in Dubai and encourage people to walk more even in harsh weather conditions. Over all, I believe that it is important to engage the residents of the city in making decisions to enhance public spaces in the city.

REFERENCES Evans, B., McDonald, F., & Rudlin, D. (2011). Urban Identity (pp. 19-35). New York: The Academy of Urbanism, Routledge. Gehl, J. (1936). Three Types of Outdoor Activities. In Life Between Buildings (pp. 9-14). NW, Washington, DC: Librarry of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data. Gehl, J. (2010). The Human Dimension. In Cities for People (pp. 9-29). NW, Washington, DC: Island Press. Madanipour, Ali. 2007, Social Exclusion and Space. Ed. By Richard T. LeGates and Federic Stout. The City Reader (4th ed.) New York: Routledge, pp.158-165 Neal, Zachary. 2010. Seeking Common Ground: Three Perspectives on Public Space. Proceedings of the Institution of Civl Engineers, Urban Design and Planning 000, Issue DP000, pp. 1-8. Available at: https://www.msu.edu/~zpneal/publications/neal-seekingcommon.pdf Risom, J. (2014). Fostering social interaction in cities. Tonnelat, S. (2010). The sociology of urban public spaces. In http://www.academia.edu/. Retrieved December 10, 2015.

IMPROVING THE STREET ENVIRONMENT FOR AN ENHANCED PEDESTRIAN EXPERIENCE SHERINE ALY Sherine Aly, Associate Professor, Arab Academy for Science, Technology & Maritime Transport

ABSTRACT The sustainability of a place depends on a series of factors which contribute to the quality of life. An activity like walking, which is obviously "sustainable", can become non sustainable if the context in which it is carried out does not meet the conditions for an adequate quality of life. This paper aims to understand what are the factors contributing to an appropriate pedestrian experience in streets of various scales in downtown areas. When the car was first introduced, the automobile’s ugly face surfaced and drove people off the cities’ streets. Privateowned vehicles has led to congestion and longer hours held up in traffic. In addition to that, cars are aggravating global warming and are responsible for CO2 production. Cars are also using up limited fossil fuel resources, dominating the streets, increasing car related deaths, negatively impacting drivers’ psyches; these are just a few of the disadvantages of the automobile that need to be resolved immediately. The objective of this paper is to highlight the benefits of walkability and presenting various methods that have been employed to prioritize the pedestrian on the city streets. An in-depth study into the diverse factors that make a street more walkable is conducted, followed by the analysis of 3 examples with 3 different street scales; the monumental, urban and intimate. The final goal is to find out which factors are of the most urgency in street design while taking into account the scale of the street. The final result of this paper is a checklist that should guide the development of walkable streets of different scales in downtown commercial areas. Keywords: Pedestrian; walkability; streets; scale; environment 1. INTRODUCTION The urban downtown is one of the most significant and highly diverse places in the city, but the walking experience is not at its best. The industrialized nations turned to the automobile which was the cause of environmental, social, and aesthetic problems. These problems are: damage to the social fabric; capital & maintenance costs of parking lots; petroleum production subsidies; reduction in real estate values caused by nearby roads; vibration damage to structures; noise related stress; global warming and air pollution; medical bills resulting from the negative health impacts. It is therefore essential to find solutions to attract people to the streets of the downtown. This paper aims to study walkability standards and the improvement of streets in downtown areas to determine the diverse principles that can enhance the pedestrian experience putting in consideration the street scale. The hypothesis of this paper explore that changing the scale of the street would affect the importance of the influencing factors affecting the street improvement. The aim of this paper is to achieve a checklist that guides the development of walkable streets of different scales in downtown areas. The paper is split into two main parts that employ two different research methods. The first part uses the inductive and deductive methodology to study the walkability standards. The second part analyzes the improvement of streets in three different examples with different scales to reach the final conclusion through comparative-analytical methods. 2. BENEFITS OF WALKABILITY Walkable streets improve overall health, reduce environmental damages and financial costs and improve social wellbeing and social equity. They can improve a sense of community and public participation.; which is essential for the social balance of the community. Walkability is a highly sustainable form of transport as it reduces consumption of fossil fuels and improves safety in the street. The level of walking is considered an indicator of a community's livability—a factor that has a profound impact on attracting businesses and tourism. Walkability promote social interaction which improves quality of life. Pedestrianized commercial districts are important for urban revitalization. 3. DIFFERENT APPROACHES FOR PRIORITIZING THE PEDESTRIAN: There are three main approaches to prioritize the pedestrian which are: physical separation of modes of transport, space sharing and temporal separation. These approaches are: Car-free housing and car sharing, pedestrian zones, traffic calming and car-free days and hours.

4. FACTORS AFFECTING WALKABLE STREETS: Factors affecting walkable streets are spatial, social and environmental factors. 4.1. Spatial factors Spatial factors are those concerned with the built environment which plays a crucial role in people's perception of place and shapes how they will interact with it. The following are the spatial factors affecting walkable streets:  Buildings and Enclosure: If a street is to serve a dual function - as a route and a focus for the community - it should be framed by buildings that enrich its activity and liveliness (Rudlin, Falk, 2009). There are ground rules that determine the position, height and form of buildings that enrich the quality of the public realm on the street. a) The Building Line: The buildings should follow a building line, ignoring setbacks and projections. So if buildings are set back from the building line, then the integrity of the street can be compromised. b) Enclosure and Scale: The degree of enclosure is a measure of the enclosing building heights in regard to the street width. An enclosure degree that is larger than 1:4 indicates a loss of enclosure. The degree of enclosure is an indication of the scale of a street. There are four main street-scale categories; intimate, urban, monumental and universal. The intimate scale applies to streets with a 1:1 enclosure ratio (fig.1); the urban scale applies to the 1:2 (fig.2); the monumental scale applies to the 1:3 (fig.3) and finally the universal scale applies to the 1:4 or greater (fig. 4). The appropriate ratios for commercial streets are those with an intimate or urban scale (Rudlin, Falk, 2009).  Human Scale and Density: A good urban setting is one that is comfortable to the scale and pace of pedestrians. Building heights and forms are significant for human scale but they are not a main criterion. It is important to preserve the traditional networks of alleys, little streets and lanes that are lost in today's redevelopment projects. Density is essential to the social and economic well-being of cities. If urban areas are not built to high densities, they will not sustain economic activities and public transport will not be viable enough to replace the car. The key is to maintain the scale and integrity of the street (Tibbalds, 2001).  Landscape Elements and Details: The street is geometrically bounded by a variety of elevations. It is only the clear legibility of its physical characteristics and aesthetic details which allows designers to consciously change people's perceptions of the street from being a transport route, to being a pleasant urban space (Cuthbert, 2003). Detail helps to humanize urban streets and improve the livability of a place. Landscape elements are made up of the following: greening elements, site furniture, paving materials, colored surfaces, and public art.  Movement Control: lack of visibility, signage, and an inconsistent street layout lead to the discomfort, and disorientation of the user. One of the main reasons that drive people off the streets is having ones route interrupted by obstacles such as poorly positioned street furniture, landscape elements etc. To overcome these problems, the sidewalk should be divided into four major sections; the frontage zone, the throughway zone, the furniture zone and the edge zone. Studies have shown that the minimum sidewalk width is around 1.5meters. Half the street width should be dedicated to the pedestrian.

Figure 1 Intimate scale street is the narrowest type (www.estidama.com)

Figure 3 Monumental Scale Street (www.estidama.com)

Figure 2 Urban scale street (www.estidama.com)

Figure 4 Universal scale street is the biggest widest type (www.estidama.com) http://www.upc.gov.ae/template/upc/pdf/Street%20Design%20Manual%20English%20(small)%20FINAL.pdf

Source:

 Legibility: Legibility is the extent to which streets help people understand where they are and to identify which way they need to head through the use of physical form and activity patterns (Lewis, 2005). The most legible street layout was found to be those laid out on a deformed grid or irregular grid. Forked, staggered and T junctions can be used, rather than cross-roads. Legibility is achieved by hierarchy of short, fairly narrow streets that are well connected and wind gently with open ended turns and corners greater than 90 degrees. In addition to using clear signs that give essential information at decision points. (Burton, Mitchell, 2006).  Distinctiveness and Identity: Distinctiveness relates to the extent to which streets give a clear idea of their location, what their uses are and where they lead. Distinctive streets reflect the local character of the area that gives the streets and buildings their own identity. Clear physical markers improve street distinctiveness such as nodes, edges and landmarks. (Bently, Alcock, Murrain, McGlynn, Smith, 2001).  Accessibility and Permeability: Accessibility refers to the extent to which streets enable people to reach and walk around places regardless of any physical, sensory or mental impairment. Accessible streets have local services and facilities, are connected to each other, have wide, flat footways and ground level signal-controlled pedestrian crossings. (Burton, Mitchell, 2006). Permeability is central to both the concept of people friendly urban settings and to the urban character of a place. It reduces walking and increases street activity and increases the feeling of safety. (Rudlin, Falk, 2009)  Sensory Richness: There are five other senses that can aid in fulfilling a sense of richness; the sense of motion, smell, hearing, touch and taste should all be accounted for in an urban context. The most important aspect of sensory richness; visual richness. This factor depends on the availability of surface contrast achieved by the number of visual elements on each surface and the relationships between them. 4.2 Social factors Social factors promote the human-interactivity of the urban setting. Streets can be regarded as a stage for social interactions (Shaftoe, 2008). The social factors include the following:  Conviviality and Vitality: Convivial spaces are places where people are abound. The concept of conviviality is used to describe the ways in which people interact and is usually associated with pleasant notions such as feasting and drinking, friendliness and companionship.  Robustness: Places that can be used for various purposes, offer their users more choice than places whose design is limited to a single fixed use. Such quality is robustness. Activities in public spaces need not be separated from one another. Buildings should interact with the street rather than turn their backs onto it. Mixed use buildings is a key feature of robustness. Variety of activities provides a rich environment, as different users will interpret the place in different ways, it takes on varied meanings, thus making it more interesting for everyone (Bently, Alcock, Murrain, McGlynn, Smith, 2001). The uses should be able to interact with each other, and provide mutual support. Primary uses act as magnets. To promote activity on a commercial street, primary uses should be kept apart from one another, with secondary uses linking them together so that the pedestrians are constantly going from one end of the street to the other.(Bently, Alcock, Murrain, McGlynn, Smith, 2001). Jahn Gehl listed the activities into three categories; necessary, optional and social activities (Gehl, 1987). Physical planning plays a major part in optional activities. Social activities occur as a consequence of necessary and optional activities when the conditions of the public space are good enough to support them.  Safety: A city should have three main qualities. First, there should be a clear line between public and private space. Second, there should be eyes on the street by orienting the buildings towards the sidewalks (Jacobs, 1961). Third, the sidewalks should be in constant use by adding stores and other public places along the sidewalks. An important safety aspect is the physical environment and traffic control. (United States Department of Transportation, 2011).

4.3. Environmental factors The environmental factors are related to the physical comfort of those using the space and the cleanliness of the environment.  Physical Comfort: Comfort means that people are able to visit places of their choice without physical or mental discomposure. Comfortable streets are calm, welcoming and pedestrian-friendly, provide the most basic services and facilities required by people of any age. The microclimate plays a significant role in providing physical comfort.  Cleanliness: The cleanliness of the city's streets is one of the most visible measures of how well a city is looked after, and the quality of the city center measurement is based on the high standard of cleanliness (Greed, 1996). 5. WALKABILITY RATING SYSTEMS This section discusses various efforts in North America and the Middle East to bring forth more walkable communities to achieve a list of guidelines to improve the street environment. Figure 5 Factors affecting walkability (Source: The researcher)

5.1. The Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design Standards (LEED) The LEED has developed a rating system for the walkability of streets and networks. There are seven criteria that the LEED takes into account which are: (U.S. Green Building Council. LEED Rating Systems) sidewalks and walkways; trees and planter strips; connectivity; street qualities; parks and parking; driveways and alleys; buildings and their placement. 5.2 New York Department of Transport In 2007 the New York Department of Transport provided design guidelines for the improvement of streets and sidewalks throughout the city. The manual includes the seven main goals that should be considered: safety; access and mobility; context; livability; sustainability; visual excellence and cost-effectiveness. 5.3 Abu Dhabi Urban Planning Council The Abu Dhabi Urban Street Design Manual was commissioned by the Abu Dhabi Urban Planning Council to create a more walkable community. This Manual is part of Estidama which is a vision to achieve a sustainable way of life (Estidama, 2011). The Manual classified the public realm into four zones. The through zone is an unobstructed pedestrian path of travel. The furnishings zone is used for placement of shade structure, landscaping, signing, and other facilities. The edge zone provides a buffer between the pedestrian realm and the traveled way. The Cycle track is an optional addition to the public realm. (fig. 6)

Figure 6: The frontage zone provides room for activities along building frontages, http://www.upc.gov.ae/template/upc/pdf/Street%20Design%20Manual%20English%20(small)%20FINAL.pdf

The Manual identified the principles of a walkable community which are: fine-grained street networks, improving the efficiency of the urban streets, appropriate devices to reduce speeds, paving materials with texture, special consideration should be given to older adults and children, safety, unobstructed travel ways, flexibility, Shelter, shade, protection, and comfort.

Figure 7: Different types of streets in Abu Dhabi Source:http://www.upc.gov.ae/template/upc/pdf/Street%20Design%20Manual%20English%20(small)%20FINAL.pdf

After the previously discussed literature review and the analysis of the LEED, the New York Department of Transport and the Abu Dhabi Urban Planning Council's walkability standards, it is clear that the most important elements of the street

fell under the spatial category. The most well rounded of the three was the set of standards from New York. It seemed to cover the three categories fairly with special attention paid to the environmental aspects. The following factors were common to all set of standards, which indicates how necessary they are for the improvement of any street: 1. Widened sidewalks 2. Sidewalk connectivity 3. Handicapped considerations 4. Crossings (raised/zebra) 5. Corner bulbing 6. Central median/Refuge islands Table (1) compares between three different walkability standards discussed according to the previously achieved factors. From the analysis of three different walkability standards, the following characteristics are to be moved up in the next evaluation tables since it was found that they are the most significant: Movement, accessibility & permeability as spatial factors, and safety and robustness as social factors.

Spatial Element/Characteristic Buildings and Enclosure Human Scale and Density Landscape and Details

Movement

Legibility Distinctiveness & Identity Accessibility & Permeability Sensory Richness Social

Tool Building Enclosure Building Line High Concentration of Buildings Greening Elements Sidewalk Zoning Public Art Pedestrian Traffic Signals Unobstructed Walkways Widened Sidewalks Sidewalk Connectivity Traffic Calming Wide, Sheltered Bus Stops Signage Information Kiosks Way-finding Landmarks/Gateways Visual Identity Handicapped Considerations Attractive Materials/Surfaces

Conviviality and Vitality

Pocket Parks Street Plazas Street Cafes/Dining Opportunities Social/Cultural Events

Robustness

Active Ground-floor Frontages Commercial Ground-floor Activity Diverse Activities Mixed-Use Buildings Public Seats Public Toilets

Safety

Night-time Lighting Crossings (Raised/Zebra) Corner Bulbing Central Median/Refuge Islands Dedicated Cycling Lane

Abu Dhabi Urban Planning Council

York New Department of Transport

LEED

Table 1 Evaluation Table

O O O O O

O O O O

O O O O O O

O O O O O O O

O

O O O O

O O

O

O

O O O O

O O

O O O O

O O O O O

O O O O

Environmental Physical Comfort Cleanliness

Environmental Treatments Waste Disposal Water Drainage Maintenance

O O O

4. Analytical Examples The following section examines the three main street scales, by analyzing 3 examples taken from different urban downtowns around the world. For each scale, one example is presented with the problems and solutions provided. They are then evaluated according to the previously achieved table and this evaluation will be used to draw the final conclusions of this paper. 4.1 Monumental Scale: Times Square, New York City, USA Times Square is composed of two main streets - Broadway and Seventh Avenue - that cross over in the center. The streets create two main triangle-shaped pedestrian islands. The northern island is known as Duffy Square, and is well known for a ticket booth called TKTS, as well as a statue of a soldier Father Duffy and another of an American artist, George M. Cohan and the southern island is called One Times Square. (fig 8). The biggest problem that faces Times Square is overcrowdedness due to the imbalance between spaces assigned to vehicles and those assigned to the pedestrians since 89% of Times Square consists of road-space, and only 11% is dedicated to sidewalks (Gehl, 2011). This 11% is insufficient as there are around 17,000 people an hour on the sidewalks and at peak times there are approximately 1,300 people on the streets due to lack of sidewalk space. This causes a lot of car-people collisions on most of the square's intersections. The New York Department of Transport, as well as the Times Square have been monitoring the issues that concern the quality of the pedestrian experience and have found them to be the following (Times Square District Management Association, 2009): 1. Insufficient sidewalk space 2. Obstacles on the sidewalks 3. Cleanliness and drainage

Figure 8: Times Square is composed of two streets that cross over to create Duffy Square and One Times Square, Source: http://www.gehlarchitects.com

4. Uninviting or unattractive public spaces. 5. Sidewalks used as storage spaces. 6. Uneven distribution of traffic on 7th Avenue and Broadway. 7. Lack of seating options The Times Square Alliance made changes and proposals based on the following ten principles (Times Square District Management Association, 2009): 1. Balance between different elements (traffic and pedestrians, the vertical and the horizontal, the fixed and the changing...etc) 2. Reinforce and recognize what is authentic and what is historic 3. Re-think the relationships between pedestrian and vehicular spaces. 4. Think of Times Square as an ever-changing theater set. 5. Keep it simple. 6. Recognize the diversity of who and what is here, as well as the layers. 7. Create places where people can meet, or sit at the center and on the sidewalks. 8. Make Times Square a place where the residents will want to go (not just the tourists) 9. Allow for the exhibition of creativity 10. Look for ways to make the horizontal plane as exciting and dynamic as the vertical.

Solutions The NYC DOT and the Times Square Alliance launched a competition to revive the streetscape designs at the Times Square pedestrian plazas. The winner was an artist called Molly Dilworth, who came up with a very creative idea: (Times Square District Management Association, 2009). 1. Expand and rebuild Duffy Square 2. Create more sidewalk space 3. Investigate new ways to regulate traffic 4. Design security elements 5. Provide spaces for public art, performances and creativity 6. Enliven the horizontal plane by enhancing sidewalks and redesigning street furniture 7. Encourage and recognize higher quality design 9. “Wire” the Bowtie 10. Reduce sidewalk clutter By analyzing the previous example according to the achieved table, it is found that the spatial factors proved to be the most significant; and the few factors that are not listed for improvements are already in great condition. These were closely followed by the social factors. And lastly, the environmental factors were of the least important. 4.2 Urban Scale: College Street, Toronto, Canada College Street is a primary arterial road in downtown Toronto. It is a major connector between older streetcar suburbs and the city center. In early 2000, residents realized there was a problem of balance amongst modes of transport and they formed a local committee which called on the efforts of urban designers of Brown + Storey Architects. The following study shows their findings (Brown, 2009). Problems 1. Poor sidewalk conditions 2. No standards for sidewalk furnishing (walkway zone, furniture zone... etc) 3. Sidewalks are too narrow 4. Insufficient greening elements 5. On-street parking occupies too much space that can be used for pedestrian activity 6. Environment is not inviting to pedestrians, so commercial business are struggling. 7. No facilities to support cycling as cycling lane and bicycle racks. Solutions 1. Widen peripheral sidewalks to accommodate pedestrian traffic and sidewalk furniture 2. Improve sidewalk conditions by removing clutter, adding ramps, using durable material & providing constant maintenance. 3. Implement a sidewalk zoning standard that will put sidewalks to better use. (fig. 9) 4. Maintain current greening elements and add tree canopies 5. Remove on-street parking to allow wider sidewalks 6. Add sidewalk cafes and place additional seating to invite people into the city 7. Add pedestrian crosswalks to improve sidewalk connectivity 8. Add bicycle storage racks & install a cycling lane.

Figure 9: The sidewalk zoning standards, A: Brick Band, B: Open Sidewalk , C: Tree Zone, D: Pedestrian Clearway, E: Building Frontage, F: Street Allowance Source: (https://www1.toronto.ca/City%20Of%20Toronto/Transportation%20Services/Walking/Files/pdf/walking-strategyhighres.pdf Edited by the researcher)

By analyzing this urban scale street according to the previously achieved table, it is found that the improvements featured on College Street fell mostly in the spatial category. The few elements stressed in the environmental category were those related to pedestrian safety. The social aspects were also not overly stressed. 4.3 Intimate Scale: YBC Walk Alley, San Francisco, USA San Francisco's downtown classifies its alley's into two categories, destination alleys and walkthrough alleys. In 2009, the Better Streets initiative undertaken by San Francisco Planning Department dictated the requirements to convert dead walkthrough alleys into attractive social gathering spaces (destination alleys (San Francisco Planning Department, 2011). Problems: 1. Drivers speed down the narrow alleys due to lack of traffic calming elements. 2. The elements and furnishings are uncoordinated leading to a poor visual experience 3. Lack of greening elements 4. Asphalt paving is visually unappealing and usually leads to gathered puddles of water 6. The trash receptacles are usually kept in the alley in huge numbers. 7. No visual theme or identity 8. Loading spaces obstruct vehicular traffic 9. Lack of seats, cafes, restaurants and small scaled seating public areas 10. The narrowness of the alley doesn't leave much space for spacious sidewalks 11. Poor lighting and dead ground floor facades create an unsafe environment by night Solutions 1. Introduce traffic calming measure to prioritize the pedestrian 2. Encourage coordination throughout the alley by using complementary details. 3. Introduce tree planters where possible. 4. Use special paving materials to compliment the character of social alleys. 5. Introduce alley zoning that avoid obstructing the flow of pedestrian. 6. Reduce the number of trash receptacles, and organize the remaining ones. 7. Develop a graphic theme for banners and posters. 8. Use pedestrian scaled furnishing and lighting elements to respect the intimate nature. 9. Loading spaces can be accommodated in ways that add to the character of the alley 10. Enliven the ground floor space with active uses where possible. (fig. 10) 11. Provide public open spaces that enhance the commercial uses. 13. Provide cafes and restaurants to improve the social quality of the streets 14. Introduce pocket parks where people can gather. 15. introduce ramps and raised crossings at the entrance and exit of the alley 16. Install street lights that are fixed to building facades for nighttime security 17. Use permeable paving material to prevent the formation of water puddles

Figure 10: 1. Outdoor cafes/restaurants 2. Active ground floor shops 3. Public pocket parks 4. Loading spaces 5. Activity areas, Source: http://www.sf planning.org/Modules/ShowDocument.aspx?documentid=2055

The YBC improvements showed that the most important improvements were those that centered around the social factors. This is probably the reason for the attention given to the spatial improvements that are concerned with pedestrian flow and traffic calming. The significance of the environmental factors is also limited to the cleanliness. The final result of these analytical examples is summarized in table (2). This table will be used to draw the final conclusions and understand the order of importance of each of the spatial, social and environmental factors for each of the monumental, urban or intimate scales.

Table (2) The Examples, Summarized Intimate

Urban

Monumental

Spatial

Movement Control

Accessibility & Permeability Buildings and Enclosure Human Scale and Density

Landscape and Details

Unobstructed Walkways

O

O

Widened Sidewalks

O

O

Sidewalk Connectivity

O

O

Traffic Calming

O

O

O

Wide, Sheltered Bus Stops

O

Handicapped Considerations

O

O

O

O

Building Enclosure Building Line High Concentration of Buildings

O

Greening Elements

O

O

O

Sidewalk Zoning

O

O

O

Public Art

O

O

Signage

O

O

Information Kiosks

O

O

Pedestrian Traffic Signals Legibility

O

Wayfinding Distinctiveness & Identity Sensory Richness

Landmarks/Gateways

O

O

Visual Identity

O

O

O

Attractive Materials/Surfaces

O

O

O

Social

Safety

Robustness

Conviviality and Vitality

Night-time Lighting

O

Crossings (Raised/Zebra)

O

O

O

Corner Bulbing

O

O

Central Median/Refuge Islands

O

O

Dedicated Cycling Lane

O

O

Active Ground-floor Frontages

O

O

O

Commercial Ground-floor Activity

O

O

O

Diverse Activities

O

O

O

Mixed-Use Buildings

O

Public Seats

O

Public Toilets

O

Pocket Parks

O

Street Plazas

O

O

Street Cafes/Dining Opportunities

O

O

Social/Cultural Events

O

Environmental Treatment

O

Waste Disposal

O

O

Water Drainage

O

O

Maintenance

O

O O

O

O

Environmental Physical Comfort Cleanliness

O

CONCLUSION This paper highlights the benefits of walkability, the factors that affect the walking experience and last but not least; to figure out if the factors that contribute to a walkable street in downtown commercial zones will differ if the scale of the street changes. The result of the previous analyzed examples of monumental, urban and intimate scales are illustrated in table (2). The following is concluded: First, the most important elements for each of the three scales are listed according to the 3 main categories. Figure (11) shows the spatial elements that are most significant. It is quite evident that bigger the scale, the more design considerations are to be considered in the spatial category. Intimate streets by nature have a higher potential to encourage social encounters. They are well defined and well enclosed, they are naturally shaded and inviting. However, if left neglected, they can become very dangerous and uninviting places. With a few modifications, such as the addition of commercial ground floor uses (fig 12), these streets have the ability to exceed the former two scales in sociability and liveliness. While the monumental scale considered the environmental factors more than the other scales. (Fig. 13). It was the most attentive to the safety aspect of the social factors. In a street of such a major scale, the potentials for pedestrianvehicular collisions is the highest and therefore it is essential to improve the safety conditions of monumental (and urban) street.

Figure 11: The spatial elements necessary for the improvement of each of the three scales (by researcher)

Figure 12: The social elements necessary for the improvement of each of the three scales (by researcher)

Figure 13:The environmental elements necessary for the improvement of each of the three scales (by researcher)

This assumption is proved by the lack of safety considerations made in the intimate streets. Drivers naturally slow down on smaller streets, there is not much one can do to improve the safety there. However, night-time lighting, and cleanliness were found to be of the highest importance on intimate streets. The hypothesis of this paper intended to explore that changing the scale of the street then the improvement would affect the importance of the influencing factors. The results showed that there will be a shift in priorities. For streets of monumental scale, the three factors were found to be of equal importance. This means that to improve the pedestrian experience, the spatial, social and environmental aspects should be accounted for. The urban scale showed that the spatial factors were of the highest relevance and followed directly by the social factors and lastly, the environmental factors were of least significance. Finally, in the intimate scale the social aspects where found to be of the highest relevance, followed by the spatial aspects and the environmental aspects came out last. It is apparent that the smaller the scale of the street, the more attention is given to the social dimension. (fig.14)

Figure (14) Order of factors affecting each scale of streets (source: the researcher)

5.2 Recommendations It is recommended that the common factors to improve the pedestrian experience for a street of any scale, the criteria shown in figure (18) should be met regardless of the size of the street. Due to the nature of intimate streets, it requires some different treatments. On the other hand, monumental and urban streets are more similar, and they have their own additional set of improvements (fig 19) that should be used in accordance with the factors listed in figure 18. The additional set of factors such as landmarks and street plazas cannot be applied to the intimate streets because of its small and narrow size.

Figure 15 The factors necessary to improve a street of any scale (Source: The researcher)

Figure 16 The additional factors necessary to improve monumental and urban streets Source: The researcher

REFERENCES 1. Bently, I., Alcock, A., Murrain, P., McGlynn, S. and Smith, G., Responsive Environments; A Manual for Designers, Great Britain: Architectural Press, 2001 2. Burton, E. and Mitchell, L., Inclusive Urban Design; Streets for Life, Great Britain: Architectural Press, 2006 3. Cuthbert, A.R., Designing Cities; Critical Readings in Urban Design, USA: Blackwell Publishers Ltd.,2003. 4. Greed, C., Investigating Town Planning: Changing Perspectives and Agendas, England: Addison Wesley Longman Limited, 1996 5. Jacobs, J., The Death and Life of Great American Cities, New York Random House, 1961. 6. Lewis, S., Front to Back; A Design Agenda for Urban Housing, Oxford: Architectural Press, 2005 7. Rudlin, D. and Falk, N., Sustainable Urban Neighborhood; Building the 21st Century Home, Great Britain: Architectural Press, 2009 8. Shaftoe, Henry, Convivial Urban Spaces, Creating Effective Public Places, Earthscan in UK & USA, 2008. 9. Tiddbalds, F., Making People-Friendly Towns; Improving the Public Environment in Towns and Cities, United Kingdom: Longman Group UK Ltd, 2001 10. U.S. Green Building Council. LEED Rating Systems. Retrieved 8, 2015, from U.S. Green Building Council: http://www.usgbc.org/DisplayPage.aspx?CMSPageID=222 11. Abu Dhabi Urban Planning Council. (2011). Abu Dhabi 2030. Retrieved 8, 2015, from Abu Dhabi Urban Planning Council: www.upc.gov.ae 12. Brown, G. (2009). College Street Pedestrian Clearway. Retrieved December, 2015, from Walk 21: http://www.walk21.com/papers/Brown,%20GordA%20College%20Street%20Pedestrian%20Clearway.pdf 13. Estidama.. Estidama. Retrieved 8 20, 2015, from Abu Dhabi Urban Planning Council: www.upc.gov.ae 14. Gehl, J. Life between Buildings, using Public Space, Island Press., 1987/2011. 15. San Francisco Planning Department. Better Streets San Francisco:Introduction. Retrieved 11, 2015, from San Francisco Planning Department: http://www.sf-planning.org/ftp/BetterStreets/docs/FINAL_1_Introduction.pdf 16. Times Square District Management Association. (2009). Times Square Alliance. Retrieved 9, 2015, from Times Square Alliance: http://www.timessquarenyc.org 17. United States Department of Transportation. Federal Highway Administration. Retrieved Dec. 2015, from Federal Highway Administration: http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ 18. Toronto Walking strategy, Everyone is a pedestrian https://www1.toronto.ca/City%20Of%20Toronto/Transportation%20Services/Walking/Files/pdf/walking-strategyhighres.pd

THE POWER AND NATURE: THE RESISTANT SUBVERSIONS SERDAR ERİŞEN Serdar Erişen, The Power and Nature: The Resistant Subversions, Middle East Technical University, ABSTRACT This is a study of the dominant power of governmental implementations in spatial practices and their disregard for nature and its representational values in the public sphere. It begins by making a brief mention of the struggle for Gezi Park in Taksim Square and the reasons behind its rapid development into a social phenomenon. The initial emergence of the activist movements in Taksim Gezi Park seem to have been a reaction to the government-based deconstruction and construction processes and actions for Taksim, as a place in the heart of the city that is well-known for social events, demonstrations and social activities. The square was closed by the government, preventing the holding of such social activities as the May 1 celebrations in 2013, despite Taksim Square being a symbol of May 1 for the demonstrators; and still under re-construction processes, changing the spatial organization of the square. The destructive nature of the government-based construction processes became a stimulating phenomenon for the public when attempts were made to remove the trees from Taksim Gezi Park, which was considered at the time an act of violence of the governmental processes against the natural environment through its means and apparatuses. The government’s actions spurred into action not only activists, but also many of the inhabitants of İstanbul and people all across Turkey, who saw Taksim Gezi Park as a unique social space for İstanbul, as a green area at the heart of the city. The sudden increase in activism and demonstrations, not only in the city, but also across the whole country, depicted oneway management of the construction processes in Taksim, and the rising tension within society resulting from a lack of reconciliation and mediation between different political groups, thoughts and ideologies – in other words, the decreasing democratic processes in the country in decision making that disregard nature and the associated public sphere. In this respect, Taksim Gezi Park becomes a symbolic and resistant space, not only for the activists protesting the construction processes, but also for the political struggles that emerged as a result of power tests and non-democratic decision-making processes related to issues that concern the entire nation. It became a representative social space of the resistance of a social movement, articulated through events, demonstrations and the physical bodies of the activists as a result of the struggles between the security forces and the demonstrators. These actions and reactions turned Taksim Gezi Park into a place, a space, for the resistance of activists against the decreasing democracy. The park gained representational meaning beyond its physical and cognitive values, based on the experiences, actions and reactions as part of the political and social struggles, which came to spread across the entire country. It becomes obligatory, in this sense, to question the role of the space itself in political and social organizations to re-identify whether the space itself could be part of the social and political resistance. This study, in this sense, aims to understand initially the meaning of social space and its dynamics, as constructed by the public sphere under the control of the government, its apparatuses and its sovereigns. The social meaning of spatial practice is reinforced by a discussion of the dialectical relationship between nature and subjectivity, creating their own dominant forces within themselves under the concept of spaces of resistance. In this regard, nature is not only a source for understanding the social sphere and its dynamics under political and ideological forces, but also its representational power, as identified within these socio-political and cultural struggles. INTRODUCTION This critical essay began to take form in the Arch 505 Advanced Architectural Design Research course in Middle East Technical University during the Gezi Park events of May 2013, which served as a backdrop for the city and country in a period of social struggle, especially between the activists and the government security forces, as a result of the lack of democratic processes and non-reconciliation. Since the initial and specific conditions of any aspect is seen as a significant input for the end result of the produced knowledge, it is thought to be necessary to denote the existent situations of the essay that written in. It may not be misleading in that sense to bring to mind the incidental record of the national government of Turkey related to nature, since the paper has already been written in the period of the Gezi Park events. This draws attention to the government’s politico-economical and ideological reckonings with the values developed throughout the modernization process in the Republic, in which the role and the power of representation of nature were apparent.

The Justice and Development Party (AKP) government, which has enjoyed 14 years of rule that have been marked by repeated violent interventions to establish its authority in its dominance over nature, has showed its animosity in its destruction of the representational values attributed to the natural assets of the country. Accordingly, the violent operations of the government related to the county’s natural environments, including AOÇ (the Atatürk Forest Farm and Zoo), METU Forest in Ankara and Gezi Park, bring to light not only its rent-driven destructive activities, but also its institutional and ideological animosity with its secular predecessors. The term ‘secularity’ is not accidental here to provide the representational power of nature as an asset of modernization processes in the country in the early Republican period. Most of the natural environments discussed here were created as a result of the rational intention to celebrate the modernization process in the country, which was influenced by the secular thought of modernity. In this sense, the representational power of natural and institutional assets in the country has become a target for the government, supported generally by conservative democrats and fundamentalists. The existing condition signifies not only the creation of rentable areas for the economic exploitation of nature, but also the ideological oppositions in the country itself, where there has been a lack of mediation. Just several months after the Gezi Park events, the country experienced an invasion by the Great Ankara Municipality of METU Forest to create a new highway. The preceding period had witnessed a continuous exploitation of a significant part of AOÇ (Atatürk Forest Farm and Zoo), which has not only natural reservations for the city center but also the representational meaning as a memorial to the establishment of the modern city as the capital of the Republic, became the site of the new Presidential Palace after cutting down trees and changing the surrounding natural conditions. In İstanbul, the third bridge between Europe and Asia has been constructed, opening up the surrounding natural environment for possible further market-driven exploitation. In the last five-year period, the ‘deviant project’ has also been on the agenda of the government, which is proposing the creation of an alternative to the Bosporus, and creating its own representational and rentable geographies by exploiting nature itself. This can in short be summarized as a project of the standing government aimed at creating its own cultural geographies so as to stabilize its power. At this point it is worth mentioning the struggle for Gezi Park and Taksim Square, and the reason behind it, and explaining how it became a social phenomenon in such a short time in the heart of the city of İstanbul, the country’s largest city. The representational power of the place, as Taksim Square, as forbidden to be entered in May 1 event was the initial reason for the rise in tension between the government and the labor unions. In the proceeding period, this tension had been a compelling argument in the apparatuses of the government for the destruction of the park at the center of the city, and for the construction of its own representational space to stabilize its power through spatial practices as still in the actual condition of Taksim. In this respect, Taksim Gezi Park became a symbolic and resistant space for activists demonstrating against not only the construction process, but also the political struggles that emerged as a result of power tests and autocratic decisionmaking strategy of the government related to issues that concerned the entire nation. As mentioned earlier, not only Taksim Gezi Park, but also many other places in different cities in the country became sites of resistance against the government and the security forces. It was not only about the space itself, but was also related directly with political and social phenomena, i.e., the opposition of different ideologies. The most dramatic aspect of these events and actions was not merely the spaces that formed part of the resistance across the entire country, but the rising violence that occurred within these spaces as a result of the increased political and social tension. In this context, the formalization processes of thought and political judgement come to be re-understood, in a general sense, how the instrumentalization dominates thought itself. Although the thought, the thought in the Enlightenment, is a way to found the unified and universal humanity with objective reasoning processes in the search of ‘the real’, the processes of formalization and subjective reasoning not only increased the tension between man and nature, but also society in the public sphere. Additionally, and most dramatically, it is clearly apparent how the formalization processes of thought to identify the real could have created the war machines that dominated the activists, as engaged to ‘the thought’ of humanity itself. Space, society and politics: Spaces of Events and Experiences Initiated before, the essay primarily concentrates The focus of this study is the social construct of space, in other words, the spaces of places (Castells, 1994). Space, as a social construct, goes beyond the conceptual space in its dimensional aspects, but is defined within the interaction between social actions and the events experienced within the nature of materialistic properties. The place hence signifies the interaction between objects, people and events, actions and reactions, creating dynamic relations that go beyond ontological meanings. The social space can be defined by attempting to understand the specific condition emerged as a result of the events and experiences in Gezi Park. The social construct of space is hidden, in this respect, in the history of mankind, as a result of the already experienced actions, engaged within the production and consumption relations, social realms occurred in that space, leading to the new social and spatial practices. The traces of the reasoning processes of mankind, therefore, are all saved in the space, creating the meaning for place; as a definition, as a social construct. The definition of the

experienced space is depended with the meaning and the identity of space and the social interactions within. Even the a priori space, as ideal space, gets it meanings with the ontological existence of the subject in that space. The social actions and intellectual processes derived from these actions and interactions, which generate the production of knowledge about the social space. In other words, space only becomes meaningful by the interaction between man and man; and man and nature within by creating memorial actions and relations for the future. Ideology plays significant role in the production and the creation of social space throughout the political and social relations. Since the history of mankind is full of different thoughts, power struggles and power relations, or in other words, different ideologies engaged within the space question, the production of space (Lefebvre, 1991) is open to the influences of political sphere. The question is further to get the power of space whether it constructs counter-ideologies and resistances from itself (Sargın, 2000). Namely, it is not only to understand the social interactions and political relations influencing the production of space, but the space itself to get the influence of social and political relations as a power of space, space as a social construct. It is both to understand, in short, the social space as a phenomenon influencing the political relations; and the politics over space resulting in the production of conceived space. It starts first with the power of space, therefore, as a political phenomenon, in the regulation of socio-political movements due to the notion of social space. Gezi Park, in that respect, is the striking example, in the discussion of power of space as a social and political phenomenon. It is one of examples for the spatial practices of the forces of ‘ideological state apparatuses’ (Althusser, 1971). The space, Gezi Park itself, in that sense, has generated its actors of opposition in the existence of power relations. Hence the power relations could be seen with their double-sided aspects in this condition: the influenced; and the influencing. This fact always creates the possibility of the influencing power of the influenced. In other words, it creates an opportunity to the influenced phenomena in the power relations to reshape those relations in the interacted way, as a result of these interrelated sets of relations between man and man, man and nature, and objects and objects. Thus, it is the resistance of the space creates its own counter-hegemonic powers in these interactive processes. The representational power of space reinforces the symbolic signification processes grounding for the meaning of space, a place of power and of resistance. In this respect, the social space itself has its own meanings and identity constructed through these social relations. The social interactions force over the space creating a memorial identity and meanings. Social memory together with the cognitive aspects of the space create a social phenomenon, a representative power. The social space hence stands as a social and political realm with the power over things; and power over dominating relations, in themselves. Taksim, with its meanings as a social space, has depicted the mentioned resistance against the instant decision making processes of authorities. This is the fact that not only has led to the immediate reaction and resistance of activists repressed under authoritarianism but also defined a certain memorial meaning for the representational power of that resistance. Identity, representational and experienced meanings and values as memories becomes critical intersections created in the interfaces of space between the public sphere as a powerful contemplation for the revolt of the repressed under authoritarian procedures of decision making and spatial practices. The space itself, therefore, has the political power in itself against the possible dominant forces over it creating its own resistance and social phenomenon. Although The resistance holds the actions and representational meanings occurred in a sudden and depicts the internal opposition against the dominant forces as emerged at the demarcation/breaking point of the place itself in a repressive process. It is possible to read this process with multi-layered aspects in the public sphere with the restructuring processes of authoritarian government using the state apparatuses to enforce the dynamics in the society and mass media for the re-creation of cultural codes and representational meanings. It is still Taksim today in İstanbul having the identity and function to regulate, to stimulate, to volatile the social and physical movements of people when we try to make an analogy between its historical feature and the existing condition. Since Taksim was really used to divide and distribute water for the city as it gets its name from that function, it is the equivalent function of the place today to gather and make the people flow around. In that sense, the concrete condition of Taksim, as a natural asset, represents the resistant power of the social meanings as a political and ideological force over the dominant power over the space of place itself in its ultimate form. It shows the specific materialistic qualities of space, interacted with certain social events as a social power over dominant/cognitive meanings – as a “bottom-up” force (Sargın, 2000), as a way of constructing ideologies in itself. and their instrumental procedures as the base of the space beyond experiences. The process of ideological production of space includes the cognitive and intellectual concepts, formalization of these concepts together with the instruments as also derived from concepts. The end results are shaped by these formalization processes mostly influenced by subjective reasoning. Although the ideal space out of materialistic qualities as a concept, as a project, is even beyond the sensorial space and the experiences within, the production of ideological space is derived from subjective thoughts and becomes a mere reduction of the thought into instrumentalized and materialized practices (Horkheimer, 1947). In these practices, the power relations derived in the development of instruments together with other formalization processes of the thought. The said aspect transforms the ideal space into ideological one. This fact sometimes emerged as a program

superposed onto spatial practices with certain subjective needs, and sometimes as a practice of representational meanings of some knowledge, signs, code with certain formalization processes. It is emerged sometimes as traditional values or even as political formalization processes of thoughts into space. Thus, the ideal space itself is sacrificed for certain ‘ideological subjective reasoning processes’, and transformed into mere materialistic and formalized qualities depicting the gap between the ideal thought and the practiced material as the end result throughout the formalization. The national government’s political projects, in that sense, show themselves as the exact examples for the imposition of certain ideological and symbolic meanings onto the spatial practices. The ideology to re-assert the Taksim Military Barracks in Taksim Square, for example, as a part of the domination with ideological reflections, proves the government’s desire for creating its own representational space with the powerful imagery of military in the most significant symbolic place of country throughout the mechanized and ‘militarized order of space’ (Foucault, 1977). Lefebvre enriches the examples of dominated spaces as military architecture, just as in the practice of Taksim Military Barracks, with discussion on fortifications and rampant (Lefebvre, 1991). Thus, it is the domination of instrumentalized power relations derived from subjective reasoning and power struggles. The domination of political power over the decision making in the spatial practices at the heart of the city without any mediation is projected with one of the traditional form of military architecture. Although the place was the original settlement for that building, it is the re-assertion of political dominant power as a way of the commodification and politicization of tradition and history. It reveals the power test of the dominant politics over the space, over the society, over the history itself. It concerns not only the domain of space, but also the society and social meanings in the place. As a result of the imposition of some political thoughts onto the place with certain social meanings and memories, authority represses the public sphere. This repression, however, also creates the possible ways for the resistance of that place, a way of resistance for that social meanings and memories, dialectically. The condition in Ankara, similarly, has also been depicting the imposition of political and subjective desires onto the city space by the authorities responsible for the management of the city chosen by the public. Significant to mention about the studies of government-based projects on the city of Ankara and the production of space under politics, the transformation of some of the facades of the buildings in Kızılay on Atatürk Boulevard into traditional forms signifies the same impulse for the spatial practices. It seems to be the similar condition of desired project of Taksim Military Barracks in the Square. Thus, although Kızılay area is the most symbolic environments for the modernity project of the Republic, and although there was any significant trace for the Seldjukid architecture, in the area of Kızılay, as the center of the city, it has been determined and designed by the management of authorities. The whole facades on Atatürk Boulevard hence were to be transformed with Seldjukid patterns on facades to turn it in a ‘protocol path’. That shows the domination of the authority over the space, over the city itself, as a result of the presidential force of the municipality, which becomes more than a decade, in time. The recent exploitation of Atatürk Forest Farm and Zoo for the sake of the creation of the luxury Presidential Palace is even much more spectacular example of the desire of the authoritarian rulers to re-establish its stable power. The location of the Palace is not arbitrary, in that sense, as directly proving the counter-ideological operation with its apparatuses against its secular precedent with its representational values and territories by the subversion and exploitation of its cultural and natural assets. It only depicts the ‘aestheticisation of politics’ of the authority through the city space by enforcing the political and subjective desires onto the city. The reason, obviously, is to update the vision of the cit(y)zens into the transformed images of the commoditized tradition as a political tactic. The image making processes and the procedures of the political power shows itself, in that sense, as a result of the mutated political discourse. The project is to attract the people engaged with their tradition, as a result of the dispersal nature of postmodernity (Harvey, 1989) creating the cultural conflicts for these people immigrated from their pastoral environments to a congested city space creating not only crisis in the perception of time and space (Giddens, 1984), but transforming the everyday life of these people. The city of Ankara’s entry gates with the conservative styles, for this respect, are being produced in the image making processes with the simulacra of the traditional and cultural values and images, as a project for the city depicting the rigid determination of the authority. It is the commodification of historical culture and transformation of them into mere replicas. Not enough for the political domination over space, however, the harsh intervention and the rising clashes between security forces and activists has depicted the political imposition onto space throughout instrumental and formalized forces. The domination of space throughout violence engaged with ideological and hegemonic relations have been designated as in the case of METU Forest. Even the violence itself becomes the part of that ideological production of space conflicting with the ideal space. The violence, and event, in its ontological meanings shows us the existence of resistance and counter-ideological positions, however, as a result of the dictation and status quo of the governmental powers. depicting the hegemonic relations over the production of space; and the counter-resistance of the space leading to physical violence. Since the formalization of the thought with subjective reasoning processes leads to advance in

technological tools, they are used to increase the intension of the violence against the activist resistance. The subjective reasoning processes of the thought itself have created war machines dominating the thought and the people engaged to it, i.e., the rational thought itself. Although the thought was to create the unified humanity for the emancipation from any repressive forces, it creates its own struggles, powerful instruments for clashes, power struggles in the formalization processes of the thought, at the end result. Consequently, to re-understand how the thought developed for the reason of liberating the humanity from the repressing powers and forces detects the creation of its own repressing conflicts with formalization processes. In other words, it is to quest the subjective reasoning processes in the thought leading to such a deviation from democracy, unity, freedom and piece; and request for the liberation of humanity again, in the intellectual processes of mankind in this critical essay. Subjective reasoning processes violating themselves: Genealogy of the power over nature The natural phenomena with disasters and repressing forces including the myths and post-material forces over humanity has led to fearful and painful experiences of the man. The fearful experiences in the ancient periods of humanity have created the thought of the liberation of man from phenomenal forces over the humanity. It is the thought of the Enlightenment developed in that framework to find the universal law of the nature and natural forces; to get the liberation of humanity (Horkheimer, 1947) from the hands of phenomenal forces. The idea of ‘the truth’ that sacred in the nature and in the nature of the human itself is to find the universal and unified law of the life to be found for the freedom of humanity. It has become to push the intellectual processes of the humanity to quest for ‘the real’ of nature under the reasoning processes, as the objective truth. Therefore, it has become the way to route the intellectual and the production processes of the humanity with respect to the thought focused on nature. The formalization processes of the thought have brought the search on natural laws to find the unified and universal laws formulating the ecological cycle and the life in universe. The demarcation point for the development of the technology, however, is based on the domination of nature over humanity which has been transformed into the domination of man over nature and then the domination of man on man. The machines are invented as a result of the enlightened science and technology, creating the revolutionary production processes as the Industrial Revolution in the following period. It becomes easy to regulate, then, the natural phenomena to some extent, even to destroy the nature and recreate an artificial environment for the humanity, called as culture. It is open to be abused by certain subjective desires, the desires of authorities on the power relations as in the case of Gazi Park. Thus, the formalization processes not only depicted the gap between the thought and the material, as the theory and the practice, but also become the way of the domination of the thought over itself. Increasing the dichotomy between nature and culture, between natural forces and the human with the rising struggle in the formalization practices, it becomes also the part of the power struggles in the cultural processes of mankind as a result of uneven cultural and formal development. The struggles within the society together with the rising oppositions proceed with uneven development having increased the domination of man over man, as a result, in the crisis of social structures. It is the dichotomy between the self and the society; and more significantly between the society and the authority, in this respect, with increasing self-awareness; and self-submission to the authority creating intellectual dichotomies. In the specific condition of Gezi Park, therefore, although we cannot find connections between the origins of Turkish government’s ideological roots and the rational thought of humanity; the domination of formalization processes of thought throughout the ‘ideological and repressive apparatuses of the state’ (Althusser, 1971) is directly engaged with the non-democratic spatial practices of the authoritarian government’s decision mechanisms. The ‘dominated’ nature hence becomes the signifying tool for the ‘domination’, of having the control over the tools and nature onto the other; depicting the dichotomy between the authority and the subjects; between the superego and the ego. But this dichotomy always hides the duality of the submission and resistance on the behalf of the dominated (Horkheimer, 1947). In other words, first nature hides the real for the thought of Enlightenment; and is submitted and substituted by the irrational (subjective) rationalization and instrumentalization of thought. Second nature, as the self, which hides the idea of liberty in itself and dominated by the mass as a reflection of totality of the thought, dialectically; have also the nature of resistance represented in themselves. The possibility of the emergence of collective resistance against the repressing superego, in that sense, can create its own conscious revolt. The case of Gezi Park, however, can also be criticized in itself, with regard to that, since the immediate revolt of people could not succeed as a result of that lack of collective consciousness. It is related with the initial reasoning of the real of the thought in the dialectical thinking of material, together with the cycling relations and the domination of one to another. The reason reveals the revolt of human and culture, and ‘the revolt of nature’ (Horkheimer, 1947). Thus, it becomes the end result of the subjective reasoning processes mostly manipulated by the authoritarian desires and regimes by using the means for the ideological ends, deviating from nature itself. The repressing force of authoritarian government in the production of cultural codes, rules and regulations besides the consumption and production relations has prevented the creation of such a collectivity around the idea of the revolt

of nature, in the case of the Gezi Park events. It has resulted from the inevitable submission of the revolt of people to the order of authority. It becomes the role of the philosophy, in this respect, to The history of man depicts that the increasing dichotomies are the result of the subjective reasoning derived from the thought for the liberation, which is even as a part of the feeling of freedom from fear. Obligatory to ask, as Tschumi also asks, that “does the truth of revolution lie in the permanent expression of subjectivity?” (Tschumi, 1994). In other words, can it be possible to find any objective reality or unless there is any ‘the real’? Is it the only way for praxis is the determined subjective reasoning processes in these dichotomies? Although the history of man depicts that the whole intellectual processes are influenced from subjective thoughts and practices, it may not to assert that the history of man can explain the whole procedures and processes in nature by the expression of subjectivity. It is due to the fact that the history of man is full of contradictions and dichotomies mostly ended up with violent and violating processes. In the trajectories of subjectivity, it may not be forgotten that the second nature as culture, including the very concept of subjectivity itself, is depended not only on the perceptually but also ontologically the pure existence of first nature defining the cognitive and representative values constructed through. In that sense, mediation, in the condition of the existence of ontological, representational and physical violence becomes necessary, in nature, to overcome the repressive traps of the obsessive cycles for the satisfaction of power crisis. It does not, however, imply the submission of the self to the society, or the society to the authority. The duty is over the shoulders of the governments and rulers to establish the grounds for mediation by negation as a democratic procedure. Negation by relation within the social construct of space, therefore, must be reserved to overcome the contingent power struggles within the territories of repressed geographies to get the unified idea of emancipation of humanity. Emancipation of humanity, in that sense, cannot be achieved through the destruction of nature, which becomes necessary for the activation of second nature, but through the construction of set of relations to overcome the culture-nature dichotomy. It is suggested to be based on ethico-aesthetic principles of humanity based on justice, democracy, equality and human rights; and the social conducts of those in the construction of public sphere, in nature, beyond the search for a mere natural determinant formula for the humanity itself. REFERENCES Althusser, Louis. 1971. “Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses” in Lenin and Philosophy and Other Essays Monthly Review Press, 1971; translated from the French by Ben Brewster, transcribed by Andy Blunden. Castells, Manuel. 1996. The Rise of the Network Society. Massachusetts, USA; Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishers. Foucault, Michel. 1977. “Docile Bodies”. In Discipline and Punish. The Birth of Prison. Vintage Books: New York, pp.:135-170. Giddens, A. 1984. The Constitution of Society. Cambridge: Polity Press. Harvey, David. 1996. Justice, Nature and the Geography of Difference. Malden, MA.; Oxford, UK; Victoria, Australia: Blackwell Publishing. Harvey, David. 1989. The Condition of Postmodernity. Cambridge: Basil Blackwell. Horkheimer, Max & Adorno, Theodor. 1996. Dialectic of Enlightenment. New York, NY: Continuum. Horkheimer, Max. 1947. Eclipse of Reason. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Jay, Martin. 1973. The Dialectical Imagination: A History of the Frankfurt School and the Institute of Social Research 1923-1950. London: Heinemann. Lefebvre, Henri. 1991. The Production of Space. Oxford; Cambridge, UK.: Blackwell. Marx, Karl. 1963. Capital: A Critique of Political Economy: Vol.1, The process of Capitalist Production, Frederick Engels (ed.). New York, N.Y; International Publishers. Marx, Karl. 1959. Economic & Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844. Moscow, Progress Publishers. Marx, Karl & Engels, Frederick. 1974. The German Ideology. London: Lawrence & Wishart. Sargın, Güven A. 2000. “Nature of Resistance and Counter-Hegemony in Post-Structural Society”. In Nature as Space, (re)understanding Nature and Natural Environment. ed. by Güven Arif Sargın. Ankara: METU Faculty of Architecture Press. Susser, Ida. 2002. The Castells Reader on Cities and Social Theory. Massachusetts, USA; Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishers. Tschumi, Bernard. 1994. Architecture and Disjunction. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.

BIOMIMETIC DESIGN PRINCIPLES AS AN INSPIRATIONAL MODEL: CASE STUDY ON URBAN FURNITURE UJAL ABBASLI, SEMRA ARSLAN SELCUK Ujal Abbaslı, MSc Architecture Candidate, Gazi University, Semra Arslan Selcuk, Asst. Prof, Gazi University,

ABSTRACT In today's world the amount of design examples generated by computational methods are increasing every day. Especially it is very significant to study the design opportunities that nature offers for humans considering its capabilities which help to solve human problems in aesthetic, economical and sustainable way together with the help of computational methods that offer engaging design solutions. Nature has time-tested forms, structures and solutions all around us, and Biomimesis is the study and application of natural solutions to design challenges through research and design, this article seeks to answer two questions: what is biomimetic design principles and how can it benefit the field of industrial design particularly urban furniture design? This article examined the relationship between biomimetic design principles and designing the urban furniture with parametric modelling. To show how biomimetic design principles being used by architects and designers some case studies included in this article. Utilizing parametric methods and tools, a design proposal was created to prove that the use of the natural characteristics (organism, behaviour, and ecosystem) and natural typology (form, construction, material, process, function) in designing urban furniture will improve the efficiency and expression of architectural objects in terms of sustainable, aesthetic and economic design ways. Considering the implications of biomimicry for solving human problems, this research aims to incorporate this approach into the design process of urban furniture and to create ergonomic public place in urban areas for temporary relaxing and for meeting points of people. Key words: urban furniture, biomimicry, parametric modelling, computational design 1.Biomimicry 1.1 What is Biomimicry Biomimicry can be defined as imitating or taking inspiration from nature’s forms and processes to solve problems for humans (Benyus, 1997). Janine Benyus, a biologist and leader of the emerging discipline of Biomimicry says that for a more sustainable future we need to imitate nature (Benyus, 1997). According to Benyus, forms in nature are the obvious element for imitating; however, it is not enough to learn from nature. That's why Benyus emphasizes that fully learning from nature includes basic three levels: form, process and ecosystem (Benyus, 2008, p. 40). As Benyus writes in her studies that firstly is needed a close examination of an organism or ecosystem. After that, the design principles that are found in that organism or ecosystem should be find a way to logically apply these design principles. Learning about nature is one thing and learning from nature is another. Benyus (2008) also claims that “Nature is imaginative by necessity, and has already solved many of the problems we are grappling with today.” 1.2 Biomimetic Design Approaches Approaches to biomimicry as a design process typically fall into two categories. First is defining a human need or design problem and looking to the ways other organisms or ecosystems solve this. The other one is identifying a particular characteristic, behavior or function in an organism or ecosystem and translating that into human designs (Biomimicry Guild, 2007). Maibritt Pedersen Zari, an academician at Victoria University in Wellington, studied biomimetic design principles and proposed a list of requirements for the basic theories and ideologies of Biomimicry. She made a connection between biology, nature and architecture and was able to explain Biomimicry in three different categories and/or levels. The first level is organism, this refers to mimicking a specified organism. The second level is behavior, this refers to mimicking a specific type of behavior. The third level is ecosystem, which refers to mimicking a specific ecosystem and how it functions successfully (Zari, 2007). The next chapter of the paper explains and exemplifies these categories and/or levels with selected case studies.

1.3 Examples of Biomimicry 1.3.1 Organism Level This level of Biomimicry learns the innovative ideas from the entire organism or a portion of the organism and then mimicked it to solve human problems by giving sustainable solutions. The world’s fastest railway lines operate in Japan, famously called as “bullet trains” can be given as an organism level of learning from nature (Figure 1). A bullet-shaped nose was designed to maximize the high speed movement of these trains. As the speeding train exited a tunnel, it was building up a pressure wave that produced a loud booming noise. The noise was clearly a problem for the environment and a new design became necessary to fix it. To find a solution to the problem a birdwatcher on the team, turned to nature and discovered a kingfisher, diving into the water from the air without disturbing the surface. The streamlined shape of the kingfisher’s beak acting as a wedge plied the surface for a low-splash entry. As shown in figure1 The team applied a beak design to the bullet train that not only helped to eliminate the booming sound but also made it more aerodynamic reducing the energy demand. Now it travels 10% faster and uses 15% less electricity. (Shinkansen Train, 2011).

Figure 1 Kingfisher Bird and Bullet Train [URL.01] 1.3.2 Behavior Level Behavior level can be explained like an act that the organism does to survive in the nature by providing daily innovative solutions. The Eastgate Centre, the largest shopping complex and office block in Harare Zimbabwe is one of the most famous architectural example of biomimicry designed by Mick Pearce. The maintenance of traditional air conditioning system for the building was costly in Harare’s climate, and thus required ecologically sensitive adaptations. The creation of self-controlled ventilation system to adjust the temperature at a comfortable level for workers and residents were necessary. Pearce was inspired by models of internal climate control in termite mounds. Termite mounds could sustain internal temperature stability by having a physical structure which enables passive cooling. Termites build huge mounds inside which they cultivate fungus for food. The fungus must be kept roughly at 30 degrees C, while the external temperature fluctuate from 1 degrees C at night-time to 40 degrees C during the daytime. The termites repeatedly open and block series of heating and cooling vents all over the parts of the mound during a day. The follows the same cycle with termites digging new vents and plugging up the old ones to control the temperature (Doan, 2012).

Figure Termites mound and The Eastgate Centre building. [URL.02], [URL.03].

2.

The ventilation system works in the same route. The materials used in the construction of the building has a high thermal capacity that help to keep and release the heat generated from the surroundings. Fans functioning on a cycle time serve to enlarge heat storage throughout the warm day and release heat during a cool night. Various openings across the building further enables wind driven airflow. As shown in figure 2, these design features work in collaboration to minimize changes in the temperature level inside the building while the external climate ranges (Doan, 2012) (Figure 2). 1.3.3 Ecosystem Level To learn from existing ecosystems in nature and mimic them we should first know how it functions successfully and what principles and factors are needed for it to function in that way. The Zira Island Master Plan appears to be a perfect illustration of this form of biomimicry. It was developed by Bijarke Ingels, founder of BIG Architects. The Zira Island is situated on the Caspian Sea, within the crescent bay of Baku, the capital of Azerbaijan. The project aims to be a Zero Energy resort and entertainment city on the island. Although it may seem unattainable to create a zero energy resort that consumes a 1,000,000 m island, BIG found a solution for its successful implementation. It was Azerbaijani minister who brought this project to BIG. Encouraged by the previous projects that BIG had proposed, the minister deemed it great to recreate mountains out of architecture, since Azerbaijan is regarded as the Alps of Central Asia. According to Bijarke Ingels's (2009) words, the proposal for Zira Island rests on an architectural and the natural landscape of Azerbaijan (Bijarke, 2009). It is not only the iconic silhouettes of the seven peaks that this new architecture allows to create, but more importantly, an autonomous ecosystem enabling the flow of air, water, heat and energy to be channeled in most natural ways. As shown in figure 3, a mountain is able to create biotopes and econiches, to channel water, to store heat, as well as to provide beautiful sceneries, valleys, access and shelter. The Seven Peaks of Azerbaijan cannot be called a metaphor only. In fact, it embodies living models of the mountainous ecosystems of Azerbaijan (Basulto, 2009).

Figure 3. Zira Island concept view and ecosystem working principle. [URL.04]

2. A New Design Paradigm In the course of the last a quarter century, computers have turned out to be to a great degree pervasive in the architecture and design fields. Initially utilized as an approach to draft all the more rapidly, progress in technology has permitted computers to be a significant design tool for architects (Jester, 2014). 2.1 Parametric Design and Related Tools Since computers were developed, they have been interwoven with the profession of architects and engineers. Starting in the 1960's with the innovation blast taking after World War II, it was obvious that architecture and all design would be influenced by developing technology. Industrial design had as of now started using advanced digital design tools to make and refine industrial products. In 1970, digital design research moved forward and started focusing on delivering advanced 3D. These models were structures produced by content based code and script entered by the user. A disadvantage of this information procedure was that the models couldn't be immediately controlled. One noteworthy development of these 3D examinations was the innovation of NURBS (non-uniform rational basis spline), made by Ken Versprille for his PhD research (Cohn, 2010). NURBS was another method for programming a line inside the computer programming. It was less escalated on the computer equipment and more instinctive for the designers to draw (American Institute of Architects, 2012) As computers and technology keep progressing, architects started exploring different forms and structures using 3D modeling and parametric design. By the mid 1990's, computer progression permitted designers to tectonically control standard shapes and forms such as blocks, chambers, circles and pyramids. Also, by the 21 st century, computers had sufficiently grown to permit designers to control and produce more advanced shapes in a digital realm. This took into modeling and experimentation of all structures and materials. Parametric design helped permitting designers to set limits and points while generating advanced/complex shapes and structures. As a result of this, digital design tools cause discovering o a new way from computers to digital fabrication and helped designers, engineers and architects to design what cannot be done by hand/traditional methods (Cohn, 2010). Digital age brings new tools for parametric modeling. The nature of parametric modeling is that all attitudes of design are interlinked with each other. With aid of parametric software this design components can influence each other when one of this parameters are changed. Such approach caused to born of new paradigm and design theory, parametricism. There are many tools and computer programs which support parametric modelling. Maya, CATIA and Rhinoceros are one of this computer programs. As advances occur in this programs in terms of supporting parametric modelling many designers and architects began to use this software in order to explore and generate new forms, structures and designs. McNeel Company is the founder of Rhinoceros3D (Rhino). Rhino uses NURBS modelling which is the Non-Uniform Rational Basis Spline and was first developed in 1970’s and 1980’s (Cohn, 2010). Generally, Rhino used for jewellery, marine and industrial design and in recent years this software has been used by architects. Its easy human interaction, low cost in comparison to other modelling programs and diverse usage in different fields of industry make Rhinoceros3D popular among users in creative industry (Jester, 2014). As it mentioned Grasshopper is a plug-in for Rhino. This plug-in works directly with Rhino components using graphical algorithms (Figure 4). The objects that are generated in Rhino can linked with the Grasshopper algorithm components. In other words, Rhino models can be easily manipulated in geometric ways based on the designed parameters in Grasshopper. For the easy user interface developers designed scripting way of Grasshopper by using visual icons.

Figure

4.

Rhino and Grasshopper interface; Example of Rhino and Grasshopper relation (Graphics by Ujal Abbasli) Relationship of Biomimetic and Parametric design In nature where natural systems created with minimal material input have a high degree of morphological variation and fulfill their functions in maximum performance (Natchtigall 2004). On the other hand, due to manufacturing constrains architectural systems have long been to be constructed with a large number of similar elements. Moreover, it was almost impossible to imitate natural forms and structures using minimal construction materials. However, thanks to advances in computer aided design and computer aided manufacturing, using parametric modelling principles for digital fabrication opened new way to architects and designers to realize their nature inspired form and structures with high level of morphological differentiation. Therefore, through the application of digital fabrication methods by using parametric modelling tools biomimetic design approach for new forms and structures can be generated (Krieg, et.al 2009). In addition to that, thanks to advances in digital fabrication methods precision in manufacturing has rapidly increased which lead to diminishing mistakes in fabrication and to increment quality in manufacturing. 3. Urban Furniture Street furniture can be described as objects and facilities which function is to service to the public. Street furniture is one of the decisive elements in the image of city, its quality and environment even though it has relatively small scale compared with other elements of urban landscape (Krauel, 2007). Street Furniture concept was developed in mid 19th and it is considered the element of urban landscape with the most closeness to people (Figure 5). It is defined as being both private and public because not only residents of the urban landscape enjoy it, but also visitors of that urban landscape (Wan, 2007).

Figure 5. Urban furniture in the past times (a) and contemporary one (b) [URL. 05-06]

Urban furniture is a complex system and an important element in urban landscape which aims satisfying needs of users while considering total landscape design. In fact, Identity of urban Landscape is established by street furniture. That is why it is important to understand how street furniture will coordinate with not just with one another, but also with surrounding objects (Eckbo, 2001). Because street furniture is a complex system with many functions, it is grouped into 4 main functions to be analyzed. First function is called Basic which covers core features of street furniture like convenience, safety, protection, etc. Second function is called Environment. This function enhances surroundings by its appearance, quantity, quality and etc. Third function is Decorative and it emphasizes form, color, style, etc. Forth and last function is called Complex. This is about how street furniture can be combined to achieve complex goals in urban landscape (Wan, 2007). As shown in Table 1, several Design principles exist in Street Furniture design like functional, technical, aesthetic, environmental, humanist. Functional and technical principles come into effect when for example, selecting function of street furniture for locations and considering dimensions, distance. There are different technical design standards established by British Standard Institute. Aesthetic principle increases value and attraction of street furniture and incorporates form, color and material. Starting since mid 19th, Humanist approach gained new popularity. People became top priority in the design of street furniture. These design principles aim to assist humans to interact with environment. Uniqueness of street furniture should accompany localism and regionalism. It also has to assist to support barrier free environment so humans can enjoy street furniture regardless of their background (Wan, 2007).

Table 1. Design Principles of Urban Furniture (Graphic by Ujal Abbaslı)

4. Case Study Inspiring from Cocoon for Designing Urban Furniture and Structural Skin In order to understand how biomimetic design principles can contribute to the designing process of the urban furniture a case study should be done. Therefore, the cocoon of the Urodid Moth which has the unique structural skin can be the inspirational source for the study.

Figure 6. The Urodid Moth Cocoon [URL.07] In Figure 6 is shown the cocoon of the Urodid Moth, and it is unlike to other cocoons in the nature. This cocoon is like a building of 3D net. The cocoon's open structure hangs in mid-air for keeping the pupa from drowning in a rain shower and prevents it from being destroyed by ants or insects. Using this structure as an inspiration model for designing urban furniture by using parametric modelling can be feasible. After referring back to the metaphor behind the cocoon's structure and how it is designed in response to needs of the pupa, there was further investigation on how the structural skin of urban furniture could be designed in such a way. In order to continue this investigation, it is needed to determine which biomimetic design principle is more proper for this case. Since this cocoon can be explained like an act that the organism does to survive in the nature by creating this innovative structure; Behavior level of biomimicry is selected for analysing this structure and then applying it to the design process of urban furniture. Thus, to design the urban furniture it is needed to determine the needs of the users in public areas and set parameters for further design process because the pupa acting in the same way to design its cocoon. In other words, a set of parameters and forces which are mentioned in previous paragraph cause pupa to build such structure. Hence, the matrix table with parameters and forces was generated with needs of users in public areas to shape the structure (Table 2).

Table 2. Matrix table representing parameters and forces that shaped the structure of urban furniture. (Graphics by Ujal Abbaslı) After setting the parameters and forces in matrix table the relation of them was taken to determine the design brief. Hence, the width of the structure should be according to the density of the people and the height should be high enough to create shadow spaces and partially prevent people from the sun light. Moreover, the structure itself should create spaces for users to stand freely and providing seating for temporary relaxing with the relevant material in terms of seating. This design brief is used to generate 3D model in Rhinoceros and structural skin in Grasshopper for designing urban furniture (Figure 7).

Figure 7. Rhinoceros model and applied structural skin in Grasshopper (Graphics by Ujal Abbasli) FINAL DESIGN AND CONCLUSION After the structural skin applied based on the matrix relations and cocoon's structure metaphor the final design concept was generated and visualized. Considering the implications of biomimetic design principles, cocoon's structure used as inspirational model for this study and incorporated this approach into the design process of urban furniture to create public place in urban areas for temporary relaxing and for meeting points of people. The structure prevents people from direct sun lights by creating partially shadowed spaces. Considering the uses of bamboo in sustainable building both in ease of usage and because of economic factors (Reubens, 2010), bamboo is selected as a construction material for the structure. To sum up, using “Behavior” as natural characteristic and “form” and “function” of cocoon as a natural typology proposed urban furniture was designed to show how nature can be model for urban furniture design in terms of sustainable, aesthetic and economic design ways (Figure 8). Nature always gives us innumerable inspirations. Designers just need to look at nature and ask for solutions that can use in their designs. The aim of the article was to answer two questions: what are biomimetic design principles and how can it benefit to the field of industrial design particularly to urban furniture design. This article examined the relationship between biomimetic design principles and street furniture and designed the urban furniture with parametric modelling.

Figure 8. Final proposed design (Graphics by Ujal Abbasli)

REFERENCES American Institute of Architects, 2012. Parametric Design: A Brief History. Retrieved April 18, 2016 http://www.aiacc.org/2012/06/25/parametric-design-a-brief- history Basulto, D. 2009. Zira Island Carbon Neutral Master Plan / BIG Architects. Retrieved April 18, 2016, from http://www.archdaily.com/12956/zira-island-carbon-neutral-master- plan-big-architects/ Benyus, J., 1997. Biomimicry: Innovation Inspired by Nature. William Morrow and Company Inc., New York, pp1756 Benyus, J., 2007. Janine Benyus shares nature's designs. TEDtalks. Retrieved April 20, 2016 http://www.ted.com/talks/janine_benyus_shares_nature_s_designs.html. Bjarke, I., 2009. 3 Warp-Speed Architecture Tales, TEDtalks. Retrieved April 20, 2016, http://www.ted.com/talks/bjarke_ingels_3_warp_speed_architecture_tales.html Cohn, D. 2010. Evolution of Computer-Aided Design. Retrieved April 22, 2016 from http://www.deskeng.com/articles/aaazer.htm. Doan, A. 2012. Biomimetic Architecture: Green Building in Zimbabwe Modeled After Termite Mounds. Retrieved April 20, 2016, http://inhabitat.com/buildingmodelled-on-termites-eastgate-centre-in-zimbabwe/ Eckbo, G. 2001. Street Furniture as part of total landscape elements. Elements and total concept of urban street furniture design. Graphic – Sha publishing. Jester, P., E. 2014. Shifting Gears: Exploring Parametric Design to renovate an Urban Waterfront. University of Maryland. Nachtigall, W. 2004. Bau-Bionik: Natur, Analogien, Technik, Springer-Verlag, Berlin. Krauel, J., 2007. Urban Elements. Singapore: Page One Publisihng Pivate Ltd. Reubens, R., 2009. Bamboo in Sustainable Contemporary Design. Inbar Inc., Beijing, p29 Krieg, O. D., Dierichs, K., Reicher, S., Schwinn, T., Menges, A., 2009. Performative Architectural Morphology. Robotically manufactured biomimetic finger-joined plate structures Wan, P.H., 2008. Street Furniture Design Principles and Implementations: Case Studies of Street Furniture Design in Densely Populated Old Urban Areas, Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University School of Design. Shinkansen Train, 2011. " High speed train silently slices through air" Retrieved April 15, 2016, from http://www.asknature.org/product/6273d963ef015b98f641fc2b67992a5e [URL.01] http://biomimicry.sciencerays.com/images/6.jpg [URL.02] http://harvardmagazine.com/2015/11/termites-cathedral-mounds [URL.03] https://www.smartlivingnetwork.com/green/b/flower-pots-and-biomimicry-natural-air-conditioning/ [URL.04] http://www.archdaily.com/12956/zira-island-carbon-neutral-master-plan-big-architects [URL.05] http://collierscorner.com/custom-work/FH010002.JPG [URL.06] http://freshome.com/2010/10/04/15-urban-furniture-designs-you-wish-were-on-your-street/ [URL.07] http://sunnyscope.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/06/urodid-moth-cocoon.jpg Zari, M. P., 2007. Biomimetic Approaches to Architectural Design for Increased Sustainability. Auckland, New Zealand.

INTEGRATED DIGITAL DESIGN AND FABRICATION STRATEGIES FOR COMPLEX STRUCTURES: REEXPERIENCING WOOD JOINERY IN ARCHITECTURE ISBAH ESTATEYIEH, SEMRA ARSLAN SELÇUK Isbah Estateyieh, MSc Architecture Candidate, Gazi University, Semra Arslan Selçuk, Asst. Prof. Dr. Gazi University.

ABSTRACT Throughout the history of architecture, the developments in material technologies and related fabrication techniques have played important roles in the design and construction process of a building. Human being has attempted to create spaces to meet sheltering needs and while creating spaces he has used and formed materials around him. Wood was one of the appropriate materials that was not only economic and aesthetic, but also strong in tension, compression and bending, allowing triangulated space-frames or trusses and cantilevered structures, etc. In this context, this research attempts to understand the relationship between complex wooden structures in architecture and digital fabrication of wood joinery. By studying and analyzing selected case studies, the article will address the following questions: What are the changes that have occurred in architectural design and fabrication of wood joinery due to the use of computational design and digital fabrication technologies? How can wood serve architects in “materializing the complexity” of this era? Furthermore, the importance of re-searching new tectonics and materialization technologies while re-thinking of wood as a “new material” in architecture is discussed through the selected examples. Keywords: Computational Design and Fabrication, Wooden architecture, Wood joinery. 1. Complex Forms and Structures of 21st Century Architecture and the Potentials of Wood The use of CAAD in architecture has been extended from being a medium of representation to media of design and manufacturing CAD/CAM, CAAD has also served a shift from exclusively designing the product to inclusively designing the process. There is no doubt that CAD/CAM applications have been rapidly changing the conventional architectural design and construction processes since the end of the last century. In this process, researchers and practitioners have been seeking for new tectonics and materials which reveal the beauty of using cutting edge technologies without sacrificing the “sustainable” aspect of the manufacturing process. Advances in material science, interdisciplinary studies and innovative design and fabrication technologies as well as extremely high data crunching capacities have resulted in changing the perspective regarding the role of materials and consequentially "Digital Materiality" emerged as a new sustainable architectural process that explores the materials' physical potentials (Booth 2009). The complexity of the building design problem resulted in complex design output that crossed the boundaries of Euclidean geometries to more freeform topological geometries which now computational design approaches attempt to design and manufacture. When the use of computational design approaches and enabling technologies in architecture in the beginning of the 21st century is considered, it is seen that design and fabrication are becoming an integrated process in which the constructability of a design proposal is being simulated, evaluated and tested in early design stages. Several tools for digitally fabricating materials, including wood, have been developed in parallel to the development of CAD/CAM and CAAD such as laser cutters, CNC and robotic production that allowed new methodologies for complex structure design and fabrication. Wood has been used as a main building material for centuries. Wood craftsmanship over time has developed tools and geographically and culturally customized building systems. Tools have developed from hand based to machine based, and from machine based to information based. O’Brien (2000) states that building system started with a simple log structure that used large refined pieces of wood from trees as well as skeleton timber frame structure with smaller pieces in other geographical locations. Later on and prior to the industrial revolution, wood started to be processed in small standard sized pieces that were assembled to produce light wood frame structures. Then in the information age, CAD/CAM technologies eliminated fabrication constrains, and are now gradually unifying the practice worldwide. It should be mentioned that the advantages of wood as a strong, durable and renewable material in the realm of sustainable design, its availability, ease of construction and high performance, increase the interest in wood as an important alternative for CAM and fabrication. In fact, realizing the potentials of wood through the use of CAAD and

fabrication technologies is one of the aspects that drives the renewed interest in using wood as a structural building material (Bocanegra et al. 2014), in digital manufacturing; wood has many advantages that bring appropriate fabrication possibilities and testing for parametric conditions, easily cut and repaired, wide varieties for connection types and offering divers range of geometric explorations (Beorkrem 2013, p. 14). Table 1 contains examples of innovative application of traditional wood building systems in a selected buildings and pavilions, the table highlights the following: (1) The innovative application of traditional wood building and fabrication systems that inspired, with the help of computational design and digital fabrication strategies, the achievement of complex freeform structures, see examples number one, three, four, and five (2) The development of a building system for multi-storey wood structures, see example number two (3) Common technique that is used in other domains such as furniture design, kerfing, that is rephrased in parametric conditions for two wood pavilions, see examples five and six.

Table 1: Innovative Application of Traditional Wood Building Systems (Sahu and Wang 2015; Tynkkynen 2012; Tamke et al. 2010; Menges 2010; Menges 2014; MIT Architecture 2012; Laboratory for Timber Construction IBOIS 2012; Harding et al. 2015; Ramboll Computational Design 2014; Larsen 2008; Cabrinha 2012; MATSYS Design 2012; Kolb et al. 2008, pp. 51,52,54,55; Shigeru Ban Architects 2013; Zwerger 2012, pp. 93,147)

2. Wood Joinery In wood structures connections can be classified into two major types, chemically (glued joints) using adhesive, or mechanically by using either dowelled joints or traditional joints referred to as wood-to-wood joints, carpentry connections or wood joinery. Wood Joinery is the oldest among other types of connections (Jeska et al. 2014, p. 59), Messler (2011, p. 316) identified Wood Joinery as “the mating of two or more surfaces [in wood components] to form a solid unit that serves a specific function”, the specific function of structural wood joint as addressed by Mö nck (1985, p. 77, as cited in Zwerger, 2012, p. 100) is to " join together pieces of timber permanently and securely in such a way that the required structural interaction of the constructional element or the construction itself is enabled". Wood joinery developed through hundreds of years of carpentry experience, from log structures with one type of joinery connecting logs edge-to-edge to a more complex timber frame structures with multitude of joinery types for various functions. In the 19th century wood joinery experienced a major shift because of the industrial revolution; steam driven machines and mass production changed wood structures from timber frame structures of varied components with manually produced wood joinery that is labor intensive into balloon frame buildings of economically mass produced standardized components and metal connections (Jeska et al. 2014, p. 59). Manufacturers of metal fasteners provided extensive analyses and comprehensive tables of load-bearing capacity calculations. Such tables never existed for wood joinery and as a result metal fasteners became easier and more manageable for assembling wood structures (Messler 2011, p. 318). According to Jeska et al. (2014, p. 60) By the middle of the 1980s, with the introduction of CNC technology, an integrated workflow from design to fabrication along with designing and manufacturing process of joinery parts with high precision and speed became possible. CNC milling and later the five-axis CNC and six-axis with robotic arms milling machines allowed for mass customized fabrication of wood joinery without incurring extra costs. Similarly, Tamke and Thomsen (2009) states that by that time the efficient production of geometrical complex individualized joints that fit with little tolerances became possible. Wood joinery is a connection produced from the material itself, wood. This results in a number of advantages in the joint structure such as having high level of prefabrication and inherit tolerance, assembly efficiency, similarity in dimensions change because of the exposure to changing temperature or moisture and the possibility to design the joint to meet specific tectonic requirements (Tamke and Thomsen 2009). However, the American Institute of Timber (2012, p. 272) points out that wood joinery has limited application in today's wood construction, being restrictive or not applicable for a number of reasons: as it involves large losses of sections due to joint formation process, complicated joinery design when used for large scale, and insufficient capacity for resisting all types of loads. 2. Typology of Wood Joinery Attempts to classify various joinery types into groups can be found in the works of Gerner (1992) Graubner (1992), Erman (1999) and many others, a seminal study in this area is the work of Zwerger (2012) in which he lists different families of wood joinery found in wood structures, the typology describes how two pieces of wood can be joined together. The proposed taxonomy (figure 1) includes essential joint groups with subtypes in each one. The essential groups are: buttjoint, halved-and-lapped joint, notched joint, tenon joint, end grain to end grain Splicing joint, oblique joint, open mortise and tenon L, T and X joint, edge-to-edge joint, and the L-joint.

Figure 1: Zwerger's wood joinery classification (Zwerger 2012) 3. Case Studies: Wood Joinery in Complex Structures it should be mentioned that, for all the selected case studies, integrated design and fabrication tools were employed for the creation of joints to connect wood pieces of complex surface or frame configurations. Since, wood joinery is a material driven and a traditional structural method, this research traces the transformation of this traditional type when aided by the field of algorithmic design modeling in which the algorithm integrates the material, its performance expectations and fabrication constrains into the model.

The majority of these examples are pavilions, the importance of pavilions to the emergence of new architectural systems according to Reichert et al. (2014) is that " In architectural history, pavilions have served as vehicles for developing future concepts of architecture through the employment of new materials, fabrication techniques and design strategies. The architectural pavilion, with its reduced demands in regard to program and permanence, provides a suitable context for exploring construction-oriented innovation". Regarding the joint typology and due to the customized nature for most of the joints in the following case studies the joint name was kept as it was referred to in the references when existed, renaming or matching joint type with existing typology classification was avoided. 3.1 Scarf and halving joints: Clubhouse at Heasley Nine Bridges Golf Course

Figure 2: Scarf and halving joints for the Clubhouse's wood lattice structure, (Jeska et al. 2014, pp. 113,115,116) The roof structure for the three storey building is freeform wood lattice structure of glued laminated timber beams in single and double curvature joined with 21 tree-like columns. Roof geometry was developed as a parametric model with the help of defined data of the roof boundary, extensive structural calculations and analysis were needed to generate the beams complex geometries that are composed of multitude individual forms with different radii and changes in direction (Jeska et al. 2014, pp. 109-116). In this example developed traditional scarf and halving joints were used for the first time in an engineered timber structure, the longitudinal connections between the beams are in the form of scarf joints and the connections at the intersections make use of halving joints. For fabrication the drawings for 3500 beam segments with 476 geometries and 15000 geometrically complex halving joints pieces were automatically generated from the parametric model, using fiveaxis CNC machine with new software was needed to customize fabrication. Joinery connections were strengthened with additional screw-pressure glue. (Jeska et al. 2014, pp. 109-116).

3.2 Locking-pin Joinery, Tamedia Office Building

Figure 3:(a) Assembling Detail (b)Joinery Detail and (c)Tamedia office Building Wood Frame Structure (Shigeru Ban Architects 2013) (4) Wood joinery detail (Blumer-Lehmann AG 2014) Tamedia new office building is the first multi-storey building with load bearing structure and joint details made entirely from wood. The load bearing structure was inspired by Japanese wooden buildings; special dowels for wood joinery made of beech plywood connect the structure and transmit loads. The complex locking pin joint was used for three parts that form the load-bearing system: (1) the columns and beams connections; (2) the first floor truss frame; and (3) the roof's rigid frame. The design and assembling of the building required using special design tools for 3D modelling that are not commonly used in wood construction and an extremely precise CNC milling for the frame and joints from glue laminated wood (Antemann 2014).

3.3 Interlocking Finger Joints: ICD/ITKE 2011 Research Pavilion and Landesgartenschau Exhibition Hall

Figure 4: (a) ICD/ITKE 2011 Research Pavilion (b) Finger Joint Detail and (c) Robotic Fabrication of Plates (Institute for Computational Design 2011) (d) Landesgartenschau Exhibition Hall (Menges 2014) The designs of ICD/ITKE 2011 Research Pavilion and Landesgartenschau Exhibition Hall are based on shared principles for an innovative lightweight timber folded plate system that was developed in by ICD (Institute for Computational Design) and ITKE (Institute of Building Structures and Structural Design). The biomimetic principles found in echinoids such as the sea urchins and sand dollars was translated into a differentiated plate structure with interlocking finger joints (Krieg et al. 2011). The plate structure is distinguished by three plate edges always meet together at just one point, these principles allow the high lightweight structure (built from 6.5 mm thin sheets of plywood) to transmit normal and shear forces (Institute for Computational Design 2011). Advanced computational design and simulation together with robotic fabrication made the automation of repetitive joint details in terms of design and fabrication possible (Menges 2014). 3.4 Interlocking Dovetail Joint, IBOIS Folded Plate Structure Prototypes

Figure 5: from left to right, (a)Interlocking Dovetail Joint illustration (b)Prototype 1 Folded plate shell (c) Prototype 1 during assembly (d)Prototype 2during assembly (e) Prototype 2, spanning 13.5m (Robeller and Weinand 2015) In a series of studies curried out at the EPEL Laboratory for Timber Construction IBOIS a number of folded plate structure prototypes were designed and fabricated. Robeller and Weinand (2015) proposed the use of dovetail joints for timber folded plate shell structure. No additional adhesive bonding was necessary for the assembly of the self-supported shells. Customized algorithmic tools were developed to generate the physical and virtual prototypes, the automation of repetitive custom dovetail joint geometry details and the machine code programming of the joints. RhinoPython programming interface was used for polygonal mesh processing and joints generation. For first prototype (Figure 5, b & c) was built from 21mm Kerto-Q LVL panels and was fabricated using 5-axis CNC router. The second prototype (Figure 6, d & e) was built from 77mm CLT panels and was fabricated using 5-axis CNC router and KUKA KR250 robot router with an additional linear-axis table for precise 5-axis fabrication. (Robeller and Weinand 2015, pp. 34,55,82,94,116). 3.5 Spline Mitred Butt Joint: Kobra Pavilion

Figure 6: Kobra Pavillion (Manahl et al. 2012) The design of Kobra pavilion's self-supporting shell structure pavilion is the result of performance driven penalization scheme of continuous double-curved surfaces by discrete planar meshes. After obtaining a form that allows an optimal load transfer the numbers and positions of spline butt joints were determined through a FEM analysis. A custom Grasshopper component was implemented, that imported the results of the analysis and directly generated joint geometries. Pavilion panels were fabricated from cross-laminated timber (CLT) panels; the keys that fit the grooves in the

panels were fabricated from Kerto timber material, when fabricating the joint it was very important to line Kerto keys with the main grain direction. Wood panels and joints were cut using 5-axis CNC router and assembled with one component-polyurethane glue (Manahl et al. 2012; Shimek et al. 2012). 3.6 Sliding Slot Joints: Dragon Skin Pavilion, IBOIS modular timber structure prototype and Autobahn Church Interior

Figure 7: (a) Sliding slot joints-Dragon Skin Pavilion (b) dragon Skin Pavilion (Tynkkynen 2012) (c) IBOIS Prototype (Laboratory for Timber Construction IBOIS 2012) (d) and Autobahn Church (Schiffer 2013) The Freeform Dragon skin pavilion, IBOIS modular timber structure prototype and Autobahn Church interior share a simple joinery detail that was proven effective to assemble these self-supporting structures. The sliding joint that connects bent wood modules in Dragon Skin Pavilion, the V-form folded modules in IBOIS prototype and the wooden ribs in Autobahn Church was achieved by cutting slots from one piece and fixing the other piece into the slot. For the three examples algorithmic procedures generated structure and joinery detailing in addition to fabrication data including nesting and assembly (Margaretha 2013; Nabaei and Weinand 2011; Keskisarja et al. 2012). 3.7 Japanese Chidori Joint: The Prostho Museum, SunnyHills Bakery Building and Starbucks cafe

Figure 8: (a) Chidori Lattice (b) The Prostho Museum (c) SunnyHills Bakery Building (d) Starbucks cafe (Miller 2015, pp. 86-87) Architect Kengo Kuma designed a several wood pavilions and buildings based on a traditional Japanese joint called Chidori. Chidori lattice is defined as "a traditional technique lacing thin rectangular wood into a lattice by making a special notch in the wood. By using this technique, a strong structure can be created without using any nails, and at the same time, it is possible to dismantle the structure at once"(Kengo Kuma and Associates n.d.). In the three examples Chidori joint is applied in three-dimensional space, for The Prostho Museum, SunnyHills Bakery and Dazaifu Starbucks cafe it was possible for three wood members running along x, y and z axes to pass through the same point. In Prostho Museum Chidori lattice envelopes joints connected orthogonal members together, while in the SunnyHill Bakery and Starbucks cafe buildings parallelogram version of the Chidori was used. Although fabrication was carried out by CNC milling machines, envelop structures were assembled manually by experienced craftsman (Miller 2015, pp. 85-87). 4. Discussions and Conclusion In the last decades vey rapid transformations have been observed in the realm of architecture through the computational technologies and the changes occurred in architectural design processes and activities from design “recipes” to "design optimization" through these technologies. The potentials of computational design and fabrication technologies, have also altered designers' "material" perception and re-introduced it as one of the main parameters in the architecture of this era. After examining a number of recently built complex wooden structures it is seen that an integration of computational tools from design to fabrication have been achieved. The execution of these designs was not only possible as a result of advantages of the developed computer numerically controlled machines but also thanks to the advantages of the material itself. From this respect wood has many potentials such as it being a natural, sustainable and easy to manufacture building material, the only building material which is naturally grown from a biological tissue and this why it is considered the only renewable source for building materials. In addition, manufacturing of wood products requires smaller amounts of energy; it is also a recyclable, biodegradable, lightweight, strong and flexible material with environmental and performance benefits.

After examining the selected case studies and within the context of computational design and fabrication techniques, for achieving structural wood joinery in complex structures the related themes emerged that from the analysis can be listed as follows: 1. New engineered timber materials: the use of high mechanical and structural load capacity flat or bended panels or frames; such as kerto, CLT, post-formable grade plywood. 2. Robotic fabrication: the recent examples show increased use of robotic arms that have no fixed cutting bed, can freely move in three dimensional space and has the possibility of attaching various wood fabrication tools such as shank-type cutter and saw blade as in the fabrication of IBOIS second folded plate prototype (Robeller and Weinand 2015, pp. 57,58) 3. Building on the knowledge of traditional wood joinery and combine that with other form finding strategies such as biomimetic design, discretion of free-form surfaces and existing structural systems such as the folded plate system. 4. In most of the freeform structures using wood joinery didn't lead completely to overcome but it partially substitutes the need to other types of connections (metal or adhesive etc). In some cases, wood joinery was the connection type for certain parts of the structure such as connecting the inner edges for each module in ICD/ITKE 2011 research pavilion but then assembling the overall structure was done using metal fasteners. 5. The possibility to feed the computational model with important parameters derived from wood material properties such as wood bending capacity, grain direction and fabrication tool constrains. 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NEW ARCHITECTURAL ICONS OF THE COMPETITIVE ERA ESRA AKBALIK Esra Akbalık, PhD Student, Maltepe University ABSTRACT Production of space has always been a multi-dimensional phenomenon for various disciplines. This multi-dimensional nature; including politics, technology, sociology, economy etc. of this phenomenon creates a fertile tool for understanding 21st century’s world. Architecture, the discipline of spatial production also embodies the creation of meaning for both individuals and communities. This comprehensiveness of architecture has always given it an active role for building and making visible the dynamics that shape the world. In the light of this, in order to understand the today’s world, architecture serves as a key tool in means of both production of space and production of conflicting meanings. Since neoliberalism is used for defining the major impetus beginning from 20th century, how are the spaces/places and meanings change under this impetus is a worth-asking question. Following this question, taking architecture and production of space under the effects of neoliberalism as a focus point, the term “non-spaces” which first enounced by Augé (Augé, 1995) can give us a general idea about the spaces of today’s milieu. Augé used this term generally for describing spaces like airports, highways and shopping malls etc. that represent emptiness and give no chance for establishing meaningful bonds. Taking a step further; this paper aims to discuss the role of architecture as a key component for competing cities through production of space following neoliberal urban politics. In this point of view, can architectural icons with similar functions such as culture, sports or other international events, created by star architects, help us to enlarge the scope of “nonspaces?” is the basic question of this paper. The paper will be based on the theories of neoliberal urban politics and the role of architecture in creating meaning and rationalizing these politics in competitive cities. Secondly, new functions and the role of star architects will be focused through these theories. Following these discussions, examples of mega-projects, both built and unbuilt, of some star architects will be opened to discussion. INTRODUCTION Space and place are two main terms being used in all languages in order to define the relationship between human and their environments. Although these terms are usually confused with each other in different languages and in daily use, they point to important transformation processes and difference within their aspects of spatiality and meanings attached. In general terms, it can be said that; space becomes a place when people build a relation with it and attach a meaning to it. Space is the keyword for architecture as founding its roots on spatial configuration. The practice of architecture basically can be defined as the organization of different functions for different needs. Within this point; the main question of the architect is the question of “how”. But within this process, the architect also designs the social networks which will complete or never be able to complete the generation of that space, the generation that transforms the space to a place. Geographical and social configuration is shaped by various factors and decisions from spatial boundaries as lines on maps to regions, cities, squares, streets and to building scale. All these boundaries are actually the symbolic traces of expansions, segregations, convergences and struggles for sovereignty. Following this, it can be said that, the practice of architecture embodies all of the dynamics that shape the world such as technology, psychology, sociology, politics and economy as the discipline of spatial and social configuration. An attempt to follow architectural products in order to understand the dynamics that shape today’s world reveals some keywords such as globalization neoliberalism, iconic architecture, commodification, urban competition, star architects and global capitalism. In order to describe today’s world, the most common term used in different disciplines is globalization. An attempt to follow architectural products in order to understand the dynamics that shape today’s world reveals some keywords such as globalism, neoliberalism, iconic architecture, commodification, urban competition, star architects and global capitalism. The concept of globalization that is frequently referred in order to describe the world since 1970’s can be described as a concept that corresponds to the process of world transforming into a global village and boundaries becoming both sharpened and ambiguous. Referring to concepts such as speed, locality, change, diversity and embodying two-way

conflicts, substantially it can be formalized as a milieu of today that is shaped by neoliberal economies and flow of capital, services, people and information. These changes that are underlined within the context of globalization can be traced back to Industrial Revolution. Industrial Revolution, and the modernization process that is described as “ an incomplete project ” by Habermas, points to a social World that reflects the effects of revolution in daily life while representing a new period that is built by economic and technological developments. (Habermas, 1997) This process embodies both the period of a change accelerated by scientific and technological developments and the period of an alienation of the individual who is trying to adopt herself to this rapid change. Tomlinson describes globalization as a fertile concept for its capacity of producing metaphors, powerful social imaginations, assumptions and speculations that go beyond simple social realities. (Tomlinson, 2004) Cities and Architecture in a Global Milieu Based on general concepts mentioned above and Henri Lefebvre’s description of space as being both a product and a prior condition of social processes, it can be said that the process of space production and its results are both the tools and symbols of power and struggle possibilities. Doubtlessly, cities are the spaces where these interactions and production networks become visible. (Lefebvre, 1991) Cities have been the most important actors/objects/subjects of the vital breaking points in the world history. Beginning from the Industrial Revolution, with the rapid increase in urban population and industrial settings, forms of mass production and consumption attitudes, cities have been shaped under the effect of seek for solutions for emerging widerange urban problems such as dwelling, health conditions, infrastructure and poverty. Suburban settings, social housing projects have been the most common solutions for these problems especially around Europe. When we come to the globalization period that can be dated back to 1970’s as Daniel Bell conceptualizes; the Industrial Revolution has ended and a new type of economy and parallel to this economy a new social structure and an ideological context has emerged. (Bell, 1973) This new type of economy which is called neo-liberalism has shifted its activity from industrial production to urban investments that are seemed to be fertile areas for speculative income. Compatible with this approach, Yalcintan and colleagues describe global cities as the temples of neoliberalism where the over-accumulation of the capital is being directed. (Yalcintan et.al, 2014) As David Harvey, who built most of his studies on urban dynamics, discusses, these urban investments of capital over-accumulation has determined the growth of cities and this tendency has become a process of modernization dream and a condition of development for underdeveloped countries. (Harvey, 1997) Sasskia Sassen, as a social scientist, embraces the concept of global city as a product of new labor division created by global capitalism and economic mobility. In her book titled Global City (1991) in which she examined New York, London and Tokyo; she reveals that the economic interaction that is accelerated at 1980’s and the changing concentration from industrial production to finance and service industries has deeply affected the economic and spatial configuration of cities. According to Sassen, global cities have four different new functions beyond their historical character of hosting banking and trade facilities. These are; • Headquarters of companies that dominate the world economy • Key locations of finance and private service industries • Innovation centers of these new industries • Market for these new products, innovations and services. (Sassen, 1991) Within this world economy and global cities approach, most of the cities have become a part of a competition for being a center of attraction for global investments. Using five dynamics; business activity, human capital, information exchange, cultural experience and political engagement, A.T. Kearney’s latest in-depth analysis of global cities named Global Cities 2015: The Race Accelerates reports that more than half of the world’s population lives in cities and by 2025, that number is projected to reach 60 percent. (A.T. Kearney 2015) Similarly, World Urbanization Prospects Report, prepared by UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs Population Division, indicates the increase in urban population and its distribution. “In today’s increasingly global and interconnected world, over half of the world’s population (54 percent) now lives in urban areas, up from 30 per cent in 1950. The coming decades will bring further profound changes to the size and spatial distribution of the global population such that the world’s population in 2050 is projected to be 66 per cent urban. The global urban population is projected to grow by 2.5 billion urban dwellers between 2014 and 2050, with nearly 90 per cent of the increase concentrated in Asia and Africa.” (UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs Population Division 2015) Future predictions and tangible contemporary data on cities clearly show the risks about the physical and natural sustainability of the planet. While neoliberal politics and global capitalism is expanding over all countries and creating global networks in all means within a search of development and innovation; adverse effects such as displacement, mass migration, unemployment and deepening conflicts shape both the spatial and social aura of the cities. , it is possible to say that the global cities are representing the world of images that are expanding, being marketed and growing in a global competition while hosting the world of segregations, conflicts and oppositions. The reflections of these opposition and representations make cities fertile laboratories by both transforming and being transformed.

Figure 1. New York & London. (NYC Photo: Anthony Quintano; London Photo: Daniel Chapma) Going back to the conceptualizations on space and place; interrelating and attaching meanings to spaces, in other terms, the process of space becoming a place is manipulated/precluded within a culture in which economic development and global competition is of top priority. Since culture can be described as set of meanings, it is an important point that a global culture is one of the most important points that effect the relation between human and its built environment. There are various and opposing conceptualizations on global culture. Anthony King classifies these different approaches as;  Emphasizing plurality and spatializations  Emphasizing the deconstruction of the nation state  Emphasizing (American) cultural imperialism  Emphasizing a new (or in some cases ‘homogenized’) system of culture  ‘Out of this world’: Emphasizing the planetary (King, 2004, p. 26-27) Anthropologist Marc Augé (1995) proclaims that; supermodernity, which is the description of today’s world, produces spaces that are not places. According to him, these non-places are not meaningful forms of existence but temporary and soulless geometries. Non-places such as travel, consumption and transition points are lack of meaning, experience and practice and in these spaces the relationship between individual and the space coalesces with alienation, loneliness and abandonment. (Augé, 1995) According to Ibelings, high-rise buildings as described by Walter Gropius ‘One day there will be a worldview and then there will also be its sign, its crystal– architecture’ that emerged simultaneously in different countries and defined as International style in 1932 can be seen as the first examples of homogenization process that is frequently pronounced for globalization. Starting from 1950’s, trans-national office buildings, airports, shopping malls, as indicators of the expansion of global capital, has been playing active roles in shaping the scene and culture of cities. Ibelings, referring to Marc Augé’s non-places concept, says that these big scaled spaces reflect an important aspect of globalization by being spaces where people feel no attachment and belonging. (Ibelings, 1998) In the light of these approaches and conceptualizations, the practice and potential of architecture, being transformed by all the dynamics and aspects of globalization, empowers its network and gains new roles as hosting various intersecting actors and disciplines. Anthony King, remarks the changes in the nature of architectural production as a part of globalization process; “A cluster of developments has globalized the nature of architectural production: internationalization of images, trade, information, technology, recently accelerated by revolutionary communications facilities: … internet, CADCAM design methods and the dispersal of design expertise worldwide and the increasing frequency of international competitions.” (King, 2004, p. 41) Within the boundaries becoming ambiguous, acceleration in the mobility of information, people, images, capital and products; similar to all transnational investments and services, expanding network and new division of labor in architectural services have caused both an increase in the popularity of architecture as a tool/mediator and in the importance of new icons and star architects.

Icons and Stars as the New Tools/Mediators Since creating attraction points, big infrastructure and development investments and architectural and engineering products have always been important for cities which want to play an active role in global system, some more specific tools and methods have seen to be used starting from 1980’s in order to in the accelerating competition between global cities. With the flow of images, information and labor, every city is in the rivalry of attracting the capital, tourism and the investments of transnational companies. Ponzini, describes this situation by his determination that cultural attraction

centers that are empowered by garish designs and performances of starchitects are started to be used as a tool that triggers urban development. (Ponzini, 2011) Creating new spaces of globalism seeking to take part in the global flow, this urban transformation attempt that is called as urban boosterism frequently use the method of creating attractive images using all means of design and star architects. According to Sklair, those driving urban boosterism deliberately attempt to create urban architectural icons in order to draw tourists, convention and mega-event attendees with money to spend and the images they project are directed to this end. (Sklair, 2006) Since marketing is one of the most important sectors of the capitalist economy, marketing strategies of the cities in the global competition forces local authorities for new projects and investments. It can be said that global cities and transnational investments are the driving powers of countries after the decline of nation-states. At this point, popularly known architects and their star image becomes an important tool for both marketing the cities and justifying the decision-making processes which contain both private and public authorities. Sklair, name these star architects as cosmopolitan iconic architects and describe them as essential elements in the marketing strategies of globalizing urban growth coalitions. (Sklair, 2010) Similarly, Sorkin, remark these international architects as crucial ingredients for urban regeneration, for marketing new projects, real estate products and for re-imaging declining cities. (Sorkin, 2005) A report narrated by Tanaka in the beginning of January 2013, residences in buildings in New York City, designed by big-name architects tend to sell more than similar units in buildings designed by less-known architects is a good example showing the attractive force of star architects in marketing realestate products. (Tanaka, 2013) Conceptualizing globalization as a process configured by complementary dynamics including technological, political, cultural and economic factors; some new recent vintage functions such as mega events, shopping malls and new meanings to ever present facilities such as art, sports and specific attraction points commonly represent and make visible the cultural ideology of consumerism. Within this ideology; buildings, experiences, images and brands are artifacts of consumption in addition to tangible merchandising. In the Oxford Dictionary, the word icon is described as a person or thing regarded as a representative symbol or as worthy of veneration. Beyond its literal meaning, according to Sklair, the iconicity in architecture emerges as a resource in struggles for meaning and used for the implication of power. Extending this potential, Sklair reveals that the images of iconic architecture are tools to persuade people to buy the buildings and spaces and lifestyles and in some cases, the architects they present. Reviewing the iconicity in architecture in the milieu of globalization Sklair indicates that buildings, spaces and architects are iconic to the extent that they symbolize the variegated fruits of the culture-ideology of consumerism. (Sklair, 2006)

Figure 2. Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao designed by starchitect Frank Gehry (1997) In this context; Bilbao Guggenheim Museum designed by Frank Gehry, opened in 1997, can be seen as the first attempt reaching its goal and also generating the term “Bilbao Effect” for subsequent attempts. This development/urban boosterism plan is produced after Spain joined the EU in 1986, in order to revitalize the city of Bilbao which was a center for industrial production but lost its charm due to the economic decline. This project has been an inspiration for many other urban development plans causing a term commonly used “Bilbao Effect” by reaching its economic goals. The criterion for this economic success is the number of visitors who had brought 100million€ tax income during the three years after the opening of the museum. This tax income amount was over the amount needed to cover the expenses. A new terminal for Bilbao airport (2000) and a pedestrian bridge (1997) designed by Santiago Calatrava and Bilbao Metro (1995) designed by Norman Foster are other starchitect projects accomplished in order to revitalize the city of Bilbao as a tourism attraction center. The inspiration titled “Bilbao Effect” is not limited to the scale of urban development processes but also remarks the position of architectural practice as a tool or mediator for urban branding and economic rising goals. As Dovey indicates “Like corporations without logos, cities without icons are not in the market.”, the role of the architecture as an icon

becomes prominent. (Dovey, 1999) In this new role of architectural practice, the name of the architect and her star position, gains importance as a part of marketing the cities in the global competition. The determination of vice-mayor of Bilbao saying “good architecture is not enough anymore: to seduce we need names” gives us a good example for this marketing process. (Gonzalez, 2006) In this process, taking architectural practices and architects themselves as the mediators of the urban boosterism it is possible to pronounce the emergence of new geographies that are shaped by cities rather than nation-states. Adam describes this change with the priority of attempts that aim the compatibility with global codes, differentiation and to take part in the competition through creating attractive power. (Adam, 2008) Taking into account the emergence of these new geographies, Akay suggests that the life of postmodern community started to move us from a western centered world. According to Akay, eastern cities such as Dubai, Sharjah and Abu Dhabi are like the extensions of new contemporary art fairs, new cultural centers and new markets in the period of the globalization of art and 2008 economic regression. (Akay, 2013) One of the most outstanding examples of these cities and project is the Saadiyat Island Project in Abu Dhabi which is in the process of creating about thirty hotels, three marinas, 8000 villas and 38,000 housing units along twenty kilometers of coastline with a 28 billion dollars investment. The project includes the creation of a Cultural District as an icon in the international scene. This mega-project can be evaluated as the most assertive project of Abu Dhabi’s politics that move its investments to superior tourism, culture and entertainment spaces in order to play an active role in the competition in between gulf countries and to diversify its oil economy. The statement of one of the public officers, quoted by Adhan, clearly manifests the motivation of Saadiyat Island Project: ‘Abu Dhabi is trying to use international contemporary architecture in order to express the newborn identity of the UAE nation: ‘Abu Dhabi is a global capital city’. (Adhan, 2008) The Cultural District which is one of the seven regions of Saadiyat Island and recently under construction is promoted as the live canvas for global culture, drawing local, regional and international visitors with unique exhibitions, permanent collections, productions and performances.

Figure 3. Saadiyat Cultural District image showing the iconic buildings of starchitects In order to realize this promotion, the project contacted and selected Frank Gehry for the Guggenheim Abu Dhabi Museum, Jean Nouvel for the Louvre, Zaha Hadid for the Performing Arts Centre and Tadao Ando for the Maritime Museum. Norman Foster was selected for the Sheikh Zayed National Museum in a competition with other twelve firms. This iconic itself mega-project as being a unique example of incisive collaboration of architecture, urban marketing and star architects also embodies the national identity within a global perspective. This nation-identity feature can be interpreted as a tool for creating a difference in an international image. Ponzini, remarks this feature as a contradiction and says that; "The symbolic dimension of the Cultural District and many other large-scale projects is linked to the image of the nation and strengthened by the artistic aura of international iconic architecture in a contradictory way.” (Ponzini, 2011) In a similar way of taking art and culture as an investment project in the competition of global cities, sport events are also seen as an inviting opportunity for gaining a global role. The economic opportunities given by Olympics for urban boosterism, creating a new stock of images; increased the motivation of cities, which aim to solve its urban problems and to accelerate the economic growth, in the competition of hosting the games. Just as big budget cultural projects created to attract the flow of tourists and big amounts of income, these new cathedrals of sport described by Sklair provide many good examples of the links between iconic architecture and consumerism. (Sklair, 2010) Another glamor of mega sports events such as Olympics is the opportunity of proving the adequacy of the host city as becoming a global city.

Figure 4. ‘Bird’s Nest’ the National Stadium of Beijing for 2008 Olympics designed by Herzog & de Meuron This point of view motivated China for being a willing candidate for the Olympics. After losing its candidate status for 1993 Olympics and losing the competition with only two votes in 2000, China directed all of its effort to 2008 Olympics. By the help of big campaigns and huge public support China won the right for hosting 2008 Olympics under the slogan of Big Games: New Beijing. In order to represent the perfect combination of this big event and the new Beijing, an international architectural competition has been announced by the Municipality of Beijing Planning Commission at 2002. Swedish architects Herzog & de Meuron were the winners of this competition in which famous architects such as Dominique Perrault, Rem Koolhaas, Jean Nouvel and Kisho Kurokawa participated. China, as being an effective candidate in the cities of global capitalism, with its attempt of Beijing National Stadium, seems to embrace the starchitect feature of building that symbolizes the changing face of its national identity as a part of this change. Triggering many discussions about the budget, the competition and the construction phase, Beijing National Stadium is recently in use for some football matches and waiting to host 2022 Winter Olympics. Discussion All the dichotomies of the globalization have its reflections on the space. Bauman describes this process that is determined by change, speed and capital as forcing factors with this statement: “Most probably, the last quarter of this century will go down in history as the Big War of Independence counteracting for space.” According to Bauman’s statement, it can be said that this independence war is going through identity representations, power struggles and meanings. Looking at the outstanding architectural examples of today and their discourses within a perspective of space-place relations and meaning processes, some questions worth to seek for the answers occur. Since people need to build meaningful relation with their environments and this process is a part of the culture; capitalist priorities seem to manipulate this process. Architecture, being the discipline of creating spatial configurations in which social life is built, the role of this potential has to be questioned under the circumstances of global capitalist competition. Can this potential of architecture become a tool for creating places for human not only for capital promotion? Such a point of view predicts the necessity of the ethical responsibility of architecture that has the mission of producing livable and sustainable environments for everybody in a planet that is on the verge of its natural resources. Harvey’s congruent statement and question points out to the point of view of this paper: “in this imposed collage of spatial images, identity of place emerges as an important matter because everybody occupies a significant space of personality such as a body, room, house, a society or a nation and the way we build our personality shape the identity. Beyond this, if nobody knows her/his own place in this changing collage world, how is it possible to constitute a trustful social order and how can it be sustained?” (Harvey, 2007)

REFERENCES Adam, R., 2008. Architecture and Globalisation. Architect’s Review Adhan, K., 2008. Rediscovering the Island: Doha’s urbanity from pearls to spectacle. In Y. Elsheshtawy (Ed.), The evolving Arab City: Tradition, modernity and urban development (pp. 218–257). London and New York: Routledge. Augé, M., 1992. Yer-Olmayanlar, çev. T.Ilgaz. İstanbul: Kesit Yayıncılık. Bauman, Z., 1998. Küreselleşme – Toplumsal Sonuçları. çev. Yılmaz, A., İstanbul: Ayrıntı. Bell, D., 1973. The Coming of Post-Industrial Society: A Venture in Social Forecasting. NY: Basic Books Castells, M. (2008). Enformasyon Çağı: Ekonomi, Toplum ve Kültür. 1.Cilt: Ağ Toplumunun Yükselişi (2.Baskı). Ebru Kılıç (Çev.). İstanbul: Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayınları. Cresswell, T., 2004. Place: A Short Introduction. Blackwell Publishing Dovey, K., 1999. Framing Places: Mediating Power in Built Form. London: Routledge. Gonzalez, S., 2006. Scalar narratives in Bilbao. A cultural politics of scales approach to the study of urban policy. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 30.4, 836 – 57. Habermas, J., 1997. Kamusallığın Yapısal Dönüşümü. çev. Bora, T. & Sancar, M. İstanbul: İletişim Yayınları Harvey, D., 1999. Postmodernliğin Durumu. çev. Savran, S. İstanbul: Metis Yayınları. Harvey, D. 2007, Zaman-Mekan Sıkışması ve Postmodern Durum, in Bülbük, K. (ed.), Küreselleşme Kültür Medeniyet / Yerel Kimliklerden Küresel Stratejilere, İstanbul: Orient Yayınları, pp.117. Ibelings, H., 1998. Supermodernism: Architecture in the Age of Globalization, Amsterdam: NAI Publishers. King, A.D., 2004. Spaces of Global Cultures: Architecture Urbanism Identity. London: Routledge Lefebvre, H., 1991. The Production of Space. çev. Smith, D. Nicholson. Oxford: Blackwell Ponzini, D. (2014). The Values of Starchitecture: Commodificatıon of Architectural Design in Contemporary Cities. Antipode Journal. Ponzini, D. (2011). Large scale development projects and star architecture in the absence of democratic politics: The case of Abu Dhabi, UAE. in Cities 28 (pp. 251–259) doi:10.1016/j.cities.2011.02.002 Sassen, S., 1991. The Global City: New York, London, Tokyo. , Oxford: Princeton University Press. Saunders W. S. (ed), Commodification and Spectacle in Architecture: A Harvard Design Magazine Reader, Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, 22-33. Sklair, L. (2006). Iconic Architecture and Capitalist Globalization. City: analysis of urban trends, culture, theory, policy, action. Volume 10. No: 1, 21-47. doi: 10.1080/13604810600594613 Sklair, L. (2010). Iconic Architecture and the Culture-Ideology of Consumerism. İn Theory, Culture & Society. Volume 0 (0): 1-25. doi: 10.1177/0263276410374634 Sorkin, M. 2005. Brand Aid; or, The Lexus and the Guggenheim (Further Tales of the Notorious B.I.G.ness), in Saunders W. S. (ed), Commodification and Spectacle in Architecture: A Harvard Design Magazine Reader, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 22-33. Tanaka, S. 2013. The ‘Starchitect’ Effect on Condo Prices. Wall Street Journal. January 10, 2013, retrieved from http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424127887323874204578221591933740524.html Tuan, Yi-Fu, 1977. Space and Place. University of Minnesota Press Tomlinson, J., 2004. Küreselleşme ve Kültür (2.Baskı). çev. Eker, A. İstanbul: Ayrıntı. Yalçıntan, M. C., Çalışkan, Ç.O., Çılgın, K., Dündar, U. 2014. İstanbul Dönüşüm Coğrafyası [Istanbul Transformation Geography] in Candan, A.B & Özbay, C. (Eds) Yeni İstanbul Çalışmaları: Sınırlar, Mücadeleler, Açılımlar, Metis Yayınları, İstanbul, pp 47-70

CURRENT PROBLEM OF GLOBALIZATION, RESIDENCE AND LIVING ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY AROUND RESIDENCES: ANKARA ÇAYYOLU EXAMPLE FULYA ÖZMEN, TUĞÇE ÇELİK, ALİ BARMAN Fulya Özmen, PhD., Gazi University Faculty of Architecture, Ankara, Turkey, Tuğçe Çelik, Msc., Gazi University Institute of Applied Science, Ankara, Turkey, Ali Barman, Architect, Gazi University Institute of Applied Science, Ankara, Turkey ABSTRACT Being a current problem of globalization, “quality of life” which is redefined by multi transformations inter-developed within economic, political, socio-cultural context at the end of 20th century throughout the world appear as the main problem of the society. Quality of life which can be defined as the ratio between the demand and supply of the services and conditions needed by the city dwellers and which develops as a result of physical (objective) and psychological (subjective) inputs is possible via a viable environment and different spaces that define it. Along the globalization process, the new way of life that is brought into the order of life of today’s people by the changes in question is reflected upon residence which is the most tried subject of architecture and which affects the quality of life directly. After 1980, in many cities around the world, with the new upper and middle class starting to move to housing estates which are formed as residence groups in and outside the city limits and require great amount of capital investments, gated communities emerged as a controlled way of living areas which are a new way of presenting the classical residence structure with a different spatial organization to consumers. With the increase in the population of Ankara, new areas zoned for housing, gated communities and the fact that they are preferred, the rising standard of life, inequality in the quality of residences, transportation and environment affect the quality of life of the habitants. In this study, residences and the quality of life around residences are analyzed via closed/open gated communities in Çayyolu area, Ankara. By a survey which examines the residence and the living environment quality of residence, approaches the changes considered necessary in direct proportion to the period of usage of the housing estate and the positive/negative ways of these changes with regard to the users, the space quality of the residence within the context of especially flexibility/variability and dimensional sufficiency with the participants who are living in a closed gated community chosen in Çayyolu, Ankara, post occupancy process was done. The purpose is to ensure the development of characteristics of quality, especially within the context of gated communities, regarding residence and its environment via the evaluation of period of usage. At the end of the study, after determining how the habitant of these areas evaluate the spatial and environmental conditions and the behaviors that develop in their living conditions, it was aimed to evaluate the need for a change of the living environment quality around the residence and the residence itself in time, and the quality of spaces parallel with these. URBAN AND HOUSING TRANSFORMATION Political and economic set-ups that occurred from the beginning of the 1980's has started a period of urbanization that Capital, without a doubt, has been an important factor in urbanization process whether in the means of government or market mechanism (Şengül, 2009). Cities, standing out as being the main areas of the neoliberal restructuring, are being transformed by restructuring fiction, dominant actors and their tools. The conversion of cities in the means of their own dynamics is inevitable, possible and as old as the history of the city. The tendency of external intervention and seeing these cities as an area of transformation has a more recent past. In fact, the city is under a pressure of continuous change and transformation. (Tekeli, 2006) There are 3 main facts behind the transformation of way of housing in Turkey (Tekeli, 1998)  The new ways of social stratification by the changes in control methods and the cities functions  The developments in the urban construction presentations and organization of urban transportation  The increase in the settling size or scale As a result of neoliberal policies and practises, after the 1980s and especially starting at 1990s, urban fabric that has evolved, with the middle and upper-middle classes’ movement, shifted towards new and more homogenous settlements in the city's periphery. Kurtuluş, has stated that, when we looked at the gated communities’ presentation of housing in

the new periphery of the city, new class variances produced homogeneous settlements by getting crystallized (Kurtuluş, 2011). In many cities, even though it was not predicted in the master plan, the city centre is transforming rapidly whereas in some cities big urban projects such as the relocation of the central business areas to other regions, construction of big shopping malls, office areas, gated luxurious modern ghettos has been taking shape independent from the planning. After 1980s, in many cities around the world the new middle and upper classes have moved to either high density housing in the city centre or to the less dense gated communities in the periphery which has been realized with big capital investments. In this context, in the city or in the periphery, controlled and planned living area with the doors of residential sites (gated communities) has been discovered in the 80's as a new way of presentation of classical housing with a different spatial organization to the consumers. (Blakely and Snyder, 1997). Those spaces, isolated from outer world, that include functions according to various needs in a defined and controlled area, presents aestheticized daily life practices and ways of living with images and simulations (visions of other parts of the world, artificial landscaping etc.) with an enriched manner. Ritzer, speaks about the stunning wealth of these areas which enables, encourages and even forces us to consume product and services, and considers these areas as "new consumption cathedrals" (Ritzer, 2000). At this point, gated residential sites could be considered as a kind of aestheticized fictions of living that offers enriched images. Gated community settlements are located in a part of the bordered urban space. The housings that are introvert urban areas occur after a gathering of defined communities. Gated communities that are also reduced urban space, come together with the components of urban space itself. It is possible to state that the primary reason and the effects that created the gated communities are based on capitalist economy and consumption culture (Lowe, 2003). However, in Turkey we see the first example of Residential projects starting with 1990s, which reinforced its existence in 2000s. Stating roughly, this structuring which shines in the urban fabric as a new concept in recent years, consists of some basic principles. These are; a luxurious flat which is floored with the latest technology, five star services that eases the life of the livings and social possibilities that are as well open to individual usage. Residence building large size companies unite in the idea that a residence is a building that services in the mentality of a five star hotel. (Bal, 2011) When we look at the housing presentation ways, that are intensified after 90's which are located in Ankara Ümitköy/ Çayyolu/ Alacaatlı, it is seen that the promised housings are obtained via the usage of mass production techniques that are used in "social housing". Koru Housing Estate made by Mesa, Settlements of Konutkent 1 and 2, Çınar and Defne housing estates that are produced by Kutlutaş have been obtained by the latter techniques. Though such settlements don't comply directly with the gated community idea, these are the first realised examples of Ankara. Those settlements that were produced with tunnel framework techniques, answers to the different requests of the users such as flexibility, privatization in usage, variability yet cause structural problems from time to time. The quality of the housing also, as living environment, depending on the time, technological change and development, variation in consumption trends, developing according to the changing socio-economic conditions are located in different formats on the user's perception. RESIDENTIAL HOUSING AND ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY Quality of life, is a complex concept because it includes environmental and psychological components and is related to the individual's perception. As for the perception of an individual may vary according to the social structure that an individual is in, level of development, personal properties, financial potential, health condition, status in life, goals, expectations and interest, in other words with effect of economical, social and cultural capital. Consequently, the perception of these variables of different areas of usage (health, sports, education, profession, family etc.) and even different time periods (changes of the living conditions with time, the age of an individual etc.) is another relativistic quality of the quality of the living. In this interaction cycle quality of life could be explained as satisfaction and happiness of an individual's own life (Gültekin, 2015). It is possible to consider the quality of housing and the housing environment as the quality of life itself. Considered housing and housing and environmental quality is assessed in different ways. When observed in a larger scale, any assessment is the definition of user's satisfaction. The word "environment" is not only a component of residential, residential area of the development, a physical residential area occurred because of neighbourhood, but also a social and economical situation (regulations and institutions). If appropriate techniques are used in data collection and analysis, it is possible to measure the social and regulatory factors which determines the physical housing of user satisfaction degree. This information is not only related with the determination of the answers of the users about the environment, but could also be used in order to develop properties of the housing area, design and new organisations (Kellekçi, Berköz, 2006a). In this context the process of evaluation, has an important role both in the updating of existing housing stock and in the formation of new housing environment.

In the current urbanization practices, changing and transforming residential and environmental features, turn into closed / semi-closed housing groups. In particular, building groups that occurred in the metropolitan areas, and peripheries of the city, shows an intensified trend frequently encountered in Ankara and especially Ümitkoy / Çayyolu / Alacaatlı regions. In this study, Kutlutaş Çınar Housing Estate that is located in Ümit neighbourhood, Ümitköy region Ankara is taken as a sample area and is assessed on the affecting quality whether with questionnaire investigation or using both interviews for housing and housing environment. The reason of this choice is that Çınar Housing Estate is one of the oldest housing communities that is located in this area and defines a life style as it produces a social environment. In addition, quality of life and changing, 26-year residential campus, questioning whether the user has changed the perception of context are also discussed in this context. QUALITY ASSESSMENT OF HOUSING AND RESIDENTIAL HOUSING ENVIRONMENT OF ÜMİTKÖY ÇINAR HOUSING ESTATE In this study, Çınar Housing Estate located in Cayyolu province of Ankara has been selected as residential and living environment quality. The aim at the end of the study is to enable the further development of the housing and housing environment quality's properties via post occupancy evaluation criteria. In conclusion, by determining spatial and environmental conditions of individuals living here and behaviours that shape the conditions experienced by living in this area, determination of housing and environmental quality of life and the change on the housing need through is aimed to evaluate. Considering, that the quality is defined in a simplest way “fitness for use” (Özsoy, 2011), the quality of housing also, can be explained relevant to the users’ needs and expectations. However, under the current market conditions, the quality is more shaped connected with the target of maximizing the profit of housing producers. With the participants living in the example site, Çınar Housing Estate that is chosen as a case study, a questionnaire of post occupancy process that considers quality of housing and housing environment, changes that are seen accordable to the usage timing, the positive and negative aspects of these possible changes, spatial quality of the housing especially flexibility/variability and dimensional efficiencies. With the participants that live in the example site, Çınar Housing Estate that is chosen for the field study. A questionnaire of post occupancy process that considers quality of housing and housing environment, changes that are seen accordable to the usage timing, the positive and negative aspects of these possible changes, spatial quality of the housing especially flexibility/variability and dimensional efficiencies.

Figure 1. Çınar Sitesi Site Plan Çınar Housing Estate (Fig1.) i located in Çayyolu Region, Meksika Street and was built in 1989. It consists of 5 blocks. The blocks have 2 housing typologies that are named as front and back. Outside the housing blocks, in between the common open space, an outdoor swimming pool, cafeteria, green areas, walking paths, basketball courts, a shopping centre on a small scale, a social facilities consisting of nursery and children's playground could be seen.

Fig2. Floor Plan of the building

Fig3. Plan of type 1

Fig3. Plan of type 2 RESEARCH FINDINGS Principally, a model to evaluate the quality of the case study area, Çınar Housing Estate, is designed . Acccording to the model (Table 1), the quality criteria set up as two parts, the objective and the subjective values. While, the physical environment and the residences’ characteristics constitute the objective criteria, the demographic characteristics of the residents and the relationships with the residential environment establish the subjective criteria. The survey questions were created to measure the data in this direction.

Table1. Model of the evulation of the quality 44 people who are living in the housing estate were surveyed. The answers to the survey questions for the housing estate were analyzed via graphics and presented as charts. The genders, ages, educational backgrounds, occupations, incomes status, the periods of accommodation in the housing estate, the number of family members and the ownership situations of the people who attended the survey were asked, and the profiles of common users were evaluated (Table2.). As a result of the evaluation, it was determined that the habitants of Çınar Housing Estate are middle-upper middle class as far as their incomes are concerned. As most of the attendants have been living in the housing estate for more than 20 years, more accurate results were able to be gathered regarding the analysis of the changes in the housing estate in time, the modifications in the houses and their impact on the quality of life.

Table 2. General user profile Until this part of the field study, the socio-demographic features of the attendants in the housing estate are seen. In the second part after this, questions regarding the physical perception of the settlement were asked, and the analysis were made via graphics. In this section where the physical appearance of the housing estate was surveyed, it is seen that the attendants found it acceptable when they were asked to say whether it is beautiful, attractive, luxurious and environment-friendly (Table3.).

Table3. Physical environment While the frequency of the use of common areas inside the settlement was being surveyed, green areas, pedestrian ways, children’s playgrounds, sports areas and restaurant and cafes were taken as criteria. When the results were analyzed (Table4.), it was seen that mostly the jogging routes are used. Green areas, pool as the sports ground and cafe are the

ones frequently used commonly whereas the children’s playground is the least area that is used due to the fact that a few of the attendants have small children.

Table4.Frequency of occurrence In the third section of the survey, the relationship between the housing estate and its vicinity was analyzed. In this analysis, transportation between the city center and the settlement area, the sufficiency of the environmental planning and outdoor areas, the proximity of the settlement to the market, health center and the working places were asked. In addition to these questions, satisfaction level from Gordion Mall, which was built after the housing estate, was evaluated. According to the results (Table5.), 65% of the attendants are dissatisfied from the transportation between the city center and the housing estate. As 30% of the attendants work near the settlement, it is seen that this and the previous comment are directly proportional. However, the settlement is close to the health center and the market. More than 80% of the attendants think that the environmental planning is sufficient. Satisfaction due to Gordion Mall is a result that could not be predicted. 85% of the attendants stated that they are pleased with it, the rest (15%) are not pleased due to its cultural impact, increased traffic and noise.

Table5. Relationship with the environment The 4th section of the survey is composed of questions regarding the social effects of the settlement, dependency to the place and relationships between neighbors and social cooperation. According to the results (Table6.), 15% of the attendants feel isolated from the city. The reason can be deducted as the distance to the city center. . Satisfaction from relationships between neighbors and attendance to common activities is evaluated as 55%i which is above the average. The feeling of belonging with regard to education level, income level and roots is evaluated above the average (75%). When we compare this result with the profile of the attendants, they are found to be compatible.

Table6. Perception of social impact

In this section, the feeling of security in the settlement was questioned. Çınar Housing Estate is regarded to be safe by the majority (%86) (Table7.). This feeling of security was analyzed under three titles as crime, natural disasters and accidents. Although the results are close, the attendants feel safer against crime (Table8.). It is thought that this is due to the similarity of the general profile of the residents. While the security is evaluated, the ideas of the residents regarding the borders of the settlement were taken. When the subject of being a gated community was being discussed, it was seen that 41% are pleased with the situation, 41% demand a more open settlement, 9% demand a closer settlement and 9% are indecisive (Table9.).

Table7. Feel secure

Table8. Analyzing under the three titles as crime

Table9. Residence limits In the last section, where the survey was the most intense, the characteristics of residences and data regarding quality were discussed. When the attendants were asked to evaluate their residences with regard to its position in the settlement, its natural lighting, its relationship with nature, the quality of the garden, the distance to other blocks and the common areas of use, all the results were above the average (Table10.) AS it can be seen in Table9, the qualities of

the garden were given the highest score. Also, the distance between the blocks were considered quite adequate as far as privacy is concerned. This result also affects the natural lighting and view directly.

Table10. Quality of the houses During the evaluation of quality in residences, functional and spatial sufficiency and their positions inside the residences constitute an important part the study. For this part of the survey, a table (Table 11.) was prepared in which the names of spaces and criteria of evaluation are found. When the results of evaluation are examined, the height of ceilings and locations were seen to be regarded positive. However, space sizes –especially bedrooms - were found to be small, so functional inefficiency was determined in these spaces. During the interviews 5% of the attendants stated that the living rooms are oversized.

Table11. Evulation of the quality of housing A graphic (Table12.) that shows the quality of technical system in which the quality of materials, heat and water insulation, heating and cooling/ventilation systems and plumbing (electrical, water, mechanical and infrastructure) were analyzed was created in accordance with the survey results with regard to quality evaluation in residences, according to the graphic, the satisfaction from cooling/ventilation system is 1 in 5 points for most of the attendants. While the plumbing was approved the most, the others were given average points. During the interviews, it was seen that the attendants were dissatisfied from the quality of the materials and the finishes of the work.

Table12. Evulation of the quality of technical conditions

In the survey, there are questions about quality of materials, quality of workmanship, water seals of doors and windows, quality of floor, moisture in the residence and the level of privacy. As the evaluation results are seen in Table13, 70% of the attendants found the quality of materials sufficient and the satisfaction ratio is 75% regarding the workmanship. The result for whether there is moisture or not is 90%. Although moisture is not a problem, there are swelling and change of color due to condensation near corners where built-in panels were fitted to the façade. Also, for the subject of water seals of doors and windows 65% of the attendants claim that there are leaks. The satisfaction ratio of the floor covers is 60%. 60% of the attendants who are pleased told during the interviews that they changed the floor coverings. 55% of the attendants told that they have made modifications in their residences (Table13.).

Table13. Evulation of the quality of materials It is inevitable to make changes in the inner spaces of residences after a long period of use. Its reason may be the deformation happening in time as well as personal likes and demands. In the survey of Çınar Housing Estate, the changes in the residences and their reasons were analyzed. Changes were given as multiple choices in the survey. According to the results (Table14), there are no changes in the façade and the garden. The dissatisfaction of sizes of spaces was reflected to the graphic also, and the modification of sizes of spaces is gathered via the answers given by the attendants. Inclusion of the balcony into the inner spaces is a result seen in almost all residences. Inclusion of balconies in both kitchen and living room is seen 95% of the residences. This ratio is the same when the floors are concerned. According to the answers given during the interviews, the residences were delivered to their residents with fitted carpet in the living room and the bedrooms. As it is seen in Table 13, it was changed by most of the attendants. Carpet fitting was changed with either artificial or laminated wood floor cover. Modifications to walls and ceilings were evaluated in this criteria. Especially, wet space suspended ceilings were modified with a ratio of 95%. Modifications on hardware (kitchen counter, toilet, sink, bath-tub, closets etc.) and plumbing was another answer that was chosen by most of the attendants with a similar ratio.

Table14.Changings on the houses

The reasons of the modifications were discussed with regard to the answers of the attendants (Table15). It was determined that personal preference was marked by 20% of the attendants whereas 35% marked more functional and 45% marked due to damage in a multiple choice question.

Table15.Reasons of changing CONCLUSIONS In this study, a 26 years old semi-closed housing estate is assessed, regarding the level of the quality of housing and its environment through the use of post occupancy evaluation (POE). The assessment, in accordance with objective and subjective quality criteria, is carried out in the context of the housing and residential environment. The housing characteristics of quality and physical environmental information are evaluated as the objective data, in the context of dimensional qualifications/flexibility/ variability. Additionally, the technical requirements are discussed. The relationships between the individual and his/her residential environment are discussed as the subjectif quality criteria. When considered in terms of results, despite today's luxury housing and changing consumer habits, it has revealed that users are satisfied with the houses and the residential environment. The sense of belonging due to the long-time living in the environment may cause this result, beside the changing living conditions (taking years, the children leaving home, etc…) However, an important issue to keep in mind, the houses built with the tunnel formwork technology are presented to middle and upper-middle income group. This phenomenon, restricts the flexible use and conversion possibilities of the residences . REFERENCES Bal, E. 2011. Türkiye’de 2000 Sonrası Neoliberal Politikalar Çerçevesinde İmar Mevzuatındaki Değişimler Ve Yeni Kentleşme Pratikleri: İstanbul Örneği, PhD Dissertation, Dokuz Eylül University, İzmir. Blakely E. J., Snyder M. G. 1997. Fortress America. Gated Communities in the United States Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press. Kellekci, Ö.L., Berköz, L. 2006, Konut ve Çevresel Kalite Memnuniyetini Yükselten Faktörler. İtüdergisi/a, Cilt:5, Sayı:2, 167-178. Gültekin, A. T., 2001. Toplu Konutlarda Yapı Bileşenlerinin Kalite Değerlendirmesi. Gazi Üniversitesi Mühendislik-Mimarlık Fakültesi Dergisi, 165-182. Kurtuluş, H., 2011, istanbul’ da Yapsatçılığın Yeniden Doğuşu ve Kentin Merkezinde Mekanda Çözülen Sınıfsal Homojenlik, Konut Sempozyumu, TMMOB Mimarlar Odası, İstanbul Büyükkent Şubesi, İstanbul. Low, S. 2003. Behind the Gates: Life, Security and the Pursuit of Happiness in Fortress America. New York, London: Routledge. Özsoy, A., “Toplu Konutlarda Tasarım kalitesi”, Konut Sempozyumu, TMMOB Mimarlar Odası, İstanbul Büyükkent Şubesi, Mayıs 2011. Ritzer G. 2000. Büyüsü Bozulmuş Dünyayı Büyülemek, Çev.: Ş. S. Kaya. İstanbul: Ayrıntı Yayınları. Şengül, T. 2009. Kentsel çelişki ve siyaset Kapitalist kentleşme süreçlerinin eleştirisi (2. Baskı). Anakara: İmge Kitabevi. Tekeli, İ. 1998. Türkiye’de Cumhuriyet Döneminde Kentsel Gelişme ve Kent Planlaması. 75 Yılda Değişen Kent ve Mimarlık içinde (1-24). İstanbul: Türkiye İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları Tarih Vakfı Ortak Yayını. Tekeli, İ. 2006. Kentleri dönüşüm mekanı olarak düşünmek. Kentsel Dönüşüm Sempozyumu’na sunulan bildiri. Pelin Pınar Özden, İlknur Karakaş, Sırma Turgut, Hülya Yakar, Demet Erdem, Neslihan Palaoğlu (Yayına Haz.) Ankara: TMMOB Şehir Plancıları Odası Yayını.

ARCHITECTURE OF THE DAY TEHREEM UN NISA BACHELOR OF ARCHITECTURE

Contemporary architecture is a vast umbrella which cannot be attributed to one specific style or the crowning architects of the time because it evolves with every passing era according to its dynamics. Architecture of today also known as "contemporary architecture" is eclectic in the true sense- it is the amalgam of various styles, interpretations and dynamic possibilities pertaining to the current time. Unlike Modern architecture which is considered static because it belonged to a specific era of the 20th century, contemporary architecture is constantly changing and evolving according to advances and needs of every age. Individuality and Challenging Representation of Ideas It is an area of great competition- survival in contemporary architecture owes to individuality and personal exploration because that is something particular to every designer. Architects and designers are challenging the set notions of architecture and the basic components on which the framework of architecture stands, which are mainly aesthetics, contextual response, programmatic layout and functionality thereby evolving the world of contemporary architecture. A $24million museum stands on the West Bank in Birzeit - Palestine with no objects to display representing the idea as intangible as absence and resilience of the oppressed nation which elevates a cause, stating: "Our absence is itself the object."

Fig. 1 Palestinian Museum in Birzeit An installation and a pavilion are the recipient of numerous architectural prizes such as the Serpentine Pavilion by Japanese architect Suo Fujimoto stands as an innovative example of "something melting into the green" which poses a challenge to the principles of Sustainable design and proposes new ways of looking at contextual sensitivity. Architecture of the day is not limited to building only- it is about changing the social and technical climates of today, pushing the limits and increasing the horizons in a continuous struggle. Usability with redefined aesthetics Contemporary architecture focuses on maximizing usability, so does Modern architecture. But the real difference come into play with explorations, innovations and individuality that are the distinguishing attribute and underlying cause of

shaping the architecture of the day. Be it in the form of material and structural advancement, or the recurrent use of symbolic forms, or the introduction of digital aid and technology into shaping architecture, the graph of contemporary architecture is constantly headed towards an 'out of the box' approach.

Figure.2: Serpentine Pavillion by Suo Fujimoto Dependence on vast Time Stretches Still relying on design principles from civilizations of artisans and masons dating back 3000 years and at the same time translating these principles to the dynamics of the modern day- the time stretch of practicability of architecture is too vast. Supplementing this idea, The Pritzker Prize-winning Dutch architect, Rem Koolhas stated in the 2016 AIA Convention: " We’re the last profession that has a memory, or the last profession whose roots go back 3,000 years and still demonstrates the relevance of those long roads today... Architecture is a profession that takes an enormous amount of time. The least architectural effort takes at least four or five or six years, and that speed is really too slow for the revolutions that are taking place."

Challenge of Contemporary Architecture The need to strike a balance between these extremes of era dependence and keeping pace with the advancement of the modern day is the true challenge of contemporary architecture. No matter how bifurcated the design approaches and practical outcomes are, the canvas of contemporary architecture remains a non-redundant and interesting piece of art continuously working on its improvement.

WAYS OF VISUALISING KNOWLEDGE IN ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN EDUCATION: CONCEPT MAPS, WORD CLOUDS, AND PARTI EMINE KOSEOGLU Emine Koseoglu, Assistant Professor, PhD, Fatih Sultan Mehmet Waqf University, ABSTRACT Visualization or visual expression means explaining an idea or a concept without using text or numbers. There are many instruments and methods of visual expression. Visual expression can be formed by different materials and environments. The use of drawing tools in architectural design is one of the ways of visualization. Visualization tools can define different stages of the expression from abstract to concrete. Different tools can be used for each stage such as conceptual schemes word clouds and parti. They generalize, reduce, or summarize the relations / spaces according to the kind of aimed relationships. In the design process, they can be used both in the beginning of the process and for post-design evaluation of the spaces. This method can help architectural students to discover how to think and express visually. This study aims to explore several visualization methods in comparison to each other. This study presents examples of how visual expressions are used in architectural design education. INTRODUCTION The issue of human’s confrontation with objects and/or stimuli can instantly be divided into two titles: representation of the processed information in mind and representation of the processed information outside of the mind. First one is related to information storage in memory. The second one is related to instruments and settings of visual representations of information. Paivio (1990) suggests that there are two types of mental representations: visual and linguistic. He called the visual agents as imagens and linguistic agents as logogens. This two edged view is called dual-coding theory. Paivio (1990) notes that the two systems work independently which means one system can be active without the other; at the same time they can work simultaneously. Additionally, they are functionally interconnected so that one system can activate other.

Figure 1. Dual-coding system of Paivio (1). Birbili (2006) argues that the way knowledge is coded in the brain has significant indications for teaching. She implies that type of mental representations affects the type of learning thus they direct the type representing knowledge and visual ways of representation contain high levels of processing mechanisms of mind. She asserts that students try to convey what they know and understand in nonlinear, visual ways, they are forced to draw together what they have learned; see

how ideas, information, and concepts are connected; develop higher-order thinking skills (e.g., analytical thinking); and organize their knowledge in a way that makes sense to others. Visual representations also help students remember and recall information more easily” (Birbili, 2006). Non-linguistic or visual representations can vary from simple to complex; from less-visual to more-visual generally. Some main types can be mentioned: graphic representations, physical models, mental pictures, and pictographs (Marzano et al., 2001). The most commonly used visual learning tool is graphic organizers, which include diagrams depicting hierarchical information (e.g., concept maps), time-sequence patterns (e.g., chain of events, time lines), cause-effect relationships (e.g., fishbone diagrams), comparisons (e.g., Venn diagrams), free associations and links among ideas (e.g., webs or mind maps), and how a series of events or stages are related to one another in a repeating process (e.g., life cycle diagrams) (Birbili, 2006). Parti diagrams can be added to the list as a special graphic communication technique in design and architecture. This study aims to reveal the products of a process of an undergraduate course titled “Visual Thinking in Architecture” that is conducted by the author at Fatih Sultan Mehmet Waqf University, Faculty of Architecture and Design, İstanbul. The course aims to reveal the ways of visual thinking and representing knowledge; it consists of three modules: concept maps, word clouds, and parti diagrams. CONCEPT MAPS Concept maps are partly-visual representation tools of an idea, concept or a text. One of the main elements of them is words. They also include some geometrical shapes and lines.

Figure 2. An example of a simple concept map (Birbili, 2006). Concept maps, representing a person's understanding of a topic, reveal mapping concepts and their relationships hierarchically (Villalon and Calvo, 2011). They include concepts, usually enclosed in circles or boxes, and relationships between concepts denoted by a line connecting the concepts. Words on the line, indicating linking words or linking phrases, complete the relationship between the two concepts (Novak and Canas, 2008). Another characteristic of concept maps is that the concepts are represented in a hierarchical way with themost general concepts at the top or center of the map and the more specific, less related concepts arranged hierarchically below or at the edge (Novak and Canas, 2008). Novak and Gowin (1984) note that concept mapping is a good “short hand” for taking notes on papers or Forming a concept map enables one to sort out the most important concepts and/or propositions and to reshape them in a synthetic way with the major points. It is observed that experts and highly proficient students tend to create more complex maps, whereas novices tend to create simple systems that are linear, circular, a hub with spokes, or a tree with few branches (2).

Figure 3. Concept map types of students (3). Word Clouds Tag clouds are comprised of a compact visual form of words. They are used to reveal the summary of the content of a web platform or a set of documents (Cui, 2010; Paulovich, et al., 2012). Word clouds, assists in acquiring the main points of text-based information. A word cloud highlights the main ideas by presenting words used in a text in the shape of a cloud, with most frequently words appearing the biggest ones (Baralt et al., 2011).

Figure 4. Steps of creating a word cloud (Cui, 2010). The advantage of word clouds is that they create a simple visual image (Miley and Read, 2011). Cui (2010) listed the items of a semantic and stable word cloud layout: (a) Extracting an initial set of words from the documents; (b) Placing the extracted words on the 2D plane using multidimensional scaling; (c) Eliminating unrelated words; (d) Relating the remaining words; (d) Optimizing the layout by a force-directed algorithm (Cui, 2010). Several online programs are configured to create word clouds automatically with various optional personalizations. Wordle (http://wordle.net), for instance, allows us to set features such as the number of words included, font, layout and color. Users could delete common words such as conjunctions and prepositions but could neither insert nor delete nouns, verbs, adjectives or adverbs (Miley and Read, 2011).

Figure 5. Wordle word cloud (Miley and Read, 2011). Word clouds, revealing the frequencies of the different words that appear in a piece of text, allow people to conceive the general ideas and the main topics in a text. In addition, they may illustrate the main standpoints held by the writer of the text. Comparison of the word clouds generated from different texts should quickly reveal the differences between the ideas contained in these texts (McNaught and Lam, 2010). Parti The Oxford English Dictionary defines “parti pris” as ‘a preconceived view; a bias or prejudice’. The phrase comes from French etymology: Around the late 15th century, parti meant ‘decision’ and pris, being the past participle of prendre, meant ‘to take’. Later the phrase evolved to mean prejudice, in the sense of ‘decision’ or ‘adopted position’ around 1734. In architecture, the parti means the primary concept or organizing idea behind a design (4).

Figure 6. A diagram for the concept of parti (5). The parti, or main idea, can be illustrated in a parti diagram. These simplified drawings show relationships between the different main elements of the idea. A parti should be drawn using as few lines as possible and should convey or reveal the design idea in a straightforward way (6), so it is an abstracted and reduced version of the original representation of the design idea (Gargus, 1994). .

Figure 7. Simple illustration of idea of parti diagram (7). In addition to revealing design ideas, parti diagram method forms a way of training fine art activities, solving design problems and finding creative compositional heuristics in the early stages design. Usually creative parti diagrams are used on a free theme while teaching fine arts, allowing learning how to generate ideas in a coherent visual image, to produce ideas freely from the restrictedness of drawing techniques, to quickly evaluate the options and to select effective means of artistic language (Shevniuk, 2015). Case Study This case study presents the products of one the working modules of the undergraduate course titled “Visual Thinking in Architecture” supervised by the author of this paper at Fatih Sultan Mehmet Waqf University, Faculty of Architecture and Design. This course consists of three modules: concept maps, word clouds and parti. Each module takes three weeks; one week for the theoretical presentation of the issue, two weeks for visualization of the data. Students worked in groups and they chose an architectural movement, an architect belongs to that movement, and a housing project of the architect. They started with choosing the architect, so the movements were derived from the architects. Then, they found a text for the architectural movement and they created a concept map of it. In the second step, they found a text describing the architect and they created a word cloud of it. In the last step they found the layout drawings of the house they picked up and then they analyzed them and created parti diagrams according the titles they determined. Study 1: Charles Correa, work by Mervenur Uludag, Atif Sarigul, Fatih Furkan Caglayan, Arben Livareka. Figure 8 reveals a combination of a concept map emphasizing the most import concept - Charles Correa and the subconcepts (the movements related to Correa) which are Regionalism, Modernism, Activism, Urbanisation and Climatism. The sub-titles of each movement are illustrated like a word cloud. So it represents a hybrid map.

Figure 8. The concept map revealing the related architectural movements of Correa.

Figure 9 reveals a word cloud for Charles Correa. Students used the image of the architect as a background for the cloud which made the visualization more creative. Nevertheless it is a weak cloud as it does not contain an emphasized hierarchy.

Figure 9. A word cloud for Charles Correa. Figure 10 illustrates the parti analyses for Previ housing project. Students created partis of the layouts according to outdoor-indoor spaces and functional areas of the layout.

Figure 10. Parti analysis for Previ housing project. Study 2: Tadao Ando, work by Gizem Dural, Merve Saliha Yavuz, Aysegul Yilmaz, Afra Nur Kadioglu. Figure 11, which is created by the students, reveals a concept map for the movements and approaches that define Tadao Ando. It is an innovative map as it does not only contain shapes, rather the geometric shapes behave like lines that connect the sub-concepts and that indicate the relationships among them.

Figure 11. A concept map for the related movements and approaches to Tadao Ando.

Figure 12 illustrates a word cloud describing Tadao Ando in a hierarchical way. Nevertheless, the colors do not represent the relations effectively.

Figure 12. A word cloud visualizing Tadao Ando. Figure 13 shows the parti diagrams of 4x4 house by Tadao Ando. The partis reveal the analyses according to functional areas and close-semiclose-open spaces of the layout and sections of the project.

Figure 13. Parti diagrams for 4x4 of Tadao Ando. Study 3-Louis Kahn, work by Nesibe Katre Kocer. A classical concept map created for Brutalism which is determined to represent the works of Louis Kahn. The map reveals weak hierarchical order.

Figure 14. Concept map Brutalism.

Figure 15 reveals a word cloud created for Louis Kahn. The student used the of the architect as a background frame and placed the elements of the cloud in it.

Figure 15. A word cload for Louis Kahn. Figure 16 illustrates partis for the fine art center by Louis Kahn. The reveal the functional areas, geometrical analysis of the layout, and circulation scheme of the layout.

Figure 16. Parti diagrams for Fine Arts Centre by Louis Kahn. Study 4-Peter Zumthor, work by Ali Aydin, Mustafa Aksu, Merve Serra Yigitler, Semih Kaytas. Figure 17 includes a classical concept map revealing the relationship of Phenomenology and Zumthor.

Figure 17. A concept for the related concept to Peter Zumthor.

Figure 18 illustrates an avant-garde word cloud for describing Peter Zumthor. Student used the image of Gugalun House as a background to world cloud and arranged the words’ directions to form the contour of the house.

Figure 18. A word cloud for Peter Zumthor. Figure 19 reveals the parti diagrams of the students for Gugalun House. The partis denote the functional areas and circulation schemes of the layouts.

Figure 19. Parti diagrams for Gugalun House by Peter Zumthor. CONCLUSIONS Visual representations of information, ideas, processes, texts and the drawings of design products such as buildings enables the observer to easily read, understand and memorize the main theme. They may serve as facilitators in architectural design education and they may become intermediary instruments for students for the adaptation of visual thinking and representing ideas visually which is required in architectural design education. This study unfolds the examples from an undergraduate course conducted in the department of architecture that is prepared for introducing architectural students the ways of visual thinking and visually representing the themes and ideas. Semi-visual instruments are concept maps and word clouds which are extracted from chosen texts for architectural movements and architects respectively. Whereas partis (or parti diagrams) are approached as more visual products that reveal the themes of the design product which are at this time the layouts of the buildings.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Special thanks to Prof. Dr. Ayse Nur Okten who introduced me idea of concept maps and emphasized the importance of them in both learning and teaching. REFERENCES Baralt, M.; Pennestri, S. and Selvandin, M., 2011. Using wordles to teach foreign language writing. Language Learning & Technology, June 2011, Volume 15, Number 2, pp. 12–22. Birbili, M., 2006. Mapping knowledge: concept maps in early childhood education. Journal of Early Childhood Research and Practice, Volume 8, Number 2. Cui W.; Wu, Y.; Liu, S.; Wei, F.; Zhou, M.X. and Qu, H., 2010. Context preserving dynamic word cloud visualization. IEEE Pacific Visualisation Symposium 2010, 2 - 5 March, Taipei, Taiwan. Gargus, J., 1994. Ideas of order: a formal approach to architecture. Iowa: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company. Marzano, R.J; Pickering, D.J and Pollock, J.E., 2001. Classroom instruction that works: research-based strategies for increasing student achievement. Alexandria: ASCD. McNaught, C. and Lam, P.,2010. Using wordle as a supplementary research tool. The Qualitative Report, Volume 15, Number 3, pp.630-643. Miley, F. and Read, A., 2011. Using word clouds to develop proactive learners. Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, Vol. 11, No. 2, April 2011, pp. 91 - 110. Novak J.D.and Canas, A.J., 2008. The theory underlying concept maps and how to construct and use them. Technical Report IHMC CmapTools, Florida: Florida Institute for Human and Machine Cognition. Novak, J.D. and Gowin, D.B., 1984. Learning how to learn. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Paivio, A., 1990. Mental representations: a dual coding approach. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Paulovich, FV.; Toledo, F.M.B.; Telles, G.P.; Minghim, R. and Nonato, L.G.; 2012. Semantic wordification of document collections. Computer Graphics Forum, Volume 31, Issue 3, pp.1145–1153. Shevniuk, O., 2015. Specific methods of teaching fine arts in higher educational institutions. Pedagogika Przedszkolna i Wczesnoszkolna, Vol. 3 1 (5)/2015, pp. 7–14. Villalon, J. and Calvo, R.A., 2011. Concept maps as cognitive visualizations of writing assignments. Educational Technology, & Society, 14 (3), pp.16–27.

Online References (1) http://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/dual-coding.html (2) http://web.stanford.edu/dept/SUSE/SEAL/Reports_Papers/Vanides_CM.pdf (3) http://web.stanford.edu/dept/SUSE/SEAL/Reports_Papers/Vanides_CM.pdf (4) http://arch100and110.blogspot.com.tr/2012/11/parti.html (5) http://fluxwurx.com/jstudio/?p=189 (6) http://arch100and110.blogspot.com.tr/2012/11/parti.html (7) http://www.slideshare.net/MayQ/diagramming

TEACHING DESIGNING: FROM CONCEPT TO SPACE GOKCE KETİZMEN ONAL GOKCE KETİZMEN ONAL, PhD., ESKISEHIR OSMANGAZI UNIVERSITY, DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE ESKİSEHIR/TURKİYE

ABSTRACT There are many factors influence how students learn to design. These comprise specialized set of skills, teaching approaches, the structure and the ability of design tutors and the quality of design curriculum and learning environment: studio itself. Design process in a design studio is a cognitive process and learning in design is able to be developed by cognitive strategies of design thinking. The most important step of this cognitive process remains as the concept generation process which must be admitted as the most important issue of a design studio. Conceptualization in a studio becomes so essential and needed to be developed based on each studio level. Most studies in literature underscore the importance of conceptualization and most of them investigate the effects of this idea generation methods on designers. But it is detected that none of these research's make a clear recognition about the proper approaches for each year's studios. it should not be forgotten that in design education there are four (five at most of colleges) level of undergraduate levels and the goal of a first-year design studio is totally different from the fourthyear. The aim of this study is to provide a theoretical basis to encourage the strategic use of conceptualization as teaching strategies in the design studio which developed based on the student’s knowledge level. It is believed that design education can be greatly enhanced by the introduction of developmentally appropriate design process as a teaching strategy. The conceptualization methods in literature that can be utilized in a design studio are investigated and each methods are associated to the students knowledge levels, and design studio contents. Keywords: design teaching, design thinking, conceptualization, students knowledge level 1. INTRODUCTION Many studies have examined the typical design-studio teaching method in relation to diverse aspects: learning experiences, efficiency, quality of designs, etc. (Carsalade 1997; Oxman 1999a, b; Gouveia et al. 2001; Rufinoni 2002;; Kowaltowski et al. 2006b). (Kowaltowski et al., 2010). Although there are various studies identified problems in architectural education related to the factors influence how students learn to design. These comprise specialized set of skills, teaching approaches, the structure and the ability of design tutors and the quality of design curriculum and learning environment: studio itself. (Curry, 2014). Based on Wkas (1999) research, Schön (1983) describes design as `to discover a framework of meaning in an indeterminate situation through practical operations in the situation`. Also he asserts that Design is learnable but not didactically or discursively teachable: it can be learned only in and through the practical operations of frame experimentation. Design is holistic: its parts cannot be learned in isolation. Design teaching approach in a studio must be structured on introducing students to design principles, problem solving, planning, form-making, tectonics, buildings types and for developing esthetic judgment as well as analytical and representational skills. The medium for design education is discussed here as design studio setting that helps to exchange of ideas for both the students and instructor. In this setting design serves as a mediator between mental activity (invention) and social activity (realisation) (Ruedi, 1996) . Additionally, the aim of design education is to provide different design experiences; to guide in the taking of an active role and / or the taking of risks in different fields of design; to facilitate knowledge acquisition, exchange and processes; to provide a powerful communication and motivation medium and to direct it for student-designers that have different cognitive styles and intellectual superiorities (Kahvecioglu, 2007). In order to discuss about teaching approach in design studio we need to define what design process is? Design process in a design studio is a cognitive process and learning in design is to be able to develop various cognitive strategies of design thinking. According to Lawson and Dorst a general description of the phase model approach to design process as one in which ‘you first define the problem, analyze it to formulate requirements and then generate solutions.’ (2009; cited in Curry, 2014). The American Institute of Architects (AIA) follows a similar model in their contracts when describing phases for professional services: Pre-Design (research/analysis), Preliminary Design (conceptualization), Design Development (testing/developing the design concept), Construction Documents (finalizing the design solution), Contract Negotiation, Administration of the Contract, Post Occupancy Evaluation (implementation), etc (Curry, 2014). These defined and direct proposals for design process is rejected by so many researchers. They believe that these kind of scientific approaches devalued the designer. Schon (1984) defines design process as an iterative, cumulative process that builds on the presupposition that design problems are by nature wicked problems. He describes design as a process of

framing a problem, performing moves toward a solution, and the evaluation of these moves, that leads to a deeper understanding or new ways of seeing of the problem, leading to new frames and new moves. (Schön, 1984) Design studio is a cognitive thinking process and is structured by generating new ideas, discussion about them, transforming, analyses, synthesis and so many mental actions. Thinking in a studio is about its occupants; students and instructors and it is about concepts, processes and the development of dispositions that guide thought and actions in innovative problem solving. Exploration of a problem and solution, generation of creative options, development and evaluation of pathways are the core of this design thinking process. These thinking process comprise diverse design moves; idea development, narrowing, and generation to eventually determine a final design. (Yilmaz, 2016). Ek & Ipek (2010) assert that design thinking – which is progressed by reflective moves, such as abstraction, implication, causality and generalization – is based on the methods of conceptualization and reflection by utilizing concepts. This conceptualization phase constitutes the most important part of design thinking. Because concept is the essence of design. There are so many research about the idea development approach and conceptualization in literature. (Casakin, 2011) (Chiu & Shu, 2007) (Cross, 2006) (Cross, 2011) (Dogan, 2013) (Ek & Ipek, 2010) (Gonc et al., 2014) (Yilmaz, 2016) (Tovey & Porter, 2003) (Taura & Nagai, 2013) (Nagai et al., 2009) (Lai & Chang, 2006) (Nagai & Taura, 2006) (Lee & Jirousek, 2015). Most of these studies underscore the importance of teaching concept generation and most of them investigate the effects of the idea generation methods on designers. But it is detected that none of these research's make a clear recognition about the proper approach for each year's studios. It should not be forgotten that in design education there are four (five at most of colleges) level of undergraduate levels. There is no doubt that the education of a first year student is totally different from the fourth-year student. The aim of a first year studio is to explore the fundamental design elements and principles and their application in the design projects. But the fourth year studio deepens the understanding of the profession, and its relationship to different cultures and environmental context. As Oxman (2001) indicates that design education is a medium which enables the transition from the complete novice status of the beginner to the well-initiated status of the graduate designer. The aim of this paper is to provide a theoretical basis to encourage the strategic use of conceptualization as teaching strategies in the design studio which developed based on the student’s knowledge level in each year's studios. It is believed that design education can be greatly enhanced by the introduction of developmentally appropriate conceptualization process as a teaching strategy. the conceptualization methods in literature that can be utilized in a design studio are investigated and each method are associated to the student’s knowledge levels. this study presents a comparative analysis of the conceptualization methods in relation to student’s knowledge levels. Study starts to investigate conceptualization (concept development) and its relation to studio. Then, related approaches/ methods and techniques are discussed and four proper methods; Think-Maps (Oxman,2004), Concept-synthesizing process (Nagai et al., 2009) , Design-by-Analogy ( Casakin & Goldschmidt (1999), Goldschmidt, 2001). Metaphorical Reasoning (Casakin, 2011) (Casakin, 2007) (Gulari, 2015) are presented. Then a comparative analysis is generated in order to identify these methods purposes and assessment tools that an instructor may exploit in studio. Also this analysis is developed for to find out which one of these methods can be utilized on which level of studio. 2. CONCEPTUALIZATION IN DESIGN THINKING According to the process of architectural design is largely a thinking activity, and is composed of consecutive series of phases. Conceptualization, considered as concept generation process, is the first step of design thinking, covers mental moves like analysis/synthesis, transformations and exemplar retrievals like; abstraction, implication, causality and generalization. These structures might consist of imagined three-dimensional forms, mental models and designs and exemplars for novel or hypothetical categories. A number of design studies have addressed the roles of generation in the formation of ideas (namely, concept generation) related to the original design ( (Nagai et al., 2009); Liu et al., 2003; Chiu and Shu, 2007). Conceptual knowledge, the ideational basis of design, constitutes one of the most significant forms of knowledge in design. Concepts are fundamental to design thinking, since they operate on an ideational level. They are the fundamental material of design thinking. Various researchers have explored the conceptual nature of knowledge and the different ways designers explain conceptual knowledge. (Oxman, 2004) According to Taura & Nagai (2013) there are two types of methodological support techniques have been developed for concept generation, the visual method and linguistic method. The visual method type is usually based on visual and spatial cognition using imagery resources or graphical media (Nakakoji & Yamamoto, (2001), including 3-dimensional design and virtual information (Parka et al., 2008). The visual method is thought to be effective in assisting a designer’s image aspect of concept (Taura & Nagai, 2013) The linguistic method is based on language and uses lexicon technology (Chiu & Shu, 2007); it is supposed to contribute more towards activating concept generation at the abstract level, such as the meanings or social values of a product. Both types are considered useful for accelerating or efficiently driving concept generation. To specify what concept generation is, Taura & Nagai (2013) classify the process into two phases—the problem–driven phase and inner sense–driven phase—according to the following two factors: the basis of the concept generation and

ability which enables the concept generation to proceed. (see Fig.1) They define the problem–driven phase as the process of generating a new concept (solution) on the basis of the problem, the new concept (solution) can usually be obtained by analyzing the problem . The inner sense–driven phase is defined as the process of generating a new concept on the basis of the inner sense for pursuing an ideal. When an ideal is explicitly expressed, the ideal may become a ‘goal’ in the problem–driven phase. In the actual design process, these two phases do not work independently; instead, they realize the design process complementarily.

Figure 1. The two phases in concept generation. (Taura & Nagai, 2013, p.15) As depicted before, design process is a thinking process and concept generation happens throughout this mental process. The meanings of design thinking involve the mental plan for something followed by the creation of forms. This conceptualization process is about an activity that has visual and verbal dimensions, the coordinated use of drawing and language as the representation systems also refers to the main character of the design process (Taura & Nagai, 2013) . And also it is among the subjects requiring special emphasis in respect of design and learning processes. So this process is so important to be developed in a design studio. In order to make a comprehensible definition for conceptualization four most referred methods in literature are analyzed. As one of the most cited and reliable method Think-Maps; emphasizes the pedagogical role of knowing how to analyze and structure new information in order to be able to build a relational structure of relevant knowledge and to use the knowledge in other contexts (Oxman (2004). Also it is introduced as a cognitive-based pedagogical framework in which the construction of conceptual structures is exploited through computational modeling. (Oxman, 2004) . Oxman (2004) submit two testing techniques; web-pad and ICF (Issue–Concept–Form) in order to identify and represent individual components of design knowledge in a design in order that larger bodies of knowledge can be created from individual cases through a process of network construction. She proposes web pad computational program in order to evaluate the findings of ICF (Issue–Concept–Form) schemata. ICF schemata focus on the conceptual knowledge embedded within prior design cases. The knowledge entities are the issue, the design concept and the form of solution as described below:  Issue: The design issues are related to the design tasks that are deliberated by the designer. It offers a convenient term to identify particular points in design problems.  Concept: The design concept is the formulation of an opinion in relation to a design issue or a design sub-issue. It is an abstract form of ideation related to the design task.  Form: The form is the specific design artifact that materializes the solution principle. It is important to note that this is one element of the total building design that directly relates to the design issue or sub-issue. By linking the three knowledge entities (issue, concept and form), different idea entities are connected to each other. Cross-contextual linking permits an idea entity in one design case to be cross-linked with another idea entity in other design cases. (Oxman, 1994). in order to make it clear Oxman give an example for utilization of this technique. She declared that; `students were instructed to analyze significant written references related to precedents. They were required to draw a set of inferences and organize them in such a way that the resulting knowledge base might be structured to represent a significant relationship of ideas in museum design. They illustrate the analysis task employing the ICF methodology. they encode the conceptual design knowledge presented in original textual descriptions and critical interpretations of the Mediatheque in Nimes, France designed by Sir Norman Foster. ` (2004, p.81) After making an analyze of the written text about the design approaches of Norman Foster `s Mediatheque in Nimes, France, they developed a conceptual map from the knowledge that was extracted from the texts. (see Figure 2). . This is accomplished through content analysis of design issues, concepts, forms, and cognitive abstractions such as metaphors and analogies.

Figure 2. Example of and ICF structure (An ICF structure of the Mediatheque designed by Norman Foster. (Oxman, 2004, p.76) On the other hand, Nagai, Taura, & Mukai (2009) propose the concept-synthesizing process method that involves typical important concept generation processes: property mapping, concept blending, and concept integrating. They define the process considered to be a concept creation method involving the transfer of some features from an existing concept to another concept. The advantage of this process is that it is the simplest and most essential process for generating a new concept from existing ones. Nagai, Taura, & Mukai (2009) gives an example of the invention of the art knifed the first snap-off blade cutterd an appropriate one. ( Figure 3) The inspiration for this original idea stemmed from the synthesis of two concepts, namely, chocolate segments that can be broken off and the sharp edges of broken glass . Researhers divide this evaluation process into three phases. they define 1st primitive of the concept-synthesizing process is ‘concept abstraction,’ and its principle is ‘similarity’ in ‘taxonomical relations.’ 2nd primitive being ‘concept blending,’ in which the principle is ‘similarity’ and ‘dissimilarity’ in ‘taxonomical relations’, and the 3rd primitive being ‘concept integration’ and with the principle of ‘thematic relations’. They define these concepts and thinking process for blended at least two basic concepts at an abstract level and a new concept that inherits some abstract features of the two base concepts but concrete features of neither are generated. For example, ‘design something by combining the concepts of a musical instrument and a dress,’ where the design result could be a guitar, the outside and sound of which can be changed to suit the surroundings like changing a dress, or a melody costume, that is, a wearable musical instrument. (Nagai et al., 2009).

Figure 3. Design idea for an art knife by combining two conceptsdbroken glass and chocolate segments (Nagai et al., 2009, p.651) Analogy is a mapping made between the features of these concepts, principles and formulas. Analogies are useful and effective tools that are used for primary education students to keep information in their minds as meaningful wholes . Analogies are descriptions used for comprehension of new information. In other words, analogies are used for creating new information that takes place in long term memory (Lawson, 1993; cited in Morenoet.al.,2014). Design-by-Analogy is an area that seeks to assist designers in identifying and developing examples, related cases and scenarios, and connected experiences (i.e., analogies) to solve design problems ( Moreno, et al., (2014), Goldschmidt (2001), Casakin & Goldschmidt (1999), Linsey et al., (2007). Design-by-Analogy is a potentially powerful tool in idea generation (ideation), in a number of knowledge domains .The use of analogy entails the transfer of relational information from a known situation (usually referred to as source or base), to a situation that needs explanation (referred to as target), where at least one of the related elements is not known (Casakin & Goldschmidt, 1999). Analogical reasoning can occur with picture, word, or sentence clues. As designers deal with visual features more than others (Bilda & Gero, 2004;), analyzing

the impact of picture clues, rather than word and sentence clues, on design students’ creative thinking ability emerges as a more important question (Cubukcu & Cetintahra, 2010) . Cubukcu and Dundar (2010) tested whether novice students developed more creative solutions for design problems in a basic design studio by using analogical reasoning. First-year design students were asked to design compositions using three basic geometric forms; square, triangle, and circle, to convey the expression of eight design concepts; such as harmony, contrast, unity, and asymmetrical balance. For half of the design concepts, visual clues were given, for the other half visual clues were not given. The results showed affirmative effects of analogical reasoning for novice students. Contemporary theories define “metaphors” as devices that aid in structuring our thoughts. Metaphors influence how we perceive the world, classify experiences, and guide our reasoning. These tools can help reflect, understand, and solve a problem from new and unconventional perspectives. For these reasons, metaphors play a critical role in the “design” domain, where they not only contribute to organize design thinking, but also have the potential to enhance “creativity.” Another characteristic is that they allow designers to think unconventionally and encourage the application of original ideas to design problems. (Casakin, 2011) Metaphors used in the design field typically serve to generate new ideas, solve problems, and stimulate creativity (Casakin, 2007). The relevance of metaphors to problem-solving is relevant to three fundamental steps (Gentner et al., 2001)). The first step consists of extracting a variety of unfamiliar concepts from remote domains, where possible relationships with the problem at hand are not always evident. The second step involves establishing a mapping of deep or high-level relationships between the metaphorical concept and the problem. Correspondences are identified by means of abstractions and generalizations. Relationships of secondary importance are discarded, and only structural correspondences between the metaphorical source and the problem are set up. The last step deals with transferring and applying structural correspondences associated with the metaphorical source to the problem at hand, which at the end generally leads to a novel solution. Metaphors are strong thinking devices that architects in professional realm, utilizing this device in design process. For example, the architects Leon and Rob Krier - who proposed a rational design approach based on the use of immutable principles derived from the concept of typology and urban experience. (Casakin, 2011) Another celebrated architect that uses metaphors is Mies van der Rohe. His memorable metaphor 'less is more' makes reference to the engineering idea of reducing architectural design to its minimal and basic nature. The application of metaphor in his work was achieved by means of reducing spatial dimensions to the minimum habitable, eliminating unnecessary materials and decoration, as well as designing simple but not simplistic details. In design education, metaphors are seen pedagogical tool that can help students overcame problem solving difficulties. This approach helped to expose previously unseen relationships between the design problem and other remote domains and allowed students to learn more about their own design thinking capabilities. The use of metaphors in these earlier phases of the design process, also known as conceptual design, showed to be so effective that the development of expertise did not add any further significant improvement to design performance. Casakin (2011) suggested that novices, who are not always able to make abstractions to identify relevant information to the design problem, whose design knowledge structures are not well formed, and who have no design principles available can particularly profit from metaphorical reasoning in this stage of the process. In the experienced group of students, metaphors were found to be more helpful and less difficult to use in the later stages concerned with mapping, transfer, and application of structural relationships to the design problem. All these approaches cover cognitive strategies that assist in the organization of design thinking. They frame designers in defining the design problem. They all are cognitive tools help students to overcome problem solving difficulties and also help to stimulate creativity in design activities. But as mentioned before every level of students have different knowledge skill. Therefore, in order to develop a teaching strategy student knowledge acquisition level must be considered. 3. DEVELOPING KNOWLEDGE SKILLS IN DESIGN EDUCATION As depicted earlier teaching strategies in design studios needed to be developed based on the student’s knowledge level. In these kind of studies Dreyfus and Dreyfus (1980) five-stage developmental model of skills acquisition model is one of the most frequently referred one. Their method consists in analyzing and systematizing descriptions of changes in the perception of the task environment reported by performers in the course of acquiring complex skills. (Dreyfus & Dreyfus, 1980). They declared that the account of skill acquisition which follows, concrete experience plays a paramount role. They define five stages of level of skills: novice, competence, proficiency, expertise and mastery. Their model of skill acquisition, based on cognitive psychology, ‘consists in analyzing and systematizing descriptions of changes in the perception of the task environment in the course of acquiring complex skills. (Curry, 2014). Based on Hubert and Stewart Dreyfus (1980) ` developmental model of skills acquisition` Curry (2014) established a model indicates that education of a novice student is different from the expert one. The main idea of Hubert and Stewart Dreyfus (1986) `s developmental model of skills acquisition is about the nature of the problem being considered (how it is framed) is dependent on the level of expertise of the problem solver. (Curry, 2014, p.641). Furthermore he propose a version of this model and adapted for learning to design, based on and in consideration of the principles and insights: novice as

preferring to emphasize domain/ conceptual knowledge when approaching design problems, , advanced beginner as having acquired a functional level of conceptual/declarative knowledge begin to be able to see the problem and discover research based, competence as able to see the problem and engage in the see, frame, move, reframe process, proficiency as acquires the skills, domain/conceptual knowledge and procedures and lastly expertise as dependency on tacit knowledge (declarative/conceptual/procedural) and an embodied sense of ‘knowing what to do’. (Curry, 2014). On the other hand, Wrigley & Straker (2015) suggest `The Educational Design Ladder` model that illustrate the pedagogical stages in the development of Design Thinking. They define the aim of the ladder is to stage the delivery of Design Thinking content and to progressively guide students to the final step, where professional and personal development and design leadership are the focus. By working through this five-step model, students gain the knowledge and skills to apply design thinking to a range of different contexts and projects. Based on Curry (2014) and (Wrigley & Straker, 2015) researches table 1 is developed which can be considered as very important determination tool for developing a teaching strategy in a design studio. This table is structured by outlining – for each of the five steps – the type of knowledge acquired (that is, factual, conceptual, procedural or metacognitive); the theme or topic that is the focus of the teaching/learning, the topic, theme/topic being taught/learned; teaching/learning modes and processes; and assessment examples. this determination chart would help to purpose a conceptual teaching strategy and assessment tool utilized in a design studio in the later chapter of this study. 4. SYNTHESIS This section covers a comparative analysis of conceptualization approaches with content of design studio and student’s knowledge skill levels. In this section assessment tools related to concept development that can be utilized in a design studio are determined (see Table 2). It is believed that design education can be greatly enhanced by the introduction of developmentally appropriate conceptualization tool as a teaching strategy. In table2, four conceptualization approaches, which are the proper tools that can be utilized for a concept generation method in design teaching, are described with their purpose. Also the assessment tools are illustrated for each one with the proper level of expertise. Think-Map method that can be applied with ICF schemata in a studio is approved as the proper method for the novice and advanced beginner designers. Because novice (first year design student) have learning skills who starts to explore fundamental design elements and principles. in this stage concept generation is so important and verbal stimuli is the most powerful tool for novices, where ICF schemata mainly focuses on the verbal analysis of a design. (see (Oxman, 2004). Also this method could be useful for advanced beginner design students (second year design students) who are capable of visualization and evolve design theoretical and practical aspects of design. they can develop the ability to analyze textual material and to extract from it significant inferences that can be useful. they have to choose associated issues, concepts and forms that are relevant and should be stored for exploitation in a future design. Concept development in is also important part of advanced beginner levels education. This method is practical because it fosters the ability to develop conceptual content in designs Idea generation. As the second method concept-synthesizing process approved as concept creation method involving the transfer of some features from an existing concept to another concept. (Nagai et al., 2009) describe this process in three steps which starts with ‘concept abstraction,’ than it continues with ‘concept blending, and last with ‘concept integration’. these steps are the description of the idea development which could be performed with mind-mapping techniques which is a visual diagram used to record and organize information in a way which the brain finds captivating and easy to process. (ThinkBuzan , 2010). Unlike linear methods for recording information, a Mind Map doesn’t rely on large amounts of written text but instead uses lines, symbols, key words, colour and images all according to simple, brain-friendly concepts. The technique was invented and popularized by author and ‘brain expert’ Tony Buzan in the 1970s and is now used by millions of people worldwide – in business, at school or at home (ThinkBuzan , 2010) Table 1. Steps and content of Design Studio (adapted from (Wrigley & Straker, 2015) and (Curry, 2014)

Step

1 (first-year design student) (Novices)

2 (second-year design student) (advanced beginner

3 (third-year design student) competence

4 (fourth-year design student) (proficiency)

5 (fifth-year design student)- (master level

Knowledge Learning skills

Factual abstract, disembodied form and space exercises: emphasis on plan for m and functional considerations.

Conceptual emphasis on plan, section, elevation, form and site: minimal concern for technical issues such as structure, materials and systems: relatively

Conceptual complex program requirements and use types, consideration of structure, systems and materials: producing a whole idea for a building.

Learning modes

Lectures, tutorials, design charrette, group work, lectures, tutorials, online modules, discussions, panel discussion, case studies

Short collaborative design projects, workshops, lectures, tutorials, field study, individual and group challenges

Workshops, partner with industry sponsors, lectures, tutorials, course readings

Design teaching strategy

Reflection, ideation, design process, design history, defining design, creative thinking (idea generation), group dynamics, wicker problems, design contexts, visualization, experimentation, prototyping Analysis of design process, designing research journal reflective essay active participation

Idea generation, user focus, concepts, aesthetics, communicating visually, iterate and evolve design theoretical and practical aspects of design, sketching, form and function

New product design and development, project management, marketing research, market identification and requirements, opportunity mapping, scenario planning, capital and variable costs, environmental requirements Oral Exam, project plan, research journal, intensive experimentation and project work, reflective essay

Assessment

Design projects. Written and oral, individual and group design activities

Procedural highly complex building types/program requirements, integrating structure, systems, materials, environmental, and other issues Workshops, industry projects, tutorials, study visits, online class discussions, group activities, individual research, selfdirected learning Strategic design, business frameworks, service design, comparative analyses of business opportunities, branding strategies, brand management, business plans, budgets and financial management Business plans, pitches, business strategy simulation, exams, discussion online, blogs, workbooks, reflective essay

in fourth year design education) (Expertise ) Metacognitive self-directed learning: exploring architectural ideas

Work integrated learning, digital lectures, online discussion, independent research, Skype, blog posts, wikis, peer coaching

Integrate principles of client service provision, advertising, marketing, leadership, competitive threats, innovative concepts, change management, innovation, entrepreneurship, reflective practice, and professional development Reports, group work, presentations, critiques, solve industry-based problems, business reports, class participation

Mento et al (1999) affirm that Mind Mapping is a powerful cognitive tool which can be used in a variety of ways because of its ability to evoke associative and non-linear thinking. (Mento et al., 1999) . Based on a scientific report about Mind mapping techniques evidence shows that Mind Mapping offers a powerful system for learning. It harnesses visual appeal through color, symbols and images, and encourages students to make sense out of ideas by constructing them in meaningful ways. This makes it ideal for promoting active learning, fostering motivation, improving confidence, and for supporting a diverse range of learning styles and levels of ability. hence, this method utilized in most design thinking research in educational setting. (Kokotovich, 2008) (Austin et al., 2001). and this method is convenient to novice students that comprise and focused on only concept generation by using abstraction, blending and integration.

Concept Generation Approaches Think-Maps (oxman,2004)

conceptual mapping of design ideas can be constructed into larger structures.

conceptsynthesizing process (Nagai et al., 2009)

transfer of some features from an existing concept to another concept.

‘Design-by-Analogy visual analogy’ (Analogical reasoning Casakin & Goldschmidt (1999) Goldschmidt, 2001).

the transfer of relational information from a known situation (usually referred to as source or base), to a situation that needs explanation (referred to as target), where at least one of the related elements is not known. cognitive strategy that strongly encourages the formation of new knowledge based on acts of personal interpretation

Metaphor (Casakin, 2011) (Casakin, 2007) (Gulari, 2015)

Purpose of the approach Utilize for to analyze and structure new information in order to be able to build a relational structure of relevant knowledge concept creation method involving the transfer of some features from an existing concept to another concept. creating new information that takes place in long term memory

Assessment tools

Level of Expertise

ICF Schemata ( Issue, concept and form schemata (Oxman, 2004)

Novice, Advanced Beginners ( first and second year design students)

Mind-mapping( Tony Buzan,1970,Kokotovich, (2008) , Austin et al., (2001)

Novice Students (first-year design students

Biomimicry Design (Macnab,2012) (Bakirlioglu, 2012)

All levels of students

enable the structuring of a problem situation from a novel perspective that is particularly important for creative activities like design

Metaphorical Reasoning (Casakin, 2011)

Novice, Advanced Beginners ( first and second year design students)

Table 2. Comparison of conceptualization approaches and Level of Expertise As the third method analogy is one the most referenced method in design education. (see (Casakin & Goldschmidt, 1999) (Cubukcu & Cetintahra, 2010) (Gero & Kazakov, 1998) (Linsey et al., 2007) (Moreno et al., 2014) (Ozkan & Dogan, 2013). it is useful and effective tool that is used for primary education students to keep information in their minds as meaningful wholes. In their studies Casakin & Goldschmidt (1999) conducted an experiment on novice students and experts, in order to find out whether, and how, the use of visual analogy can improve design problem-solving by both novice and expert designers. Their results indicate that the use of visual analogy improves the quality of design across the board, but is particularly significant in the case of novice designers. They declared that novices are usually not aware of their utility in the process of solving problems. Instructions to use a fruitful strategy like visual analogy allows even novices to significantly improve their performance. Novice designers do not need to be taught how to use analogy: they already have this cognitive capacity. They do need, however, to be shown how and why it can be helpful to harness this ability for successful design problem-solving. (Casakin & Goldschmidt, 1999). so we can conclude that analogy is a thinking style which can be comprehended by anyone in an appropriate knowledge level and cannot be teachable only shown how it can be useful for a design problem solving. In literature it is detected that `Biomimicry Design` is commonly referred and relevant assessment tool for visual analogy. Biomimicry, which can be translated as ‘learning the best opinions of nature by imitating them’, started to be considered as a new science by materializing the ‘possible solutions and solution potential in nature’, and in fact materializing disciplines with an interaction that gathers them together. (Tavsan et al., 2015) The integration of biomimicry into the design process assumes two main approaches. (Bakirlioglu, 2012). It is a way to defining a behavior or function in nature and transform it into a design. Macnab (2012) has influential studies about this method and explains the thinking skills in a sequence. (see Figure 4). As it is clear in figure 4. the design process starts with discovering which includes looking at natural processes and organisms. The second step abstracting is finding the repeating patterns and processes within nature that achieves success. Then the third step brainstorming is the analysis of the inspiration sources. Then emulating is a developing ideas and solutions step which is based on natural models. Evaluating as the last move is the comparison of the ideas developed to life's principles. (Bakirlioglu, 2012). Utilization of this method in design studios are based on biological analogues that are matched with human identified design problems are that the fundamental approach to solving a given problem (see (Bakirlioglu, 2012) (Tavsan et al., 2015) (Cheong & Shu, 2013). (Wan Omar et al., 2015).

This method is chosen as one of the most effective analogy method that could be used in design studios. By the help of the definitions above this method can be used in all levels of design studios, on every knowledge level of students even on expert architects. Because analogy is a central concept in human cognition and have a power to trigger creative thoughts based on form, process and environment. based on goal of analogy, also the research results of Casakin & Goldschmidt (1999), this method is proper to first-year (novice) design students. they affirmed that novices are usually not aware of their utility in the process of solving problems. this kind of method allows novices to significantly improve their performance.

Figure 4. Biomimicry Design Spiral -Biology to Design ( reproduced from Macnab,2012; cited in (Bakirlioglu, 2012, p.24) As the last method , metaphor is the other most referred concept development method in design thinking .( see (Casakin, 2011) (Casakin, 2007) (Gentner et al., 2001) (Gulari, 2015) (Hey et al., 2008) According to (Casakin, 2007) the use of metaphors in design can help students reflect over a problem situation under an innovative point of view. From a cognitive point of view, metaphors are considered as a valuable problem solving strategy. Casakin (2007) also found that the use of metaphors has important implications for design practice. The use of metaphors can help to stimulate creativity in design activities and also can help students reflect over a problem situation under an innovative point of view. (Casakin, 2011) Instead of re-using known design schemas and familiar solutions, the implementation of metaphors in practice can contribute to unconventional thinking and thereby generate more innovative design products. The empirical studies about metaphoric reasoning in design studio generally focused on utilizing opposing concepts like, open vs. closed, or public vs. private. This kind of approach helped students revealing the relationships between the design problem and other remote domains and restructure design problems anew. (Hey et al., (2008) investigated metaphorical thinking in engineering design, also found metaphors to be more efficient in the earlier stages of the process than in the later ones. based on these definitions, this method could be utilized in all levels of design studio. Casakin (2001) asserted in his study that metaphorical reasoning in novices who cannot be able to make abstractions, who have no design principles can profit from `metaphorical reasoning in conceptualization process. He also pointed out that in the experienced group of students, metaphors were found to be more helpful and less difficult to use in the later stages concerned with mapping, transfer, and application of structural relationships to the design problem`. Utilization of all these methods may contribute to gaining autonomy in design intentions, bridging the critical gap between the conceptual/abstract design phase as well as helping students to gain a better understanding of the design process. 5. CONCLUSION Design studio is a cognitive thinking process and is structured by generating new ideas, discussion about them, transforming, analyses, synthesis and so many mental actions. Design process is not a linear path, it is an intuitional cyclical process that comprise complex mental moves. Within this complex structure, it is easy to claim that design education is also not a single structure that is focused on a single dimension and uniform teaching/learning process. Design thinking in design studio is a cognitive process can be described by two main stages: conceptualization (idea development) and concretion ( representations: mass/ form/, utilizing concept) . These stages comprise mental synthesis, transformations and exemplar retrievals like; abstraction, implication. in order to develop design knowledge these mental moves and concept generation process must be the focus of a design studio. The role of studio instructor in creating an organizational style in studio education is the subject of investigation in order to develop creative thinking strategies. A studio approach should cover a curriculum that provides medium for teach how to think and create new ideas depending on different cognitive styles and also accurate to knowledge level of the students instead of using clichés and existing templates. There is a need for the development of accurate teaching approaches that could better lead students through the process. In order to develop new and creative approaches in teaching, design concept generation

must be the main subject to focus on. This study presents a theoretical basis to encourage the strategic use of conceptualization as teaching strategies in the design studio which developed based on the student knowledge level. The conceptualization methods in literature that can be utilized in a design studio are investigated and each method are associated to the student knowledge levels, and design studio contents. Studies about design teaching in literature frequently mention about the appropriate approach for each of studio levels and there is no study directly covers the conceptualization methods related to student knowledge level. For this reason, this study presents a comparative analysis of teaching methods described with assessment tools and relation to student knowledge levels. This kind of study is supposed to be a guide for an experimental study focused on new teaching approach in design education. REFERENCES Austin, S. et al., 2001. Mapping the conceptual design activity of interdisciplinary teams. Design Studies, pp.211–32. Bakirlioglu, Y., 2012. Biomimicry For Sustainability :An Educational Project in Sustainable Product Design. [Online] Ankara, Turkiye: Middle East Technical University Available at: https://etd.lib.metu.edu.tr/upload/12614721/index.pdf [Accessed 2 May 2016]. Casakin, H.P., 2007. Metaphors in Design Problem Solving: Implications for Creativity. International Journal of Design, pp.21-33. Casakin, H., 2011. Metaphorical Reasoning And Design Expertise: A Perspective For Design Education. Journal of Learning Design, pp.29-38. Casakin, H. & Goldschmidt, G., 1999. Expertise and the use of visual analogy: Implications for design education. Design Studies, pp.153–75. Cheong, H. & Shu, L.H., 2013. Using templates and mapping strategies to support analogical transfer in biomimetic design. Design Studies, pp.706-28. Chiu, I. & Shu, L., 2007. Using language as related stimuli for concept generation. AI EDAM, pp.103–21. doi:10.1017/S0890060407070175. Cross, N., 2006. Designerly Ways of Knowing. London: Springer-Verlag. Cross, N., 2011. Design Thinking. Great Britain: Bloomsbury Academic. Cubukcu, E. & Cetintahra, G.E., 2010. Does Analogical Reasoning With Visual Clues Affect Novice and Experienced Design Students' Creativity? Creativity Research Journal, pp.337-44. Curry, T., 2014. A theoretical basis for recommending the use of design methodologies as teaching strategies in the design studio. Design Studies, pp.632-46. Dogan, F., 2013. Architectural Design Students' Explorations through Conceptual Diagrams. The Design Journal, pp.10324. Dreyfus, S.E. & Dreyfus, H.L., 1980. A Five-Stage Model Of The Mental Activities. [Online] University of California , Berkeley Available at: http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA084551 [Accessed 10 May 2016]. Eastman, C.M., 1999. Special issue on Desofn Education. Design Studies, pp.99-103. Ek, S.C. & Ipek, F., 2010. Conceptualization by Visual and Verbal Representations: An Experience in an Architectural Design Studio. The Design Journal, pp.329-54. Ferreira, J., Christiaans, H. & Almendra, R., 2016. A visual tool for analysing teacher and student interactions in a design studio setting. CoDesign. Gentner, D., Bowdle, B., Wolff, P. & Boronat, C., 2001. Metaphor is like analogy. In The analogical mind: Perspectives from cognitive science. 201st ed. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press: D. Gentner, K. J. Holyoak, & B. N. Kokinov. pp.199- 253. Gero, J. & Kannengiesser, U., 2008. An ontological account of Donald Schon's reflection in designing. International Journal of Design Sciences and Technology, pp.77-90. Gero, J.S. & Kazakov, V., 1998. Using analogy to extend the behaviour state space in Design. In Gero, J.S. & Maher, M. Computational models of creative Design IV. Sydney, Australia: University of Sydney. pp.113-43. Goldschmidt, G., 2001. Visual analogy—A strategy for design reasoning and learning. In C. Eastman, W.N.&.M.M. Design knowing and learning: Cognition in design education. New York: Elsevier. pp.199–219. Gonc, M., Cardoso, C. & Badke-Schaub, P., 2014. What inspires designers?Preferences on inspirational approaches during idea generation. Design Studies, pp.29-53. Gulari, M.N., 2015. Metaphors in Design: How We Think of Design Expertise. Journal of Research Practice, pp.1-18. Hey, J., Linsey, J., Agogino, A.M. & Wood, K.L., 2008. Analogies and Metaphors in Creative Design. Int. J. Engng Ed., pp.283-94. Howard-Jones, D.P., 2008. Fostering creative thinking:co-constructed insights from neuroscience and education. [Online] Available at: http://www.cumbria.ac.uk/Public/Education/Documents/Research/EducatorsStorehouse/SharingIdeas/FosteringCreati veThinking.pdf [Accessed 1 May 2016]. Kahvecioglu, P.N., 2007. Architectural design studio organization and creativity. ITU A|Z, pp.6-26.

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ARCHITECTURAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL COMFORT EVALUATION IN THE PALESTINIAN SCHOOLS MUHANNAD HAJ HUSSEİN, MUTASIM BABA, ALINE BARLET, CATHERINE SEMIDOR Muhannad Haj hussein, Assistant Prof., Dept. of Building Engineering, An-Najah University, Nablus, Palestine, Mutasim Baba, Director of Construction and Transportation Research Center, An-Najah University, Nablus, Palestine. Aline Barlet, Assistant Prof., Grecau laboratory, Ensap-Bordeaux, France, Catherine Semidor, Prof., Grecau laboratory, Ensap-Bordeaux, France.

ABSTRACT School buildings differ from other types of buildings because they are the places where children are educated and have the opportunity to learn how to become environmentally-aware citizens. Furthermore, studies of school buildings have shown that environmental comfort parameters can greatly affect the learning ambience, occupants’ health and productivity. The focus of the project was centered on providing an optimized learning environment at an affordable cost while advancing sustainable design principles. However, in developing countries, many of the recent developments in ensuring high performance and quality in the school environment have not been applied to the design process of schools. The evaluation procedures are the missing link towards sustainability in school design. In most of these developing countries, the quality of school building design is performed in traditional ways, which lack important analysis phases. It depends mainly on trial and error and professional knowledge and practice. In Palestine, which suffers from a shortage of natural resources, particularly energy, the environmental comfort conditions are not considered as a starting point in the design process of these new buildings. This leads unfortunately to threat the indoor comfort level and to increase energy consumption by this building sector. In order to address these issues, an investigation for the environmental comfort parameters, based on subjective and objective approaches, of existing school buildings in two different climatic zones of Palestine: Nablus and Jericho was carried out. Four aspects of comfort were considered: thermal, visual, acoustical and functional. The comfort requierments importance is determind based on students’ point view. Moreover, students’ satisfaction about the comfort parameters in their classrooms were determined in function to the schools’ layout and their geographic location. The results show that temperature, odours and noise are perceived as the most influential parameters on the classroom comfort. Moreover, a cross correlation between subjective assessment and objective measures approaches show a consistency in the obtained results. Although maximization of various aspects of comfort simultaneously could be impossible, but compromise solutions could be found. Hence, further studies addressing sustainable techniques for each climatic zone and related to natural ventilation, thermal and acoustical comfort in classroom are indispensable. Keywords Sustainable School design, Energy saving, Climatic parameters, Solar energy, Occupants comfort. Background In the field of energy saving in buildings, the interest towards the school sector is deeply motivated: schools have standard energy requests, and high levels of environmental comforts have to be guaranteed. According to the estimations of US Department of Energy, 25% of the expenses on energy in schools could be saved through better building design and using of energy-efficient technologies combined with improvements in operations and maintenance (Us DOE, 2015). Nowadays, the Zero Energy Buildings (ZEBs) are a revolutionary concept that aims to create buildings with greatly reduced energy needs through efficiency gains such that the balance of energy needs can be supplied with renewable technologies (Torcellini, 2006). In other words, ZEB is a building that produces as much energy as they consume. In many of technologically and economically advanced countries, collaborative efforts seek to achieve, in terms of comfort and energy, high performance schools through evaluation procedures for what has been built. However, in the developing countries, these procedures are the missing link towards sustainability in school design. The quality of school building design is performed in a traditional way, which lack important analysis phases. It depends mainly on known design criteria, professional knowledge and practice. Bingler et al. (2003) request that school should be designed to make the most of existing natural resources. School performance, or achievement rates have been studies in relation to many factors including the socio-economic

background of students, school starting age, teaching methods and infrastructure. Furthermore, studies of school buildings have shown that environmental comfort parameters can greatly affect the learning ambience (Gıfford, 1997 & Moore &Warner, 1998). Many scientific studies identify a strong correlation between daylighting, acoustical and thermal comfort and performance in building. Careful management of daylighting has the potential to produce positive effects on health (Veıtch, 2005 & Boubekrı, 2008), well-being and productivity (Edwards,2002 & Loftness et al. 2006). It can also bring tangible energy savings, as long as it minimizes energy use for artificial lighting and prevents visual discomfort such as glare. The main environmental comfort parameters that determine a healthy environment and that weigh on the energy consumption are the air changes, the temperature and the humidity, the average temperature of the walls, acoustical comfort, the level of lighting and functional space relationships (Valérıa, 2007 & Umberto et al., 2002). In Palestine, recommendations may be given on how school should be built to be efficient and economical. However, there is limited of information specific design guidelines for classrooms according to its climatic zone in order to realize a comfortable classroom and beneficial studying environment by minimizing the use of energy used for ventilation, heating, cooling and lighting. Moreover, in the last years, the Palestinian government has significantly reduced the number of students per school by increasing the number of schools in major town and cities. This leads to increase energy consumption by this building sector. Accordingly, a new approach at the primary stage of the school design is indispensable for introducing environmental improvements and achieving user optimum performance in away to relate, as maximum as possible, our schools to zero energy-building concept. Energy data of school buildings in Palestine. Despite the availability of solar energy in Palestine, the integration of this energy in the building design was very limited (Abu-hafeetha, 2009). For example, the electrical energy consumption of 108 school buildings in Nablus city alone can be estimated in about 1418317KW per year corresponding to 47KW per student per year (NEDCO, 2013). This energy is mainly used for lighting spaces in schools. It is important to say that there is no single public school in the West Bank or Gaza that is equipped with heating or cooling systems (HVAC system). Administrative rooms may have an electric heater for heating in winter and a fan for cooling in summer. The ministry of education budget does not allocate any support for capital and running cost of HVAC systems in schools (Baba, 2012). The lack of heating system in classrooms has many negative impacts on students, especially those in elementary level. Classrooms main heat source is the heat generated by human bodies. This is usually achieved by closing all windows and doors of classrooms, which will prevent any efficient ventilation. Testing of air pollution of these rooms have never been done, however, we expect it to be at high levels. MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY A. Materials Both exterior and interior climatic variables have been measured. For the exterior climatic variable, a mini weather station (figure1-a) was installed on the roof of each school. The exterior targeted variables are ambient temperature, relative humidity, sky coverage and wind speed and orientation. The objective is to take the urban morphology on the surrounding of each school in consideration and investigate its effect on the local microclimate. For the interior monitoring, a HOBO data logger (figure1-b) was localized in each classroom. The measured interior physical environmental variables are air temperature, relative humidity, air velocity and illumination level.

B. Measurements Methodology To achieve the objectives of this paper, two approaches were adopted. The first one is an objective (quantitative) approach, which consists of two phases: (1) in-situ campaigns and (2) modeling & simulations. While, the second approach is a subjective (qualitative) one based on questionnaire survey. I.

Objective approach (1) In-situ campaigns protocol: The measurements were performed in May 2014 during one week for each city. The hygrothermal, luminous and acoustical comforts are the three major environmental comforts that constructing this protocol and affecting the school energy consumption. However, the acoustical comfort will not be presented in this paper. All the measurements in the two schools of the same city will be derived simultaneously. (2) Modeling & simulations: in this phase two groups of graduate students of Building Engineering Department at

An Najah National University were asked to design a school building which takes in consideration the results obtained from the field study and ensures the zero energy concept in their proposed design. Each group works on one city.

(a)

(b)

Figure 5: Material used for exterior and interior climatic variables monitoring. II.

Subjective approach It aims to identify the comfort quality and determine the significant variables that could affect it in the classroom from users’ point view. The students and teachers were asked to examine the working quality in their classroom by writing down their impressions and assessments on two types of surveys: a comprehensive questionnaire and an evaluation daily sheet. The questionnaire is looking for the users’ perception and judgment about their classroom environment, while the evaluation sheet is a daily subjective monitoring concerning the three environmental comforts in the examined classrooms.

The two surveys are structured around 34 and 9 closed and open-ended questions, related to three themes: 1. Personal information: age, seat’s position, taught courses, working period, clothing level. 2. The comfortable classroom characteristics: size, environmental comfort, view, cleanness, spatial organization, etc. The users’ satisfaction: size, spatial organization, natural lighting, ventilation, ambient temperature, noise, etc. Criteria for the selection of case study building for thermal analysis Palestine is a Mediterranean country in which the Palestinian territories (6100km2) represent 23.11% of the total area. In spite of its small surface area, seven climatic zones (5 in the West Bank and 2 in Gaza strip) have been defined (ARIJ, 2003). In this research, Jericho and Nablus were selected as representative case studies for two different climatic zones. Two case study buildings for each city were selected as representative of the school building stock, so the results and conclusions to be of greater applicability. The selection process based on the following criteria: . The school has 8th grade class, which is the target age group for this project. . The school is for girl students 
 . Two different typologies (L-shape or Square) per city should be selected. 
 . The two selected classrooms per school should be found on two orientations different and also on the same level 
 All schools have, as possible as, the same urban environment. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS Questionnaire survey primary results A group of 226 pupils (122 from Nablus & 104 from Jericho) from 4 schools in age from 14 till 17 years were tested. It was based on five points differential scales with (1) being most satisfied and (5) being most dissatisfied. I. Comfort requirements: The results of statistical analysis of students’ perception about classroom comfort requirements show that the indoor air quality and temperature are the most issues affecting on their classroom quality. The natural and artificial lighting were ranked respectively on the 7th and 9th level of requirements that could play a role on the classroom comfort question. This could be attributed to the fact that students always keep the artificial lighting turned on even in summer.

However, the investigation of this question shows that students presented similar responses about comfort requirements in view of their importance, whatever the form of their school (L-shape, square) or their geographical location. Thus, these requirements will be also essential for all Palestinian students. Moreover, the investigation about the ambient indoor temperature from students’ perception point of view shows that all students, regardless of their position (seats) in the classroom are dissatisfied, figure (2).

Figure 6: Percentage of students’ satisfaction concerning indoor air temperature.

Artif icial light ing

Smells

Natural lighting

Density (no. of students)

Quietness

Size

II. Users comfort satisfaction Table 1 shows students’ satisfaction (number & percentage) about comfort requirements in their classrooms. A 5-point scale, with 1 being most satisfied and 5 being most dissatisfied was adopted for the satisfaction score. Total (no. of citations) Most S S 1 2

Neutral 3

D 4

Most D 5

S. Score

J-square

26.9 (14)

11.5 ( 6)

42.3 (22)

7.7 ( 4)

11.5 ( 6)

2.65

N-square

11.3 ( 7)

17.7 (11)

43.5 (27)

17.7 (11)

9.7 ( 6)

2.97

J- L shape

25.0 (13)

46.2 (24)

19.2 (10)

5.8 ( 3)

3.8 ( 2)

2.17

N- L shape

11.7 ( 7)

28.3 (17)

46.7 (28)

8.3 ( 5)

5.0 ( 3)

2.67

J-square

6.0 ( 3)

28.0 (14)

16.0 ( 8)

34.0 (17)

16.0 ( 8)

3.13

N-square

4.8 ( 3)

17.7 (11)

29.0 (18)

25.8 (16)

22.6 (14)

3.44

J- L shape

1.9 ( 1)

15.4 ( 8)

38.5 (20)

23.1 (12)

21.2 (11)

3.46

N- L shape

6.7 ( 4)

20.0 (12)

20.0 (12)

18.3 (11)

35.0 (21)

3.55

J-square

24.0 (12)

10.0 ( 5)

34.0 (17)

16.0 ( 8)

16.0 ( 8)

2.79

N-square

21.0 (13)

9.7 ( 6)

11.3 ( 7)

12.9 ( 8)

45.2 (28)

3.52

J- L shape

30.8 (16)

25.0 (13)

30.8 (16)

9.6 ( 5)

3.8 ( 2)

2.31

N- L shape

16.9 (10)

22.0 (13)

42.4 (25)

15.3 ( 9)

3.4 ( 2)

2.62

J-square

24.0 (12)

24.0 (12)

24.0 (12)

22.0 (11)

6.0 ( 3)

2.52

N-square

8.1 ( 5)

24.2 (15)

48.4 (30)

16.1 (10)

3.2 ( 2)

2.82

J- L shape

13.5 ( 7)

21.2 (11)

32.7 (17)

21.2 (11)

11.5 ( 6)

2.96

N- L shape

10.0 ( 6)

15.0 ( 9)

46.7 (28)

23.3 (14)

5.0 ( 3)

2.98

J-square

10.2 ( 5)

16.3 ( 8)

26.5 (13)

24.5 (12)

22.4 (11)

3.13

N-square

9.7 ( 6)

9.7 ( 6)

33.9 (21)

16.1 (10)

30.6 (19)

3.48

J- L shape

0.0 ( 0)

9.6 ( 5)

7.7 ( 4)

21.2 (11)

61.5 (32)

4.35

N- L shape

3.4 ( 2)

8.5 ( 5)

20.3 (12)

8.5 ( 5)

59.3 (35)

4.05

J-square

19.5 ( 8)

17.1 ( 7)

39.0 (16)

14.6 ( 6)

9.8 ( 4)

2.19

N-square

28.8 (17)

18.6 (11)

25.4 (15)

20.3 (12)

6.8 ( 4)

2.45

25.0 (11)

27.3 (12)

29.5 (13)

13.6 ( 6)

4.5 ( 2)

2.08

N- L shape

20.7 (12)

29.3 (17)

27.6 (16)

15.5 ( 9)

6.9 ( 4)

2.50

J-square

31.4 (16)

23.5 (12)

15.7 ( 8)

23.5 (12)

5.9 ( 3)

2.44

N-square

27.4 (17)

30.6 (19)

21.0 (13)

12.9 ( 8)

8.1 ( 5)

2.44

J- L shape

30.8 (16)

36.5 (19)

26.9 (14)

3.8 ( 2)

1.9 ( 1)

2.10

N- L shape

8.3 ( 5)

45.0 (27)

28.3 (17)

11.7 ( 7)

6.7 ( 4)

2.63

J-square

14.6 ( 7)

16.7 ( 8)

35.4 (17)

10.4 ( 5)

22.9 (11)

2.87

N-square

25.8 (16)

25.8 (16)

29.0 (18)

12.9 ( 8)

6.5 ( 4)

2.48

J- L shape

30.8 (16)

34.6 (18)

23.1 (12)

3.8 ( 2)

7.7 ( 4)

2.23

N- L shape

8.3 ( 5)

13.3 ( 8)

13.3 ( 8)

20.0 (12)

45.0 (27)

3.80

Good temperatur e

J-square

22.0 (11)

16.0 ( 8)

20.0 (10)

12.0 ( 6)

30.0 (15)

3.00

N-square

3.3 ( 2)

11.5 ( 7)

16.4 (10)

21.3 (13)

47.5 (29)

3.92

J- L shape

15.4 ( 8)

25.0 (13)

23.1 (12)

13.5 ( 7)

23.1 (12)

3.04

N- L shape

1.7 ( 1)

5.2 ( 3)

13.8 ( 8)

17.2 (10)

62.1 (36)

4.18

to Easy circulate

J-square

20.8 (10)

14.6 ( 7)

45.8 (22)

6.3 ( 3)

12.5 ( 6)

2.54

N-square

9.7 ( 6)

21.0 (13)

33.9 (21)

16.1 (10)

19.4 (12)

3.15

J- L shape

15.4 ( 8)

36.5 (19)

38.5 (20)

5.8 ( 3)

3.8 ( 2)

2.46

N- L shape

6.7 ( 4)

31.7 (19)

35.0 (21)

18.3 (11)

8.3 ( 5)

2.90

J-square

12.0 ( 6)

8.0 ( 4)

42.0 (21)

14.0 ( 7)

24.0 (12)

3.17

N-square

3.2 ( 2)

21.0 (13)

43.5 (27)

12.9 ( 8)

19.4 (12)

3.24

J- L shape

6.0 ( 3)

42.0 (21)

26.0 (13)

14.0 ( 7)

12.0 ( 6)

2.73

N- L shape

5.0 ( 3)

23.3 (14)

23.3 (14)

18.3 (11)

30.0 (18)

3.45

Lvel of RH%

Nice view

Cleanness

J- L shape

Ref: J= Jericho, N= Nablus, D=Dissatisfied, S=Satisfied, S. Score= Satisfaction’s Score

Table 1: Percentage & number of students’ comfort satisfaction in their classroom. From the above table, it is clear that most of satisfaction scores are between 2 (satisfied) and 4 (dissatisfied). Generally, the students of Jericho are more satisfied than the Nabulsi students, whatever the layout of their schools. Smells are the most dissatisfaying aspects in both cities, especialy for L-shape schools. However, the air temprature in classrooms was more satsfying in Jericho (3) than the Nabulsi schools (aprox. 4). This could be attributed to the fact of human adaptation. In-situ campaign primary results In this section, where the results obtained for the four schools are similar and convergent with students’ perception, we will restrain this section on the results for obtained from Qurtoba School (L-shape) in Nablus. The interior temperature was measured in two classrooms: one situated on the south while the second oriented to the West. The interior ambient temperatures in both classrooms were compared to the exterior air temperatures monitored on the same site, figure (3). We observe that the interior temperatures in West classroom are greater than those illustrated in the South one. However, the temperatures in both classrooms are generally noticed greater than those of outdoors during 4 days (6,8,9,11/05/2014). Interior temperatures range between 21 and 30.3°C in the south classroom and between 25 and 30.7°C in the west classroom, over the week of experiment. The maximum temperature measured inside both classrooms was 30°C. The minimum interior temperature (20.7°C) was registered in the South classroom on Friday (9/5/2014) at 9:00. This can be attributed to the fact that students have been left the windows of their classroom opened where the wind direction illustrated by the mini-weather station was SWW. Hence, reducing the interior ambient temperature.

Figure 7: Outdoor & indoor Temperature- Qourtoba school During the school time (8:00-14:00), indoor temperatures range from 28.2 to 30.3 °C in the south classroom (figure 4) and from 29.4 to 30.7 °C in the West classroom (figure 5).

Figure 8: indoor Temperature- West classroom, Qourtoba

Figure 9: indoor Temperature- South classroom, Qourtoba

For both classrooms, the minimum temperature values were recorded during the weekend (Friday and Saturday) where classrooms were empty. Concerning indoor relative humidity (RH%), The maximum values for both classrooms were recorded on 08/05/2014, the only rainy day in the monitoring week, figures (6-7).

Figure 10: indoor RH% - West classroom, Qourtoba

Figure 11: indoor RH% - South classroom, Qourtoba Modeling & simulation Two school models, one model per city, were proposed by two groups of graduate building engineering students, figures (8,9). They tried through their design to evaluate and select the most suitable environmental strategies for each city. They take in consideration the findings obtained from previous approaches.

Figure 12: Proposed school model for Jericho city.

Figure 13: Proposed school model for Nablus city.

Environmental school design strategies 1. Enhancement of local microclimate The first step to create environmental schools is by generating a healthy local microclimate supported by managing of the existing negative power of the climate variety. A well designing of surrounds landscape can be a good long-term investment for reducing heating and cooling costs by protecting against winter wind and summer sunlight. 2. Open spaces In Jericho city, the patio, proposed in the model school, plays a significant role on local microclimate and helping in ameliorates of the surrounding environment. The in-between outdoor spaces (created between blocks) take an important function of lowering the temperature and creating a pleasant atmosphere in the school conception. It can be shaded by the trees, climbing plants by using amovable light fabric canvas. 3. Enhancement of thermal Insulation The two groups worked carefully on the composition of external envelop to achieve the recommended U-value determined by PHGBC (Palestinian high green building council). The U-value of external wall is 0.45 W/m2C°. For an efficient roof they used an U-value 0.38 W/m2C°. In Jericho school models, students utilized white gravel on the roof, which receive the most of solar radiation over the year, to conserve, insulate and hold back a change of energy flux, between outdoor and indoor as maximum as possible. Lower exchange of energy transfer through the roof during summer and winter can help in decreased demand for electricity. For comfort evaluations, adaptive comfort concept had been selected instead of predict mean vote. Adaptive comfort is recommended in estimation of comfort for natural ventilated building (De Dear, 2010). Ecotect tool implements different methods to estimate comfort adaptive. Flat comfort bands were used, fixing elastic comfort band (16°C – 26 °C). Tables (3&4) show the results obtained due to a comparison between different thickness of insulation materials used in the exterior walls and different type of internal partition construction composition.

Table 2: Summary results for Discomfort degree hour for different material cases-Nablus.

Table 3: Summary results for Discomfort degree hour for different material cases-Jericho. After performing analysis and comparing the result, we have found that the best situation for Nablus was an external wall with 3cm insulation with either internal partition with 15cm Block without insulation or a double partition of 10cm block and 5cm insulation. For Jericho, the best case was external wall with 3cm insulation and double partition of 10cm block and 5cm insulation. 4.Passive heating and cooling policies and systems As climate conditions in both selected cities are clearly different, different strategies for cooling and heating were proposed. In case of Nablus, the classrooms were oriented to the north while a curtain-glazed wall is used on the southern facade of classrooms blocks. It is used as a solarium in order to enhance heating in winter and stack effect ventilation in summer and hence cross ventilation through the classrooms (figure 10).

Figure 14: view showing glazed curtain wall used in Nablus school model. In Jericho, where the dominant problem is overheating along the year, multi-passive cooling strategies were tested in the proposed model. The classrooms were oriented to the south. Solar chimney combined with underground tube system was used also on the southern façade (figure 11).

Figure 15: solar chimney principle. Hot air gets out from the classrooms via the upper opening of the chimney, while a fresh outdoor air, coming form the in-between shaded green area between the classroom blocks, is drawn into the earth cooling tubes and transported directly to the inside of the classrooms. This system provides ventilation while optimistically cooling the classroom’s interior. Moreover, in order to improve the performance of Jericho school model, Nocturnal ventilative passive cooling method is indispensable. This method helps to mitigate anticipated uncomfortably warm conditions during the coming day. This form of cooling use for cooler the structural mass of the building interior by air movement from the cooler outside during the night and closed the building to the warm outside air during the daytime. In order to enhance the nighttime ventilation, the school corridors were closed by using metal tasbil shape, which keep air drawn freely among the school blocks in away that prevent any overheat stocking.

CONCLUSIONS This paper has evaluated qualitatively and quantitatively current architectural school design and users comfort in order to highlight the appropriate design strategies for future sustainable schools. We have responsibility to come together all factors that determine school quality to be relative cheap. We shall start to take in consideration factors that can help us to reduce remarkable environmental school cost by helping of mathematical models in operation research, science and marketing researches, etc. Therefore, architects and decision-makers are invited to revise their design approach and strategies in order to relate our school designs towards environmental concepts. The investigation of proposed school models showed some differences in the proposed architectural and environmental school building design strategies and recommendations for each climatic zone. The latter are not supposed to be prescriptive but they are guidlines for designers and decision-makers to develop innovative and effective design solutions that can better incorporate passive solar strategies in the future school design. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 
 This paper presents the primary research results of Al-Maqdisi research project. This research would not have been possible without the support of many people. The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support of French Consulate in Jerusalem to conduct this work. Especial thanks for our graduate students: Sama Abu shanab, Azza Natour, Mais Dalab, Sawsan Domaidi, Bayan Howari and Asala Naser for their participation in this project during the data collection and numerical simulations. We also take this opportunity to acknowledge ministry of education staff for their permission to realize our measurements in the selected schools. REFERENCES Abu-hafeetha, M., 2009. Planning for Solar Energy as an Energy Option for Palestine, Master thesis, Nablus: An-Najah National University. Applied Research Institute of Jerusalem (ARIJ), 2003. Climatic zoning for energy efficient buildings in the Palestinian territories (the West Bank and Gaza), Unpublished Report, ARIJ, Jerusalem. Baba, M., 2012. Environmental aspects of Green Schools in the oPt, Workshop Building Green School in the occupied Palestinian territory, 3rd July , PCRS, Ramallah. Bingler, S., Quinn, L., Sullivan, K., 2003. Schools as centers of community: a citizen’s guide for planning and design. Washington, DC: National Clearinghouse for Educational Facilities; Available on: http://www.edfacilities.org/pubs/ scc. Boubekrı, M., 2008. Daylighting, Architecture and Health: Building Design Strategies, UK: Oxford, Architectural Pres De Dear, R. & Brager, G., 2010. “The Adaptive Model of Thermal Comfort and Energy Conservation in the Built Environment”, International Journal of Biometeorology; 45: 011-108 Edwards, L. & Torcellını, P., 2002. A Literature Review of the Effects of Natural Light on Building Occupants, NREL/TP-55030769,U.S. Department of Energy Laboratory. Gıfford, R., 1997. Environmental psychology: principles and practice. 2nd ed. Boston: Allyn & Bacon Loftness, V., Hartkopf, V., khee, L., snyder, M., Hua,Y., Gu,Y., Choı, J. & Yang, X., 2006. Sustainability and Health are Integral Goals for the Built Environment. Healthy Buildings, June 4-8. Lisbon, Portugal. Moore, DP., Warner, E., 1998. Where children learn: the effect of facilities on student achievement, available on: http://www.cefpi.org/issue8.htmlS North Electricity Distribution Company (NEDCO). 2013. Nablus. Unpublished information. Torcellini, P., Pless, S., & Deru, M., 2006. Zero Energy Buildings: A Critical Look at the Definition. Proceedings ACEEE Summer Study on Energy Efficiency in Buildings, August 14−18, 2006, Pacific Grove, CA. Golden, CO: National Renewable Energy Laboratory. www.nrel.gov/docs/fy06osti/39833.pdf Umberto, D. & Stefanıa, P., 2002. Analysis of energy consumption in the high schools of a province in central Italy, Energy and Buildings, 34,1003-1016. US DOE-Energy Smart Schools, US Department of Energy, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, Building Technologies Program. Available on: http:// www.eere.energy.gov/buildings/energysmartschools/resources.html Valérıa, A. et al., 2007. An evaluation method for school building design at the preliminary phase with optimisation of aspects of environmental comfort for the school system of the State Sa ̃ o Paulo in Brazil, Building and Environment 42, 984–999. Veıtch, J., 2005. Light, Lighting, and Health: Issues for Consideration. LEUKOS, 2 (2), 85-96.

FUTURE ENVISIONS AS TRIGGERING MECHANISMS IN INTERIOR DESIGN STUDIOS: “URBAN INTERIORS: ISTANBUL 2050” STUDIO PROCESS EMİNE GÖRGÜL, BANU GARİP Emine Görgül, Assoc.Prof.Dr., Istanbul Technical University, School of Architecture. Banu Garip, Assoc.Prof.Dr., Istanbul Technical University, School of Architecture.

ABSTRACT Regarding to the stimulating capacities of futuristic approaches and envisioning, this paper aims to discuss how the notion of future, and specifically how the “future of a -particular- place” may become a triggering mechanism in design processes, meanwhile how the notions of future and futuristic approaches may affect the creativity in design studios and particularly in interior architecture realm; through reflecting the studio process and the outputs of the 6th Semester Interior Architecture Design Studio’s “Urban Interiors: Istanbul 2050” exercises that were held in ITU-Istanbul Technical University in Spring 2014 and opening them into a broader discussion. In this sense, the studio brief and process; goals and objectives (of the studio); studio pedagogies, strategies and tactics; the role of participatory processes and futuristic approaches in the productivity and inspiration in interior architecture education, are all explained and discussed through two-pillared studio process, which is consisting of context development and project development, while being enriched with the selected works from the two phases. Keywords: studio pedagogies, interior design education, futuristic envisions, urban interiors. I. INTRODUCTION: İSTIKLAL STREET WITHIN A TIME-LAPSE As it is known, the fine split between the didactic and experimental design education strategies are closely related with innovative deployment of various triggering mechanisms that affect the creative process of the (design) students; as well as the configuration of implicit and explicit strategies of these processes within the design studios. In this context, futuristic approaches and envisioning that re-occur with different time-lapses in design realm, appear as one of the most influencing triggers, by constituting creative references of inspiration and innovation, through activating the design creativity and constituting a break-through in the design process. Resonating with stimulating capacities of futuristic approaches and envisioning, this paper aims to highlight how the notion of future, and specifically how the “future of a -particular- place” may become influencing mechanisms in the design process. So, on behalf of revealing the importance and potentialities of futuristic perspectives for rising the creativity in design studios and in interior architecture realm; the outputs of the 6th Semester Interior Architecture Design Studio’s “Urban Interiors: Istanbul 2050” exercises that were held in ITU-Istanbul Technical University in Spring 2014 and are opened into a broader discussion. On the other hand, in favor of teaching and advancing the design creativity in interior architecture education, this paper secondarily advocates the importance of nurturing the theory and discourse of the creative thought within an intellectual realm, rather than the design-product itself; and dismantles its argument through reflecting the various steps of the mentioned studio process. In this regard, the studio brief and process; goals and objectives (of the studio); studio pedagogies, strategies and tactics; the role of participatory processes and futuristic approaches in the productivity and inspiration in interior architecture education, are all explained and discussed through two-pillared studio process, which consists of context development and project development, while being enriched with the works from the two phases. Being located right in the very heart of the city of Istanbul, İstiklal Street and the district of Pera-Beyoğlu emerges as an urban generator, not only for the daily life of nowadays, but also from the early ages that the district has been founded. Initially, around 11th Century during Byzantine Era, Genoese Colonies were settled in the zone, and afterwards it has transformed into its unique spatio-temporal multitude consisting of diverse layers of time and cosmopolitan structure of myriad ethnic groups. The zone was the address of Westernization during the 19th Century Late Ottoman Era, being as the key spot with its emerging bonmarchés -department stores and passages for luxuries shopping, hotels for the Orient Express’ passengers, night life and variety.

Thus, when the zone is asserted in a time-lapse from the prior durations till today’s condition, it enfolds a great potential to develop a further inquiry about questioning its possible futures, whereas each may interact with the hidden potentials of the stratified and intense layers of existing memory. In this sense, the current potential of the site raises a deliberate curiosity about the possible phases of the site in its prospect future. So, Pera-Beyoğlu region is given as the study area -particularly like the passages such as Hazzopulo Passage and Narmanlı Han-; where students are encouraged to interact with the potential urban characteristics of the historical spots, buildings and passages from 19th Century, and to envision the life in the selected spots in year 2050. While designing the urban interiors of the future, as the part of the studio methodology students are steered to cascade down gradually from global, urban and local scales of envisioning the life and the spatio-temporality of the citizens in future. In this regard, the studio brief asks them to generate a design proposal for the future of the given site, while responding to the inquiry with an envision that is depicting the prospect the spatio-temporal relations. So, the main aim of this studio exercise is to develop futuristic scenario of the site, while guiding the students to think with the potentials of an architecture not existing, but “yet to come” (Deleuze and Guattari, 1994) on behalf of providing the innovative design thought as its major goal during the process. Meanwhile, focusing on the recently emerging field within the discipline, the notion of urban interiority is also magnified to strengthen the innovative approach so as to develop a novel pedagogical/curriculum tool in further. Therefore, in order to generate the context for the future of the zone in 2050, on behalf of the life in future and the spatio-temporal relations both within the city and in the partial urban interior, students are stimulated to interact with various teaching strategies and tactics that are configured to develop their design creativity. So, on the following section they are discussed in more detail. II. PEDAGOGIES, STRATEGIES & TACTICS: CONTEXT PROJECTIONS FOR ISTANBUL 2050 a) Cinematographic Analysis During the initial phase of the studio, students are requested to watch some futuristic envisioned movies and series to elaborate more with the idea of an upcoming future such as: Metropolis (Fritz Lang, 1927), Space Odyssey (Stanley Kubrick, 1968), Blade Runner (Ridley Scoot, 1982), Terminator (McG, 1984), 12 Monkeys (Terry Gilliam, 1995), Dark City (Alex Proyas, 1998), Matrix (Lilly Wachowski, Lana Wachowski, 1999), A.I. (Artificial Intelligence) (Steven Spielberg, 2001), Minority Report (Steven Spielberg, 2002), Surrogates (Jonathan Mostow, 2009), Inception (Christopher Nolan, 2010), Black Mirror (Charlie Brooker, 2011), Brazil (Terry Gilliam, 1985) Her (Spike Jonze, 2013) (Figure 1). On the next step of this cinematic approach, they are advised to reveal the transforming capacities of socio-cultural and economical change as well as production and technology in relation with the transformation of the humanity. Out of 14 movies, students chose at least 3 of them and then they are asked to return response papers, while an immense discussion being held afterwards to pin point the key concepts about the future.

Figure 1. Futuristic envisioned films that are deployed to enrich the discussions. b) Scenario Scripting On the following step students are steered to develop their future scenarios, in order to generate the future contexts that they predict, and presume their design projects may resonate with that. They are literally asked to script the scenarios cascading down from macro scale-the world; then to the mezzo scale-the city of Istanbul; and micro-scale İstiklal Street and the Hazzopulo passage in particular.

Figure 2-4. Scenario proposal by Egemen Nardereli (2014). It was quite impressive to see the variety of the scenarios that the students develop, which are dealing from post-human theories, where we no longer necessitate our physical embodiment so that we may store it somewhere, so that we can freely engaged with the virtual realm through a Spinozian nexus way in the various networks of independent spatiotemporalities (Figure 2-4); till technology-production-economy cycle, or from soundscape to spaces of memory, where we re-load the memories of the past into future or vice versa (Figure 5 and 6).

Figure 5 and 6. Scenario proposal by Giullia Perri (2014). c) Creation of Visual Narratives On the third step of the initial phase students are asked to develop visual narratives in relation with their contextual scenarios, on behalf of generating the critical image related with the site, the particular spot of Hazzopulo and its surroundings. The intention of the exercise is to help them predicting the potential changes within the site and providing them to perform rhizomatic links with the up coming. Like in the example below, in one of the projects the site is depicted under the ruling dominancy of high-rise fancy skyscrapers all around the milieu, however the spot remained in its authentic unity (Figure 7).

Figure 7. Visual narrative (critical image) by Giullia Perri (2014). d) Development of Story Board On the following step students are encourage to develop story boards and diagrammatic representation of the characters and/or users, in favor of generating/shaping the design stories. It is also interesting to see how some of the students have defined the sub-spaces as the “characters” within their design stories. In example, in one of the spatial scenarios the proposed space is divided into two intermingling layers of legal and illegal zones, where characters like agent and banker exist as the spatial characteristics of the legal zone; yet the characters of mole, swindler, smuggler and R-Tech controls and defines the relations of the illegal zone (Figure 8).

Figure 8. Spatial characters of Kübra Coşkun (2014) e) Conceptual Models On the final step of the initial phase, students are encouraged to make conceptual models to express the basic ideas about their proposals and the relations with the previously developed future scenarios. In fact this step, helps the students to bind up all the outputs of the previous steps and filter the accumulated ideas and knowledge, while converting all the conceptual ideas into spatial narratives. Like in the previously mentioned example project of Kübra Coşkun with diverse spatial characters operating in illegal and legal layers of the space, she represented all these idea and spatial characteristics with her conceptual model, where the dynamic and in-between character of both the mole and agent are expressed with red lines in fact transforming into interfaces of connections with mediating characteristics further in space (Figure 9).

Figure 9. Conceptual model, Kübra Coşkun (2014) III. Project Development and Outputs After the sequential steps of the initial phase such as; cinematographic analysis, scenario scripting, creation of visual narratives, development of story boards and conceptual models students are asked to develop their projects urban interiors for Istanbul in 2050. Thus in this section, emerging as the interesting and quite comprehensive projects of the studio, works of Giullia Perri and Sunay Paşaoğlu are dismantled reciprocally to depict the outputs of the studio process. Pursuing the scenario that she has proposed for the future of the world and reciprocally to Istanbul and for Pera-Beyoğlu district and Hazzopulo passage in particular, Giullia Perri has generated a museum for memory, which will exist in 2050 in Istanbul. Interacting with the existing motivations within the milieu such as color, movement and sound (Figure 10), the project entitled “Shared Dreams” proposes a synesthetic spatio-temporality, where affection and motion emerges as the driving concept of the design.

Figure 10. Site analysis and basic concepts of “Shared Dreams” project by Giullia Perri (2014). So, to start experiencing the “museum of memory”, visitors are asked donate an object form their own memories that emerges as an item of exchange in between visitors’ micro-memory and museum’s greater memory, which in fact works as a ticket for them to begin their journeys within this sensorial driven space (Figure 11). Following this threshold of exchange, visitors confront with another sequential spatialities of sensorial experiences, where in the first room they visually contact with their accompanying character from the earlier periods of this zone that are randomly assigned to each visitor. Then, in the next room the visitors come across with taste and sound interaction, which is also pursued with tactile experience on the following room (Figure 11).

Figure 11 and 12. Storyboard and entrance plan of “Shared Dreams” project by Giullia Perri (2014). After all these multi-sensorial confrontations and the risen emotional mood, visitors are oriented to move into deeper parts of the museum, where it functions as a generator that uses the transformative capacities of the memory to educate the user, through creating milieus of encounter and socially engaged urban “interiors” (Figure 13).

Figure 13. General layout of “Shared Dreams” project in Hazzopulo passage, by Giullia Perri (2014).

In order to meet the aspects and the goal of designing an urban interiority-a social interaction space that “may educate its users by using social memory” Perri develops a multi-layered design, which she proposes two diverse layers of conscious and unconscious interactions; the initial refers to the functions and the final atmospheres of the spaces, where as the latter implies the system of reactions (Figure 14).

Figure 14. Design brief of “Shared Dreams” project in Hazzopulo passage, by Giullia Perri (2014). On the conscious interaction level, she organizes the spatial functions of reading and relaxation with library and layover spaces; eating and production with degustation and workshop areas and their storages; as well as green spaces on the roof top are placed within the space of Hazzopulo passage (Figure 14). Besides, on the unconscious interaction level, by using the formerly mapped existing motivations within the milieu such as color, movement and sound; she generates system of both structure and interfaces within the space such as; remembering walls that change their colors with the transforming experiences of the visitors around it with the help of sound and light within the space; or re-shapeable walls consisting of meshes that can physically change its shape again according to the needs and the use of the space with the movement of the visitors around it; or moving platforms within the greater space where visitor re-position them according to the emerging functional inquires of that specific moment (Figure 14 and 15).

Figure 15. A render depicting the movable platforms, “Shared Dreams” project by Giullia Perri (2014).

Sunay Paşaoğlu has presumed a scenario about the possible political, socio-cultural and economical cases in 2050, a dystopia; his scenario was about the overdrawn mass consumption and inactivation of the “individual” within the society (Figure 16). People, themselves become the interface of the commercials as being a part of the digital and interactive environment that cover the “real” urban space for consumption. Within the society, reality give its place to representations, and the representations make huge differences between people’s social statuses.

Figure 16. Scenario Diagrams of “F.İ.R.A.R” project by Sunay Paşaoğlu (2014). Thinking about Hazzopulo Passage and its environment in 2050, covered with the digital commercials and mass consumption, the context of Istiklal Street still has potentials for escaping, and Hazzopulo Passage is a significant one of those breakout points (Figure 17). People who interrogate the current system and who can succeed to escape from consumer society settle into the escaping spaces, which generate new sub-cultures and new communal livings.

Figure 17. Scenario Proposal and Contextual Analysis of Hazzopulo passage for 2050 by Sunay Paşaoğlu (2014). Hazzopulo Pasage, which is an escaping space for a new communal living has a semipermeable entrance and people who can achieve to enter the space start to remember their memories, and they get recovered from the illusion of the

representations. The escape space shelters the traditional human values such as craft, workman-shift, natural attributes, etc. against the power of money (Figure 18).

Figure 18. Drawings of “F.İ.R.A.R” project by Sunay Paşaoğlu (2014). IV. Concluding Remarks To conclude the discussion, as it has been reflected through the examples, the main intention of this studio exercise is to develop the creative abilities of the students, in favor of imagining the ways of constructing a conceptual or so to say an abstract architecture of a non-existing future, but may reserved as “yet to come”. In order to achieve this, students are encouraged to think in myriad ways of abstract thinking, and elaborate developing their ideas, future scenarios and design stories and finally their design proposals by interacting with various exercises of ranging from cinematographic analysis through visual narratives and abstract models, ending with concrete design proposals. It is observed that students successfully respond to the studio brief and the design inquiry, which does not didactically dictate the project requirements to the students, but transforming them as the decision makers and the creative mind of their project where they form the rule set and the criteria of their design through their individual decisions. Thus the reciprocal exercises of cinematographic analysis, scenario scripting, creation of visual narratives, development of story boards and conceptual models operate as the sequential tools of context development, where each student developed its design brief and rule set individually. On the other hand, emergence of the topic of urban interiority as a new field of research and practice in interior architecture also introduces a point of break with the conventional discussions on culture and space interactions, as well as transforming character of common spaces. As the social transformation and its transfiguring impacts on everyday life and within the cityscape causes novel interventions to operate and design the novel living environments within the city, in this sense the notion of urban interiority emerges as an innovative approach and practice to design the current relations of the contemporary citizen with its milieus of existence with the tools of interior architecture, and creating peaceful environments and temporary atmospheres of democratic urban spaces as its benefit. Therefore, resonating both with this potential of urban interiors as a novel discourse in the design curriculum and practice, as well as influencing potentials of the futuristic approach as a triggering mechanism in design education, the successful process of the studio is partially shared within the scope of this paper. Last but not least, it is worth to mention the positive impact of liberating-education-strategies and tactics in design studio education, and its transforming capacities on students that are immense on behalf of boosting their design creativity, where the students become the main shareholder not only of their own design, but also the whole studio process. References Deleuze G., Guattari, F., 1994. What is Philosophy? Trans. H. Tomlinson and G. Burchell, New York: Columbia University Press.

SPACES WITHOUT WOMAN SEVIM GÜLEN ÖZAKTAN Necmettin Erbakan University, Department of Architecture ABSTRACT The industrial revolution which is one of the most important events can be considered as a turning point in the human history, not only caused the migration from the village to the town, but also changed the women’s life irreversible with their participation in the labor force. Until the industrial revolution, women’s work was restricted in certain areas and in the historical process, women described as a revolutionary could not go beyond the modern philosophers of their time. When we look at the beginning of human history, fertility as the most important distinctive feature of the female and male, although it has given sanctity to women order the many cultures, has become commonplace duty of women over time and women have been entrapped by the housing space and motherhood. With the working life, women contained intense pace of working life in addition to the attributions of housewife and motherhood are struggling to find a places that have difficulty accepting themselves. Also women’s life is bounded with residential areas for the tasks imposed by gender focus almost in every cultures, today, women give up from many tasks imposed by culture to themselves to go beyond these limits and they are usually forced to choose between their works and motherhood after giving birth. This choice causes two opposite poles in society. While one pole approves women only for motherhood and char and submits men for the other tasks, other pole sees life choice of working women with giving up motherhood and char like a manifesto against the repressive and male-dominated society. But the real issue is not the choice of women; it is why the women are forced to choose. The main reason of this is that concept of woman and child is usually ignored in nonresidential spaces and architecturally these spaces are more ‘adult’ and ‘man’. This is one of the most important problems for the woman and child users who have the majority of population on the earth. This study determinate the existing problems with researching difficulties of spaces experienced by women in working life and offers suggestions in order to resolve them for the users and designers. Solutions for the spaces rescue the women from the dilemma of logic and instinct and provide them more comfortable environment for supporting their work. Keywords: Woman and space, spaces without woman, culture, gender and space 1. INTRODUCTION In all cultures, the position of woman in the society defined in the axis of the role of motherhood and char. The concept of head of the family means male-oriented point even doesn’t mean it and it is connected with woman only the absence of man (divorce, death etc.) (HATİPOĞLU EREN, 2014, p.22). This situation limits the women’s life with private and introverted spaces. It is possible to understand the man’s strength and woman’s fragility on the architectural component and buildings. For example, in the Helen culture, while the Doric columns represent the strong men in the Dor peoples, İonic columns represent the fragile, naïve character of Ion Country (LOOS, 2014 p.12). In the terms of design, while amorphous forms are classified as feminine, solid and cubic forms are classified as masculine. After industrial revolution, changing the point of woman in casual life and participation to education life and labor force of them take the women from their bounded areas. It has been recognized that women have not been considered as a user in the design of space by trying to take a place in this space that exclusion after going out from the housing areas. Strict sexist attitudes of cultures deport the woman from spaces and define them temporary and ineffective as a user. Especially, in the second half of the 19th and early 20th centuries, opinions supporting that women’s education life built on the concept of child care and motherhood and it should be sufficient for improving about this subject are quite a lot (ERDOĞDU ERKARSLAN, 2002 p.36-37). Although this strict attitude is weakened at the present day, the presence of woman in places as a user has not been completely accepted. This situation leaves them in a dilemma especially after maternity and many women keep going to life motherhood and care oriented by resigned working life where they cannot take a place as a user. This study aims to identify the issues of women pushed into back at space designing although they create half population of world and be able to remedy for these problems. 2. THE ROLE AND IMPORTANCE OF WOMAN IN THE SPACE FICTION Although architecture ignore woman as historical and theoretical, when we look at the beginning of mankind, women have came out as first master structure. At the first work sharing done in social, men took duties of hunting and women took duties of collecting and sheltering. However, In the B.C.3000 years, when the first appearance for the term of concepts abut architecture and architect, woman’s task was given to man and woman was pushed into back by passive

tasks. It continued until the industrial revolution and with the participation of labor force, women have tried to find taking a place in spaces for years (TÜRKÜN DOSTOĞLU, 2002 p.9). 2.1. Woman in the Axis of Social Gender Roles The most important dilemma is the distinction between nature and tradition in European idea. In this distinction, nature has feminine and tradition has masculine features. The masculine feature given man is a part of desire for the dominating nature. It has great importance for process created social gender roles. Culture and social gender are in a mutual reaction in this process. Cultural environment, while there is an element in the formation of gender; social gender is the case of a power forming the cultural environment. Therefore, gender and cultural environment change constantly in time and space (KAYASÜ, 2002 p. 101-102). Gender-based concepts of men and women are defined by their posture and function. Man is associated with outside and woman is associated with inside and intimate (ÜNSAL GÜLMEZ, ULUSU URAZ, 2006 p.98). Man is rude and woman is thin and naïve. When man is sky and dominant, woman is earth and guarded. It is possible to see traces of this situation in mythology. While Zeus possessing the sky as most powerful god, Gaia is a goddess representing the earth. Previously, while Gaia found a place in mythology as a dominant goddess, then she was replaced by his son Zeus. Also while woman had superior position than man like mythology before, she was pushed into back losing her rights and began to have a say in public areas only with the getting work life. With the changing social gender roles, woman’s location also has started to change, the space fiction changed proposal of use and used by women as a user has been tried to create again in this context. 2.2. Interaction between Woman and Space The privacy of woman in cultural perspective makes her be associated with the closed and domestic spaces. For the reason of having more personally and local features, Houses describe as a space where the gender aspect can be observed most. The spaces except housing have male-dominated or asexual features (ÜNSAL GÜLMEZ, ULUSU URAZ, 2006 p.98). It is possible that to see the social structure and individual’s life on the space organization. Woman’s privacy makes her associated with house in tradition. The impacts of woman’s intimacy have been seen on the residential architecture. High fences, dead ends, haremlique-selamlıque, separated housing entrance are products of this opinion (ÇAKAR,2009 p.80). For the motherhood and child care, kitchen and bedroom describe as spaces belong to woman. The bazaars and fountains take a place in culture for the women where they socialize due to daily works. These spaces have not been prohibited in the strict culture. Women bazaars in Anatolia are special space for the woman which can make them a small part of labor force. With the changing of the content of social gender by socio-economic transformation, spaces have changed in quality and quantity in terms of women. Transforming the idea of home-office before the industrial revolution to separated home and office spaces is a result of changing gender roles and identified the space with the gender. Just as the dilemma between the nature and culture, unless the opinions which claim that women belong to special and men belong to public spaces are surmounted, trying to solve the problems belong to woman and space interaction will be inadequate (KAYASÜ,2002 p.103). Primarily, for space transformation, it is required to transformation of patriarchal traditions continued for hundreds of years. 3. SPACES WITHOUT WOMAN 3.1. The exclusion of Woman in Urban Spaces Before the Industrial Revolution, environment consisted of strict rules which separated the gender roles by sharp lines and limited the women’s life by special spaces. Women could get in the public places like agora or acropolis depending on certain conditions. In Medieval Europe, the city library only used to serve the men and specially training prostitute (ALKAN, 1999 p.7). In Turkish Society, woman’s position in public space must be examined before and after Islam. PreIslamic Turkish Society, women were not restricted in housing space impact of the nomadic life. They had the same rights in the family with man. They knew riding and fighting like a man. The master of the religious ceremonies is women. There are no spaces restricted for women’s use. After Islam, with the impact of Arabic Culture, even if some restrictions were brought to women, it seen that this restriction were not intense as Europe in Ottoman Society. Many pilgrims from Europe depicted the Ottoman Woman circulating in the streets and bazaars. Nevertheless, the output of the woman is just enough to perform daily tasks. The dominant Turkish female figure in Pre-Islamic is not found in Ottoman Society. Since 1850, women’s movement which began for equal pay and equal rights has headed to urban spaces and started to declare the opinions clearly about this subject since 1990. The difficulties experienced by women in the urban areas realize with the studies. According to these studies, working women make shorter journey than men and use mostly public transport for it. Thus, women are quite often found in close urban spaces. Despite it, extremely sexist and discriminatory attitudes in urban planning make women’s life complicated. In this separatist planning in the name of motherhood and womanhood, women were placed in sheltered and private areas separated from the men’s public and working areas. This new city center defined as the satellite city is also a continuation of this idea. The discriminatory detection urban

spaces and urban planning will help the emergence of the main problem. Why women restrict in spaces or which process take place on the basis of it must be questioned (ALKAN, 2009 p. 2-7-8). 3.2. Gender Conflict in Specialized Spaces Although house is often seen belonging to the woman due to be privatized, as a space, it is a conflict area where there is struggle for sovereignty with man and woman. Men with possessive instinct would be here with the desire to have a pressure against women. The first place of home belongs to men with title of house holder. Kitchen, bedroom and daily room defined as belonging to woman are not special. However, men have personal rooms like study room or garden room. At this point, being protective or restrictive for the houses are open to debate (KAYASÜ, 2002 p.104). Traditional house includes multi-functional spaces instead of the separated spaces due to tasks. Woman in the house make the function changes easy in the space. Sofa described as a gathering space in traditional house is a relatively asexual mid-spaces which services to woman at day and all family members especially man at night. Woman at the head of sofa leaves her place at night to the man and goes into the bottom of room undisputedly so it makes the mid-space masculine by taking away its asexuality. In the modern fiction, there is functional division brought in terms of woman’s working life. For the working woman, multi-functional space is very tiring and divided spaces can be seen more advantageous. But division must be done with the adapting this mid-space instead of removing it. Despite it, in modern house there are not special areas for woman. Kitchen defined special space for woman has become the common space for gathering family members. In a way, kitchen has taken mid-space’s place in practical life of modern world. Woman in terms of her nature wants t be everywhere. Therefore, kitchen’s transformation as a common space is not a missing for woman (ULUSU URAZ, ÜNSAL GÜLMEZ, 2011 p.243-244). Because, with the working life, study room which is belong to man has opened to woman’s use and woman who had a say in certain areas in traditional life has started to be effective in all spaces. 4. SPACE SOLUTİONS FOR WOMAN 4.1. Woman Factor in Space Design Although the old history of the feminist propaganda, it’s influence on architecture is quite a new. This influence is still in debatable position nowadays. The most important reference in research related to women is Erik Clarkson and his studies. In the study by Erik Erikson highlight the differences between the sexes, he suggests that women design peaceful and indoor spaces whereas men design extroverted and aggressive spaces. We can classify the studies about the woman by basing the ÖYMEN GÜL and YALÇINKAYA EROL’S study in 2013 named House While Woman Grows as follows 7 article; • Gender differences in design approaches • Sexuality and formal analogies • Women and Culture • Space understanding of gender-based forms • Globalization, the exchange of women and legislation • Woman's place before and after in modern architecture • Remaining woman in architectural applications Unless women’s participation is provided to urban planning and architectural design, woman cannot become a part of this matter. It is possible to solve the problems about the women with incorporating them. Woman design more useful and inclusive spaces compared to man by instincts. Woman’s versatile thinking feature can be understood by space defining. For example, when men describe the kitchen only as a eating space, women describe it multi-purpose event space (ÖYMEN GÜL, YALÇINKAYA EROL, 2013 p.112). Mid spaces and multi-functions lost in the transition from traditional to modern are the area where longing for today's woman. Therefore, to adapt the mid-space to modern instead of eliminate it will be much more convenient approach. The being of spaces which can grow and change as required is very important for women who have a need for maternity and care of the task still on.

4.2. Female-Oriented Design Houses are places that woman can change it according to needs of them. For urban design and large-scale places, involving woman afterwards unless suspected her first is a painful process. Therefore, at the beginning making design for all section of society is the main task of designers. While women are involved into this process, how she use that places or what she needs in that places should be questioned realistic. For example, like concepts that child care and providing the needs of family member, it should be included in urban design (ALKAN, 1999 p.24). It is an important step for it that involving kindergartens and nursery necessarily into the design at industrial areas for women in our country. Distances of women’s between home and working areas should be planned conceivable. Also designing home-office for women working at home or increased and planned local kindergarten in special areas by states in close distance are considered as a solution. Planned the shopping center available for public transport make woman easily to shop tasks loaded them.

Another major problem is violence against the woman and abuse of woman. But with the intervention in the planning, these problems can be minimized. Preventions for it can be listed as follow (ALKAN, 1999 p.24);  Removal of underpass  Increasing street lighting  Removed deaf high fragmentation from places or separated it with the hole  Planning private parking for public place instead of large multi-storey car parks  Designing the women’s refuge adequately for the women’s needs  Including commercial and housing areas together in planning instead of planning them separately  To minimize the blind spot and the dead-end street  Reproduction of urban gathering and recreation areas 5. CONCLUSION The Industrial Revolution is one of the most important events affecting the distribution of the gender roles. Women’s participation to the working life has changed the location of woman and family existed for hundreds of years so this has led to radical changes in architecture. It has been recognized that women protected and living belonged specializes spaces did not think as a user in public spaces with using them. Struggle of been as a user was added to request of equal pay and equal rights. Especially in recent years, even there have been improvement for the women’s status with the increased public awareness and support; it is not so easy to break-down the old-formed traditions. Women, especially after maternity, lives dilemmas, discrimination in design and lacks of space cause leaving of women from work, so they maintain their life motherhood and care oriented. They often state that it is their own choice but it is a fact that the situation would be very different if there were any trouble restricted women. About it, the main task belongs to states and local management. Woman- friendly management and planning have great importance for the state and women’s future. REFERENCES Alkan A., 2009, Giriş: Cinsiyet Dinamiklerinin Peşinden Mekanın İzini Sürmek, Cins Cins Mekan, İstanbul, Varlık Press Alkan A., 1999, Toplumsal Cinsiyet ve Kent Planlaması, Ankara Ü. SBF Journal 54-4 Alkan Bala H.,2015, Toplumsal Cinsiyet Adaleti Bağlamında Kentsel Mekânlarda Kadının Görünürlülüğü-Konya Örneği, Social Gender Justice Congress, İstanbul Alkan Kormaz S., 2011, Medya, Cinsiyet ve Mimarlık: Televizyon Reklamlarında Mutfak Temsil Biçimlerinin Cinsiyet Bağlamında Okunması, D.E.Ü. Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, İzmir Alpago C., 2006, Kadına Yönelik Şiddet ve Kadın Sığınma Evleri Olgusu, İTÜ Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü Yüksek Lisans Tezi, İstanbul Altay Baykan D., 2015, Yerel Yönetimler için Kadın Dostu Kent Planlaması ve Tasarım İlkeleri, Uzerler Press, Ankara Arat Y.,1998, Türkiye’de Modernleşme Projesi ve Kadınlar,Türkiye'de Modernleşme ve Ulusal Kimlik, Tarih Vakfı Yurt Press, İstanbul Çakir S., 2009, Osmanlı’da Kadınların Mekanı, Cins Cins Mekan, Varlık Press, İstanbul Demirbaş G., 2012, Kadınların Mekan Algısı ve Mekanı Kullanma Biçimleri, Trakya Ü. Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Edirne Harmankaya H., 2015, Osmanlı Dönemi Oryantalist Resimlerde Görülen Kadın Figürleri ve Giyim Özellikleri, International Journal of ScienceCultureandSport, Special Issue on theProceedings of the 4th ISCS Conference Ince Güney Y., 2009, Konutta Mekansal Organizasyon ve Toplumsal Cinsiyet: Yirminci Yüzyıl Ankara Apartmanları, Cins Cins Mekan, Varlık Press, İstanbul Jarvis H., Kantor P., Jonathan C., 2012, Kent ve Toplumsal Cinsiyet, Dipnot Press, İstanbul Kayasü S., 2002, Kadın ve Mekan Etkileşimi, Mimarlık ve Kadın Kimliği, Boyut Press, İstanbul Loos A., 2015, Mimarlık Üzerine Çev: Tümertekin a., Ülner n., Janus yayıncılık, İstanbul Öymen Gür Ş., Yalçinkaya Erol Ş., 2012, Ev: Kadın Büyürken,Selçuk ÜniversitesiInternational Journal of Architecture and Planning Volume:1 Issue:2, Konya Şentürk L., 2009, Eril Kente Dönüş, Cins Cins Mekan, Varlık Press, İstanbul Türkün Dostoğlu N., 2002, Mimarlıkta Kadının Rolü: Dünyaya ve Türkiye’ye Genel Bakış, Mimarlık ve Kadın Kimliği, Boyut Press, İstanbul Ulusu Uraz T.,Ünsal Gülmez N., 2011, Cinsiyet Rollerinin Etkinlik Arenası Olarak Konut Mekanı ve Cinsiyetsizleşmesi Üzerine, Mekan ve Kültür, Kültür Araştırmaları Derneği, Ankara Ünsal Gülmez N., Ulusu Uraz T., 2006, Modernist Konut Tasarımında Kadın Figürü, Kadın Çalışmaları Dergisi Cilt:1 Sayı:2, İstanbul.

DISCOVERING THE ARCHITECTURAL PRINCIPLES FOR TRANSFORMATION OF PLACE TO SPACE: DESIGNING “KITCHENS” FOR CITIES ÖZLEM KARAKUL Assist.Prof.Dr., Selçuk University

ABSTRACT The cultural meanings assigned by people help to transform spaces to place. This study intends to discover the process of transforming space to place in a reverse order in a process of designing city kitchens for particular places by deciphering those meanings. This paper uses the concept of “city kitchen” as a specific name searched for a complicated function comprising the functions of restaurant, the bazaar of local products and the exhibition of cities The culinary culture of societies has reflected on the spatial organization of buildings during history and established an architectural identity in the forms of restaurants in last 150 years. Certain foods come forward in the culinary culture of cities. Designing a city kitchen need to consider these prominent foods and to reflect the soul of cities considering its physical and cultural aspects. In contrast to restaurants having an architectural identity, the bazaars of local products have still not defined in any architectural forms in spite of its rapid increase in number in cities in recent years in Turkey. The spatial response of the bazaars of local products needs to include both certain spaces for selling and eating besides its significant role of representing the city. The idea for designing a “kitchen” of place has emerged from a search for the spatial response of the bazaars of local products within the function of restaurant. This paper aims to discuss the concept of “city kitchens” within the ongoing discussions of designing particular to place and try to put forward certain principles for contextual design by exemplifying a process of an interior design studio. Keywords: Space, place, city kitchen, design INTRODUCTION: SPACE-PLACE Ongoing discussions on space and place share a common understanding that “space” become “place” when people attach to meaning to it (Balamir, Uraz, 2006, p.2). Those meanings are shaped within the intangible values, like, cultural practices and expressions, of different cultural environments. Besides the physical features, places embody various cultural meanings and practices to be used as design criteria by interpretation (ICOMOS 2003, 1999; UNESCO, 2005). To design the harmonious new buildings in different historical contexts or spaces within buildings, it needs to understand those meanings shared by local people accurately. The culinary culture of societies as a significant part of their living culture is composed of various meanings and cultural practices of inhabitants affecting the architectural characteristics of the place. This study mainly focuses on the culinary culture of the different places to understand their effects on designing the interior spaces of the related buildings, restaurants. By exemplifying the interpretation processes of place to be used in interior design in different student projects, the study intends to make a general understanding about the transformation process of place to space. This study uses the concept of “city kitchen” to express the specific buildings fulfilling a mixed function including restaurants, the bazaar of local products and the exhibition of cities. The Culinary Culture of Cities: Towards the Concept of “City Kitchen” Culinary culture constitutes a significant aspect of the identity of historic places with its defining quality over architectural language. Besides being subject of conservation related to its effects over architecture, it is also worth conserving as a part of “intangible cultural heritage”, specifically as, the cooking and eating practices, knowledge, skills – as well as the instruments, objects, artefacts, as pointed in the UNESCO 2003 Convention (UNESCO, 2003). As highlighted in the convention, the conservation of intangible cultural heritage is intimately linked with its practice and its transmission for new generations besides their documentation. With regard to the documentation and inventory of intangible cultural heritage, the UNESCO committee prepares specific lists of intangible cultural heritage in need of urgent safeguarding and the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity. Up to now, 9 elements related to culinary practices and national cuisines from different countries, 3 of which are from Turkey, have registered in the lists prepared

by UNESCO4. These elements are Lavash, the preparation, meaning and appearance of traditional bread as an expression of culture in Armenia, Turkish coffee culture and tradition, Washoku, traditional dietary cultures of the Japanese, notably for the celebration of New Year, Mesir Macunu festival, Ceremonial Keşkek tradition, Gastronomic meal of the French, Traditional Mexican cuisine - ancestral, ongoing community culture, the Michoacán paradigm, Mediterranean diet, Arabic coffee, a symbol of generosity. Culinary practices in traditional environments are completely the products of women’s knowledge and creativity in using local foods, vegetables, fruits and handling specific instruments by using different techniques. In this regard, their conservation and continuation in modern life styles, is directly related to the sustainability of the activity of practitioners in original spaces, specifically designed for cooking and eating practices. Thereby, it needs to understand culinary practices considering their practitioners, the ways of practices, know-how, techniques and the equipment used for producing different cuisines. The culinary culture is a significant part of the living culture of societies as a branch of culture (Talas, 2005, p.275) to be investigated as an interface in which physical characteristics and cultural practices and expressions within environments have continuously been interrelated (Karakul, 2011). The culinary activities are actually a part of working activities within traditional dwellings as a part of domestic activities in historic environments. But, the culinary culture of societies has reflected on the spatial organization of dwellings during history and established an architectural identity in the forms of restaurants in last 150 years. The culinary culture of different countries or cities can be intimately related with national or local cuisines in which a great variety of culinary techniques, skills, customs and manners of people are embodied. The cities of Turkey are considerably rich with regard to their culinary culture presenting a great variety of cuisines. “Turkish cuisine” is defined as “the totality of foods and beverages which provide nutrition to the people living in Turkey, the ways of preparing and preserving them; techniques, equipment and utensils required for this, eating manners and all the practices and beliefs which are developed around this cuisine” by the Turkey’s Ministry of Culture and Tourism 5. The different culinary techniques of the different cities need different spatial characteristics, architectural elements, tools and equipment. The spatial representation of these varieties in culinary culture in architecture necessitates making a new definition of the concept of local or national restaurant. This study tries to make a new definition of a mixed function serving as a restaurant, exhibition and bazaars of local products as “City Kitchen”. PROJECTS The studio project in the fall semester of the 2015-2016 academic year in the department of interior architecture in Selçuk University addressed to solve the problem of designing city kitchens within a given building to understand how the design process affected over the consciousness of students about the relationship between place and space, the representation of the physical and cultural characteristics of cities in the projects. The studio discussions mainly focused on the spatial aspects of culinary culture particular to a city or country. Students were asked to solve a design problem of interior design of the given building, The Bookstore Building in Middle East Technical University, which has been designed by Behruz Çinici in 19806 and constructed by the columns with mushroom-shaped tops supported floor-slabs and brick masonry walls, as, “city kitchen” or, “country kitchen”. At the beginning of the studio, the students were first given the architectural drawings of the METU Bookstore building, previously prepared. There were four phases of the studio for the students: (1) literature search on Turkey’s cities and different countries and their culinary culture (2) selection of the cities or countries to be studied, (3) preparation of the program of city kitchen considering restaurant, exhibition and bazaars functions together, and, (4) the development of an original conceptual approach and the designing process. Through the design stages, the students were expected to develop a conceptual approach about how to integrate the culinary culture of the selected cities in interior design of the building, to prepare the building programs and the requirement lists and functional relations, to make the spatial analyses of the building.

4 Lists of Intangible Cultural Heritage, http://www.unesco.org/culture/ich/en/lists 5 “Culinary culture”, See web site of Turkey’s Ministry of Culture and Tourism https://www.kultur.gov.tr/EN,98790/culinaryculture.html 6 See “Behruz Çinici”, http://v2.arkiv.com.tr/m34-behruz-cinici.html

Figure 1. Student projects Within the scope of this paper, 27 student projects were handled with regard to their design approaches related to the elements of the culinary culture of cities or countries selected. The cities studied in the projects are Hatay, Bursa, Trabzon, Gaziantep, Bolu, Konya, Şirince, Bursa, Adana, Eskişehir, Tekirdağ. The countries studied in the projects are China, Mexico, France, Greece, Yemen, Italy, Thailand, Spain, Sweden, India. Here, three of the projects are explained and exemplified in detail. The first design work7 focuses on designing a city kitchen for Hatay. The main design approach is mainly based on exhibiting a great variety of the elements of culinary culture and traditional architecture of Hatay and performing their cooking process with the skilled hands of cookers and serving Hatay’s cuisines without destroying the architectural significance of the building. Trying to exhibit the building as much as possible, in the work, the designer adopts an open planning approach for eating halls, some part of kitchen, to show the specific and local ways of cooking, and spaces for sale of local products except for the service spaces, kitchen and some special eating halls. Another attempt of the designer of the project for the achievement of being harmony with the architectural elements of the building is the stylization of the windows of traditional Hatay’s buildings in the facade arrangement.

7

The project was designed by Elçin Yıldız.

Figure 2. Hatay City Kitchen The second project8 focuses on Thailand kitchen inspiring from nature and plants. Inspiring from the idea of vivarium, the design approach of this design work is mainly based on the idea of reflecting the tranquility and peace of nature and plants on interior design approaches. Adopting the respect for nature as a main idea, the designer tries to create a nature friendly environment within building by using the tree form as a basic design element. By wrapping mushroom columns with timber elements and using trees as a decorative element, the designer tries to create a peaceful environment to eat Thailand cuisines. Trying to support the architectural integrity of the building as much as possible, in the work, the designer adopts an open planning approach for eating halls, some part of kitchen, to show the specific and local ways of Thailand cuisine except for the service spaces, kitchen and some special eating halls.

8

The project was designed by Ayşegül Şahin.

Figure 3. Thailand Country Kitchen The third design work9 focuses on designing a country kitchen for Japan. Inspiring from the simplicity and minimalism in the traditional architecture of Japan, the designer uses certain traditional timber architectural elements called in a contemporary way as the partitions among the tables in eating halls to create a semi-private environment for customers. In the design work, there are certain special cooking spaces for sushi, which has a significant place in Japan’s cuisine, in the kitchen. Trying to exhibit the building as much as possible, in the work, the designer adopts an open planning approach for eating halls, some part of kitchen, to show the specific and local ways of cooking, specifically sushi, and spaces for sale of local products except for the service spaces, kitchen and some special eating halls.

Figure 4. Japan Country Kitchen 9

The project was designed by Ümmügülsüm Aydın.

EVALUATION-DISCUSSION AND RESULTS The culinary culture is a significant aspect of the identity of historic places with regard to both its defining quality over architectural language and its aspects being intangible cultural heritage. Due to its relationship with both tangible and intangible aspects of historic environments, it needs to be conserved with regard to its expressions on architecture and, know-how, skills, tools and utensils used for culinary practices as an intangible heritage. The continuity of the culinary practices is also a significant conservation measure to guarantee its transmission from generation to generation. Arising from these approaches, this study tried to understand the space-place relationship in design process focusing on the culinary cultures of particular cities or countries by exemplifying the student projects prepared in the department of interior architecture in Selçuk University. The common approach of the student projects was mainly based on exhibiting a great variety of the elements of culinary culture of different cities or countries and performing culinary process without any disruption of the originality and integrity of the building. Trying to exhibit the building as much as possible, the designers mostly adopted an open planning approach for eating halls, some part of kitchen, to show the specific and local ways of cooking, and spaces for sale of local products except for the service spaces, kitchen and some special eating halls. The design process provided to raise the consciousness of students about the relationship between place and space, the representation of the physical and cultural characteristics of cities in the projects. REFERENCES Balamir, A., Uraz, T.U. (2006). Themes of Places and Spaces in Design Teaching: a Joint Studio Experiment in Amasya. METU, JFA, 23/1, 1-18. ICOMOS. 2003. Place, memory, meaning: preserving intangible values in monuments and sites. 14th General Assembly and Scientific Symposium. October. Victoria Falls, Zimbabwe. ICOMOS. 1999. The Australia ICOMOS Charter for the Conservation of Places of Cultural Significance: the Burra Charter. Burra. South Australia. Retrieved July 27, 2010, from http://www.nsw.nationaltrust.org.au/burracharter.html. Karakul, Ö. (2013). A Holistic Approach to Historic Environments: Integrating Tangible and Intangible Values, Germany: Lap Lambert Academic Publishing. Karakul, Ö. (2011). A Holistic Approach to Historic Environments Integrating Tangible and Intangible Values Case Study: İbrahimpaşa Village in Ürgüp, METU., Department of Architecture, Graduate program of restoration, PhD Thesis. Talas, M. 2005. “Tarihi Süreçte Türk Beslenme Kültürü ve Mehmet Eröz’e Göre Türk Yemekleri”, Türkiyat Araştırmaları Dergisi, Selçuk Üniversitesi, p.273-283. UNESCO. (2005). Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions. October 20. Paris. Retrieved December 23, 2004, from http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0014/001429/142919e.pdf UNESCO. (2003). Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage. 32nd Session of the General Conference. September 29- October 17. Paris. Retrieved December 23, 2004, from http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0013/001325/132540e.pdf Lists of Intangible Cultural Heritage, http://www.unesco.org/culture/ich/en/lists “Culinary culture”, Turkey’s Ministry of Culture and Tourism https://www.kultur.gov.tr/EN,98790/culinary-culture.html “Behruz Çinici”, http://v2.arkiv.com.tr/m34-behruz-cinici.html

A CONVERSATION ON VIRTUAL SPACES AND SPATIAL EXPANSION WITH A FOCUS ON VIDEO GAMES J.C.RAI Cyprus International University, Lefkoşa, Kıbrıs [email protected]

Keywords: invented space, digital playground, open-world games, virtual space ABSTRACT With the exponential acceleration of the number of people using personalized devices, they have become ubiquitous, catering for our newfound desire for constant entertainment. This reality affects our understanding of “invented space” and how we experience it, each in his separate digital world. Mixed reality entertainment is introducing a new dimension in spatial recognition. This development is having implications on architectural spaces were the user is being detached from their surrounding and displaced in time. The relationship between the designer and the player is being upgraded to the liaison between the player and the machine itself. In that sense, the user is constructing a virtual world that allows the player to explore the design of narratives while being entertained for hours on end. The theoretical enunciation of such a phenomenon introduces the concept of “game immersive architecture”. Looking from a designer’s view at innovations in the gaming industry: aesthetics, scenery, spatiality and environments in digital playground. The transcendence of time and scenery in games have different kinds of multitude experiences that show interactivity between characters and architectural spaces. Understanding the transformation of how space is defined and developed is made visible through navigating invented spaces of open world games. This phenomenology collapses the order of the Cartesian thought with the rigid separation between subject and object. The real versus the illusion is a shifting domain in contemporary spatial recognition trapped between the game and the discipline of the material world. Read in spatial terms, augmented reality is a contemporary innovation questioning the general epistemology of spatial expansion in the field of gaming and architecture.

ARCHITECTURAL IMAGE IN CINEMA TÜRKAN NİHAN HACIÖMEROĞLU Türkan Nihan Hacıömeroğlu, Research Assistant PhD, Eskişehir Osmangazi University, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Department of Architecture

ABSTRACT The prosperity of an architectural design cannot be evaluated only by its physical functionality but also the fictional and representative power of it. The latter feature of architecture is an important component of design both as an input and as an outcome. To understand this aspect of architecture, it is necessary to use the help of different media. The aim of this study is to understand the fictional and representative power of architecture. Since cinema embraces both physical and representative aspects of architecture it is convenient to carry out the research through the mediation of cinema. Architecture and cinema have similarities and differences. These variable tangents between the two media provoke the prospects of each other and inspire a non-stop change. There are continuities and discontinuities between the perception of space in architecture and cinema. While architecture has continuity in scale, the cinema has continuity in perception. It is necessary to interrogate these continuities and discontinuities affect the concept of experience since both media has different approaches to space. Throughout this study the architectural image is intended to be interpreted through the concept of city and architectural components in science fiction cinema through a case study in order to have a concrete discussion ground. Metamorphosis of these concepts; city, public space, street, entrance, point of interaction, movement, collective memory, the exterior, the interior, verticality, elevation, iconography and estrangement, is studied in order to understand how cinema convert architectural images into representative tools in the narrative. Keywords: Architectural image, architectural representation, city, cinema. INTRODUCTION It is known that there is a close mutual relation between cinema and architecture. There are many works questioning the reason, the development and outcomes of this relation. The questions on the affects of the outcome of this interrelation on contemporary life can be answered with different approaches. While a study on “cinema in architecture” might give answers to the power and influence of cinema on contemporary life through different media, a study on “architecture in cinema” might help to reveal the fictional and representative power of architecture. Like all other mass mediums cinema holds a great power of influence. This important feature of cinema has long been noticed and used for different purposes. As François Penz stated “Architects have long been involved in the world of cinema; in particular, in the 20s and 30s when architects were trying to promote the modern movement through the pictures.” (Penz, 2000 pp.38-41) Many documentaries had been shot during this period involving social and economical problems. After these documentaries, different types of movies came out, mostly related to the concepts of ‘city’, ‘metropolis’ and ‘modernism’. The joint venture between architecture and cinema also resulted with promising outcomes since the similar features that allow both mediums to work together efficiently. As the architect Robert Mallet-Stevens observed in 1925 “Modern architecture does not only serve the cinematographic set (decor), but imprints its stamp on the staging (mise-en-scene), it breaks out of its frame; architecture 'plays.'” (Mallet-Stevens, 1925 p.288) Of course, for filmmakers (like Sergei Eisenstein) originally trained as architects, the filmic art offered the potential to develop a new architecture of time and space unfettered by the material constraints of gravity and daily life. Film thus also provided the only realm in which one of the central dogmas of architectural modernism could be readily fulfilled, the notion that form and function are logically and inextricably connected. (Neumann, 1998 p.8) Katherine Shonfield approaches the relation between cinema and architecture from a different angle. “What happens if we accept that architecture does tangibly exist, not as a pristine, impervious whole, but in the perception of the beholder? If fictional representations of the architecture and the city are understood as the architectural equivalent of the dream record, then their entire status can change. This does not mean that literature codes are directly applied to spaces – because, as Lefebvre says, this would reduce the space “to the status of a message and he inhabiting of it to the status of a reading. But, currently, fictions are accepted at best as interesting, but subordinate, parallel commentaries to mainstream architectural history. This official history uses the vocabulary of specialist knowledge – formal, constructional and so on – to present the profession’s assertions in irreproachable terms. By contrast, the modern fictional voice starts from the admission that its narrative is personal and one among many. The following analytical possibilities exist in using fiction to decipher space. The use of fiction within architectural theory assumes that the reader can, as when watching a film voluntarily suspend their own disbelief. Thus, far-reaching structural connections can be understood at one and the same time as fictional, and for the duration of the argument, be accepted as absolutely true. The implication is that the

fiction has a peculiarly transgressive role in challenging the primacy of specialist.” (Shonfield, 2000 pp.160-161) Science fiction genre has a particular position in this interrelation. To narrate a story science fiction creates a fictional world that is based on scientific foundations; either it is a fact or a prediction. Even most of the plots seem like unbelievable overstatements; more often than not they take references from contemporary occurrences. Science fiction genre collaborates with architecture to create this fictional world, concrete enough to be imaginable and imaginary enough to be efficient. Common Concepts and Case Study Janet Staiger states “One of the most immediate signifiers of the genre of science fiction is the representation of a known city in which readily distinguishable sections of today's cityscape are present while other parts are rewritten”. (Staiger, 1999 p.97) Los Angeles and New York are one of the most common cities in science fiction movies. Either with resemblance –Just Imagine has been build after the directors visit to New York- or by name in another time. To create a mutual language a world wide known city as stated above – New York City – is selected as the case study subject. New York City is a known figure in popular culture, has strategic importance in the world and a frequently used location in science fiction cinema. Initially the study will be based on a discussion over cinema architecture relationship and the effects of these two mediums on each other. Subsequently architectural image in architecture and cinema will be studied through several concepts related to both mediums. While the movies will be used to represent the architectural images in cinema, actual New York City will be used to represent architectural image in real architecture. The selected movies represent three different time-city relations: 1. New York City in close future, close past: Escape from New York (1981), I am a legend (2007), etc. 2. New York City in far future, far past: The Fifth Element (1997), Immortal ad Vitam (2004) etc. 3. Fictitious cities influenced by New York City: Metropolis (1927), Batman (1989), etc. It is not expected all of these movies to have an imaginary city set up since it is also important to study the interpretation of contemporary architecture in these movies as oppose to real life. For movies without any information on the time of the narrative, this time is assumed as the same as production of the movie. The practical part of the research is based on the analyses of various architectural concepts used repetitively in the selected movies. Since all selected movies differentiate in the plot and time but use the same location it is assumed as an effective process for interpreting the reconstructed architectural image. According to their approach to cinema and architecture four concepts are chosen to analyse the movies. These are city as an image, city scale, corporeal experiences and movement in the city. The first concept “city as an image” interrogates the relationship between the city, its inhabitants and collective memory. The city abandons its physical appearance and its primary meaning and embraces a more abstract image. It undergoes a semantic change. It is also the result of the limitations of cinematic medium. The city becomes the symbol for more than one asset to perpetuate the narrative in a limited amount of frame (and time). Since the city fill up the frame completely it also has to contain clues for off-screen images. In a single frame New York City can represent a person and the whole world at the same time. Individual architectural elements like skyscrapers, statues and public structures with a specific function such as libraries and theatres slip off from their functions obtain new ones and new meanings. They have become icons just like the city itself. These architectural elements are reconstructed in the collective memory of the community. Besides known images such as The Statue of Liberty, Empire State Building or Chrysler Building (three widely known architectural structures) less known architectural pieces are used frequently in order to create the necessary atmosphere with the reconstruction of its image in a new environment based on its primary function and the meaning laid on it. New York Public Library serves not as a wisdom castle but as a shelter for the victims of natural disaster in The Day After Tomorrow (2004) and shelter for criminals in Escape from New York (1981). The ruins of the library in Beneath the Planet of Apes (1970) symbolize the end of human civilization where in the Escape from New York (1981) it witnesses and/or give a hand to the birth of a new civilization. The city is a living organism. It is the ruler and the labourer. It talks with its inhabitants, answers questions and most of the time dictates. (Figures 1-2)

Figure 1. New York Public Library. Still from The Day After Tomorrow (2004)

Figure 2. Ruins of New York Public Library. Still from Beneath the Planet of Apes (1970) The city also works as a medium of communication. It bears two meanings. The first one involves communication/commercial boards. New York City, especially Manhattan is full of billboards. The bright, shiny, colourful image of these boards in Times Square at night is widely known. It is an element used continuously in science fiction cinema. However, these boards embrace more meanings in cinema than real life. The communication boards are not only advertisement tools but also control elements; they watch, they talk, they advice or warn, and they manipulate. The first examples can be seen in Metropolis (1927). In Equilibrium (2002) there are gigantic boards talking to and brain washing the crowd. There are hanging and moving boards in the Immortal Ad Vitam (2004) which seem like interacting directly with the inhabitants. Sometimes even buildings themselves become boards as in The Fifth Element (1997), The McDonalds Building. They do not necessarily have to be material boards but semi transparent lights in the air suddenly form letters and vanish all at once. (Figures 3-4)

Figure 3. Communication Boards. Still from Equilibrium (2002)

Figure 4. Communication Boards. Still from Immortal Ad Vitam (2004) The second meaning is concerned with one of the main subjects of architectural design. The buildings themselves are the medium of communication. They communicate through their designs. The city is full of eye-catching designs yet each and every one of them fights for being unique. The buildings in the science fiction movies also fight for the same attraction. The main building in Equilibrium (2002), the tower of Metropolis (1927), and the Zorg Building in The Fifth Element (1997) are seeking uniqueness to interact through their designs. They communicate with the inhabitants as the tallest, the most frightening, the most attractive, and the most powerful or through whatever meaning is meant to be given to them. The buildings speak for themselves without the boards talking. We see a similar act in real world. The companies that built skyscrapers fight for the title of tallness or uniqueness in New York City and in the world not for the title itself but for the prestige and the advertisement that it would bring to the company. The second concept “city scale” is based on the interaction between the city and its inhabitants. The modern city becomes bigger than the sum of its components. The city does not consist of only buildings and living things but various existences has to be taken notice of when analysing the city and architectural scale. The life forms; humans and animals (the other creatures such as ghosts and extra-terrestrial existences, under the title of life forms can be reduced to aliens/strangers to the city whom do not know the customs or prefer to interact with the city in a different way than its inhabitants due to their own cultural and ethnic backgrounds), the inorganic immobile existences; architectural structures (buildings, statues, and bridges), geographical elements; earth, water, valleys, hills and inorganic mobile existences; automobiles, planes, choppers, ships, all kinds of machines, elevators, commercial signs, vending machines and traffic lights. City scale is about the alienation of inhabitants to the city they live. In modern cities, the scale of the city expanding both horizontally and vertically limits the area of mobility and forces the residents to create their own restricted environments to live and to work. It is based on both physical and psychological contact of people with architectural elements. Highrise, big-scaled structures limit the points of interaction. The residents contact only with the main entrance of the building

and the interior although the interior plans cause sense of orientation to be lost. In the end design of a single structure split in different various processes based on limits of interactions between the user and the structure. New York City is a metropolis for eight million people. The urban elevation changes from outer boroughs to the centre. The suburbs are full with two story high houses with gardens, then closer to the centre there are four or five story high apartment blocks and finally the centre has hundred story high giant buildings. Just like the beast the frame cannot capture both the human and the building completely. It is possible to say that the building has a place in the city –and this can be seen clearly- but human does not. Humans interact with these buildings on the inside or at the street level. In science fiction cinema the gigantism of the buildings is even more exaggerated but the interaction between the human and the architectural scales is planned. There are six hundred storey high buildings in The Fifth Element (1997) but the terrace like bridges exist at different levels. The flying vehicles allow the inhabitants to reach any level easily and this result with more than one entrance beside the main entrance for each building. (Figure 5) People contact with buildings through more than one gate. Although the New York City in Immortal Ad Vitam (2004) has similar properties flying vehicles are limited with a cable system that transports them from one main entrance to another. So the buildings have proper entrances, which the humans can interact. They do not have terrace like bridges but actual pathways on different levels serving for transportation on foot. Therefore, although the buildings are still gigantic in Immortal Ad Vitam (2004) they are more close to human scale at several levels than the buildings in The Fifth Element (1997). (Figure 6) In Metropolis (1927) and Just Imagine (1930) despite the scale of the buildings the city has ground levels (or several lower levels) for transportation of the pedestrians. This can work as a base to make the comparison between human and building scales. (Figure 7) But in movies like The Fifth Element (1997) it is almost impossible to make a comparison since there is no base of the city. Contemporary architecture does not have to deal with flying cars yet but the point of admissions of the buildings rise with increasing variety of transportation vehicles; automobiles into garages, helicopters on heliports and external elevators. In psychological aspect the inhabitants lost the perception of the city as a whole. While a new comer to the city can grasp the city image from outside (from air or sea) but can not comprehend the domesticities, the insider lost his control over the city and convicted to a life steered by the city itself.

Figure 5. Flying vehicles and their entrances. Still from The Fifth Element (1997)

Figure 6. Main entrance above ground. Still from Immortal ad Vitam (2004)

Figure 7. Different levels of transportation for pedestrians and vehicles. Still from Just Imagine (1930) The third concept “corporeal experiences” studies the architectural elements and their reconstruction in the medium of cinema in two headlines, verticality and groundless city. From solid to abstract the elements are re-construed, functionality gives its place to representation. Skyscraper; a structure built to raise the efficiency of narrow areas and a solution to housing problems turns into the symbol of verticality where it represents various meanings changing through time. The life in New York City is vertical both physically and lifestyle wise. One can either go up or down. The ground level is the bridge between these vacillations. This is the first thing about New York City that visitors become aware of. Even though the whole city is not build upwards this is the image that New York City cannot be separated from. The life in the city runs from outer boroughs to the centre and there, goes from below to upwards. In the city buildings always block the sky. City of Metropolis from The Metropolis (1927) is the impression of New York City. Extremely tall buildings form a giant vertical city within itself. There are other directors than Fritz Lang whom are inspired by this feature of the city and developed futuristic representations based on it. David Butler’s Just Imagine (1933) was designed after the director’s visit to New York City. It is an exaggerated representation of the city but convincing enough to make believe the future New York City in the 1980s can be like this. The verticality of New York City reconstructed in science fiction cinema is not only a physical feature. Various meanings have been added to this concept since long time. In Cities on the Edge of Time: The Urban Science-Fiction Film Vivian Sobchack writes about some common usage of urban elements through the history of science fiction cinema. According to Sobchack the 1930s verticality is emphasized as a symbol of developments in technology, wealth and social status and class conflicts just like in Metropolis (1927), Just Imagine (1930) and King Kong (1933). While this is clearer in the first two movies, it is mostly hinted in King Kong (1933). In the 50s, verticality does not symbolize the wealth and technological improvements anymore but the self-destructive nature of mankind. The vertical cities, the image of the technological ascent, are now empty. (Sobchack, 1999 pp.128-129) In The World, the Flesh and

the Devil (1959) the African American protagonist of the movie confronts with an empty New York City after surviving from a man-made epidemic disaster. His lonely image in front of giant buildings and the surprised expression on his face emphasize the incredibility of the situation. In a recent movie with a similar plot I Am a Legend (2007) another African American protagonist survives a plague caused by a man-made virus which wiped out most of the world’s population in 2009 and lives in the nearly-empty New York City with his dog till 2012. This time, the image of the empty city is suppressed by the new life forms on the ground level, the nature – wild animals and plants and as the result of the catastrophe, mutated humans – zombies. In the 60s and 70s according to Sobchack it is no longer about verticality but horizontality. Where the buildings go vertically, the life goes horizontally. The overcrowded cities are full of people on the streets, alleys and any empty place that exists. In Soylent Green (1973), the image of a person looking up to see the sky blocked by the skyscrapers now turn into the image of one looking downwards to see the city but blocked by the huge wave of people in the year 2022. In her opinion in 80s the whole inner city turns into a prison; architectural symbols have fallen in ruins. The verticality of the city is now the symbol of failure of the mankind. It is not about what is going on the top of the city but what is going on in the dark alleys between the giant buildings. The verticality of the city is emphasizing the need to see what is hidden underneath (in between) it. In 90s urban experience goes over the edge. The bonds between time and space are reduced just like the bonds between time and memory. (Sobchack, 1999) In The Fifth Element (1997), New York City no longer has limits both upwards and downwards. The city has the image of infinity. A similar image of the city in Immortal Ad Vitam (2004) emphasizes this infinity although it has an end on the sky and on the ground, the Central Park. Groundless City questions the concept of ground as a public area. The street concept is diminished. Inhabitants loose their gathering privileges in a city without a ground. In The Fifth Element (1997) the New York City in the year 2259 seems groundless. It is not possible to see the bottom, which is hidden underneath the fog. A similar image is depicted in Immortal Ad Vitam (2004). The New York City in 2095 seems groundless. Both movies have similar shots regarding this concept with different implications. Concept of groundless city embarks more meanings besides its physical feature. In the post-apocalyptic movie, The Day After Tomorrow (2004) New York City is flooded which prevents the people to move around. This changes the balance of the relationship between the city and its inhabitants. It is not possible to interact with the city in such a condition. The flooded – groundless- city turns into a prison. Another groundless New York City in the not-so-far future of A.I. (2001) completely breaks the bonds between civilization and mankind. A groundless city looses its public areas. The street concept is diminished. Inhabitants loose their gathering privileges in a city without a ground. Exterior architecture converts from functional to restrictive. Estrangement and isolation give rise to violation and loss of control. The actual New York City may not be literally groundless or lacking public areas but the life in the city is in a way groundless. There are no limits for the possibilities, chances and misfortunes one can face in the city. The city is unexpected, unstable and infinite. This is a physiological groundlessness rather than a physical one. The union dissolves. (Figure 8)

Figure 8. Flooded MAN-hattan. Still from A.I. (2001) The fourth concept “movement in the city” discusses how movement defines the space in the city. The changes in the direction or elevation of the movements question the interrelation between the street and the building. Urban and architectural design approaches are forced to change in order to accommodate the altered movement. It also involves the increasing dependence of people to machines for transportation purposes. This raise results with the increasing amount of machinery. Requirements for storage and parking lots create a new input in urban design. The usage of

petroleum rises while the resources in the world begin to decrease. This fluctuation in the world pressurizes rapid changes affecting urban and architectural medium. The movement in the city defines the space in the city. The moving elements are various, humans, vehicles and machines going in every direction in a three dimensional world. New York City has both vertical and horizontal movement just like other modern cities. The human movement runs vertical as much as horizontal, maybe even more. The time spent on the streets to reach from one place to another is suppressed by the time spent for living or working in huge perpendicular cities. This also adds a new indispensable company into people’s life, the machinery to move in. The developments in the architectural formation in New York City resulted with people’s dependence on machinery for transportation/movement. The size of the city prevents transportation on foot (except in the centre); the help of the cars, buses, trains and air vehicles is necessary. Regarding the height of new office and apartment complexes, the classical staircases step aside for machinery unless there is an emergency situation or a thrilling chase scene. The horizontal movement in the city has gained altitude thanks to technological improvements. There are three different level of horizontal movement in the city. First one is the ground level where both vehicles and pedestrians move from one point in the city to another, on the level of the entrances to buildings and public spaces. The second one is the middle level elevated roads for either vehicles or pedestrians used to minimize the loss of the city space where one has to go up to use and go down to re-join the life in the city; bridges, air train tracks and like wise. The third one is the top level/air level only for vehicles. New York City has an active air traffic including personal and institutional helicopters, which bring a new entrance concept –not from the bottom but from the top. They take off from and land on heliports on top of the buildings in city centre. Science fiction cinema took notice of this situation and is using it ever since. Metropolis (1927) and Just Imagine (1930) are the first known examples of different levels of movement in the city. They have ground level movement, elevated roads and air transportation. Batman lives in the Gotham City where the main transportation is an air train which first was a symbol of progress but in time turns into a less safe place. The Fifth Element (1997) minimizes pedestrian transportation and relies upon air vehicles and high speed lifts. In Equilibrium (2002) the city Libria has a ground level, air train on the middle level and a zeppelin on air but it seems to be used only for propaganda purposes. In the Sky Captain and the World of Tomorrow (2004) it is possible to see the Empire State Building being used as a station for evacuating passengers from The Hindenburg Zeppelin. The New York City of Immortal Ad Vitam (2004) contains restricted air transportation; vehicles are attached to cables and elevated roads are at middle levels for pedestrians. (Figure 9)

Figure 9. Middle level elevated roads for pedestrians. Still from Immortal Ad Vitam (2004) CONCLUSION Throughout this study the interaction between science fiction cinema and New York City is used as a tool to interrogate the reconstruction of architectural images and to understand the fictional and representative power of architecture. The architectural image is interpreted through the concept of city and architectural components in science fiction cinema. Various architectural and urban concepts are discussed based on their representations in the narrative. Metamorphosis of these concepts; city, public space, street, entrance, point of interaction, movement, collective memory, the exterior, the interior, verticality, elevation and estrangement, is studied in order to understand how cinema convert architectural images into representative tools in the narrative. Although all the concepts interrogated through New York City, it should be taken into consideration that, while New York City carries the whole characteristics of a metropolis, it also has unique features which science fiction cinema use repeatedly; the geographical condition of the city, the social life, the architectural objects, the urban texture, etc.

Architects design for everybody therefore it is possible to say that their idea of experience is ordinary. The experience in cinema is unique. The filmmakers do not see the architectural objects in the same way as architects. Cinema has the power to transform the context of an object free from its physical features. Cinema is multi-lingual. It does not only communicate with image but also with sound, movement, animation, narrative and time. Architecture is bound with physical laws. While architecture has continuity in scale, the cinema has continuity in perception. These differences cause cinema and architecture to have different prospects. The concept of experience can also be associated with physical properties since cinema enables a virtual environment but architecture is bound with physical features. As a result of this study it is realized that the affiliation of architecture with people is the key to its representational power. Through experience, collective memory and psychological influence of space on people create the suitable circumstances to change the perception of image and space arbitrarily. An important difference between architecture and cinema is the concept of pattern and texture in city. It is revealed through the study that cinematic city has a unique language in design. Although the buildings and other architectural objects stand as individuals they also form a certain pattern and texture in an urban context based on the narrative of the movie. The city ideal is emphasized through a compact image. Cinema works with repetitive images while architects have to deal with individual architectural objects and it is hardly possible to develop a collective language. The cinematic city has continuity in pattern and texture. Pattern, which is composed of ordinary buildings, can become a unique image. Another outcome of this study can be stated as the understanding of the effectiveness of science fiction cinema on improvements and developments in architecture by providing an eligible environment where architecture can play around, experiment and speculate without hindrance. NOTES This article has been completed based on the master's thesis “Reconstruction of Architectural Image in Science Fiction Cinema: A Case Study on New York” by Türkan Nihan Hacıömeroğlu which was completed in 2008 in Middle East Technical University under the supervision of Prof. Dr. Celal Abdi Güzer. REFERENCES Hacıömeroğlu, Türkan Nihan, 2008. “Reconstruction of Architectural Image in Science Fiction Cinema: A Case Study on New York”. Master’s Thesis, Ankara. METU. Mallet-Stevens, Robert, 1925. “Le Cinéma et les arts: L’Architecture” L’Herbier. Neumann, Dietrich, 1998. “Introduction.” Film architecture, set designs from Metropolis to Blade runner. Münich and New York: Prestel. Shonfield, Katherine, 2000. Walls Have Feelings: Architecture, Film and the City. London: Routledge Sobchack, Vivian, 1999. “Cities on the Edge of Time: The Urban Science-Fiction Film”. in Annette Kuhn. (ed.) Alien Zone II. New York: Verso. Staiger, Janet. 1999. “Future Noir: Contemporary Representations of Visionary Cities”. in Kuhn, Annette. (ed.) Alien Zone II. New York: Verso. Penz, François, 2000. “Cinema and architecture overlaps and counterpoints: Studio-made feature in the film industry and studio-based experiments in architectural education” Architectural Design. vol. 64, no.11-12, November-December.

EBD-EVIDENCE BASED DESIGN IN INTERIOR ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN OF HEALTHCARE SPACES EMİNE GÖRGÜL, LEVENT ÇIRPICI, TİMUÇİN ERKAN Emine Görgül, Assoc.Prof.Dr., Istanbul Technical University, School of Architecture. Levent Çırpıcı, Architect, Zoom TPU. Timuçin Erkan, Teaching and Research Assitant, Istanbul Technical University, School of Architecture.

ABSTRACT Referring to the growing importance of EBD and its key role in the healthcare design within the scope of interior architecture both discourse and praxis, this paper aims to highlight the essence of EBD, through the processes of defining the goals, generating tools and finding the relevant evidences; while on the second half, it further reveals novel implementations towards a new design studio agenda, as well as the associating studio pedagogies, through reflecting the studio process and the outputs of the 7th Semester Interior Architecture Design Studio works that were held in ITUIstanbul Technical University in collaboration with Zoom Design in Spring 2016 and opening them into a broader discussion. In this aspect, the studio brief and process; goals and objectives (of the studio); studio pedagogies, strategies and tactics; the role of participatory processes as well as professional approaches in the productivity and inspiration in interior architecture education, are all explained and discussed through three-pillared studio process, which consists of theoretical phase of data gathering and finding relevant evidence, and project development, while enriching the discussion with the selected works from the studio. Keywords: Evidence Based Design, Interior Architecture, Healthcare Design, Studio Pedagogies I. INTRODUCTION Advanced researches with in the domain of healthcare environment, in favor of ameliorating the healthcare outcomes have been growing immensely in the recent years. Yet, in the light of excessive amount of scientific studies of the pioneers like Ulrich et al. (2008) in the last decade of time, through out the potentials of classification and data mining processes of the empirical studies, the mutual connection between the environmental design of healthcare facilities and outcomes that are indispensible for patients, families, healthcare staff, and healthcare organizations (Friedow, 2012). Departing from this major concerns, which also grows an increasing awareness and understanding about the healing environments, and its keen relation to “improve patient outcomes and create a safe, nurturing, and positive work environment” (Goertz, et al. 2008), evidence based design approach-“the process of founding the decisions about the built environment on credible research to achieve the best possible outcomes” becomes the essence of contemporary design paxis in healthcare design as well as the core of the teaching agenda of the design studios (Friedow, 2012). Thus, referring to the growing importance of EBD and its key role in the healthcare design within the scope of interior architecture both discourse and praxis, this paper aims to highlight the essence of EBD, through the processes of defining the goals, generating tools and finding the relevant evidences; while on the second half, it further reveals novel implementations towards a new design studio agenda, as well as the associating studio pedagogies, through reflecting the studio process and the outputs of the 7th Semester Interior Architecture Design Studio works that were held in ITUIstanbul Technical University in collaboration with Zoom Design in Spring 2016 and opening them into a broader discussion. In this aspect, the studio brief and process; goals and objectives (of the studio); studio pedagogies, strategies and tactics; the role of participatory processes as well as professional approaches in the productivity and inspiration in interior architecture education, are all explained and discussed through three-pillared studio process, which consists of theoretical phase of data gathering and finding relevant evidence, and project development, while enriching the discussion with the selected works from the studio. II. EBD AS A METHODOLOGY FOR DESIGNING HEALTHCARE INTERIORS Deriving the discussion back to the pioneering works of Roger Ulrich, first in 1948, which is focusing on the patients psychological comfort and well being within the healthcare environment and approving its positive impact on the

recovery process through case-based examinations (Pati, 1984); and then again in 2008 in which he examined extensive amount of academic research to pull out the keyword groups of healthcare design processes, EBD appears as an immense topic, particularly in the design of healing environment. Thus, experimenting its intense and growing impact within the last decade, EBD emerges as an innovative approach in design discourse and praxis, where diverse fields of specializations do influence with this method. So, cascading down from a larger scale into more covenant scale in the design field, particularly in interior design realm, EBD becomes a relevant method, where profession based strategies and tools to be generated out of it. Thus, following the international discussions in the academia like Friedow (2012) experiments developing a “guideline” for the interior designers to assist them how to utilize EBD in the design processes, it is also found imperative to develop studio pedagogies, as well as teaching strategies and tactics that are also deploying on EBD methodology, while admitting the students to learn and interact with the method in their design studio processes. Referring to the works of Ulrich et al. (2008), Goertz, P. et al. (2008) and Friedow (2012) and interacting with the international standards of The Center for Health Design in US, the know-how of EBD in terms of interior architecture realm is important to dismantle. In this regard, the major chapters of “preperation for research” and “conducting research” Friedow (2012) in EBD are vital to reveal reciprocally with the hypothesis and steps of EBD (Shepley, 2011). In this regard, definition of the goals and objectives, as well as generating the hypothesis are all essential steps in the EBD process. Like Hansen (2008) states that the identification of the “…key design issue is crucial contribution to realizing the goals. Finding that key design issue requires setting priorities. Often, more than one solution can be submitted to realize the goal, but the solution needed is the one that offers the best result. After the follow-up steps, it may be advisable to fine-tune the key design issue.” He then proposes the conversion of the key design issue into the research question, and then pursues with the consequent steps of “gathering information, critical interpretation of the evidence, creation of evidence-based design concept, developing the hypothesis and finally the measures” (Hamilton, 2008). To summarize, the EBD as a methodology and its indicated steps possess great potential for innovative design, where it emerges easy to follow and implement in any type of design discourse and praxis. III. EBD BASED STUDIO CURRICULUMS AND DESIGN OF HEALTHCARE ENVIRONMENTS As mentioned earlier, during the last decade we have been witnessing the increasing impetus of research-based design influences, particularly the growing potential of Evidence Based Design approach in design methodology. Apart from domestic use of housing design, to commercial deployment of office designs (Saller et al., 2008), EBD possesses a great importance and capacity in healthcare design and the design of healing environments (Ulrich et al., 2008). Without a doubt, in parallel with this growing potential in design discourse and praxis, it draws a simultaneous line in design education as well, where ways and means of EBD based education strategies, as well as their development and integration to studio agendas and curriculums emerge as the novel interventions in design education. In terms of generating similar implementations of EBD methods in interior architecture (Friedow, 2012), we decided to develop novel studio pedagogies, strategies and tactics in order to experiment the ways and means of teaching EBD based healthcare design approach to a group of students in 7th Semester Interior Architecture Design Studio, in ITU-Istanbul Technical University. Following the international advancements in the field and interacting with the local professionals an experimental studio program is launched. The studio process is wound up in three consequent phases; where in the initial phase students are steered to reveal both the theory of EBD and contemporary healing and healthcare environments, through performing literature reviews; reading articles about EBD particularly in healthcare domain, as well as dismantling case studies about the related study topics such as IVF, gynecology, urology, oncology, nuclear medicine and ER, which are assigned as the design problem of each students to develop their own proposals at the end of the semester. On the second phase students are encouraged to generate survey questionnaires, flow diagrams, potential user profile information and design story in order to get the relevant evidences and to develop the initial ideas of their design proposals. Yet on the final phase, students are asked to create schematic designs and then afterwards finalize their design proposals through an intensive design development step. On the following paragraphs, the mentioned steps within each phase are explained in more detail. a) Literature Review Since the research-based design approach is appreciated as a model in design education, and during the design studio process students are encouraged to interact with various research methodologies to develop their design studies. Thus, on the first step, in order to initiate the basic awareness about the important role of EBD in healthcare design, as well as to accumulate an advanced knowledge about the design of healthcare spaces, students are advised to read and comprehend the bibliography and dismantle the examples. As the part of the extensive literature review, articles and thesis in relation with the focus topics are performed together with the review of the critical cases as the key examples for developing their design ideas and proposals. In this context, academic works like Ulrich et al. (2008) or Goertz, P. et

al. (2008), as well as other significant academicians’ are reviewed intensely, while the works of EBD based design offices like TPU or international examples like HDR Architects are examined. b) Observation and Survey In terms of obtaining relevant evidences students are also encouraged to perform observations and to prepare survey questionnaires to attain more accurate responses from the users. So, as the part of the observation process, students organize scheduled and unscheduled site visits to the leading hospitals in Istanbul like Maslak-Acıbadem, where they also obtain a detailed explanation about the clinical departments with the assistance of the hospital staff. On the other hand, during the observation process, students are steered to implement two important research methodologies of EBD such as walkthrough and observation in terms of gathering information on site, however due to some inconveniences the technique of masking is unable to utilize in this process (Friedow, 2012). On the other hand, like it is mentioned above, students are also asked to develop the survey questionnaires to direct them to the patients and the healthcare staff of the hospitals, where questions vary from general to the specific, focusing to the selected design topics of each student at the end. c) Flow Diagrams Pursuing the first two steps, students are guided to generate diverse diagrams of flows. Unlike conventional strategies of generating functional diagrams and of spatial traffic, it is observed that utilization of diverse flow diagrams are essential this time, particularly in terms of designing the healthcare environments. Thus, students are asked to draw diagrams of emotional flow, chemical flow and the spatial flow, and lastly the superimposed diagrams of all these diverse flows. So, in the emotional flow diagrams, the information that students gather after the literature reviews, as well as observations and interviews is reflected through juxtaposing the info upon the given space. The emotional flow diagrams basically indicate the emotional condition of patients in every step of the clinic space as well as mapping of every accompanying mood within each sub-space of the clinic. For instance, the comprehensive diagram of emotional flow for IVF clinic is represented like in the example below (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Emotional flow diagram by Ezgi Altun (2016). On the other hand, the chemical flow diagrams are deployed to depict these varying steps of the chemical intake, which are in fact the most crucial phases of the medical procedures and healing processes. Mostly in oncology, nuclear medicine and IVF clinics, patients are injected and vaccinated with bio-chemicals either to be monitored for diagnosis, or to be cured in the healing processes. For instance, the chemical flow diagram and the relations of injection steps with spatial sequentially are shown on the figures below indicating the procedures both for the IVF and the oncology clinics (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Chemical flow diagram by Alev Hüner (2016). In addition to emotional and chemical flow diagrams, spatial traffic diagrams are also vital to indicate and simulate the relations between the spaces on functional configuration, as well as the segregations and overlaps between the patient and the medical staff, yet the sterilization hierarchy of the spaces. Thus, on the following step, students are asked to draw spatial flow diagrams, and portray the interaction between the sub-spaces, assigned functions of the spaces and circulation paths of the patients and the hospital staff (Figure 3).

Figure 3. Spatial flow diagram by Ezgi Altun (2016). After these three consequent diagramming processes, students are advised to overlay all these diverse layers into a superimposed spatial flow diagram, where we can see the juxtaposition of emotional, chemical and spatial flows, in order to draw a decision about the spatial configuration. For instance, the superimposed spatial flow diagram of an IVF clinic is visualized below (Figure 4).

Figure 4. Spatial flow diagram by Ezgi Altun (2016).

d) User Profile and Design Story On the following step, students are enquired to clarify their user profiles, particularly the patient profiles in order to develop their design programs and the design story in relation to it. For instance, the user profile of the nuclear medicine is indicated below, where not only the patients, but -as it has to be- doctors and medical staff are also studied in detail (Figure 5 and 6).

Figure 5 and 6. User profile and design story by Alev Hüner (2016) and S. Mert Kocaman (2016). e) Schematic Design In the schematic design phase, using the attained evidences and processed data students are steered to develop their initial designs through schematic design processes. Thus, deriving from the data attained in earlier consequent steps, and elaborating with the existing national regulations of Turkish Republic Ministry of Health and the international standards of The Center for Health Design in US, students proposed their preliminary sketches of spatial configuration like visualized on the plan below (Figure 7).

Figure 7. Schematic design by S. Mert Kocaman (2016). d) Design development In the design development phase students are encouraged to develop their design proposals leading to a concrete design solution for seven different clinics of IVF, gynecology, urology, oncology, nuclear medicine and ER, each assigned to a student. Blending the novel studio pedagogies and tactics that are mentioned previously, together with the conventional ones such as spatial zonings, circulation decisions and spatial use planning, the projects are developed in progress. Like in the conventional strategies, students initially take zoning decisions (Figure 8) and reciprocally develop circulation pattern which is fundamental in healthcare environments of behalf of creating the hierarchy in between unsterile, semisterile and sterile flow of spaces as well as the segregation between the patient and the healthcare staff (Figure 9). On the other hand, in relation to the program requirements and the design story, students gradually developed their design (Figure 10).

Figure 8, 9 and 10. Design proposal by Ezgi Altun (2016). IV. CONCLUDING REMARKS As it is observed through the process reflected in this paper, the design of healing and healthcare environments emerges as an important inquiry in the contemporary society, particularly resonating with the interior architecture realm, where as the micro-cosmos of the interior space becomes more significant in the healing processes of the patient together with the medical help. Obviously, complementary to the psychological comfort barrier of the patient; developing novel ways and means of responding these demands in favor of ameliorating the healthcare service quality and the output in every terms from healing environment for the satisfaction of users -the patient and the hospital staff-, emerge as the fundamental concern of recent years. Thus, resonating with these latest enquiries, and referring to the research based design approaches in order to excel the design output through improving the design process with sufficient level of research, Evidence Based Design methodology has emerged as an important turn in the design discourse and praxis.

Like mentioned in earlier paragraphs, the invention of novel pedagogical strategies and tactics are also crucial in the adaptation of this methodology into the design education, particularly into design studios, as a fresh tool to proliferate the design innovation. Thus, within this scope of invention of novel studio pedagogies, EBD based healthcare design studio has been executed for the first time in 7th Semester Interior Architecture Design Studio, in ITU School of Architecture. The reflected steps on the third chapter are experimented within the studio process to elaborate both with the EBD strategies and design of the healing environments. In terms of assessment and self-criticism, it is observed that each step has been clearly understood by the students and collaborated very well by responding with the accurate assignments. It is observed that students have developed an immense knowledge about given topics, levels of diseases and their diagnose and treatment processes, stages of medical operations, psychology of the patients and the hospital staff, as well as whole regulations and standards. It is also observed that the final project that the students are executed emerge as quite qualified design solutions at the end. As a result, it is clear to state once again that the tactics, which that are developed and utilized in the design studio process are accurate and successful enough to perform an innovative education strategy in interior design of the healthcare environments. REFERENCES Friedow, B. 2012. An Evidence Based Design Guide for Interior Designers. Master Degree Thesis, The Graduate College at the University of Nebraska. Goertz, P. et al. 2008. An Introduction to Evidence-Based Design. Concord: The Center for Health Design. Hamilton, K. 2008. “Evidence-Based Design for Critical Care”, in All Designers Use Evidence, Master Class, Berlage Institute Rotterdam. Hansen, B., 2008. “Why Use Research to Inform Design?: An interview with Kirk Hamilton,” in All Designers Use Evidence, Master Class, Berlage Institute Rotterdam. Pati, D. 1984. A Framework for Evaluating Evidence in Evidence-Based Design. Herd, Vol.4, No. 3, pp. 50-71. Saller, K., et al. 2008. “Evidence-Based Design: Theoretical and Practical Reflections of an Emerging Approach in Office Architecture” in Undisciplined! Design Research Society Conference 2008. Sheffield, UK. pp. 119/1-119/19. Shepley, M., M. 2011. The Evidence for Evidence-Based Design. American institute of Architects, Academy of Architecture for Health. Ulrich, R. 1984. View Through A Window May Influence Recovery From Surgery. Science, 224(4647), pp. 420–421. Ulrich, R. S., et al. 2008. Healthcare Leadership. Concord: The Center for Health Design.

EVALUATION OF EXFOLIATED VERMICULATE AGGREGATES TO PRODUCE NEW GENERATION COMPOSITE MORTARS IN ENVIRONMENTALLY SUSTAINABLE BUILDINGS LÜTFULLAH GÜNDÜZ, ŞEVKET ONUR KALKAN Lütfullah Gündüz, Prof. Dr., İzmir Katip Çelebi University, Şevket Onur Kalkan, Res. Asst., İzmir Katip Çelebi University

ABSTRACT The aim of this study is to produce a cement based mortar with exfoliated vermiculite aggregate to be used in sustainable buildings. In this experimental research, physical, mechanical and thermal properties of composite mortars with exfoliated vermiculite aggregates were investigated. For this purpose, various proportions of exfoliated vermiculite additive mortars (EVAM) were prepared. The mortars obtained were placed in 5x5x5 cm molds. After the samples were removed from the molds, they were subjected to compressive strength test at 7, 14 and 28 days. Consistency, unit weight, fire resistance, water vapor permeability, capillary water absorption capacity and thermal conductivity of the samples were measured. It is observed that when vermiculite ratio increased in mixture, thermal conductivity and unit volume weight decreased, accordingly compressive strength decreased, but fire resistance increased. It can be obtained from the results that exfoliated vermiculite could be used in thermal insulating composite materials in sustainable buildings. Key Words: Exfoliated vermiculite, lightweight aggregate, green building, composite mortar, energy conservation. 1. INTRODUCTION Today, one of the most important challenges the society facing is climate change. One of the biggest causes of climate change is the emission of greenhouse gases released into the environment. Taking the energy consumption to the minimum is an important way to minimize greenhouse gas emissions (Wu et al., 2016). In recent years, energy efficient buildings have started to carry a great importance both economic and environmental factors in the world. Countries increasingly focus on energy efficient buildings since one third of the energy consumption spent by buildings (Koksal et al., 2015). According to studies, energy consumed by buildings is 39% in the United Kingdom, 37% in the European Union (Perez-Lombard et al., 2008), 40% in the United States (USDOE, 2011), 31% in Japan (Juan et al., 2010). Approximately 40% of the energy consumed in Turkey is consumed in buildings and 80% of this for heating (Binici et al., 2015).Buildings are producers of one of the most dangerous greenhouse gasses which is carbon dioxide since they consume this much energy. According to European Commission (EC, 2009), 36% of total carbon dioxide emissions produced by the buildings. Therefore, buildings have an important role in reducing carbon dioxide emissions. A green building is an environmentally sustainable and energy efficient building, designed, constructed and operated to minimise the total environmental impacts (Kibert, 2003). The concept of sustainable building incorporates and integrates a variety of strategies during the design, construction and operation of building projects. Minor energy saving can be achieved with measures to be taken during use in buildings, while the real energy saving in buildings can be provided by the measures in the design stage (Wu et al., 2016). Considering the economic and environmental point of view, when buildings are designed with high-energy efficiency, this reduce heating and cooling costs in the long term and thus fuel consumption will be reduced to minimum and prevent the environmental damage (Al-Jabri et al., 2005). The use of green building materials and products represents one important strategy in the design of a building. Green building materials offer specific benefits to the building owner and building occupants: Reduced maintenance/replacement costs over the life of the building, energy conservation, improved occupant health and productivity, lower costs associated with changing space configurations and greater design flexibility. Well designed green buildings will save money, increase comfort and create healthier environments for people to live and work, using improved indoor air quality, natural daylight, and thermal comfort. Currently, the most widely used building materials are ceramic, natural stone, wood-resin composites, aluminum-resin composites and fiber-cements. Each of these materials have their own advantages, while durability, hardness, strength, unsuitability, cost of usage, etc. are also their disadvantages. For this reason, materials provide these features, developed from environmentally friendly and cost-effective raw materials and processing are important (Claramunt et al., 2016). One of the increasingly important types of materials for green building materials is also construction materials produced by composite mortars.

The use of new generation composite mortars today started gaining importance recently. Composite mortars raise a new issue in the production of building design and construction materials. Building design and energy efficiency issues in the composite mortar is already extremely important. Today, composite mortar can be produced with so many different aggregate derivatives. These include natural originated materials, half synthetic or artificial aggregate derivatives. In particular, the semi-synthetic products of natural origin obtained by the expansion process of some materials has become important in the production of new material. One of the most prominent of these materials is also exfoliated vermiculite aggregates. It is not seen to sufficient information on the use of exfoliated vermiculate aggregates in composite mortar productions and providing the technical advantages over mortar properties. Therefore, a detailed technical research could be followed on new generation composite mortars developed by exfoliated vermiculite aggregates. The exfoliated vermiculite aggregates are used in concrete applications in the construction industries today and has wide applications, one of them being used as an additive to fireproof wallboard. It is a lightweight aggregate for plaster, proprietary concrete compounds, fire stop mortar and cementations spray fireproofing. It is also used as a component of the interior fill for fire stop pillows, along with graphite. In this paper, pre-inventions of a new generation composite mortar by exfoliated vermiculite aggregates with high thermal insulation performance, long service life, economic and easily applicable are discussed in detail. The experimental research work was carried out at construction materials innovation laboratory in İzmir Katip Çelebi University. This research material is actually an inorganic based lightweight composite mortar. This mortar proves the suggested technical properties in TS EN 998-1 and is a lightweight aggregated mortar in “T Category” according to this standard. Physicomechanical analysis results of sampled cast in laboratory conditions were evaluated according to TS EN 998-1. In respect to this, the developed composite mortar indicates basically these technical properties; T1 category thermal insulation class, having a high sound insulation, A1 class of fire resistance and non-combustible, CS I - CS II class compressive strength, W0 class capillary water absorption, low water vapor diffusion resistance, high adhesive strength and easily applicable any type of surfaces. The research findings will also be discussed in terms of technical characteristics sought in green building construction materials. 2. MATERIALS AND METHODS 2.1 Materials Used 2.1.1 Cement White cement which is comparable to EN 197-1 CEM 1 52.5R (52.5 N/mm2) was used for all mortar samples. White cement instead of ordinary black cement is used to achieve decorative finishes. 2.1.2 Exfoliated Vermiculite Vermiculite is a naturally occurring hydrous phyllosilicates (silicates iron and aluminum magnesium hydrated) mineral. It composed of shiny flakes, resembling mica in appearance. When heated at high temperatures up to 600-1000oC, its flakes expands as much as 8-30 times with respect to its original size and It takes shape as the accordion. This form of vermiculite is exfoliated vermiculite. The lamellar structure of the exfoliated vermiculite contains a large amount of air gaps. This feature provides the exfoliated vermiculite to thermal insulation, fire resistance, sound insulation and lightweight properties. The exfoliated vermiculate is an inexpensive, environmentally friendly and non-toxic material. When considering those, exfoliated is an important raw material for energy efficient and sustainable buildings (Shoukry et al. 2016, Koksal et al., 2015, Toksoy, 1997, Binici et al., 2015, Abidi et al., 2015, Gencel et al., 2014, Chung et al., 2015, Demirçivi and Saygılı, 2014,). Exfoliated vermiculite aggregate was used to provide thermal conductivity, lightweight and fire proof characteristics to the mortar. Physical properties of exfoliated vermiculite are given in Table 1.

Physical Properties of exfoliated vermiculite. Color Golden Shape Accordion shaped granule Water holding capacity 240% by weight pH (in water) 6 to 9 Thermal conductivity (W/mK) 0.035 – 0.065 Bulk density (Kg/m3) 180 Table 1. The Physical Properties of exfoliated vermiculite used.

2.1.3 Expanded Perlite Expanded perlite aggregate was also used as thermal insulation and lightweight aggregate in this experimental study. Perlite is a glassy volcanic rock type. When perlite is heated between 900°C and 1100°C, its volume increases about 20 times and it becomes a porous material. This material is generally called expanded perlite. The formal transformation makes expanded perlite a very efficient and very low density thermal and sound insulator. Expanded perlite aggregate was used for these properties as thermal insulation and lightweight material (Abidi et al., 2015, Chung et al., 2015). In this experiment work, expanded perlite size entered in the mortar combinations was used as 0-2 mm. 2.1.4 Filler Materials Hydrated lime, fiber and calcite were used as filler materials in the mortar mixtures. Very low amount of cellulose was added to the mixtures in order to provide workability of the mortar. To improve the consistency of mortar combinations a powder form of commercial plasticizer was used. Because expended perlite and exfoliated vermiculate have very high water absorption capacity, zinc stearate was added as a water reducer material and also the filler material, too. 2.2 Mixing Design Mortars were prepared with white Portland cement as binder, expanded perlite and exfoliated vermiculite as lightweight aggregates and other filler materials. Figure 1 shows casting and preparation of the test samples. Exfoliated vermiculate addition as a variable material in mixture combinations was used to determine the effect of thermal and mechanical properties of the mortar samples. Mixtures were based on proportions by weight and exfoliated vermiculite ratios were changed place with white cement. Exfoliated vermiculite was used at the ratios of 18.5%, 23.5%, 27.5%, 30.5%, 33.5% and 36.5%. For testing to each series, a control series was prepared without exfoliated vermiculite. In the control samples 0-2 mm sized brick powder was used instead of exfoliated vermiculite. For each series of exfoliated vermiculite and brick powder, ten samples were cast, and thus, a total of 120 mortar specimens were investigated. The mixture proportions of the series are given in Table 2.

Figure 1. Production of samples: (a) fresh mortar, (b) molding, (c) hardened mortar. Ten cubic test samples in 5x5x5 cm size were cast for each mixture to make sure from the coherence of the experiments. Samples were then removed from the molds after one day. They were cured for 28 days time. Any heat treatment was not applied to the samples and allowed to dry at room temperature. All test samples were analysed to determine compressive strength at 7, 14 and 28 days curing time. Furthermore, the technical properties of consistency, unit weight, fire resistance, water vapor permeability, capillary water absorption capacity and thermal conductivity of each sample were also experimentally determined and the research findings were discussed in detail.

Mixture Name VC1-K VC1

Brick powder ratio by weight (%) 36.5 -

Exfoliated Vermiculite ratio by weight (%) 36.5

Expanded Perlite ratio by weight (%) 18.0 18.0

Cement ratio by weight (%) 24.0 24.0

Water/Solid ratio 0.70 1.30

VC2-K 33.5 VC2 VC3-K 30.5 VC3 VC4-K 27.5 VC4 VC5-K 23.5 VC5 VC6-K 18.5 VC6 Table 2. Mixture proportions.

33.5 30.5 27.5 23.5 18.5

18.0 18.0 18.0 18.0 18.0 18.0 18.0 18.0 18.0 18.0

27.0 27.0 30.0 30.0 33.0 33.0 37.0 37.0 42.0 42.0

0.65 1.21 0.63 1.17 0.60 1.15 0.59 1.10 0.58 1.04

2.3 Test Methods To measure the consistency of the mortars, flow table test was carried out. This test has been completed as required by the standard ASTM C230 (standard specification for flow table for use in tests of hydraulic cement) standard. According to this standard, the top of the flow table apparatus is cleaned and then truncate cone shaped mold is placed in the middle of the plate. The mortar is put into the mold. Mold is pulled up vertically and separated from the mortar. Finally, plate is fell down from 1.27 cm height for 25 times and the diameter of the spread mortar on the plate is measured for four times. The average of the measurement gives the flow value, which is the consistency. The compressive strength tests were conducted according to EN 1015-11 standard. For the compressive strength testing, 5x5x5 cm cubic samples were used for each batch. The samples, after removal from the molds and cured at 3 days and then dried at room temperature until the testing time, were taken directly on the pressure test without any further action. All samples were tested by a compression testing device having a maximum loading force capacity of 303 kN. Compression loading speed for breaking the samples was maintained at a constant value of 0.1 kN/s during the entire experiments for all samples. Capillary water absorption coefficient of the test samples was measured as the EN 1015-18 “determination of water absorption coefficient due to capillary action of hardened mortar” standard requires. According to this standard, water absorption is calculated by measuring the change in weight of the specimen in a situation when the bottom surface is in contact with water within a time range of at least 24 h. Water vapor permeability of the prepared test samples were performed according to ASTM E96 “Standard Test Methods for Water Vapor Transmission of Materials” standard. According to this standard, a specific solution is put into a certain container. Then head of container is closed by the test sample. Solution in between begin to evaporate as time goes by. Container with the solution and test sample is considered as a system and weight of this system is measured depending on the time. Weight loss in the whole system depending on this time gives water vapor permeability of the test sample. Thermal conductivity of test samples was experimentally determined by using a Hot Box Apparatus. The apparatus consists of basically 3 parts, which are hot room, sample room and cold room. The test device detects the temperature difference between hot room and cold room, when a material placed to the sample room. This operation is performed by thermocouples in the hot and cold rooms. Fire resistance of the tested samples was experimentally carried out based on using two European norm standards. The experimental work was carried out based on the EN 13820 standard. Weight loss of tested samples was first determined based on EN 13820 standard specifications and then the test result was evaluated according to EN 13501-1 standard. The basic approach for evaluating the fire resistance of composite mortars is that less than 1% weight loss of any tested samples was accepted as a none combustible material due to not having organic material in the combinations mentioned in these standards. 3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 3.1 Consistency Flow table test results for consistency analysis of fresh mortar are given in Figure 2. When examining Figure 2, it can be easily seen that the flow diameters were changed between 141 - 166 mm for control samples, the values of flow diameters were also changed between 136-156 mm for exfoliated vermiculite additive mortars, too. Due to more water demand, the flow rate of control samples is higher than the composite mortar samples with exfoliated vermiculite aggregates. In testing sample combinations, additional cement by weight of reduction amount of brick powder was included to the mixture combinations throughout the research. When carrying out this process the water/solid ratio was reduced by 17% from the first mixture series to the last mixture series. Consequently, in the control mortar combinations, a downward trend was observed in the consistency. Likewise, water/solid ratio was reduced by 20%, while cement addition in the same amount instead of the exfoliated vermiculite in the sample mortars containing exfoliated vermiculite. Despite the reduction in water, consistency increased in sample mortars containing exfoliated vermiculite.

Furthermore, test results also showed that the reduction of water demand in relation to reducing the exfoliated vermiculate amount in mixture combinations increased the flow diameter of fresh mortars. This act actually is based on the very workable mixture combination provided by less amount of water in mixtures. Flow diameter for easy applicability of the insulating mortars is recommended to be approximately between 160 mm and 130 mm. If flow diameter is greater than 160 mm, it means that mixing water of fresh mortar is too much. All flow diameter values of tested mortars with exfoliated vermiculite aggregate were in the range of 160-130 mm. It means that consistency and workability of the EVAM is an acceptable level.

Figure 2. Flow table test results. 3.2 Unit Weight Unit volume weight values of composites are given in Figure 3. In control samples, when cement ratio increased instead of brick powder, unit volume weight of the samples increased. Similarly, when cement ratio increased instead of exfoliated vermiculite, unit volume weight of the samples increased, too. It was observed that increase in the rate of exfoliated vermiculite cause a decreasing trend in the unit volume weight values. Because, unit volume weight of exfoliated vermiculite is a very low value of 180 kg/m3. Unit weight of the samples containing exfoliated vermiculite was observed around less than sixty percent of the control samples. This was also intended from the test results that lower unit weight means better thermal insulation.

Figure 3. Unit weights of mortars. 3.3 Compressive Strength 7, 14 and 28 days compressive strength values of control and EVAM are given in Figure 4 and 5, respectively. In all three compressive strength test stages, compressive strength values of exfoliated vermiculite additive mortars remained under control mixture combinations. This can be explained by the use of brick powder instead of exfoliated vermiculite in the control samples. As brick powder is a pozzolanic material, it affects the strength of the material in a positive way.

Figure 4. Compressive strength of control mixture

Figure 5. Compressive strength of EVAM mixture Unit weight value and the compressive strength value are well known to be directly proportional. It was found that compressive strength value of 18.5% by weight exfoliated vermiculite series is 2.34 MPa and unit volume weight is 633 Kg/m3; compressive strength value of 36.5% by weight exfoliated vermiculite series is 0.57 MPa and unit volume weight is 481 Kg/m3. According to the results of experimental study, when exfoliated vermiculite ratio increased, the unit volume weight values of the samples decreased and unit weight of the samples decreased, and compressive strength also decreased. Besides, the decrease in compressive strength caused by the increase in the rate of vermiculite could be explained by porous and soft structure of exfoliated vermiculite aggregate. Still, all compressive strength values obtained from the experimental work found place for themselves in the TS EN 998-1 (Specification for mortar for masonry - Part 1: Rendering and plastering mortar) standard. According to this standard, thermal insulation mortars are required to take part in the CSI or CSII compression strength classes. According to 28 days compressive strength of all exfoliated vermiculite additive mortars are located in the range CSI or CSII classes. Compressive strength of EVAM varies in a range of 0.57-2.34 MPa. These values are suitable for interior and exterior plaster applications that are capable to satisfy mechanical requirements in TS EN 998-1 standard. 3.4 Capillary Water Absorption It was seen as a result of experiments performed that capillary water absorption coefficient of control samples varied in a range of 0.025 to 0.11. The effect of exfoliated vermiculite ratio on capillary water absorption of EVAM mixtures is shown in Figure 6. As can be seen, capillary water absorption of EVAM mixtures increases with an increase of the exfoliated vermiculite ratio in the mixture combinations.

Figure 6. The effect of exfoliated vermiculite ratio on capillary water absorption of EVAM According to TS EN 998-1, capillary water absorption coefficient range of thermal conductivity mortars divided into three groups. First one is W0 group; there is not a value determined for this group. Second one is W1 group; for this group, capillary water absorption coefficient should be in the range of 0.2 – 0.4. The last one is W2 group; capillary water absorption coefficient for this group should be below 0.2. Figure 6 shows that all EVAM combinations with different exfoliated ratios were located in the W2 group. 3.5 Water Vapor Permeability Condensation caused by water vapor diffusion affects the thermal performance of a building in a negative way. Condensed water in a material increases the humidity in the material. If the amount of condensed water is more than the moisture saturation of the material can absorb, the material starts to deteriorate. Thus, condensation increases the overall heat transfer coefficient of the material as it disrupts the structure of the building material and increases heat losses (Heperkan H.A. at al., 2001).Water vapor permeability coefficient (µ) of all mixture combinations were defined with data obtained from experimental study. According to the test results, for samples prepared as control samples, µ values were determined in the range of 12-20, while µ values for mixtures contain exfoliated vermiculite were determined in the range of 6-10. In each mixture derivation, µ values also showed a declining trend depending on the porosity of the mortar, when unit weight of hardened mortar decreased. 3.6 Fire Resistance Fire resistance of the tested samples were determined according to the EN 13820 standard and the evaluation of the test results was evaluated based on the EN 13501-1 standard. The test results were obtained as the values of between 0.872% and 0.947% by weight loss of the sample initial weight. Due to the less than 1% weight loss for composite mortars based on EN 13820, this result was actually evaluated as having no organic material inside the mixture combinations. This result could also be interpreted as none combustible material according to the EN 13501-1 standard. Furthermore, all the test samples were acceptable as none combustible composite mortar materials. 3.7 Thermal Conductivity Thermal conductivity of all hardened mortar samples were experimentally analysed after 28 days of curing time. The results show that thermal conductivity of control mixtures made by brick powder instead of lightweight aggregate were changed between 0,163 W/mK and 0.251 W/mK. In order to evaluate the effect of brick powder amount on thermal conductivity values for the control mixtures, the ratio of brick powder/cement in mixture combinations was analysed. This analysis results are given in Figure 7. As evaluating the figure, it can be seen that increase of brick powder/cement ratio reduces the thermal conductivity. There was an acceptable linear relationship between the thermal conductivity and brick powder/cement ratio as shown in the figure. Thermal conductivity of control mixtures up to 1.1 ratio value was found to be in T2 category according to TS EN 998-1 standard. Using less than this ratio value excludes the out of scope for T2 category.

Figure 7. Thermal conductivity versus brick powder/cement ratio. On the other hand, using exfoliated vermiculate aggregate in mixture combinations instead of brick powder effects having higher heat insulation performance. The test results show that increasing the use of exfoliated vermiculate aggregate in mortars reduces thermal conductivity value of the mortars. This actually means the improvement of insulation value for the mortar. Thermal conductivity values of exfoliated vermiculate aggregated mortars were in a range of 0,078 W/mK – 0,099 W/mK. In similar to control mortar samples evaluations, effect of exfoliated vermiculate aggregate on the thermal conductivity was evaluated in a graphical analysis based on exfoliated vermiculate/cement ratio as shown in Figure 8.

Figure 8. Thermal conductivity versus exfoliated vermiculate/cement ratio. As evaluating Figure 8, it can be seen that increase of exfoliated vermiculate/cement ratio gradually reduces the thermal conductivity. There was an acceptable linear relationship between the thermal conductivity and exfoliated vermiculate/cement ratio, too. Thermal insulation category of all exfoliated vermiculate aggregated mortars tested was T1 class according to TS EN 998-1 standard. This represents that exfoliated vermiculate aggregated mortars are having particularly the better insulating properties than the control mortars. 4 CONCLUSIONS In order to ensure energy savings in sustainable buildings, a composite mortar has been developed which combines thermal and mechanical performance. Compliance with TS EN 998-1 standard in thermal and mechanical evaluation of the mortar suggests that this material could be produced for thermal insulation material in the buildings. Also, the following results were concluded from the experimental investigation. Produced composite mortar combinations have a good workability and they can be easily placed to molds. Besides, applications of the composites are also very easy in the field. This is a desired condition from the results of experiments. Because, unless extreme cases, reduction in unit weight means that improvement in thermal insulation.

The unit weight obtained from EVAM ranged from 492 Kg/m3 - 667 Kg/m3. These values are almost half of the weight of the control samples. When exfoliated vermiculite rate increases in mortar, mortar becomes lighter and more porous and therefore compression strength of mortar decreases. But still, even the worst compressive strength value for 28 days curing time (0.57 MPa) is at a level of accepted in the TS EN standard. Capillary water absorption values of produced mortars were found very low, which could minimize disruption of the mortars due to water absorbing. Also, it has been found that water vapor permeability is in acceptable level. Thermal conductivity values of produced EVAM mixtures were found very low values, such as a range of 0.078 to 0.099. Thus, in buildings where the mortar is applied, it is expected that this mortar provide a high degree of energy saving. REFERENCES Abidi, S., Nait-Ali, B., Joliff, Y., Favotto, C., 2015. Impact of perlite, vermiculite and cement on the thermal conductivity of a plaster composite material: Experimental and numerical approaches. Composites: Part B, vol. 68, p. 392-400. Al-Jabri, K.S., Hago, A.W., Al-Nuaimi, A.S., Al-Saidy, A.H., 2005. Concrete blocks for thermal insulation in hot climate. Cement and concrete research, vol. 35, p.1472-1479. Binici, H., Sevinç, A.H., Efe, V., 2015. The production of insulation materials made with waste newsprint. Çukurova University Journal of the Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, vol. 30(2), p.13-23. Chung, O., Jeong, S.G., Kim, S., 2015. Preparation of energy efficient paraffinic PCMs/expanded vermiculite and perlite composites for energy saving in buildings. Solar Energy Materials & Solar Cells, vol. 137, p. 107-112. Claramunt, J., Fernandez-Carrasco, L.J., Ventura, H., Ardanuy, M., 2016. Natural fiber nonwoven reinforce cement composites as sustainable materials for building envelopes. Construction and Building Materials, vol. 115, p. 230-239. Demirçivi, P., Saygılı G.N., 2014. Sorption isotherms and modeling studies of hdtma for adsorption onto vermiculite, perlite and zeolite clays. Journal of Engineering and Natural Sciences, vol. 32, p. 311-320. European Comission, 2009. Energy efficiency: delivering the 20% target. Gencel, O., Diaz, J.J.D.C.D., Sutcu, M., Koksal, F., Rabanal, F.P.A., Martinez-Barrera, G., Brostow, W., 2014. Properties of gypsum composites containing vermiculite and polypropylene fibers: Numerical and experimental results. Energy and Buildings, vol. 70, p. 135-144. Heperkan, H.A., Bircan, M.M., Sevindir, M.K., 2001. Yapı malzemelerinde buhar difüzyonu ve yoğuşma, V. ulusal tesisat mühendisliği kongresi ve sergisi. Kibert C.J., 2003. Green buildings: an overview of progress. Journal of land use and environmental law, vol. 19(2), p.491– 502. Koksal, F., Gencel O., Kaya M., 2015. Combined effect of silica fume and expanded vermiculite on properties of lightweight mortars at ambient and elevated tempretures. Construction and building materials, vol. 88, p. 175-187. Perez-Lombard L, Ortiz J, Pout C., 2008. A review on buildings energy consumption information. Energy Build, vol. 40(3), p. 394–8. Shoukry, H., Kotkata, M.F., Abo-El-Enein, S.A., Morsy, M.S., Shebl, S.S., 2016. Enhanced physical, mechanical and microstructural properties of lightweight vermiculite cement composites modified with nano metakaolin. Construction and Building Materials, vol. 112, p. 276-283. USDOE, 2011 Building energy data book2011. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Energy. Wu, M.H., Ng, T.S., Skitmore, M.R., 2016. Sustainable building envelope design by considering energy cost and occupant satisfaction. Energy for sustainable development, vol. 31, p. 118-129.

SYNTHESIZING THE GASEOUS STATE ALEJANDRO MIESES CASTELLANOS ABSTRACT Synthesizing the Gaseous State is an ongoing research effort that uses algorithmic procedures to map word relations, hierarchies, gaps, and foci of terms within large data sets of architecture theory, as they are graphed geographically by epoch. It chooses to extend the usual application of algorithms from structural, physical, spatial, or procedural purposes, to include theoretical concerns. The methodology employed in order to achieve this relies on each term stored according to its contextual relations (words directly surrounding the term in a sentence) which are referenced according to their place in multiple texts and occurrences within the same text. While this context is dynamic, as dependent upon the relations traced through texts loaded upon the data set, it is weighed against a static or fixed context - the definition of these words, their author, place, and date. Relying upon the information acquired, each term behaves as an active agent, seeking out relations based upon new contexts and visually graphing them according to place, author, and date, as opposed to abstract or empty space. This comes with the purpose of visually revealing the movement of architectural thought through the terrain, while describing how it converges and diverges from certain concerns locally, as compared to global currents across time, as a Computer Aided Epistemology of architecture theory. This methodology is underpinned by the theoretical writings of autonomous computation units of Alan Turing, Alonzo Church, Stephen Wolfram and John Frazer, in order to expand the roles and possible uses we are yet to imagine design having within the built environment. By reconsidering the role of terms from passive carriers of meaning, to becoming active reactants capable of deriving new ideas, combinations and knowledge gaps, we can gain a higher visual of how theory is hierarchized and concentrated regionally. This is undertaken as an alternative form of theory, which recognizes the struggle of current frameworks for deriving conclusions (as based upon seventeenth century observational techniques), upon the massive amounts of data commonplace processes such as population behavior, migration, nature input processing, and economic exchanges, are dependent upon. The aims of this research are twofold: a) to derive a working set of algorithms capable of tracing existing uses and relations across large data sets of theory, while b) creating a visual interface for users to explore, generate, and type in terms that demonstrate their usage and unforeseen combinations through the existing bodies of text scanned. In addition to the epistemological and didactic implications of visually revealing term relations, this research has a set of practical aspirations: a) tracing reactions in hierarchy of terms according to trends, market pressures, political realities, or climate variations locally across medium expanses of time (1 year), b) tracing foci or convergence of terms in events of natural disasters and aid response, sourced through internet reports, in shorter expanses of time (2 weeks), and c) revealing differences in approaches and overall concerns of the profession according to region.

AN EVALUATION OF THE EFFECTS OF OCCUPANCY PROFILES IN ENERGY PERFORMANCE SIMULATION BASAK GUCYETER Basak Gucyeter, Asst. Prof. Dr., Eskisehir Osmangazi University, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Department of Architecture

ABSTRACT Simulation models are recognized as effective tools for assessing building energy performance during design or retrofit processes. However, current discussions focus on the fact that simulation models perform with an error margin that deviates from the actual performance of a building and this deviation commonly originates from the dynamic nature of occupant behavior. The extensive literature on occupant behavior indicate that behavior of building occupants is not integrated into building energy performance assessment procedures with appropriate resolution, instead they are accepted as assumed and fixed data sets that represent generally the presence of occupants. This paper focuses on evaluating the effect of occupancy profiles on the precision of energy performance simulation outcomes for office buildings. Integrating occupancy patterns into building energy simulation models facilitate the possibility to improve the model precision, thus provide more realistic outcomes. In order to conduct such research, this study aims to integrate hypothetical occupancy patterns, which are formulated as a result of a detailed literature review, into simulation models. Diverse levels of sensitivity of occupant behavior on control-based activities such as using lighting apparatus, adjusting thermostat settings, and presence in space are employed through three diverse occupancy patterns, the active occupant (AO), slightly active occupant (SAO) and the inactive occupant (IO). The diversities included in occupant behavior are probabilistically determined in order to compose reasonable occupant behavior profiles. Consequently, these occupancy patterns are correlated to three identical office spaces that are simulated within a conceptual office building in a climate that exhibits four distinct seasons. EDSL Tas software is used to run the building energy performance simulations. Effects of occupant behavior patterns on simulation outcomes are compared for five sample winter workdays and for five sample summer workdays with respect to heating and cooling loads. Results present findings on how diversity of occupancy profiles influence the consumption outcomes. Based on the results of this paper, further research in evaluating and integrating the dynamic nature of occupant behavior into simulation interfaces could be encouraged, rather than accepting it as a generalized assumption. INTRODUCTION The endeavor for an energy-efficient built environment and the effort to decelerate the adverse effects of climate change are subjects that are of utmost importance for researchers and professionals involved in the production of built environment, since approximately 40% of the total energy is consumed through its use in the buildings (IEA, 2010). Reduction of the consumed energy in the buildings through the use of effective insulation strategies, glazing technologies, passive design considerations, and integration of renewable energy technologies are the common measures that are researched and employed successively (Hens et al., 2010; Diakaki et al., 2010) in order to contribute to the energyefficiency of the built environment. Nevertheless, all abovementioned approaches are aggregated around the core of technological and scientific solutions, disregarding the fact that occupants and their behavioral patterns are as well extremely influential on energy consumption in buildings (Masoso & Grobler, 2010). The multitude of research in building performance assessment demonstrated that utilization of simulation software is an effective tool in evaluating building energy performance during the design or retrofit processes of buildings. Due to their dynamic capability in modeling an extensive set of parameters, which are influential on building energy performance, simulation tools yield performance assessment outcomes that replicate the real world phenomena (Crawley et al., 2008). The set of parameters related to building performance assessment include [1] climate, [2] building characteristics (e.g. physical properties of building materials, orientation, area etc.), [3] building service systems (e.g. HVAC systems, domestic hot water, etc.), [4] building operation (e.g. schedules, equipment etc.), [5] indoor thermal and environmental quality (i.e. required thermal comfort and indoor air quality), and [6] occupancy (e.g. presence, behavior and activity patterns related to energy use, etc.) (Yu et al., 2011; Hong et al., 2016). Integrating the data for parameters 1 to 5 is considerably unsophisticated, since the data could be obtained quantitatively through measurements and could be integrated in the simulation software. However, it is evident that occupant behavior depends on various factors influenced by income, price of energy, awareness of energy issues, gender, age, socio-cultural attitude etc. and most importantly due to the

perception of indoor environmental conditions (Motuziene & Vilutiene, 2013). Such amplitude of drivers that shape the behavior of building occupants on an individual scale makes it hard to quantify and ascertain the occupant behavior for the building energy performance specialists, thus occupant behavior is commonly integrated in simulation environment as a fixed assumption that represents presence in a space. The reasons behind such simplification in integration of occupant behavior could be due to the reasons that (1) monitoring occupancy requires installation of various measurement instruments, (2) simulation users should be acquainted with the basic programming languages in order to intervene with the built in occupancy interfaces to integrate the diversities in occupant behavior within simulation software since current simulation tools might have insufficiencies in integration of occupant behavior fully (Virote & Neves-Silva, 2012), and (3) measurable outdoor variables are commonly found more reliable than dynamic indoor variables and a correlation between outdoor variables and indoor variables are preferred for assessment rather than detailing occupant behavior (Gunay et al., 2013). Occupant behavior is strongly related to the uncertainties in building energy performance predictions, since the behavior of building occupants is not integrated into building energy performance assessment procedures with appropriate resolution and instead they are accepted as assumed and fixed data sets that represent the presence of occupants. Various research demonstrated that occupant behavior should be included in assessment procedures with approaches that are based on measurement and observation (Virote & Neves-Silva, 2012), since these assumptions are considered as one of the main reasons for the discrepancy between the predicted and actual energy performance of the buildings (Menezes et al., 2012; de Wilde, 2014). In the so-called “building performance gap”, a portion of the gap frequently originates from occupant behavior and activities (Motuziene & Vilutiene, 2013). In this regard, it is possible to assert that building simulation software are yet to integrate occupant behavior in a straightforward manner that contributes to the performance gap between the predicted and actual energy performance of buildings (Hong et al., 2015). In order to bridge this gap, it is necessary to integrate occupant behavior models into simulation environments, with such a resolution that highly mimics the realistic occupant behavior. Due to the fact that social and economic factors such as degree of education, energy costs, environmental awareness would be influential on building occupants’ behavior towards energy consumption (Yu et al., 2011), occupant behavior could not be considered as a parameter tackled in a straightforward manner indicating solely the occupant presence. Occupant behavior should be considered as one of the key factors that influence the energy consumption of a building and contribute to the uncertainties in predicting the building energy use through simulation (Hong et al., 2016). Therefore, this paper aims to identify the effects of occupant behavior on building energy consumption through synthetic behavior sets that represent three different levels of space utilization with diverse occupant activities. In order to evaluate the effect of occupant behavior on building energy consumption, a hypothetical office building is modeled and simulated in EDSL Tas. The study presented in this paper is a preliminary exploration of the effects of occupancy profiles in energy performance simulation. Hence, the main outcome of this paper is to put an emphasis on the importance of modeling occupant behavior and demonstrate how influential occupant profiles are on the assessment of building energy performance measures. The paper is structured as follows: Section 2 provides an extensive literature review with a specific focus on assessment and modeling of occupant behavior. Section 3 introduces the methodology of the paper and how the methodological approach is carried out. Section 4 discusses the findings of the proposed methodology and Section 5 presents a discussion on how occupant behavior modeling could contribute to the body of knowledge in building energy performance studies. LITERATURE REVIEW In the last decade, there is significant increase in the work dedicated to understand the relationship between occupant behavior and building energy consumption, hence various approaches were studied to integrate the effect of building occupant behavior into building simulation software. Masoso & Grobler (2010) state that modeling occupant behavior is “one of the weakest links in energy efficiency and conservation equation.” Thus, the motivation of the research progressed towards facilitating the means to integrate occupant behavior into simulation models, in order to reduce the discrepancies between the predicted and actual energy consumption in buildings. Given the scope of this paper, this section aims to map out the strategies to model occupant behavior through an extensive literature review in order to underscore the current approaches. In addition, the review would provide a basis for proposing behavior patterns that represent the diversity of occupant activity. Lee & Malkawi (2014) claim that occupant behavior is regarded as an oversimplified and predetermined input in simulation environments. Yun & Steemers (2008) discuss that occupant interactions are employed with deterministic approaches based on predefined schedules in building simulations, thus inaccuracies emerge in prediction of indoor thermal conditions and energy demands. Hong et al. (2016) argue that stochastic behavior of the occupant is ignored and the behavior is translated into simulation environment as a standardized and deterministic input, mainly concerned with the presence of the occupant in a space. Nevertheless, the building occupant is a dynamic and unpredictable input in the building energy performance equation, since occupants in general have the tendency to restore comfort in the most

convenient way possible, rather than contemplating on issues regarding building energy performance or environmental effects of such consumption (Gilani et al., 2015). Hence, it becomes evident that modeling occupant behavior within deterministic thresholds would continue to contribute in building performance gap between the predicted and actual building performance, since (1) occupants continuously take some personal form of initiative to condition their environment and (2) these initiatives are results of individual decision-making processes with a complex composition of planned and unplanned activities, social, psychological and physiological needs, and interactions with indoor environment and activities of other occupants (Tabak, 2008). In order to completely recognize the precincts of modeling occupant behavior studies, an extensive array of papers was reviewed and 24 papers were selected to reveal the relationship between the involved parameters; (a) building type, (b) occupant behavior modeling approaches, (c) types of modeled occupant behavior/activity, (d) qualitative and quantitative data collection related to occupant behavior, and (e) attempt to integrate occupant behavior models to simulation software. Figure 1 presents these relationships as a meta-chart. The review findings suggest that research on occupant behavior modeling largely targets office building occupancy (16 of 24 papers reviewed), since occupant behavior related to energy performance and comfort could specifically be framed within the well-defined tasks of a work environment. On the other hand, there is significant effort to combine occupant modeling research with residential building occupants’ behavior, where almost 30% of reviewed papers focus on residential buildings. Yet, the abundance of activities involving the domestic environment might be providing setbacks in fully modeling the domestic occupant activities and the links between these activities within a highly comprehensive approach. Three types of approaches in modeling occupant behavior could be discerned in literature (Figure 1); (1) deterministic approaches based on scheduling the occupant behavior with pre-determined state and activity changes (Gilani et al., 2015), (2) stochastic approaches that aim to derive occupancy patterns from observation and measurements (Goldstein et al., 2010; Page et al., 2008; Ahn & Park, 2016; Richardson et al., 2008; Aerts et al., 2014; Herkel et al., 2008; Haldi & Robinson, 2009; Yun & Steemers, 2008; Virote & Neves-Silva, 2012; Blight & Coley, 2013; Wang et al., 2016; Bourgeois et al., 2006; Andersen et al., 2009; Buso et al., 2015; Motuziene & Vilutiene, 2013; Hong et al., 2015; Feng et al., 2015; Langevin et al., 2015a; Wilke et al., 2013; Yu et al., 2011), and (3) agent-based approaches that characterize multiple occupancy patterns with regard to individual decision-making processes and activities related to energy-oriented behavior of the occupants (Lee & Malkawi, 2014; Tijani et al., 2008; Langevin et al., 2015b). Numerous research aim to identify effects of occupant behavior on building energy consumption through modeling the occupants’ presence in a space and attitude in opening/closing windows and doors (Herkel et al., 2008; Lee & Malkawi, 2014; Aerts et al., 2014; Haldi & Robinson, 2009; Yun & Steemers, 2008; Hong et al., 2015; Langevin et al., 2015a; Buso et al., 2015; Langevin et al., 2015b; Andersen et al., 2009), opening/closing blinds and shading elements (Andersen et al., 2009; Bourgeois et al., 2006; Buso et al., 2015; Gilani et al., 2015; Langevin et al., 2015a), turning on and off lighting fixtures (both space and task lighting) (Virote & Neves-Silva, 2012; Hong et al., 2015; Blight & Coley, 2013; Wang et al., 2016; Gilani et al., 2015; Bourgeois et al., 2006; Andersen et al., 2009), adjusting setpoint temperatures for heating and cooling (Langevin et al., 2015a; Andersen et al., 2009; Motuziene & Vilutiene, 2013), controlling ventilation and air conditioning(Hong et al., 2015; Langevin et al., 2015a; Feng et al., 2015; Langevin et al., 2015b), etc. Figure 1 demonstrates that the reason for recognizing these activities as research problems stems from the fact that majority of behavior/activities are direct response to issues related to indoor environmental comfort and consumption/conservation of energy in spatial settings. It is possible to observe that prevalent behavior/activity types in 24 research papers are operating windows, occupancy/presence in space, controlling lighting fixtures, and controlling solar shading and blinds. In comparison to prevalent activities, decision and activity of occupants, which could be significant on energy performance of a building, such as adjusting thermostat setpoints, equipment and/or appliance utilization patterns, adjusting clothing levels are less scrutinized.

Figure 1. Meta-chart indicating the occupant behavior modeling approaches in literature Realistic modeling of occupant behavior requires high precision in numerical interpretation of behavioral patterns through occupancy/vacancy period of building spaces. In order to ensure such level of precision, qualitative and quantitative data are of importance to describe the diversities inherent in occupant behavior (Gunay et al., 2013; Yan et al., 2015; Hong et al., 2016). A total of 7 papers utilized both qualitative and quantitative data (based on observation/survey and measurements, respectively) to construct occupant behavior patterns through employed modeling approaches. Solely one type of data, either qualitative or quantitative, is used in the research presented in 13 papers. In the case of integrating occupant behavior models into simulation environment, it was observed that synthetic (randomly created) occupancy profiles were used to scrutinize various effects of occupant behavior on simulation outcomes. The reviewed papers pointed out that only 40% of the research tackled with the means to integrate occupant behavior models into simulation software, such as IES VE, ESP-r, EnergyPlus, DesignBuilder, etc. Co-simulation is another important emphasis that emerged recently in literature to resolve algorithm-based integration problems for simulation software (Hong et al., 2015). In summary, it is possible to assert that there is concrete evidence for the requisite to integrate the stochastic nature of occupant behavior through probabilistic or agent-based occupant behavior modeling within building performance simulation. The methodologies to be employed covers both qualitative and quantitative data collection and the translation of this data through mathematical modeling is essential to obtain occupancy behavior data sets that could be created in response to different environmental, psychological and comfort related drivers. The main progresses that has to be addressed still are to observe the effects of realistic occupancy behavior modeling on simulation outcomes and consider the mitigation of the magnitude of building energy performance gap under probabilistically defined occupancy patterns

METHODOLOGY Considering that occupant behavior patterns are more complex (Yu et al., 2011) than being a function of indoor and outdoor environmental factors and occupants tend to achieve comfort in a convenient manner rather than making energy conscious decisions (Gunay et al., 2013), this paper structures its approach to demonstrate the significance of occupant behavior on certain gains and loads that result in energy consumption in a building. In order to conduct such research, the proposed methodology maintains the effects of building envelope characteristics, climate, and building services intact, and changes only the occupant behavior. The steps of the methodology encompass (a) modeling a hypothetical office building in EDSL Tas, (b) creating three occupancy profiles with different sensitivity for sample winter and summer days, (c) integrating these occupancy profiles into the building simulation model, (d) running the simulation within a climate that exhibits four distinct seasons, and (e) indicating the effects of different occupancy profiles on gains and loads for sample spaces in the heating and cooling sample days. The building modeled is a three-story office building with simple plan layout of north and south facing office spaces, east-west elongated circulation areas. Figure 2 presents the simple layout and model and Table 1 shows the building constructions and related U-values (W/m2K) assigned in the building simulation software EDSL Tas. The U-values assigned are in compliance with ASHRAE Standard 90.1 (2007), Building Envelope Requirements for Climate Zone 4 in Addendum G, since TMY weather data for Kansas City, MO was used as the climate exhibiting four distinct seasons and the location is a part of Climate Zone 4 in the US (IECC, 2009). Table 2 presents the zoning of the hypothetical office building and setpoint temperatures (°C) for heating and cooling periods. The setpoint temperatures are determined for occupied and unoccupied periods with regard to the ASHRAE Standard 55 (2010), which indicates that these temperature ranges are comfortable for most people dressed appropriately for the season. Thermal zoning of the simulation model presented in Table 2 indicates that each space is modeled separately as a zone in order to draw conclusions that describe the effect of occupant behavior on the energy performance of the attributed spaces. As seen in Figure 2 and Table 2, first floor north oriented offices, which were indicated as zones 23, 24 and 25, were designated as the three identical offices attributed with different occupancy profiles for the investigation of their effect on internal gains and heating and cooling loads. The subsequent step in the methodological construct of this paper is to create three occupancy profiles with different sensitivity for sample winter and summer days, which could be integrated into the simulation software. ASHRAE 90.1 (2010) suggests that schedules in simulation software should be capable of modeling hourly changes in occupancy (presence), lighting, miscellaneous equipment, thermostat setpoints, and HVAC system operations that are employed in a building. EDSL Tas facilitates the flexibility to change hourly variables for different types of internal gains such as lighting, equipment use, occupancy sensible and latent gains, schedules for heating and cooling setpoint temperatures, ventilation regimes etc. Therefore, in order to evaluate the effect of occupancy profiles on internal gains and related heating and cooling loads through the use of simulation software, Inactive Occupant (IO), Slightly Active Occupant (SAO) and Active Occupant (AO) synthetic behavior models were created to be modeled in Zones 23, 24 and 25, respectively. The terms “inactive” and “active” target the diverse degrees of intervention/behavior related to energy consumption in the occupied space. Three criteria were selected to create the diversity profiles for the occupant behavior models; occupancy (presence), lighting use and thermostat controls. In addition, 3rd and 29th weeks (January 15th to 19th and July 16th to 20th, respectively) of the test reference year are used as the evaluation periods sampling heating and cooling seasons.

Figure 2. 3D model and first floor plan of the hypothetical building Table 1. Assigned building constructions and pertaining U-values Building Elements Exterior Walls Interior Walls

Construction Cavity wall with brick inner and outer leaf and 50 mm mineral wool insulation Lightweight plasterboard partition with 20 mm mineral wool insulation

U-Value (W/m2K) 0.557 1.260

Flat Roof Slab on Grade Framing Glazing Interior Door Framing Interior Door Panel Interior Floors

Non-residential concrete deck flat roof with 50 mm EPS insulation Concrete slab on grade (uninsulated) Plastic frame, 3 hollow chambers, with metal spacer 2x4 mm pane with 16 mm air spacing Wood frame with metal spacer Plywood 30 mm Concrete deck with ceiling tiles and flooring screed (with space for installations)

0.455 4.028 4.260 1.538 3.930 2.495 1.390

Table 2. Zones and setpoint temperatures for the hypothetical office building Zones

Function

Heating Season Setpoints (°C) Occupied Unoccupied

Cooling Season Setpoints (°C) Occupied Unoccupied

1, 14, 28

Entrance Hall / Circulation Areas

17°C

14°C

25.5°C

28°C

Offices – South Oriented

20 – 23.5°C

14°C

21 – 24°C

28°C

Offices – North Oriented

20 – 23.5°C

14°C

21 – 24°C

28°C

Service and Storage Spaces Vertical Circulation North Office Inactive Occupant (IO) North Office Slightly Active Occupant (SAO) North Office Active Occupant (AO)

17°C 17°C

14°C 14°C

25.5°C 25.5°C

28°C 28°C

20 – 23.5°C

14°C

21 – 24°C

28°C

20 – 23.5°C

14°C

21 – 24°C

28°C

20 – 23.5°C

14°C

21 – 24°C

28°C

4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 21, 22, 26, 27, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41 3, 15, 29 2 23 24 25

Inactive occupant (IO) represents a deterministic integration of behavior in simulation software. The IO is modeled basically with regard to presence and basic lighting controls. No other controls are assumed for the IO in order to signify the outcomes for deterministic approaches. Modeling of each activity and behavior holds a value between 0 and 1. For instance, “0” for presence denotes that the space is unoccupied and vice versa for value “1”. Figure 3 presents the presence and lighting control behavior of the IO for the two evaluation periods. The IO is assumed to control all office space and task lighting fixtures in correspondence to the cloudiness factor indicated in the corresponding days of the weather data employed for building simulation. The inactive occupant turns on all office lighting fixtures (denoted with value 1) when cloud cover exceeds the value of 0.5 (more than half cloudy sky). In addition, IO is assumed to have a fixed presence in the office space from 8 AM to 12 PM and from 1 PM to 5 PM.

Figure 3. Inactive Occupant (IO) presence and lighting control for January 15th to 19th and July 16th to 20th Slightly Active Occupant (SAO) is outlined with a semi-deterministic nature, in which the occupant is assumed to have the same presence characteristics (deterministic) as in IO, hence controls lighting within a probabilistic approach based on the cloud cover. In order to obtain two sets of five workday profiles for the evaluation periods in January and July, values between 0 and 1 are obtained via random number generation with 10-minute resolution. Randomly created 1440 data points (both for heating and cooling period evaluation days) were averaged to obtain the hourly profiles. Subsequent to obtaining the hourly data, unoccupied hours were set to “0” since there would be no utilization of artificial lighting, and the hourly average of randomly created values were examined in correlation with the cloud cover values from the weather data to eliminate inexpressive values from the randomly created set (for instance, on a clear hour with artificial lighting fixtures fully turned on). Figure 4 presents the modeled presence and lighting control behavior of the SAO for the two evaluation periods.

Figure 4. Slightly Active Occupant (SAO) presence and lighting control for January 15th to 19th and July 16th to 20th Active Occupant (AO) represents a fully probabilistic approach in modeling occupant behavior. The lighting controls are kept identical as in SAO in order to establish common grounds for evaluation of simulation outcomes, yet the occupant within the office space is modeled through a flexible presence, which is more realistic when occupants potentially have a break, visit another colleague at his/her office, leave for a coffee, attend a meeting in the building, leave or arrive early etc., during working hours. In order to obtain a probabilistic data set for the presence of AO, values between 0 and 1 are obtained via random number generation with 10-minute resolution both for heating and cooling period evaluation days. Hourly averages were obtained and smoothed for unoccupied hours with a value of “0”, and the data for occupied hours is kept intact. Figure 5 presents the modeled presence and lighting control behavior of the AO for the two evaluation periods. For thermostat controls, IO is assumed to have no interference with indoor thermostat setpoints both for heating and cooling periods and the space is conditioned to 21°C and 24°C, respectively, within the design temperature ranges indicated in Table 2. SAO, on the other hand, adjusts the setpoint temperature upon arrival to 23°C or 22°C depending on the exterior temperature and gradually lowers the setpoint to 20°C or 21°C in a semideterministic manner. AO is modelled fully in a probabilistic approach, similar to generation of occupancy and lighting data. For heating and summer period evaluation days, random number generation is used between setpoint temperatures defined in Table 2 and the data for AO was smoothed by adjusting unoccupied hours’ data to the defined setback temperatures. Figure 6 presents the assumed setpoint temperature diversities for three occupant behavior types and their relationship with the exterior temperature.

Figure 5. Active Occupant (AO) presence and lighting control for January 15 th to 19th and July 16th to 20th

Figure 6. Assumed setpoint temperature diversities for IO, SAO and AO In summary, it is possible to assert that, IO is an occupant which is modelled in a deterministic manner, similar to majority of assumptions in building energy simulation as a “fixed metabolic heat generator passively experiencing the indoor environment” (Newsham, 1994), whereas SAO is semi-deterministic with a degree of detailed modeling based on lighting use and partly thermostat control. AO is modeled with a fully probabilistic approach regarding the presence in the space, lighting use and thermostat controls. As the third main step in the methodology, the hourly profiles for different behavior/activity for IO, SAO and AO were integrated in the Building Simulator module of the EDSL Tas simulation software for the zones 23, 24 and 25, respectively. Hourly values obtained between 0 and 1 for lighting use were translated into the schedules and internal gains module of the software with the assumption that value 1 corresponds to the total of a task lighting gain with 7 W/m2 and ambient lighting gain with 11 W/m2, where both have dimming control. Non-integer values between 0 and 1 were applied as multiplier diversity factors on the total value of 18 W/m 2 when integrating the lighting use data to the simulation software for each occupant behavior model. The presence levels of the IO, SAO and AO occupancy models were integrated to the relevant simulation interface, similarly as lighting controls hourly integration, by using occupancy sensible gain (10 W/m2) and occupancy latent gain (5 W/m2) for value 1, based on moderate office work (ASHRAE Handbook: Fundamentals, 2001). Non-integer diversity factors for the hourly presence profiles of AO, between 0 and 1, were used as multipliers distributed to abovementioned sensible and latent gain values. Temperature profiles were integrated in the thermostat controls interface in the internal gains module with the exact values generated for each type of occupant behavior model. Due to completion of the integration of diversity profiles for lighting use, presence and thermostat setpoint controls, the simulation was run for a full year period in order to obtain the results to evaluate the effects of occupancy profiles on the simulation outcomes. One-week data (3rd and 29th weeks of the year, January 15 to 19 and July 16 to 20) were extracted from simulation results for further analysis both for heating and cooling season. In the Results and Discussions section the outcomes are scrutinized in detail. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The simulation results of the three different occupancy profiles, the deterministic IO, the semi-deterministic SAO and the probabilistic AO in three identical north oriented offices, are provided and discussed in this section based on lighting gains, occupancy sensible gains and the effect of thermostat setpoint temperature controls on heating and cooling loads of the sample office spaces. Figure 7 presents the results for lighting gains for the two evaluation periods; January 15 to 19 and July 16 to 20. In this study, IO was assumed to turn on the lights when the cloud cover exceeded 0.5 level, while SAO and AO were assumed to probabilistically, turn on, turn of, or dim the task and ambient lighting based on different decisive drivers. It is possible to observe that IO’s non-interference with the lighting control after turning it on results in 38.5% excessive gains in heating and 44.7% in heating season in comparison to SAO and AO. Based on the simulation outcomes, it is possible to assert that, any deterministic modeling of occupant behavior that turns on the light below a certain daylight level and keeps the light on until departure might introduce higher lighting gains both for winter and summer conditions. In most cases, occupants modeled in building energy performance simulation might represent a similar type of deterministic approach in which the office lighting fixtures are considered to be turned on and kept on during working hours (mostly by automated systems with response to exterior daylight levels). However, the provided lighting gains in the office space could result in a considerable effect (given the whole heating season) that decreases the heating loads assumed via the simulation software. Yet in reality, occupants do not abstain from controlling indoor artificial lighting levels, hence the heating loads

and proportionally the energy consumption for heating would increase in comparison to the simulation outcomes of a deterministic behavior. The probabilistic approach of SAO and AO modeled in this study expresses a much more over-the-week distributed gains and is more realistic when considered that occupants would tend to manually adjust their visual comfort levels according to the different tasks and the nature of the office work taking place at one particular time, as well as the amount of daylight received during workhours. The lighting gains, in addition, prevent the occurrence of a certain part of the heating loads.

Figure 7. Simulation results for lighting gains from January 15 to 19 and July 16 to 20 for IO, SAO and AO In the methodology section the occupants IO and SAO were considered to follow fixed schedules in entering and leaving the office, where presence of AO in the office space was based on probabilistic random generation. Figure 8 presents the results for occupancy sensible gains for three different occupancy profiles. It is possible to observe that IO and SAO’s fixed presence within the space results in 43.9% excessive gains due to occupancy in heating and 38.2% in heating season in comparison to SAO and AO. Calculated occupancy gains via the simulation software demonstrate that the assumption of deterministic occupancy modeling yields higher occupancy sensible gains in comparison to a probabilistic modeling of presence as in AO. In other words, constant presence in the office is regarded as a constant metabolic heat dissipated within the space, and probabilistic periods of presence and vacancy (AO) result in lower levels of metabolic heat dissipations. Therefore, higher internal gains mean less heating demand and lower heating loads would be predicted via simulation in comparison to the actual loads that originate from the probabilistic presence of occupant behavior. Hence the actual heating loads would be higher than the loads assumed with deterministic occupant data, where occupancy sensible gains would decrease in cases of vacancy.

Figure 8. Simulation results for occupancy sensible gains from January 15 to 19 and July 16 to 20 for IO, SAO and AO Figure 9 presents the simulation results for heating and the cooling loads on daily basis for the two evaluation periods. The simulation results for the office space occupied by IO (the deterministic occupant behavior) yield lower heating and cooling loads in comparison to the semi-deterministic SAO and probabilistic AO behavior models. AO, with detailed model of diversity profiles of lighting use and presence yields higher heating demand, almost by 28.5% when compared to IO and by 15% in comparison to SAO. Simulation results covering the sample days during cooling period indicate that the office space occupied by the deterministically modeled IO yields the lowest cooling loads among the three office spaces. This result occurs mainly due to the control temperature,

24°C, assigned deterministically to the occupant within the temperature setpoint range (21-24°C). SAO on the other hand was assumed to switch on to lower temperatures for cooling upon arrival (23°C or 22°C) and gradually adjust it to lower degrees (21°C - 20°C) during the occupied hours. This systematic behavior type results in higher loads of cooling (25.8% in comparison to IO), since the space is assumed to be cooled down to lower temperatures as the exterior temperature exceeds during the day. Cooling setpoint temperatures for the probabilistic behavior modeled for AO fluctuates between 21.7 and 23.8°C and the results yield that cooling loads are only 6% higher than the IO and 18.9% lower than of SAO. This result is partly due to modeling AO with a probabilistic data set of presence and thermostat control within the office space, where occupancy sensible gains are reduced in comparison to AO and smaller fluctuations for indoor temperatures are obtained in comparison to the SAO’s temperature set point behavior model. With respect to the above discussions of the lighting gain and occupancy sensible gain results, it is possible to assert that the discrepancy for heating and cooling loads are expected to increase when the probability of controlling lighting fixtures and being present in a space is modeled with flexible schedules that reflect the real occupant behavior.

Figure 9. Simulation results for heating and cooling loads from January 15 to 19 and July 16 to 20 for IO, SAO and AO Concluding Remarks Understanding the complexity of occupant behavior and translating this complexity with highest precision possible into simulation environment could highly be influential on the energy saving potential both for new and existing buildings. Different approaches employed for modeling user behavior, commonly the deterministic and probabilistic approaches, yield significant discrepancies for heating and cooling loads. Since building energy performance assessment aims to identify a building’s behavior through tools such as modeling and simulation and the buildings are complex systems with physical, environmental and occupancy characteristics, it becomes necessary to accurately include occupant behavior within assessment tools. In this study, three identical offices were compared using different occupancy profiles (deterministic IO, semideterministic SAO and probabilistic AO) in order to scrutinize the importance of diversity profiles. The results demonstrate that inclusion of occupant behavior to simulation models as detailed as possible facilitates the potential to obtain higher accuracies between the predicted and actual consumption levels, thus bridge the performance gap of buildings, which partly occurs due to the simplifications and assumptions related to building occupant behavior. Detailed findings demonstrated that:  Modeling presence in a deterministic manner causes higher internal gains in comparison to the actual occupant behavior, where flexibility within the workspace (i.e. having a meeting at another space in the building) is inevitable, and thus results in a lower heating load prediction in comparison to the actual loads that will occur once the building is commissioned.  Modeling detailed lighting use behavior would be influential both on internal gains and the electricity consumption (not taken into consideration in this paper). In order to make an accurate assessment of building energy performance, it would be necessary to observe, measure and quantify the occupancy behavior on lighting use and stochastic schedules should be integrated within the simulation software.  Modeling thermostat setpoint control for occupants could emerge as a function of indoor thermal and environmental comfort perception, and could highly be influential on the heating and cooling loads, since uniform setpoint ranges are not realistic, since comfort is a perception that is highly individual. The shortcomings of this study mostly reside in its hypothetical construct, and its limitations in modeling only the presence, lighting use and thermostat control data for creating diversity profiles. There is yet significant

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TREE METAPHOR IN ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN NUR BANU ÖZDEMİR, SEMRA ARSLAN SELÇUK Nur Banu Özdemir, MArch Candidate, Gazi University, Semra Arslan Selçuk, Asst. Prof. Dr. Gazi University.

ABSTRACT Throughout history, trees have been significant for mankind, being the preferred choice in the provision of many needs, from heating to sheltering. Observations of tree-like structures led man to gain knowledge in new constructional methods and structural systems to satisfy their needs. Therefore it is possible claim that, trees are among the structural elements frequently seen in the history of architecture, receives particular attention from designers for whom nature is a source of inspiration. Foremost, trees are structural models for designers that are beyond branching patterns/ornamentations used in architectural decorations. Therefore when historical architecture is examined, a very deep and developed intuitive knowledge of construction becomes visible. In the tree, nature has presented the concept of growth and multiplication in which the sequence of trunk, branch, leaflets, and leaves exemplify patterns which are very similar to those governing architectural orders. In this study, trees which are seen as source of inspiration for form finding studies in architecture and learning act within architecture-analogy-metaphor relationship have been investigated. In the conducted literature survey, “historical development and classification of tree-like structures” is conceptualized; and the difference between inspiring by nature and learning from nature is discussed with selected examples. Keywords: Metaphor, Analogy, Tree-like Structures, Biomimesis in Architecture 1. Architectures Inspired by Nature 1.1.The Term Metaphor Metaphor, analogy, resemblance, similitude, imitation, inspiration and simile are the terms which are used interchangeable in architecture; and therefore these terms may result in semantic shift in expressions. Moreover, confusion increases when "copy", "replication" and "mimesis" terms are used in this group. As an example, Turkish Language Society defines the term metaphor as the direct synonym of simile. However, “simile” is the art of using words and ideas in different meanings other than their real meaning (Url-1). If different meanings are ascribed to a word in literature, philosophy, education, architecture and art, it is called “metaphor” in European languages which is an analogy used for name changes, meaning transfer, forwarding one meaning to another, resembling one thing to another and comparison. According to Glucksberg (2001), the definitions of metaphor in different disciplines are fundamentally united in two definitions. The first, metaphor is a type of language. As a figure of speaking, a definite word or a phrase is ascribed on an analogical object or an action other than its actual meaning. This can be described as a metaphoric statement. The second, metaphor is a form of cognitive representation. Metaphor is another representation of a thing (generally intangible); in other words a symbol. These definitions assert two functions of metaphor. 1) Metaphor is rhetorical and poetic figure in language. 2) Metaphor is a cognitive representation. Logical, cognitive, behavioral and affective expressions are all metaphoric. According to Lakoff and Johnson (2003), “The essence of metaphor is understanding and experiencing one kind of thing in terms of another”, and “…principally a way of conceiving one thing in terms of another”. On the other hand "analogy" means resemblance, similarity and similitude. However, “resemblance” is method for producing information relying on complete similarity on the basis of the principle that presence of complete regularity or same reasons lead to similar results (BSTS/Yöntembilim Terimleri Sözlüğü, 1981). Analogy is “the similitude between the things bearing similar characteristics while their essences are different from each other.” In Greek, analogon is proportional relationship “according to a ratio”. This similarity may be between two different scaled forms (i.e. two triangles) while it may be between two different quantities. Another form of analogy is known as “educing by relationship” and it is a way of similarity of functionality. Aristotle gives formulation for these two types of analogies: “C is D with respect to what A is respect to B” and “D contains C if B contains A” (Url-2). Analogy may be defined as differentiating interrelating similarity which do not resemble one another in two areas of information or exhibiting partial resemblance in some aspects (Kurz et al. 1999, 175). Imitation according to Platon and Aristotle is perception of the system within the nature and re-translation of this perception with creativity. Imitation is the definition addressing the individual’s instinctual nature which is present as natural in the nature. Thought of naturalness, when integrated with tangible and intangible concepts, gives born to the art addressing pleasure and perceptions. Initiation within the historical processes shows under how cultural environment the art works

as conscious and subconscious works, and reflecting values of the society without awareness (Erzen, 2002). Imitation is a creativity apprehending and revealing visible and invisible inner possibilities of the nature. Many characteristics of structural occurrences observed in the nature bear metaphoric meanings for man-made structures. Architects and engineers witnessing this horizon have performed many morphological designs and/or structural trials/researches in the last century. In the design-manufacturing process of the architecture, it is stated that one of the methods for inspiration/learning/adaptation and/or application from nature is ‘adoption of natural object form with structural apprehension via analogy into a structure’. Antoniades in Poetics of Architecture (1990) summarizes that architects’ uses of natural forms and encourages designers to draw from nature to enhance creativity. Cappleman and Jordan's Foundations in Architecture (1993) describes student designs that use insects and plant patterns. When architectural literature is studied, definitions of metaphor and analogy are not differentiated with strict borders. Even if opinions that analogy term is restricted to structural apprehensions are dominant, analogy term having various types asserts signs that this approach is not true. Accordingly, there are opinions on the metaphor that it provides designer with a benefits such as starting point by the considerations like reaching to creativity and creating meaning and its use is restricted to this definition. Cognitive sciences are required to provide reasoning and computation of metaphoric thinking and structuring and representation of metaphor’s cognitive process. Therefore, cognitive sciences are oriented to analogical relationships which neglect discussion towards metaphoric meanings and experience in favor of structuring and formalization with a positive attitude. Shortly analogy concept can be regarded as the starting point of the metaphor. When relationships are taken into consideration, system and systematic thinking overlaps with the analogy. Meaning of the analogy is exceeds similarity/similitude/analogy and reaches to metaphor. Furthermore, metaphors are not just a matter of language; they are also a matter of thought and action. They involve all natural dimensions of our sense experience such as color, shape, texture, sound (Lakoff and Johnson, 2005). According to Sayın, architectural design process is transformed into metaphoric interactions and statement not neglecting historical approach at the same time freezing historical aspects within linguistic behavior and articulation during expression in the historicity of the context and spatial presentation in the linguistic environment. As a result, architectural design process is a “discursive organism” (Foucault) and metaphoric (Sayın, 2007). 1.2.Metaphors in Architecture The role of metaphors in architecture dates back to ancient times. Vitruvius suggests the use of nature as metaphor and observation of things growing like a tree almost two millennia ago. Aristotle was the first philosopher known in the history who pointed out the effective role played by metaphors in creative processes. He briefly defines a metaphor as, “…consists in giving the name that belongs to something else”. And he explains the importance of metaphors: “…ordinary words convey only what we know already: it is from metaphor that we best get hold of something fresh… It is a great thing by far to be master of metaphor” (Ayıran, 2012). When history of architecture is considered, it is seen that architects make use of the source of inspiration as they are creating their design in each period. This is realized via tracking a primary architectural figure; sometimes by imitation of living/non living nature; sometimes by art, philosophy or politics. As a result, these designs either resembles a source of inspiration or accords by conceptual means. This case asserts that analogies become “reference” in architecture (Hey, et al. 2008). Gross and Do claims that these analogies are visual references for creative design (Gross and Do, 1995). (Figure1.)

Figure 1. Examples of shape reminding: [a] Le Corbusier claimed the roof for the chapel at Ronchamp was inspired by a horseshoe crab shell; [b] Columns at Calatrava’s BCE Place Gallery recall palm trees; [c] Michelangelo’s Porta Pia may have derived from a drawing of a head in agony; [d] Ove Arup, Utzon’s construction partner, claimed the Sydney Opera House’s shell forms reflected the image of yachts in Sydney Harbor. (Gross and Do, 1995)

When historical process is investigated especially in the middle of 20 th century, it is seen that examples in the nature were imitated by only form, pattern or color used in the façade design. Likewise, many architects design inspired by some objects from nature or predecessor movements, architectural approaches. It is know that metaphors and analogies provide a starting point in the architecture for concerns such as reaching creativity, making a meaning and delivering a message. Collins (1965) divided analogies adopted in the architecture into 5 classes; Biological, Mechanical, Gastronomic and Linguistic Analogies. Various structures which Abel (1988) identifies by resemblance models become a visual model and a strong source of inspiration used in creating different structures within sense of pluralism. These models can be listed as Spiritual Models, Classical Models, Military Models, Utopic Models, Organic Models, Mechanical Models, Artistic Models, Semantic Models, Commercial Models, Identifying Models, Architecture without architectures Models and so on (Url-2).It is inevitable that these classification requires update upon changing design needs and comprehension and this is a topic of an another study.

Figure 2. A few examples on natural analogies in architecture (Portoghesi, 2000) It is possible to assert that most common analogies adopted in the architecture are “biological analogies”. All living creatures harmony living and non-living characteristics of the environment. Therefore, it is inevitable that structure and environment are in a harmony. However, this harmony is to be maintained as functionality not should be restricted only to its form. Since 19 th century, by development of scientific explanations regarding nature and emerging biology as a scientific field, the previous architectural interest in imitating the nature have been changed by the laws and scientific explanations explaining the nature. By the advancement in the technology in our time, it is evident that the things that can be learned from the nature is not restricted to the concept of metaphor. Development of new technologies and structures learned through useful information obtained from the nature, forms the content of “biomimesis”. 1.3.Biomimesis in Architecture In literature, it is seen that biomimesis concept has been used with terms such as biomimetics, biomimicry bionics (Vincent, 1995), however, there are differences in meaning. Despite the terms used, materials, conservation of energy, lightness, "strength despite the lightness" inspire many architects and engineers (Arslan Selçuk and Gönenç, 2007). The science offering solutions in today’s design in harmony with the nature and by learning from the nature leads designers to this field by highlighting that the nature includes systems beyond being an only visual/structural source of inspiration.

Figure 3. Biomimetic approaches in architecture; MMA Office Building inspired from desert cactus (Url-3),Wuhan Energy Flower Building inspired from Calla Lily (Url-4)

As can be seen in Figure 3 the Minister of Municipal Affairs & Agriculture's (MMAA) new office in Qatar, inspired by a cactus successfully surviving in hot, dry environments. Taking inspiration from the way these plants deal with the scorching desert climate. Considered as a successful example of desert architecture, this building is designed to be the energy-efficient structure features sunshade panels that open and close according to the intensity of the sun at a particular moment. Depending on the intensity of the sun during the day, the sun shades can open or close to keep out the heat when it is too much. This is similar to how a cactus performs transpiration at night rather during the day in order to retain water (Url-3). Similarly, Netherlands-based firm Grontmij, in collaboration with Soeters Van Eldonk architects, recently won the award to design and construct the new research center which will be both zero carbon and zero energy and include a slew of other green building strategies claims that a flower, Calla Lily inspired research center for Wuhan University in China is a candidate for being one of the most sustainable buildings the world (Url-4). These examples/trials encourage designers and researches to further study nature. In this context, biomimesis is a prominent approach to develop new and innovative solutions for forms, structural, mechanical systems, energy efficiency and more. It can also serve to develop processes and related systematics and methodologies for environmentally friendly structures/artifacts, as can be observed in structures/forms in nature. 2. Tree-like Architectures Design is a process that man has experienced and accumulated for centuries and transferred it to the future. There are many different understandings, approaches and applications have been used and experienced from the day the design is called "as a process". Similarly, different approaches have been used in the form finding process which can be called as one of the most prominent processes of the design. The most common approaches are typological, pragmatic and canonic approaches (Broadbent, 1978). It is possible to argue that systems, principles, forms and structures found in nature are among the most prominent inputs accelerating the design process. In this content, many examples from the living/non-living organisms in nature; shells, crystals, spider webs, soap bubbles inspired mankind in their design process. Likewise, there are on-going relationships between “trees and architecture”. From the prehistoric ages till today, trees are source of inspiration for the people in both art and architecture. In this regard, it is not surprising that photographer Beth Moon chased the oldest trees as an artistic object through the world for 14 years (Figure 4).

Figure 4. Images from Beth Moon's gallery called "Portraits of Time" (Url-5) 2.1.A Brief History on Tree-like Structures in the History of Architecture The emergence of trees and plantlike shapes in architecture are unknown; however, there are plenty numbers of old cave art and paintings showing tree and plant figures. Therefore, in prehistoric ages, it can be said that people admired trees and plant forms. Especially, Egypt architecture is full of figures and metaphors having tree and plant shapes. Plantlike patterns are important decoration elements in Egypt palaces and pyramids and even in ancient Egypt hieroglyphs (BC3000 – BC600) and also in first architectural examples. The columns of Luxor Temple (BC1400) made of sandstones in shape of papyrus stack, tree-shaped column imitating the umbrella shape of the papyrus plant constitute the oldest examples. Moreover, there are Egypt stone column bodies resembling tree trunk and reeds like bunches and column heads decorated by resembling lily, lotus, palm tree or papyrus plant and also having different characteristics (Rian and Sassone, 2014) (Figure 5). Once historical process is considered, another oldest example in which natural forms and structures have been used in architecture can be found in Ancient Greek civilizations. In Greek and Roman architecture, there are similar patterns and examples resembling tree and plants. However, metaphor term is not readily evident since there is a one to one resemblance and it is more like an approach. In the ancient times, tree and plant patterns

received attention of the people and those natural objects are frequently used as part of their daily life. Prominent decorative characteristics of trees and plants are known to be used in Classical and Roman periods (BC500 and BC400). There are cardoon leaves on the head of Classical Corinth column. In the heads of serial columns and wall decorations of old Greek and Roman architecture and other decorative fields, acanthus plants are frequently observed (Rian and Sassone, 2014).

Figure 5. Acanthus plant and Column Head in Pantheon Roma Corinth (Portoghesi, 2000) Tree like structures in Medieval Age, were constructed in buildings with the annular vaults which were the basic and most advanced tectonic of this period. Water cistern built in 6 th century in Byzantines period, tree like patterns are observed. This large underground water depot was built as imitating a forest with 300 marble pillars higher than 9 meters (Figure 6). This pillar forest was designed to support large vault structures comprising of semi-circled arches (Rian and Sassone, 2014). Gothic architecture had been prevalent from 12th century to 15th century. In this period, similar metaphoric approaches are adopted. In the beginning of 12th century, fan vaulting became common which may be considered as intangible form of tree like forms by the advancement of cathedral architecture (Figure 6). One of the first examples of these vaults is Saint Chapelle in Paris built in 1242-1248. (Rian and Sassone, 2014). These vaults, examples of classic Gothic movement regarding characteristics, are supported by columns which are formed as rib nets to bear those vaults, they comprise of thin column bunches covered by painted glass.

Figure 6. Column forest in the Basilica Cistern built in İstanbul in Byzantine period (Url-6); Westminster Abbey Chapter House built in England in 13th century (Url-6), early Gothic period fan vault in Sainte-Chapelle in Paris. The most common tree and plant motives are seen in buildings which are designed under Art Nouveau movement as color, form and texture. Art Nouveau movement turning its back to Classicism with a Romantic approach sought the inspiration in the nature and adopted organic forms of the plants representing getting closer to the nature (Escritt, 2000). In this period, “cast iron skills” enabled designers to experience structural characteristics of tree and plant forms as well (Figure 7).

Figure 7. Paris Metro entrance designed by Hector Guimard in 1900 (Rian and Sassone, 2014), Grand Palais built in Paris in 1900 (Url-7); Tree, Barcelona (Escritt, 2000) Similarly, Antonio Gaudi, who practically never journeyed anywhere, drew his inspiration from his ability to observe and reuse the countless details offered by nature. When one enters the crypt of Sagra da Familia in Barcelona, the four inclined basalt columns standing out give the sensation of an organic and natural structure, like trees in a forest (Figure 8). In the first half of the 20th century, many architects and structural engineers have applied structural characteristics of trees with “structural simplicity” tendency with the advancing technique and accumulated knowledge. In the beginning of the 20 th century, reinforced concrete emerged new advancement in structures. Architects have investigated conditions for structuring and arrangement of this new material and sought for new way of expression while engineers were developing building methods suitable for the material. Accumulated knowledge in reinforced concrete, widespread reinforced concrete structures have provided easy and numerous structural solutions for architects and engineers to create free shaped, shaped and intangible structures.

Figure 8. Sagrada Familia Church designed by Gaudi in Barcelona (Url-8) Frank Lloyd Wright (1867-1959) was accepted as one of the most innovative and influential figures in Modern Architecture. In his radically original designs, as well as in his writings, he championed the virtues of what he called organic architecture, a building style focused on harmony with nature. For Wright, the word “organic” was tied to the use of the concrete cantilever as though it were natural "tree-like" form. In the Johnson Wax Administration Building this organic metaphor revealed itself in tall slender mushroom columns becoming thinner towards their bases (Heinz, 2000).

Figure 9. A long mushroom (Url-9) and Johnson Wax Administrative Building interior photograph from the main saloon 1939 and 1944.

Figure 10. Examples according to the branching theory of Frei Otto (Otto,1995) In the 1970s, great interest was given to architectural structures derived from the ramification concept in nature. Frei Otto studied the “minimum path system” to investigate a form for compression-loaded ceiling and roofing (Roland, 1970) in Institute of Lightweight Structures, Stuttgart. Otto claims that the fan structure as used in timber and steel building can be addressed as a materialized direct path network. The branched fan construction is more effective in many cases as the buckling lengths of the compression members are reduced; while the tree branched structure is a materialized path network with minimum detours, needing a relatively small amount of material and with a load bearing capacity that can be increased by thin branches (Figure10)(Otto, 1995). Several structures were constructed by Otto following this concept, and later many architects have been following his design principles. Following the Otto’s work of art, there are many buildings which are expression of tree columnar architecture and light structures. Calatrava, who has inspired by nature in search of his building from, has characteristic style to be a bridge between civil engineering and architecture in the 30 years. His designs are based on the models found in nature especially inspired by skeletal systems of mammals. However, some authorities assert that buildings by Calatrava are not the results of “cognitive learning from nature” and the forms and structures in his designs can be described as “overdesign” (Zardini, 1996). Interaction with the nature in Calatrava’s designs were just in the level of “seek of form” and it is criticized that sustainable architectural characteristics such as lightness, structural strength and standing static and dynamic loads, energy efficiency and materials observed in the designs could not be satisfied in his designs (Arslan Selçuk and Sorguç, 2007) (Figure 11).

Figure 11. Samples from tree shaped structures of Calatrava; Oriente Station (Url-10), BCE Place (Url-11), Cathedral of Saint John the Divine (Url-12). The roof of the Stuttgart Airport Passenger Terminal, Germany (1996), designed by Meinhard von Gerkan, is also among the contemporary examples of tree-like structures. The huge sloping roof is supported by 12 very treelike steel structures, in which the loads can be seen to be descending through an elaborate hierarchy, from twigs to branches to trunks, all fundamentally in compression. More directly, the construction of the terminal roof is based on the structure of a tree, thus providing an unmistakable and individual feature for Stuttgart Airport (Arslan Selçuk, 2009) (Figure 12).

Figure 12. Stuttgart Airport Passenger Terminal by Von Gerkan and Partners (Von Gerkan, 2007). This roof was designed by directly adopting the branching theory of Frei Otto. 2.2.Tree metaphor in 21st Century Architecture Tree and plant like forms have been considered as complex and complicated to define for centuries and therefore used in architecture by "abstracting" the related forms. Today, inspiring and learning from tree-like structures are increasing since these structures can be explained by fractal theories. Advanced calculation methods and algorithms let architects experience these forms in a short time with many alternatives. Furthermore, rapid prototyping technologies and other computational manufacturing techniques allow designers transform designs with complex form to tangible structures fast and easily. The number of samples exploiting all good ideas from trees are increasing by the advancing design tools and materials technology. Wood and steel let architects create lighter and more sustainable structural solutions. In this regard, Tote Restaurant by Chris Lee and Kapil Gupta of Serie Architects built in Mumbai in 2009 receives particular attention with its forest like interior atmosphere (Figure 13). Architects, reprogramming/reusing an abandoned colonial building, have offered load bearing structures in tree branching forms to maintain presence of green nature surrounding the building within the interior. Structural system inspired by the trees in the rain forests created a distinctive aesthetics. Tree like and asymmetrical structures support this roof and promotes the sense of forest by intercepting at the same time (Gawell, 2013). The design incorporates branching steel columns with an I-shaped section.

Figure 13. Mumbai Tote Restaurant, India (Url-13) Centre Pompidou-Metz (an original attachment built for Centre Pompidou Modern Art Museum in Paris), one of the designs made with natural materials by Shigeru Ban, was completed in 2010 (Figure 14). By its structural form, Ban who is inspired by tree like structures, sets an example for how wooden materials can be effectively employed by sustainable approaches and use of technology.

Figure 14. Sample wooden structures inspired by trees designed by Shigeru Ban; Centre Pompidou-Metz, Nine Bridges Country Club Building, A proposed design in Paris’ 4 th arrondissement (Url-14)(Url-15) The column located at the entry of Qatar National Congress Center in Doha designed by Isozaki has been inspired by "sidra" tree which is grown in dessert climate and a symbolic plant (Url-16). This structural column bearing the load of open entry valance, have been designed as a statue by using evolutional algorithms. (Figure 15). National Gallery in Singapore (Figure 16) is a prestigious building known by its tree columns located within the building. It was opened in November 2015 by the restoration realized by Studio Milou and CPG. The building completed in recent history, can be shown as an example for the tree like structures powered by technologies of the 21st century.

Figure 15. Qatar National Congress Center-2011 (Url-17)

Figure 16. Singapore National Gallery-2015 (Url-18) 35 meters high, diameter of 2 meters and a half with a wooden canopy 42 meters wide, the "Tree of Life" is a sculpture and interactive installation. The symbol of Expo Milano 2015 was built as a metaphor of Italy growing from its roots, feeding off them but growing upwards (Figure 17), (Url-21).

FIGURE 17. TREE OF LIFE AT MILAN WORLD EXPO 2015 (URL-19), “GARDENS BY THE BAY” IN SEOUL (URL-20) "Gardens by The Bay” located in the center of Singapore have been designed in a way that parks having "huge" tree-like structures can imitate ecological functions of the trees (Figure 17). By use of photovoltaic cells located on, they absorb sun power and use this energy for meeting illumination needs. Meanwhile, as the natural trees use rain water, they accumulate rain water in glass cages and designed to use this water for irrigating tropical plants. (Url-22) To sum up, in the conducted literature research; it is seen that tree like structures and tree metaphor in architecture -together with computational design and manufacturing tools and Biomimetic studies- constitutes the language of 21st century architectural designs and continue to be source of inspiration for the designers.

Results and Future Remarks When history of architecture is investigated, metaphors, imitation of nature and learning from nature are widely adopted in design. It is seen that fractal construction of the branched structures like trees and leaves, spider web structures, shells, crystals and soap bubbles are used in a wide spectrum in architecture. As seen from the examples discussed in the paper, man has learnt the concept of growth and multiplication via "tree" since ramification lies at the very heart of its nature. The branched support tree-like structure can be first observed in the ribs of the Gothic style, while today tree-like structures in architecture are mostly three-dimensional support systems, which have been used increasingly in steel, wood, and concrete buildings. From the analysis of a number of tree-like structures from the history of architecture to contemporary times, it is seen that tree like structures have been widely used in architecture and have always been a subject of interest due to their high structural performance and their potential to provide clear/wide span spaces. Furthermore, trees in nature, which has always been a subject of interest for architects due to its forms, functions and structural behavior is very convenient to inquire into the efficiency in form- structure and material usage relationship that architects looking for in their design. In the tree, nature has presented the concept of growth and multiplication in which the sequence of trunk, branch, leaflets, and leaves exemplify patterns which are very similar to those governing architectural orders. Even though the scale, function, and process may be different in nature, design constraints and objectives are very similar: functionality, optimization, and cost effectiveness are targeted to co-exist in man-made products. Therefore, it is no surprise that mankind has always admired tree like structures and has often been inspired, not only by their aesthetic attributes, but also by their design and structural properties. During the history, terms such as ‘tree shape’ or ‘branched structure’ are basically used to state formal resemblance between architectural structures and natural structures in architects and engineers. The most inspiring characteristic of a natural tree is definitely the capacity to carry a wide surface supported by a narrow element via fractal like branching structure. Such sort of thinking has inspired and taught architects on comprehending complex structures of the nature and increasing efficiency of application of their own design throughout the history. Many features regarding tree shapes and functions are seen in today’s designs. Therefore, designers adopting cutting edge technologies; offer tree like structures which does not only provide solutions for structural, spatial and one of the most important design criteria of today’s world, to provide solutions for ecological problems but also these are more innovative and more suitable regarding architectural and structural meaning in aesthetical aspects.

REFERENCES Addis, B., 2001. "Creativity And Innovation The Structural Engineer’s Contribution to Design", Architectural Press, Oxford. Arslan Selçuk, Gönenç Sorguç A., 2007. "Mimari Tasarım Paradigmasında Biomimesis'in Etkisi', Gazi Mimarlık Mühendislik Fakültesi Dergisi, 22(2),451-460. Arslan Selçuk S., Gönenç Sorguç A., 2015. "Reconsidering The Role of Biomimesis in Architecture: An Holistic Approach for Sustainability", 2nd “International Sustainable Building Symposium-ISBS 2015 , Ankara. Arslan Selçuk S., 2009, "Proposal for a Non-Dimensional Parametric Interface Design in Architecture: A Biomimetic Approach", ODTÜ, Graduate School of Natural and Applied Sciences , Ankara. Antoniades, A. C., 1990. "Poetics of Architecture: Theory of Design", New York, Van Nostrand Reinhold. Ayıran, N., 2012. "The Role of Metaphors in the Formation of Architectural Identity", ITU A|Z, Vol: 9, NO:2, 1-21 Broadbent, G., 1978. "Design in Architecture", John Wiley and Sons, London. BSTS/Yöntembilim Terimleri Sözlüğü, 1981, Muzaffer Sencer,Türk Dil Kurumu Yayınları Calatrava, S.,2000. ‘‘Tasarım Felsefesi, Santiago Clatrava’’, Boyut Yayınları,97-100. Cappleman, O. and Jordan M. J., 1993. "Foundations in Architecture: An Annotated Anthology of Beginning Design Projects", New York, Van Nostrand Reinhold. Colins, P., 1965. "Changing Ideals in Modern Architecture, 1750-1950", Book in The Art Bulletin 52(3). Glucksberg, S., 2001. "Understanding Figurative Language: from Metaphors to Idiums", Oxford University Press. Hey, J., Linsey, J., Agogino, A.M. and Wood, K.L., 2008. "Analogies and Metaphors in Creative Design". International Journal of Engineering Education,24(2), p.283. Gawell, E., 2013. "Non-Euclidean Geometry in the Modeling of Contemporary Architectural Forms". Journal Biuletyn of Polish Society for Geometry and Engineering Graphics, 24. Gross, M. and Do, E., 1995. "Drawing analogies-Supporting Creative Architectural Design with Visual References. In 3rd International Conference on Computational Models of Creative Design, Sydney, pp. 37-58 Erzen, J., 2002. "Kopya / Taklit", Arredamento Mimarlık Dergisi, Sayı 2, 57-60. Escritt, S., 2000. “Art Nouveau”, Phaidon Press, Singapore, 317-327 . Fez-Barringten, B., 2011. "Architecture: the Making of Metaphors". Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Hey, J., Linsey, J., Agogino, A., M., and Wood, K.L., 2008. "Analogies and Metaphors in Creative Design". International Journal of Engineering Education, 24(2), pp.283. Heinz, T., 2000. "The Vision of Frank Lloyd Wright", Chartwell Books Kurtz, K., J., Gentner, D. & Gunn, V., 1999. "Reasoning in Cognitive Science: Handbook of Perception and Cognition", ed: D.E. Rumelthart and B. M. Bly, 2nd Edition, Academic Press, pp: 145-200. Lakoff, G., Johnson, M., 2005. "Metaforlar, Hayat, Anlam ve Dil", Çev: Demir,G., Y., Paradigma Yayıncılık, İstanbul. Otto, F. , 1995. "Frei Otto, Bodo Rasch: Finding Form. Towards an Architecture of the Minimal", Deutscher Werkbund Bayern. Berlin, pp.188-189. Portoghesi, P., 2000. "Nature and Architecture", Skira Editore, Milan. Rian, I.M. and Sassone, M., 2014. "Tree-inspired Dendriforms and Fractal-like Branching Structures in Architecture: A Brief Historical Overview", Frontiers of Architectural Research, 3(3), pp.298-323. Roland, C., 1970. "Frei Otto Tension Structure", Praeger Publisher, New York. Sayın,T., 2007. "Mimari Tasarım Eğitimine Bütüncül/Metaforik Bir Yaklaşım", Yayınlanmamış Doktora Tezi, Mimar Sinan Güzel Sanatlar Üniversitesi, Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, İstanbul. [Url-1]: http://www.turkcebilgi.com/mecaz [25.05.2016] [Url-2]: http://www.analogy.itgo.com/ [25.05.2016] [Url-3]: http://www.robaid.com/bionics/green-architecture-qatar-cacti-biomimicry.htm (2009) [25.05.2016] [Url-4]: http://inhabitat.com/wuhans-lily-shaped-zero-carbon-energy-flower-set-to-bloom-in-china/ (2010) [25.05.2016] [Url-5]: http://www.bethmoon.com/TouchWood00.html [25.05.2016] [Url-6]: http://www.typologycentral.com/forums/home-garden-and-nature/82213-interesting-places.html [25.05.2016] [Url-7]: http://lacot.org/photos/2005/09/grand-palais-paris/918.html [25.05.2016] [Url-8]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagrada_Fam%C3%ADlia [25.05.2016] [Url-9]: https://files.shroomery.org/files/05-31/315601259-stalk_same_color_mature.jpg [25.05.2016] [Url-10]:http://curiouskester.com/calatrava-at-gare-do-oriente-lisbon/ [25.05.2016] [Url-11]:http://www.galinsky.com/buildings/bce/ [25.05.2016] [Url-12]:http://www.thousandwonders.net/Cathedral+of+Saint+John+the+Divine [25.05.2016] [Url-13]: http://www.dezeen.com/2009/12/07/the-tote-by-serie-architects/ [25.05.2016] [Url-14]: https://tr.pinterest.com/explore/shigeru-ban/ [25.05.2016]

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ACHIEVING COLOR HARMONY IN CURRENT ARCHITECTURAL STRUCTURES THROUGH THE USE OF DIGITAL METHODS IN COLOR ADEL KHODEIR, TALA ALNOUNOU Adel Khodeir, Professor, Ibri College of Applied Sciences, Oman, Tala Alnounou, Interior Designer, X-Architect, Dubai, UAE

ABSTRACT There is no doubt that color is one of the most influential means of expression in global and local inhabitable environments. Studying the effect of colors is one of the core architectural principles as it plays an important role in understating the architectural context in relation to exterior building facade. This study will examine the chromatic environment in certain architectural regions in Egypt. It is evident from the initial screening that those regions clearly lack of chromatic coordination and harmony which highly impact the overall appearance and identity of their surrounding causing an overall scene of clutter and visual noise. This paper will focus on the use of color harmony especially in buildings facades to add greater value and complement the overall design. Moreover, the paper will present effective techniques to use color functionally and aesthetically based on sound scientific methods to avoid solely relying on designer capabilities. The lack of chromatic coordination in urban environments is a common problem that exists in abundance in most current urban and architectural contexts. This is due to the lack of systems or methods that clearly defines the successful chromatic coordination to create harmonious built environments. The Research is based on the use of digital techniques that employs the fundamentals of Color Theory from Color Management System point of view to reconcile the existing conditions of the existing urban environments in order to achieve the desired tonal harmony. Ultimately this will improve the rhythm of the visual impressions of those environments. The process is done through computer software that selects the harmonious colors based on the colors inputted in the system, then it identifies the most harmonious combinations of hues, tints, tones and shades according to color theories. Research Problem Studying various local urban architecture with all its’ different typologies and styles we found some architectural regions that severely lack color harmony and feature poor color coordination. The lack of standards for the process of selecting and using colors in the exterior facades of the urban architecture leads to an overall poor aesthetic representation of those regions creating substantial visual noise. This results in an urgent need to create a system that is capable of reconciling the status quo for those urban architectural regions. Providing methods and systems of choosing colors to help both the designer and the decision makers to eliminate chromatic disharmony spend, which will ultimately work to improve the overall aesthetics of the urban scene in these areas. There is no doubt that the human eye works subconsciously to understand and analyze the chromatic harmony between natural elements and the human made architectural facades of buildings. Color is a crucial visual element that effects environment, architecture and overall urban setting. A chromatically themed study is a key factor to a successful architectural design to achieve the best color harmonious results with contextual environment. At this point the need to utilize computer capabilities arise to deliver solutions that control the color selection process and generate harmonious color relations. Importance of research This research will present computer generated methodology to achieve chromatically harmonized architectural urban regions. The research utilizes modern digital color management systems with its application on colors harmony theories. The primary function of the color management systems is to get the most harmonious color results using mathematical/algorithmic relationships. From here there was a need to conduct such research to support graphic and architectural design through digital color management systems. Chromatic color adjustment process in color management are in accordance with the rules of the International Color Consortium ICC. Yet the process of generating and analyzing profiling files is still complex and difficult to apply specially in 3 dimensional architectural rendering and graphic design. However, it is possible and will be simplified and explained

throughout this research so it could be easily applied by architects, 3d artists and graphic designers. This research also demonstrates the basic methods of digital color harmony and how to control the production of color by a variety of Color Models, in addition it will provide definitions of common terms used in color management. Research Environment This research is conducted in a very specific working environment where we will use digital color management applications in one of the urban squares in Cairo. The following variables related to architectural design will be constant:  Form and balance  Mass and void  Shape and line Research Elements 1. Visual Noise as a product of chromatic disharmony Visual Noise is known as an interruption or defect in the purity of vision effecting the overall aesthetic perception. It is all that is inconsistent within an urban and architectural environment. This constant interruption leads over time to optical depression and lack of visual sensitivity towards unharmonious elements in one’s surroundings. Visual Noise is considered one of the most important and dangerous environmental pollutants that requires a trained eye to spot and detect imbalances. Absence of chromatic harmony is one of the most important visual noise causes in urban and architectural environments. Chromatic disharmony occurs due to unsought color combinations in architectural building facades. Figure (1) illustrates an attempt to improve chromatic harmony in one of the areas in Greater Cairo through painting the facades of these buildings in one chosen color. However due to the lack of tonal awareness and thorough study the final results were not satisfactory as illustrated. Figures (4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9) express the current status of the chromatic disharmony within the urban and architectural regions. These extreme examples demonstrate the major deformation of the overall optical and visual aesthetic of those urban and architecture environments. The sole decision makers in the process of color selection are either building owners or contractors without consulting a reliable organization to control the color selection and take into account key elements such as: harmony, surrounding, scale and color intensity. 2. The correlation between society and color in architecture Social environment is determined by the activities and the relationships between people (non- physical environment), while the architectural environment is defined by walls and ceilings to produce spaces and forms that are tangible (Physical environment). Social aspects have great impact on forces that form architecture and the overall urban fabric. In addition, beliefs and culture extremely influence colors selection in architecture. Color in every culture has a symbolic quality and a moral dimensions and therefore it is evidentially reflected in the urban composition. Color in architecture is a method to either maintain the features and identity of communities or a technique to distort and blur cultural community features. This is highly evident in the Bedouin communities where they value and preserve their chromatic identity by maintaining a systemized structure of their signature color schemes. On that note color in urbanism and architecture is considered a strong and distinctive element that gives buildings its unique character. It is a necessity to improve and develop chromatic features as an approach to improve the overall urban environment. 3.

Chromatic harmony in various global methodologies that focus on the relationship between colors and construction: 3.1 Johannes Ühl Case Study: Ühl was interested in the chromatic relationship between buildings especially when they form an urban fabric. Ühl explained in his study that there are four different measures to perceive color and use it for expression: neighboring scale, street scale, individual building scale, building details scale and analyzing building clusters as a single unit. This creates multiple color structures on how to be used on neighboring, adjacent and opposite buildings. The study presented solutions on how to deal with various facade configurations, whether a single interface or a large street corner façade or even a building with all metallic interfaces where it is needed to treat every interface differently. Ühl identified key factors affecting the appearance of colors in urban environments as the following:  Lighting: For instance, in the southern regions of Europe and where there is little sun shine. It is evident the use of warm hues and colors such as white, light yellow, mustard yellow, Pink, even blue and purple are used in a concentrated value to reflect warmth.

 Building Orientation: This is because the facades facing east receives morning sun and reflect it. On the other hand facades facing the west receives a lot of light during the sunset, while the North facades receive minimal sun light throughout the day. That’s why selecting light and reflective colors in those interfaces is best, while South interfaces can take strong bright colors.  Location in relation to historic sites: It was found that modern buildings usually separate and standout from the surrounding in terms of colors. This technique is used so modern buildings would appear distinct from the surrounding historic buildings. Another technique used is to camouflage historic building using the same chromatic schemes as the modern buildings in order to merge them together and minimize the contrast. The process of chromatic harmonization of architectural and urban regions is essential, according to Ühl studies, especially when dealing with neighboring and street scale. 3.2 Jean Philippe Lenclos Case Study: Lenclos have created a comprehensive analysis of current colors which aims to regulate the colors in nature and the surrounding built environment. His study is simple yet objective at the same time as it studies the application of natural colors across multiple French cities which each are different in location, climate, and architecture. The study included a process of color sampling directly from specific sites and processing them in his work lab classifying them produce what’s so-called Color Maps according to its source and its location in the city and their architectural category. Two color systems were subsequently developed. First is the primary system which represent harmonious set of colors to configure large spaces in buildings. Second is the extended system which use these colors in secondary elements that do not take up much space, such as the doors, windows, trims and cornices. 4.

Design trends to employ color in external buildings facades and its relation to achieve chromatic harmony

Design trends to employ colors in the external building facades Design using painting style Pallet of Colors

artistic Use of symbolic Colors

Use of Expressive Colors

Design through the use of surrounding environment colors

There are multiple directions to employ color in external building facades. Chromatic harmony can be achieved through the following techniques: 4.1.

Design through the use of surrounding environment colors: And it is based on the colors chosen and their relation with the surrounding environment in one of these ways:

4.1.1. Integration with the environment This is achieved through the use of colors that are derivatives of the surrounding natural environment such as green derived from the greenery. An architect could choose one color that dominates the building to achieve desired chromatic harmony or alternatively he may use natural materials to evoke a sense of natural attachment such as using natural stone as a façade covering material. Accordingly, color selection techniques should change according to location and its relation with nature for instance building in rural locations is completely different than building in an urban location. 4.1.2. Ground visual connection Through the use of color groups which are in harmony that gradually gradate from original hue, intensity and value taking into account the importance of the use of darker colors at the bottom of high rise buildings as a base and lighter colors in the upper sections to evoke building stability and linking it visually to the ground. 4.1.3. Chromatic isolation from the environment Chromatic isolation from the environment aims to use color in an attempt to attract attention to the building, as the designer intention in this case would be to distinguish his building from the surrounding environment by choosing contrasting colors that yet in harmony with its context.

4.2. Use of Expressive Colors Through the use of colors that gives a space it’s unique character and feel adding to the overall experience of the built environment and blurring the line between the existing and new space. 4.3. Use of symbolic Colors Historically colors where used symbolically in ancient civilizations and to this date colors hold powerful meanings that differ from culture to culture. Color use in communities is highly connected to religious, ideological and ceremonial purposes. We find the color symbolism is often used in architecture, for example red is always associated with fire stations such as the fire station designed by architect Günnar Birkert. Another example is the use of blue color in the Pacific Center designed by architect Cesar Pelli. 4.4. Design using artistic painting style (Pallet of Colors) In this approach the building turns into a plate of colors, this technique is used by designers to highlight certain features in their buildings or on the other hand conceal problems. It can be used to create a dazzling effect and to break tedious facades. Lassus applied this concept through a series of projects where he believes that the use of color in architecture is an expression of joy and pleasure. This trend was a response to the monotony of colors used in the design of architectural facades of buildings in Europe that period. 5. Use of colors in external interfaces and their relation with solar radiation Building Facade color selection has an important environmental and climatic effects, as external interfaces affect the amount of absorbed solar rays from walls and ceilings. Color Solar rays absorption Completely Black %100 Normal Black %85 Green or Dark Gray %70 Green or Light Gray %70 White Oil Paint %20 White New Paint %12 Table 1. showing the degree of absorption of certain colors to solar radiation The above table illustrate the importance of using light whitish colors as the have a great ability to reflect solar radiation. Studies have shown that there is a great impact to the color selection especially on ceilings as west and east building facades are more affected by solar radiation than the facades facing waterfront or even southern facade as it is special case because it receives larger solar radiation in the winter than summer which is considered an advantage. 6. Steps and background of the proposed system to achieve chromatic harmony: 6.1. proposed system Steps Chromatic harmony is created by chromatic harmony tool, as it is saved in the form of pallets to be used in various graphic and architecture design programs. That harmonious colors are a collection of complementary colors (a primary color and number of harmonious generated combinations through mathematical calculations by the computer). As an example, to create a dual chromatic harmony the resulting pallet will consist of two colors the first is a primary and the second is harmonious. This program is based on color harmony theory by the Swiss scientist Johannes Itten (1888-1967). The required steps to produce a set of harmonious colors are as follows: . We select the Principal color that we wish to find harmonic combinations for in the chromatic harmony program. . Define number of harmonious colors required, this also will determine the harmony technique, and desired chromatic harmony style. . We can obtain harmonious colors by moving the polygon angle in the opposite direction, selected primary colors cannot be changed at this point selected .to get harmonious hues you must press the control button when you move the corner. . After that the resulting chromatic harmonious colors are assembled in a pallet file that can be used in various graphic and architectural design programs. The original concept to find harmonious colors using mathematical configurations goes to Swiss color scientist Johannes Itten. As he had described the relationship between harmonious color groups

consisting of 2, 3, 4 or more. As he explained this relation and its connection to geometric shapes: triangles, quadrilaterals, pentagons and hexagons. The Model space used to get harmonious colors is CIE XYZ. 6.2. Digital color management backgrounds 6.2.1. Traditional chromatic management In this technique we deal with colors through personal taste and technical and creative background of the designer. It is an individual skill that is hard to be measured or quantified and do not require hardware or special software. It solely depends on some color references and knowledge of color principles and color harmony theories. 6.2.2. Digital color management This method uses special software for the management of color and color harmony. It generates color pallet files along the original design file. Assuring optimum application of the laws of color harmony. Before we go into more details about this process the research will clarify some concepts that are commonly used in color harmony. 6.3. Scientific definition of Color Harmony Chromatic compatibility is a biological processes performed by the human eye when it perceives a single color or a certain hue. Let’s take Green as an example, it is believed that the eye is attracted a singular color in order to match with, but this sensation is momentarily. It is found that when the eye is provoked a certain color, it produced another color on the spot. The generated and original color become a chromatic color. In other words, the eye works to satisfy is self as it finds a complementary hue to every color perceived and it fills the gaps to create a harmonious consecrated hue this phenomenon is known as (Metamerism) and this phenomenon highlights the basic concept for all aspects of chromatic harmony laws. 6.3.1. Types of chromatic harmony There are several types of chromatic harmony used in graphic, architectural design, arts and other types of communication: 6.3.1.1.1. Monochromatic harmony: This type of harmony uses two or more tones of a single color to achieve harmony by either using light or dark grades. An example of this in architecture is the use of single tone as dominant color in façade design in conjunction with some other shades of the same color added to specific architectural details. 6.3.1.1.2. Analogous chromatic harmony: This homogenized chromatic harmony uses adjacent color combinations in the color wheel, such as: yellow and orange, green and indigo, blue and violet, red and purple, etc. These colors are in harmony as a connection exist between them. For example: yellow and orange are closely linked as orange is generated by blending yellow with a small value of red. In this type of compatibility only adjacent colors in the color wheel are harmonious others are not. 6.3.1.1.3. Complementary chromatic harmony: Depend on selecting colors opposite to each other in the color wheel, this is based on the phenomenon of visual contrast. For example, the following combinations are harmonious: orange and blue, green and red magenta, violet and yellow. We can notice these combinations consist of a warm color and cool color which leads to apparent contrast. The combination consisting of orange and blue is commonly used as it gives a great sensation especially with the contrast between the warmth from orange and serenity from blue it is one of the most beautiful color configurations. 6.3.1.1.4. Split-complementary chromatic harmony: In this case we can use adjacent colors to the main complementary color. The following pallets are created: blue with yellow and red, orange with green and violet. The Colors on either side of these colors in the color wheel may be used with a complementary color. It is preferable not to use saturated complementary colors but a combination of a lighter and darker hues instead. If the designer intend to use complementary colors with a third color, for instance using yellow or cream as the prominent color in an architectural façade should be used with the complementary color purple which are opposite to each other on the color wheel. To find a third color that has medium intensity between those two we draw a vertical line at the midpoint of the complementary line, we can find that we got two colors that can be used either indigo or red-orange.

6.3.1.1.5. Triadic chromatic harmony: It is a more precise technique to get color compatibility between three colors. To achieve this method, we draw equilateral triangle inside the color wheel where the vertices indicate the three primary colors (red - green blue). We can achieve multiple color groups by rotating these triangles around the center of the wheel to create various color pallets that can be used in architectural design. 6.3.1.1.6. Tetradic chromatic harmony: This Chromatic harmony uses quartet collage of basic colors with the possibility of adding shades of these four colors to increase the number of colors used.

3. Complementary

6.

Tetrad

2. Analogous

5.

Triadic

1. Monochromatic

4.

Split-Complementary

Figure 1. Types of chromatic harmony 6.4. The use of color management and specialized programs to achieve chromatic harmony The primary objective of this research is to use the program is to produce pallets of color in harmony that can be successfully used in the design architectural facades and graphics artworks. The research will outline and introduce the principles and foundations that are used in the program, in addition to thorough explanation to its basics. The research will introduce a practical application of colors generated by the program on an actual architectural case study. The program uses Color space as it basis that is proposed by international lighting organization known as CIE XYZ which is generated by the computer to produce harmonious color groups. The program converts the geometrical relationships into mathematical equations that are saved as digital color pallets that can be used in various graphic and architectural and 3d design programs. 6.5. The basic functions of the program The program consists of the following set of commands and control panels and dialog boxes that enable the designer to carry out the following functions and tasks: 6.5.1. Primary color selection: Here the designer selects the desired color to work with and find its chromatic combinations harmony. This can be done either by direct selection or by specifying numerical values of hue, saturation or brightness. In this study were selected blue as the color to the work with. 6.5.2. Type of chromatic harmony selection: At this point the designer or architect defines which type of chromatic harmony is desired and the number of colors required. Easily a selection can be made from the list of which type is required so the software will use mathematical functions to produce harmonic combinations.

6.5.3. Preview generated pallets: In this stage the program shows a detailed breakdown of the data and the coordinates of each color in the generator pallet in terms of hues and in essence and focus saturation and brightness. The colors can be displayed in various color systems such as RGB or CMYK. 6.5.4. View sample processed Architectural façade: The program has the ability to display harmonious color collections on the desired architectural facade from the generated pallet presenting all chromatic possibilities from the selected system. 6.5.5. Save color pallets: The generated color pallets can be save through several different reference formats that can be accessed again to be reused or modified in the program later. Pallets can be saved also as images to be used as references later. 6.5.6. Export color information to other graphic software: The software has the ability to export color pallets files into various formats that are usable by various graphics, architecture and 3D programs with flexibility for extra professional adjustments through specialized image processing and rendering software such as: Photoshop, Photo Paint, 3Dstudio Max.

7.

Practical Examples:

a

b c d Figure 2. Some Examples of Buildings before applying Color Harmony Rules

Figure 3. Analogous color Harmony Application

Figure 4. Complementary color Harmony Application

Figure 5. Monochromatic color Harmony Application 8. Research recommendations 1- There are evident problems in the traditional way to achieve chromatic harmony in terms of quantity, time and accuracy. 2- Selected chromatic harmony time affect the final appearance of the architectural interfaces. 3- The use of digital color management systems to effectively achieves chromatic harmony. 4- There a high necessity to use an elaborate system for color characterization for the following reasons: a. Achieve the principle of (what you see on screen is what you get in practical implementation) b. Get the least number of chromatic combinations to achieve optimum harmonic facades. 5- There is a need to train professionals in the field of architectural rending and graphic designer to activate the use of chromatic color harmony systems and software. REFERENCES ‫ بحث غير منشور‬، ‫ األلوان والتغير فى العمران المصرى دراسة تحليلية فى العمارة السكنية الرسمية والعشوائية والتلقائية‬:‫جاسر جميل عبدالعظيم‬ .1998 ، ‫ جامعة القاهرة‬،‫ قسم العمارة‬،‫ كلية الهندسة‬،‫للحصول علي درجة الماجستير‬ ‫م‬2003 – ‫ برنامج جزئي بالحاسب اآللي لتقديم خطط لونية لواجهات المباني – كلية الهندسة – جامعة أسيوط‬:‫خالد صالح عبد المجيد‬ ‫ بحث غير منشور للحصول علي درجة‬،‫ تأثير األنشطة الملونة للمناطق التاريخية مع ذكر خاص لحالة مصر القديمة‬:‫صفاء عبدالفتاح سليمان‬ .2001 ‫ مايو‬،‫ جامعة القاهرة‬،‫ قسم العمارة‬،‫ كلية الهندسة‬،‫الماجستير‬ ‫ بحث غير منشور‬، ‫ استخدام القياسات اللونية في تحسين جودة طباعة الصحف الملونة مع التطبيق على جريدة األهرام‬:‫عادل محمد محمد خضير‬ .1998 ،‫ جامعة حلوان‬،‫كلية الفنون التطبيقية‬، ‫للحصول علي درجة الماجستير‬ ‫نهى حسام الدين محمد نشأت التأثيرات البيئية لألوان فى المعالجات الخارجية للمبانى مع ذكر خاص للمجتمعات السياحية بالغردقة بحث غير‬ .2002 ‫ ديسمبر‬،‫ جامعة القاهرة‬،‫ قسم العمارة‬،‫ كلية الهندسة‬،‫منشور للحصول علي درجة الماجستير‬ .2003 ،‫ مكتبة مدبولى‬،‫ التصميم المعمارى الصديق للبيئة نحو عمارة خضراء‬:‫يحيى وزيرى‬ Braun, G. and Fairchild, M. (1999) General -purpose gamut mapping algorithms: evaluation of contrast preserving resealing functions for colour gamut mapping. Proc. 7th IS&TISID Colour Imaging Conference, pp. .172-167 .Morovic, J. (1998) To develop a universal gamut mapping algorithm. PhD thesis, University of Derby Johnson, A. J. et al. (1992) Colour appearance research for interactive system management and application .(CARISMA). Colour gamut compression (Report WP2-19)

CAN COGNITIVE MAPPING BE AN ALTERNATIVE TOOL FOR THE PARTICIPATORY REHABILITATION OF HISTORICAL URBAN SPACES? THE CASE OF KEMERALTI BAZAAR IN IZMIR, TURKEY FULYA SELÇUK, İLKNUR TÜRKSEVEN DOĞRUSOY Fulya Selçuk, Res. Asst., DEU, İlknur Türkseven Doğrusoy, Assoc. Prof. Dr., DEU

ABSTRACT Kemeraltı is the 17th century old city center of Izmir, which had been an important harbor city since ancient times. Izmir has extended and widened around the old city core as a result of the urban development caused by rapid increase in population and economic development especially in the last century. Although Kemeraltı has lost some of its original urban identity under the pressure of urban development, the region has been one of the most authentic historical places in Izmir. Kemeraltı has been in a rehabilitation process and several conservation and restoration projects have been planned with tourism based municipal policies. These projects have generally based on two dimensional plans and projects that ignore users’ daily life and sensory experiences. However, when the public realm and the memory of place were taken into consideration, the information derived from users’ environmental experiences and imaginations gains importance. The aim of this proceeding is both to discuss the importance of daily sensory and environmental experiences of city dwellers as a guide for a more participatory rehabilitation in historical public spaces and to share the results of a pilot field study applied in Kemeraltı Bazaar, which has used cognitive mapping as a tool to achieve public participation. For this purpose, a pilot field study has been conducted in Kemeraltı Bazaar. Interviews have been applied on site with 35 participants. The data have been analyzed with content analysis applied on cognitive maps of Kemeraltı Bazaar regarding Lynch’s theoretical framework. According to research findings, it was found out that commercial, historical and cultural features dominated the environmental image of Kemeraltı Bazaar. Although buildings as landmarks were the most mentioned elements in the maps, most of the renovated ones were not identified by the participants. Some of landmarks drawn in cognitive maps were not included in current projects as well. Participants described Kemeraltı Bazaar generally both with their positive emotions and their past memories. Bad smell, difficulty in wayfinding and safety problems were the negative remarks attributed to the physical environment. Sensory perception analysis provided some inputs to consider in rehabilitation of Kemeraltı Bazaar. 1. INTRODUCTION Kemeraltı Bazaar, the commercial and social center of Izmir, Turkey, is an important historical and cultural heritage dating back to the 17th century. However, it cannot be effectively used because old structures have been neglected, there are issues with infrastructure, and there is a lack of nightlife, despite the bazaar’s dynamic daytime activity. By forming new tourism policies, restoration projects have been launched to solve the region’s problems and develop its potential. Ventures have been established within certain planning disciplines and along with local authorities, mostly by using physical environmental data. The area around Kemeraltı Bazaar has a special character, not only due to its physical structures, but also due to its historical, social, cultural, and economic aspects. Therefore, all of the bazaar’s visible and invisible layers should be analyzed to meet the goals of restoration endeavors. To examine all layers, revitalization schemes should be carried out via interdisciplinary environmental perception studies, which take perceptual parameters into consideration. This study explores how Kemeraltı Bazaar’s users experience the surrounding environment in order to evaluate rehabilitation projects with perceptual assessments. Perceptual data obtained through questionnaires and cognitive mapping were applied to Kemeraltı Bazaar according to Lynch’s theory of environmental perception. This paper explores revitalization undertakings in the Kemeraltı region, then outlines the method of the study and finally discusses the findings of the field study by considering the existing studies in Kemeraltı.

2. REHABILITATION PROJECTS IN KEMERALTI The Kemeraltı region has been an economic center since Izmir became a harbor city in the 17th century. Commercial activities have been carried out for centuries in Kemeraltı Bazaar, located in the old port area that linked with the Silk Road in the past. The bazaar’s privileged identity has developed not only in terms of commercial use, but also of social and public uses. However, the replacement of some functions due to the rapid urbanization has led the bazaar to lose its vitality. Commercial activities in Kemeraltı Bazaar were transformed and mostly concentrated around retail; later on, large scale shopping malls and plazas were built in the city center during the process of de-centralization (Kılıç and Aydoğan, 2006). After different ethnic and social groups left Kemeraltı, the heterogeneous attributes of the bazaar has changed. Different actors have played different roles in protecting historical, social, cultural, and economic values of Kemeraltı region in the face of such dramatic changes. In 1999, authorities revised the master plan of the historical city center due to failures and problems in the previous 1984 plan (Aydoğan and Kılıç, 2009). The first phase of the Conservation Development Plan Revision was approved in 2005 and prepared via collaboration between Dokuz Eylül University and the İzmir Metropolitan Municipality. The second stage was approved in 2009 and developed jointly by the Konak and İzmir Metropolitan Municipalities (Izmir Konak Municipality, 2002a). Development plans aimed to enhance the city center’s image in order to attract both domestic and foreign users (Kılıç and Aydoğan, 2006). The declaration of Kemeraltı as an urban renewal area in 2007 firmly established the rehabilitation process, which focused on square design proposals, pedestrianisation applications, and revitalization projects (Çetin, 2012). In parallel with conservation development schemes, the İzmir Metropolitan Municipality arranged a competition called “An Urban Furniture and Cover Structure Design Competition for Kemeraltı Bazaar” in 2008. Top cover structures and urban furniture designs were proposed for restoring the historic center and improving the perceptibility of urban environment (Şala, 2013). The competition’s winning projects have not been applied yet. The new construction rules were determined on a 1/500 scale master plan in order to improve the harmony of spatial patterns and of facades, as well as the architectural language of the historic urban fabric (İzmir Konak Municipality, 2002b). Within the scope of the plans, a design guide was developed including regulations on dimensions, materials, and construction details, to sustain new structures would have similar architectural traits of with traditional ones (İzmir Konak Municipality, 2002b). In the design guide, an inventory of repeating structural elements found at the urban conservation site was taken for restorations and for new constructions, regarding the original architectural details of the historic urban fabric as much as possible. Materials, colors, and standard dimensions were described strictly to ensure the physical harmony and aesthetic quality of the built environment, in contrast with the diversity of physical components of the bazaar that are thought to have caused “visual anarchy.” During the first stage of development of conservation plan, participatory methods were applied. The problems and opportunities of region were determined with discussions among professionals, tradesman, users and citizens. Project exhibitions were held through organizations as the process was conducted in a transparent and open way. The prior implementation areas were determined, and suggestions from participants were taken into consideration. However, participants were only expected to evaluate the schemes developed by professionals, which means that the participatory model was perceived as a tool to convince the public and create a community union, rather than understanding people’s spatial knowledge. Conservation projects have not been able to gain wide currency to prevent decay due to limited applications. İzmir Municipality activated “İzmir History Project” and aimed to prepare operational plans instead of revising the conservation development strategy to revitalize the region in 2009. Reviving the region has been interpreted as a positive sign, given the increase in visits within the project’s context, which aspires to create an “urban experience” via the region’s history (İzmir Konak Municipality, 2015). According to this objective, the project has developed different strategies, one of which is to increase the variety of activities and functions for a 24/7 living environment. For example, it has been suggested that existing residential buildings be revamped and used as student houses. The participatory design process is another tactic of the İzmir History project. It is good to obtain participants’ support in the revitalization process, but it is also critical to generate information from a multidisciplinary perspective by considering participants’ memories, emotional connotations, and positive and negative feelings about the environment. Participants can contribute to restoration process with their spatial knowledge that environmental perception studies investigate.

3. METHODOLOGY 3.1. The importance of environmental perception in understanding urban spaces Environmental perception, which is based on discovery rather than observation, is different from recognizing an object or event; a person must discover his environment to perceive it, and construct the environment at a mental level (Bell et al., 1990). The perceiver is not independent from his past experiences during the mental process. While sensing the environment, the perceiver compares newly experienced stimuli with the past experiences he remembers in order to process the information in hand. Environmental perception includes cognitive, affective, interpretive, and valuative processes (Bell et al., 1990). According to Ittelson, perceptual and cognitive processes operate alongside each other. Cognition is a more general term that refers to the awareness, images, information, processing, impressions, and beliefs that individuals and groups have about their physical, social, cultural, economic, and political environments. Environmental cognition is not limited to the physical environment, and focuses on the overall life of one’s surroundings (Moore and Golledge, 1976). A person orients himself and develops behavioral responses to environmental indicators, with mental images of the living environment that include many visible and invisible layers. Lynch argues that the image is a production of what the observer selects, which he endows with meaning (Lynch, 2010). The invisible layers of urban space are created by superimposing these images. Lynch defined five elements (paths, edges, districts, nodes, landmarks) as the raw material of environmental images at urban scale, and emphasized the importance of the relationship among these elements for environmental image. “Paths” are channels such as streets, walkways, and transit lines that observers use customarily, occasionally, or potentially. According to Lynch, paths have visual dominance on environmental images (Lynch, 2010). “Edges” are defined as boundaries between two phases that contain linear elements. “Districts” are the city’s larger scale sections. “Nodes” are strategic and intensive cores that define junctions or concentrated areas in districts. “Landmarks” are reference points for city dwellers (Lynch, 2010). To understand the relationship among these elements, Lynch analyzed the city not as a thing itself, but rather as something perceived by its inhabitants. He used cognitive maps to gain information from the city’s inhabitants. Cognitive maps are used to show how individuals identify their environment. A person simplifies and stores information about his environment in relation to other information he has already had. The resulting schematic, sketchy, incomplete and distorted cognitive map is far from the quality of a cartographer’s map. Cognitive maps can be evaluated as products of personal experiences rather than precise measurements (Kaplan, 1973). A series of psychological transformation occur while the individual acquires, codes, stores, recalls, and decodes information about his environment during the cognitive perception (Downs and Stea, 2011). The information that cognitive maps contain correspond to micro level information about one’s spatial environment. It is easier for planners to work with macro level statistics rather than to generate micro level data. Nonetheless, people do not perceive or understand the environment in the same way as planners and designers do at the macro level (Churchman, 2002). Every piece of information related to the one’s sensations, perceptions, emotional meanings, and usage patterns of the built environment contributes to planning process in terms of a user-centered approach. Pallasma protested ocular centrism, which is a visually based paradigm privileging the eye over the other senses, under the heading of “retinal architecture.” For Pallasma, architecture is a multi-sensory experience that qualities of space, matter, and scale are measured equally by the eye, ear, nose, skin, tongue, skeleton, and muscles. He criticized the hegemony of the prevailing sense of vision in modern design, which has left the body and other senses “homeless,” including our memories, imagination, and dreams (Pallasma, 2011). Likewise, Rasmussen claimed that it is not enough to see architecture; it must be experienced (Rasmussen, 2014). People interpret the lived space via their experiences and imaginations; thus, professionals cannot measure or estimate lived space (Bachelard, 2014). For Heidegger, whereas engineers and quantity surveyors use scientific knowledge, architects should focus on human experiences since people primarily appreciate their surroundings according to their creative interpretations (Sharr, 2013). Based on the literature review above, this paper has considered Kemeraltı Bazaar as a multilayered area of environmental experience. This study aims to get data from all the visible and invisible layers of the urban environment based on users’ environmental images. Therefore, Lynch’s method is extended with open-ended survey questions that ask users to evaluate the bazaar’s emotional, sensory, and mnemonic qualities to enlarge visual perception with multi-sensory experience. 3.2. Instrumentation and procedure Thirty-five respondents were selected from tourists and city dwellers by simple random sampling technique. Face-to-face interviews were held over two days (one in a weekday and one in the weekend) on Anafartalar Street, the main access of Kemeraltı Bazaar, and around Kızlarağası Inn, one of the important tourist attractions

in the study area (as well as a historical building) where people eat, drink, and make shopping. The respondents were asked to describe what they think when Kemeraltı was said in order to interpret the sensory and emotional components of their mental images. They were asked about to define the reasons for and frequency of their visits in order to understand usages in Kemeraltı Bazaar, and to figure out how the users experienced it. The respondents were also asked to draw a cognitive map of Kemeraltı Bazaar. The visual components of their mental images were detected from the maps (Figure 1, 2, 3). A content analysis was applied to the data based on the five elements of the urban environment, as defined by Lynch. Spatial knowledge about how the respondents perceived, comprehended, and personalized their urban environment was obtained from both the visual features they drew as well as the non-visible components that they described using sensory and emotional expressions in their maps.

Figure 1, 2, 3. Two of cognitive maps participants drew in Kemeraltı Bazaar 4. RESULTS 4.1 Socio-demographic profiles of participants The respondents were asked to report socio-demographic characteristics such as gender, age, level of education, and nationality. The majority (77%) were Turkish citizens, while 22% were of other nationalities. Half of the participants were young or middle aged, while a substantial proportion (31%) were over 55. The gender was not a significant factor in our sample since different genders were almost equally distributed. Most participants (91%) had a Bachelor’s or high school degree, due to the fact that primary school graduates refused to draw cognitive maps. 90%

Turkish Republic

80%

Others

70%

16-24

60%

25-34

50%

35-54

40%

Over 55

30%

Male

20%

Female

10%

Bachelor's degre

0% Nationality

Age

Gender

Level of education

High school Primary school

Table 1. Socio-demographic profiles of participants (%) 4.2 Usage of Kemeraltı Bazaar According to the responses, shopping activities and touristic trips were the main reasons why respondents visited Kemeraltı Bazaar. Eating, drinking, and taking a stroll were the other secondary reasons to visit Kemeraltı. Over half of the respondents (55%) came from outside Izmir stated that they visited Kemeraltı for sightseeing. The participants who visited Kemeraltı Bazaar for sightseeing brought their friends, from outside İzmir.

Although the characteristics and spaces of modern shopping are remarkably changing, Kemeraltı welcomes city dwellers for this primary motive as a traditional setting. It is noteworthy that the participants did not mention about social and cultural activities, while commercial ones were the major reasons to visit Kemeraltı. Most participants (70%) said they visited Kemeraltı once or twice in a month. This means that majority of participants was familiar with their environment, which is an important factor in terms of environmental perception. 2% 7%

Shopping activities

12%

Touristic trips

36%

Eating and drinking activities Strolling around 19%

For work Transit area 24%

Table 2. Usage of Kemeraltı Bazaar (%)

11%

19%

1-2 times per year

1-2 times per month

1-2 times a week 70%

Table 3. Frequencies of respondents’ visits to Kemeraltı (%) 4.3 The analyses of visual components The content of cognitive maps was analyzed according to the five elements Lynch identified in his theory. We didn’t discover any definition of “district” probably because the study took place in a limited area. LANDMARKS Kızlarağası Inn Mosque (names are not specified) The Clock Tower Governor's building Historical police station (police station has been replaced) Konak Pier and YKM Konak Mosque Banks The historic fountain The police department Elhamra Cinema (building is being used by İzmir State Opera and Ballet) The fountain (Şadırvan)

FREQUENCY (N) 14 11 10 7 5 5 4 3 2 2 2 2

PERCENTAGE (%) 18 14 13 9

The fish market (demolished) 2 Kestelli parking area 2 Hisar Mosque 1 Başdurak Mosque 1 Kemeraltı Mosque 1 Agora 1 National Library 1 Abacıoğlu Inn 1 Şadırvanaltı Mosque 1 District governorate building 1 Courthouse (it has been replaced) 1 Civil Registry Office 1 Şükran Hotel 1 TOTAL: 25 components 82 PATHS Streets 16 Anafartalar Street 9 Passages 3 3. Beyler passage 2 Havra Street 2 Veysel Impasse 1 Pier bridge 1 1. Beyler passage 1 2. Beyler passage 1 TOTAL: 9 components 36 NODES Konak ferry terminal 4 Konak Square 2 Pasaport ferry terminal 1 Konak bus stops 1 TOTAL: 4 components 8 EDGES Shops 33 Places to eat and drink 11 Food selling shops 8 Bird selling shops 2 Kordon 1 Gazi Boulevard 1 Eşrefpaşa Boulevard 1 TOTAL: 7 components 57 Table 4. Classification of the components participants drew on their cognitive maps

47 26 9

50 25

58 19 14

50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% landmarks

edges

paths

nodes

districts

Table 5. The range of the five elements that participants drew on their cognitive maps

Figure 4. The visual components that participants drew on their cognitive maps 4.4 The analyses of non-visual components When participants were asked to describe what came to their mind while thinking of Kemeraltı, they used sensory and emotional expressions rather than physical descriptions. 27% of positive expressions were emotional connotations, and approximately one fourth of them was about features of trading activities in the bazaar. Other high-frequency expressions related to historical and cultural aspects, as well as memory values. Negative descriptions included: “Way finding problems” (29%), “insecurity” (14%), and “environmental neglect” (14%). All the expressions about sensory experiences were related to smell and the majority (72%) of comments was negative. Descriptions about the built environment’s physical features had the lowest ratio, while the ratio of subjective reactions was considerably high. Many expressions such as “exciting,” “dynamic,” “free,” and “crowded” were related to the life in the bazaar. Although no question in the survey was asked for users’ recommendations, some participants made suggestions for the region, such as green spaces, playgrounds, wider roads, entertainment and leisure activities, and functional zoning, as interpretive and valuative processes were involved in environmental perception. Some of the visitors from outside Izmir compared Kemeraltı with other places that they had experienced in the past, and they stated that Kemeraltı resembled some districts from their hometowns, such as Beyoğlu, Nevizade, Çiçek Pasajı, and Denizli Bayramyeri. POSITIVE EXPRESSIONS OF KEMERALTI DESCRIPTONS Emotional connotations, A very nice place I loved Kemeraltı so much A great place Intimate One to one relationship Very exciting Dynamic Crowded Feeling free Commercial features; A variety of traded commodities Affordable shopping, fair prices The quality of traded commodities Historical and cultural features; Historical

FREQUENCY (N) 24

PERCENTAGE (%) 40

12

20

8

13

Old İzmir Cultural Anatolian atmosphere Traditional Turkish bazaar Mnemonic quality; The place where our childhood passed Nostalgic Touristic and authentic features; Touristic Sightseeing There is a few such places in Turkey Special to İzmir Physical features; Well planned, shops are placed regularly Interrelationship old and new in an area Sensory quality; The smell of incense (Bedesten Street) TOTAL: 26 NEGATIVE EXPRESSIONS OF KEMERALTI DESCRIPTONS

7

12

4

7

2

4

2

4

60

Way finding problems; 11 Complex Chaotic You can get lost I need a map I am worried about finding my way Difficult to find your way Uncomfortable promenade Labyrinthine Insecurity; 5 I'm afraid of coming alone I need to keep my purse tightly I’m anxious about robbery Untrusting place Degeneration; 6 In a bad condition Dirty Unsolvable Neglected historical structure Sensory quality; 5 Smell of sweat A strong and sour odor Soil odor mixed with human odor It smells bad. Human odor is mixed with the smell of food. Heavy smell of fish in Havra Street Others 9 TOTAL 36 Table 6. The positive and negative expressions used in Kemeraltı descriptions

30

14

17

14

25

5. Results and Discussion The visual, sensory, and emotional components of users’ environmental images were analyzed using the information derived from their cognitive maps and the responses given to the interview. Usage of Kemeraltı Bazaar was externalized to understand how users experienced the region. Landmarks were the most mentioned or drew physical elements on cognitive maps. The negative expressions about way finding problems supported the importance of landmarks in navigation and environmental image of Kemeraltı. Pedestrianisation projects in Kemeraltı have achieved physical continuity of pedestrian paths. However, perceptual continuity has not been sustained according to the negative expressions about Kemeraltı Bazaar, such as “labyrinthine,” “you can get lost” and “it is difficult to find your way.” However, pedestrians can orient themselves more easily by maintaining

perceptual continuity. Activities and sensory experiences may help people to remember landmarks for wayfinding. In this sense, the rehabilitation projects of buildings which act as landmarks and proposals about their potential new public uses should be considered to enhance sensory experiences. In contrast with Lynch’s statement that “paths” have a dominant character, this paper found “paths” to have a lower impact for environmental image in Kemeraltı. Anafartalar Street was one of the mot mentioned components in “paths”. Pedestrianisation and facade restoration projects were implemented firstly on Anafartalar Street. During the application stages of conservation development plans, plug-in structures on the surfaces facing the street were removed, facades were painted according to the colors specified in design guide, and the top covers and nameplates of shops were built according to certain standards, while taking the “perceptibility” concern into account (Figure 5, 6). These applications intended to provide qualified visual arrangements, as stated in project texts. However, to enhance the “perceptibility” design, ideas should be generated to stimulate all senses. Modernist reflexes such as to sustain visual harmony which based on strict standardizations should be questioned in the context of Kemeraltı.

Figure 5, 6. Restorated facades facing Anafartalar Street (Kemeraltı’nda 4. Büyük adım, 2010) The participants of our study remarked on their emotional connotations much more than the physical features of the built environment. The dominance of perceptual expressions displayed that users of Kemeraltı Bazaar acknowledged their environment according to their experiences and feelings. Regarding this aspect, the design guide developed for Kemeraltı can be criticized that it contains only physical arrangements and an inventory of structural elements. Restoration studies depending only on visual concern are not adequate for the rehabilitation process of historical environments. Depending on similar criticisms İzmir History Project was found more positive with its vision considering environmental experience. Relying on usage patterns of Kemeraltı Bazaar, users experienced the bazaar mostly with eating, drinking, and shopping facilities. Shopping activities in the bazaar are characterized mostly presenting the products on stalls along the streets. The items become multi-sensory resources since they are not displayed behind showcases, and anyone walking down the street can hear, touch, smell, or taste them. Shopping experiences in the Kemeraltı Bazaar provoke all the senses almost in every street of bazaar. Tasting and smelling are intensive due to eating and drinking facilities. The cooking stalls along the streets intensify the experience of smelling for all users. The organically formed pathways have created spontaneous environmental experiences due to the specific attributes of shopping, drinking, and eating activities (Figure 7, 8). Therefore, Izmir History Project’s proposals on new uses and areas open to experience can be improved based on existing potentials and obstacles in Kemeraltı. Mixeduse suggestions for night use of Kemeraltı can attract users from different groups and ages and sustain 24/7 living environment. Project scenarios that consider contextual properties and which the life of the environment would help to eliminate the negative factors such as “insecurity” and “degeneration.”

Figure 7, 8. Shopping experience in the bazaar

Ancient Agora located in Kemeraltı region close the bazaar was appeared in only one cognitive map, despite its high tourism potential and the fact that authorities assumed it would be the center of attraction in near future, along with Kemeraltı and Kadifekale. Another participant pointed out a multi-storey car park instead of Agora just near ancient Agora. That the field study took place in Kemeraltı Bazaar, as well as the lack of perceptual integrity and existing heavy traffic between Agora and Kemeraltı Bazaar can be the reasons for the absence of Agora in participants’ environmental images. Individuals explore and mentally reconstruct spatial knowledge on a daily basis; professional disciplines might ignore such knowledge. Environmental perception studies find out the information stored in users’ memories and everyday experiences. It is very important to integrate individuals’ spatial experience to carry out a more participatory rehabilitation process, and to decode all layers of the multi-sensory built environment. A more participatory rehabilitation process would provide a more accurate assessments and improvement of design options. In this sense, this study can be seen as an experiment. Further researches may consider improving this study’s approach with other interdisciplinary field studies developing different instruments and applying on larger samples. REFERENCES Aydoğan, M. and Kılıç, S. E., 2009. Tarihi kent dokularının korunmasında katılımcı bir uygulama projesi örneği Kemeraltı. Mimarlar Odası Ankara Şubesi Dergisi, 14(2), pp.14-19. Bachelard, G., 2014. Mekânın poetikası. 2nd ed. İstanbul: İthaki Yayınları. Bell, P.A., Fisher, J.D, Baum, A. and Greene, T. C., 1990. Environmental psychology.3rd ed.Florida: The Dreyden Press. Churchman, A., 2002. Environmental psychology and urban planning: Where can the Twain meet? In: R. B. Bechtel and A. Churchman, ed. 2002. Handbook of environmental psychology. New York: John Wiley & Sons. pp.191-200. Çetin, R. Z., 2012. Tarihi kent merkezlerinde yeniden canlandırma politikaları üzerine değerlendirme, İzmir Kemeraltı örneği .M.Arch. Dokuz Eylül University. Downs, R.M. and Stea, D., 2011. Cognitive maps and spatial behaviour: Process and Products. In: M. Dodge, R. Kitchin and C. Perkins, Eds. The Map reader: Theories of mapping practice and cartographic representation. New York: John Wiley & Sons. pp.312-17. Izmir Konak Municipality, 2002a. Koruma Amaçlı Revizyon İmar Planı Notları. Izmir: Izmir Konak Municipality. Izmir Konak Municipality, 2002b. Kemeraltı Koruma Amaçlı İmar Planı. Ege Mimarlık, 43, p.13-15. Tekeli, I., 2015. İzmir Tarih Projesi Tasarım Stratejisi Raporu. Izmir: Izmir Metropolitan Municipality. Kaplan, S., 1973. Cognitive maps, human needs and the designed environment. Environmental Design Research, [online] Available at: < http://www.edra.org/sites/default/files/publications/EDRA04-Kaplan-275-283_1.pdf > [Accessed 27 May 2016]. Kılıç, S. and Aydoğan, M., 2006. Katılımcı bir kentsel koruma projesi: İzmir-Kemeraltı tarihi kent merkezi. Ege Coğrafya Dergisi, 15(2006), pp.61-71. Lynch, K., 2010. Kent imgesi. İstanbul: Türkiye İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları. Moore, G. T. and Golledge, R. G., 1976. Environmental knowing: Concepts and theories. In: G. T. Moore and R. G. Golledge, Eds. 1980? Environmental knowing: Theories, research, and methods. Stroudsburg, Pa; Dowden, Hutchinson & Ross. pp.3-24. Pallasma, J., 2011. Tenin gözleri. İstanbul: YEM Yayınları. Rasmussen, S.E., 2014. Yaşanan mimari. İstanbul: Remzi Kitabevi. Şala, D., 2013. Kentsel kimlik bağlamında kentsel tasarım rehberlerinin irdelenmesi (İzmir-Kemeraltı tarihi kent merkezi örneği). M.Arch. Mimar Sinan University. Sharr, A., 2010. Mimarlar için Heidegger. İstanbul: Yem Yayın. [Kemeraltı’nda 4. büyük adım] 2010. [image online] Available at: < https://www.izmir.bel.tr/HaberDetay/6398/tr > [Accessed 27 May 2016].

INVESTIGATION OF AVANOS REGION IN THE CONTEXT OF URBAN IDENITY EDA BALABAN VAROL Eda Balaban Varol, PhD Student, Hacettepe University Institute of Fine Arts, Department of the Interior Arhitecture and Environmental Design,

ABSTRACT Avanos separates from the others with its own unique identity; from ancient times to the present day, historical continuity and change is one of the most important examples offer us. Structures in Cappadocia, while giving the impression of an extension of nature with Fairy Chimneys; in Avanos far this tuffaceous structure varies from the other side of this impression. Throughout history, people in this region have meet housing needs via data obtained from nature and Cappadocia has achieved an appropriate holistic language. Therefore, this language is based on holistic urban identity of the region. By using This architectural language, the environment they live, along the northern and southern coasts of the Kızılırmak River, was built on terraces (or platforms). However in 20th century, due to the growing population, it has started a new construction and Avanos has entered into a process of changing. This process of change; new construction in the region, has become a threat to historic continuity. In addition, in this case, it revealed concerns that holistic language impaired. Tuff Stone house and traditional types used in the old building, the location is left unplanned urbanization. For these two different configurations, the Kizilirmak River as a separator and a limiting element comes to the fore. This article, through the concept of urban identity, focused on the concepts of change and continuity on the Avanos. The aim of the study is to hold a mirror to the ongoing changes in Avanos and to generate new ideas from the region's traditional tissue. For this purpose, constitutes the research case study example. Qualitative research methods are also used in the study. Within this study, samples of new construction in the process of change in Avanos with its traditional architecture is examined. In addition, the point of view of both regions will be discussed. When examining the appearance of the area, the Kızılırmak River is considered both as a reference point, as well as both coasts of the river has been identified as a boundary for the study that examined. This article will focus on the settlement that draws a view of the continuity of river on the north side and the settlement on the southern side of the river that draws the appearance changes. Keywords: Avanos, Urban Identity, Continuity, Holistic language. 1. INTRODUCTION “Beauty of the Avanos, great as it is, is not conveyed by this Galatian epithet eyes are needed to interpret its beauty. For I, though I have before this seen much, and that in many places, and have also observed many things by means of verbal description in the accounts of old writers, think both all I have seen, and all of which I have heard, of no account in comparison with the loveliness that is to be found here… that river which they say by overflowing with its rich current the banks which flank its course makes for the Thessalians their farfamed Tempe. Why, what beauty is there in any one of these places I have mentioned, such as Avanos can show us of its own?... In all these the number of single trees is more noted than their beauty; yet they display tasteful arrangement in their planting, and that harmonious form of drawing—drawing, I call it, for the marvel belongs rather to the painter’s art than to the gardener’s. So readily does Nature fall in with the design of those who arrange these devices, that it seems impossible to express this by words.” Gregory of Nyssa Modern human meets settlement need with the innovations of the age and evaluates the concept of settlement with a system of thought which is conditioned by the age. Providing living space to the increasing population and the rush of designing the space with changing living standards for a family rather than an individual, required to offer optimum solutions in short time. This calculator, shredder and limited understanding, which ignoring the continuity of the space, seems quite remote from understanding the truth of the settlement. Human is homeless in such a world; therefore, it is impossible for him to settle in for a World. (Hisarlıgil, 2007). The human's interaction with space is required a continuity. İnstead of structuring disrupts the historical integrity; holistic

approach, that is, a structure in accordance with the identity of the city should be the most important purpose in the development of the city. When this purpose is ignored; contradictory and crooked the silhouette of a city is revealed in the context of semantic, syntactic and also pragmatic. The character of the city, which is read along both sides of the Kızılırmak, is one of the best example of this situation. Avanos with both the location and physical configuration, has its own unique identity and texture on earth. “The first core of the settlement was established north of the Kızılırmak. Then city has started to expand on the south of the river first-class agricultural land in time.” (Yıldırım, 2006). This expanding farmland is that in own time Gregory praised the region's natural beauty and at the present time the crooked architecture with new structure types is opposites traditional architectural language. In this context, Kızılırmak can be regarded as the most important junction that connects the old with the new one. By taking reference this field, both sides of the river is analyzed in this study. In historical process, the region's physical, cultural, and social structuring is examined and the identities of region is focused on. 2. URBAN IDENTITY Identity, shaped by a person’s or society’s experiences. In other words, identity values are accepted in the memory of the individual and the community. And these values are similar to invisible border. This border line, is drawn by spaces, we can say that. With this definition the meaning of urban identity, ‘the identity of urban space’ can be said to be. The physical features and social values that make up the identity of the city, overlap of on the space. If stated more clearly, Every street, house and every feature of homes that make up city are identity elements are combined in the character of the city. In this context, urban identity in the historical process of the tangible and intangible values unique to a city that manifests itself as a concept that can be summarized by an expression in the spatial dimension. Birlik (2006), as quoted from Oktay Cities which achieved actual identity, cannot be the same each other city in no time with the decisive nature of the compenents; show that social differences within the spatial organization and formal language; reveals that is which city, when looking at the photo’s. The concept of urban identity is intertwined with the identity of the community; however, the content of urban identity can be explained by the sociological context that has. Because society's cultural, sociological and economic structure; at the same time, the components that are included in the city in which they are located; also integral elements of the city's identity. In this context, we can say that, society is a social formation which limited by the city. For readability the identity of a city, he analysis of these elements within a holistic approach is required. For example, Özkan (1999) as noted; without streets and roads of Çatalhöyük texture is designed to protect the society from various attacks without the need of rampart and trench. Spaces was created urban identity for the social living environment. These spaces, which built new walls were added to each of the walls, are only accessible with terraces and stairs. As in this example, this holistic approach to the investigation of the city's identity; that the detection of influential sociological conditions can be clearly observed in the construction of the city. “In reality, social space 'incorporates' social actions, the actions of subjects both individual and collective who are born and who die, who suffer and who act. From the point of view of these subjects, the behaviour of their space is at once vital and mortal: within it they develop, give expression to themselves, and encounter prohibitions; then they perish, and that same space contains their graves. From the point of view of knowing (connaissance), social space works (along with its concept) as a tool for the analysis of society.”(Lefebvre, 1991) Urban identity, is the most important tool in the socialization of urban space. Society of war, victory, traditions, beliefs; in short, all the values, takes place by concretizes in the city identity. Namely; urban identity is the most important indicator that bond of togetherness and belonging between the city and the community. As Taşçı (2014) said that urban is the place where culture and identity occurs by depending on the social events. If the sample is given through in this situation; as Pala (2012) mentioned, every city has a body. According to him, the body of the city is there where the city is facing. In this context, as the positioning of the mosque in the Islamic city according to qıbla, it is noteworthy that almost all buildings such as mosques positioned according to the qıbla. So, every building in the Islamic city regains an identity through qıble and all buildings identified with body as described above. Urban identity is an indication of continuity, holistic and memory. With this holistic approach, while the identy of the city with each appropriate plug-in observed that cities develop and grow; each plug-in is contrary to the city identity, damage to the integrity of the city. According to the Lynch (2014) a city, the connection with each other which many different elements can be clearly seen, should be something that can be understood as an unbroken continuity of the model over time. Harmony or disharmony in the continuity of urban identity can be

taken from the city’s skyline. In this context, each incompatible building where disrupted the city's continuity, is also a threat to the identity of the society in which the city belongs. Avanos and Avanos’s Urban Identity Avanos is the district of Nevşehir, 17 km away from the city center. In terms of area is the largest district in Nevşehir. It was founded on the Red River Plateau; and located on north of Nevşehir and Urgüp, south of Kozaklı, east of Hacıbektaş and Gülşehir, and also West of between Yozgat and Kayseri cities (Table 1.). The district of Avanos in the Cappadocia region, showing a different structure from the other regions is developed along the Red River of the north and south slopes. According to Esmer’s (1992) testimony, In Avanos as the first settlement began on the north slope of the river. However, in the over time of the destruction of forests in the mountains where located north of Avanos, it has led to erosion in the region. As a result of erosion, most of the old houses damaged; the area is declared ‘’a disaster area’’ and then also the settlement has shifted to the South.

Table 1. Environment of Avanos Region (Yıldırım, 2006). ‘’The history of Avanos based on rather old or before. In Hittite and Phrygian mythology, Avanos is consider as a ‘formed by the Volcano God, the God of the rain and wind shaped with his soft and magic hands’’ (Yıldırım,2006). ‘’The history of Avanos which is known began with the Bronze Age. Aftermath of the Hittites, Phrygians, Assyrians, Medes and Persian domination, it is known that the settlements passed into a systematic arrangement. After the Hellenistic Age and Roman periods the settlement known as an important center; have gained the current structure or texture in Anatolian Seljuks, Ottomans and also especially Karamanoğulları periods. Avanos was inhabited by various culture throughout history, has been called by many different names; has been the backdrop to the different settler. Instead of Avanos name; Hittites called the name of Zuwinasa, Assyrians called Nenassa or Washania, Romans called Venasa, Seljuks called Evenüz. Avanos name is still used in the Ottoman period and beyond. As a stated Yıldırım (2006); in Avanos region, settlement are summarized in 3 stages: 1. Before 1900 2. Beetween 1900-1950 3. After 1950 (Yıldırım,2006).

Table 2. The Development of Avanos in Historical Process (Yıldırım, 2006) Considering the period before 1900, all settlement located in the northern of Avanos. Of the oldest settlements in the planning area along the perimeter between 1900 - 1950, it is observed that they are situated in the north (Figure 1.). As Berkmen noted; firstly, it is noteworthy underground cities in the historical process. Today, underground cities in the region of Ozkonak town, are generally used as a cold and natural food storage (Berkmen,2015). After that, region of people has discovered the material of tuffaceous which come from volcanoes like mountain of Erciyes, Melendis and Hasan. And then the people of the region process this tuffaceous structure, can be said that create their own habitat and caves. The people who continue to use this structure, created todays traditional stone architectural which added to the caves with tuffaceous materials. Aladdin Streets is the first Turkish Street in which located on the Silk Way was build in Avanos region. Aladdin Mosque is the center of the Aladdin Street where core of the Avanos region. The north of the river, between the years of 1900-1950, has shown improvement especially towards the west; however, in order to meet the housing needs for a growing population after 1950’s, has begun a rapid settlement on the southern coast of the river. Because of reducing farmland in the region today, people of the region was obliged to livelihood to make pots and pans.

Figure 1. the North Coast of the River, (Personal Archive, 2011)

Figure 2. the South Coast of the River (Url: 1)

Figure 3. Building Types in the North Section, (Personal Archive, 2014)

Figure 4. Typical House in Avanos, Doktorlar Konağı/ Kapadokya Meslek Yüksekokulu (Personal Archive, 2014) Along the river of Avanos, two different configurations formed on the northern and southern slopes has created a dilemma in the city’s identity. In this dilemma, the northern slope of the Red River reflects the identity of the Avanos region. The continuity of this identity, does not occur on the southern slope of the river. North slopes is an expression of the identity of the city has traditional two storey houses. The symmetrical facade and bay Windows (cumba) of the houses in this tissue; it is dominated by the architectural character used wood on balconies and wood, stone materials and masonry. As Esmer (1992) quated, overlooking the river in front of the old house in Avanos is gaining importance. The lower floors of the facade has been closed in accordance with the privacy of Muslim understanding of the Turkish people. Upper floors of the facade is divided into two main groups, namely flat and overhanging. Floor in flat facade separated with simple and patterned molding (silme). The open overhanging facades are mostly located in the middle of facade made out with balconies. The closed overhanging exist with salients located on the corner or middle of the facade. Top of the facade has flat moldings. On facade, windows are usually rectangular, the doors are made as arched. Around these doors and windows surrounded by moldings; some of the above is processed with a variety of plan tor geometric patterns. Close to each other, these structures with similar characteristics, constitute a unity at the urban scale. This houses has similar characteristic created a unity at the urban scale. ‘’Traditional Avanos houses creates one of the most important elements of the urban image. Old Avanos houses, constitutes one of the most original architectural elements of Cappadocia. This tissue is the most important element of natural stone is a material that is obtained from its immediate environment. Usually facade facing the street, the majority of which are found in the

one and three-storey houses with two floors. It is thought that the number of houses found 250.’’ (Yıldırım,2006). After 1900, the traditional texture in the northern was isolated owing to the city's expansion. This old settlement was surrounded by a different structure in between 1900 and 1950. At the present time, it is seen that the structures of this period merge with urban identity. However, it is drawn the attention that the opposite coast of the river does not adapt to the urban identity. This restructuring on the southern of the river began in 1950’s. As seen in Figure 5, while urban texture in northern consists of small neighborhoods which located parallel to the river; in other side, the region expands on the wide roads. Instead of the regular town plan, this case has created an incoherent urban plan brought by the different angles in the southern. Also this inconsistency showed itself in all types of buildings on the coast. It is clearly observed that each structures has different materials, different heights, different angles, different sizes, different functions. In Southern, these structures come together in an irregular manner. As a continuation of such an approach, a number of consumer business in the southern bank of the river, seems to be located along the coast. Causes of this new understanding and the shift of the urban identity: o To meet the housing needs of the growing population o Natural causes; due to the erosion, the emergence of a new restructuring in the southern of the river (on agricultural land) o To start so-called contemporary appearance and irregular urbanization which meets the requirements of the contemporary world o Financial difficulties and public’s ignorance

Figure 5. The northern and southern coasts of the river (Url 2) Because of the dilemma in the city, two different silhouette can be perused. While Northern of the city is suitable with urban identity; Southern of the city has a different structuring. The Northern introduces a historical section without breaking to historical continuity, by contrast, Southern has the view of a crooked city because of buildings which quickly made in the last period. The view in Southern has not specific texture and not bears the stamp of Avanos and Cappadocia region. Therefore, the morphology of the city is not homogeneously perused with a holistic approach. This dilemma has created two different poles in the identity of the city. These two poles are different from each other in terms of functions, types of buildings, lifestyles created by this types and neighborhood texture. One of the poles contains marks of identity and memory, unlike other side outlines the loss of identity and memory. These two opposite poles have settled face to face along the Kızılırmak river. In this context, via Kızılırmak river, two opposite poles are both united and intersected, and also separated. In Kızılırmak river, the city is divided into two parts and two different texture is linked. So Kızılırmak river is a bridge like Heidegger’s utterance; it connects the old and the new in the construction of Avanos. In here, The old and the new are separated from each other; in between the two coasts life, experiences, people are united by the bridge.

Conclusion Avanos have been home to many civilizations because of taking part on the coast of the Kızılırmak River in Cappadocia region. Urban texture, which settle on the North coast of the river in the historical process, has become characteristic identity of the area. The most important features of this texture are traditional house types and streets that connects these houses. The streets are intermediate spaces that covered cobblestone. Sometimes they end the impasses or sometimes continue via gateways under the houses (called under-roof). However, this texture has been broken by everyway which added to these streets in 1900’s. After 1950, this break has been seen to gain speed. In here there are asphalt roads instead of Cobblestone walkvay. And these roads connects different and inconsistent types of structure. Because of erosion, this structuring found the possibility of spreading in the Southern. This is a process that river gathers two silhouette. While the coast north of the river has been shaped by traditional texture; other side has been building area to meet the recent needs. And in southern away from tradition, warped structures were shown up. In this regard Kızılırmak river divides two fields in a sharp plane. So it is a borderline for both fields and a safeguard of the historical texture in north field. In other words, Kızılırmak River and erosion threat have protected urban identity in North. Due to take place in Cappadocia, The protection of Avanos’s identity is great importance. This identity is the common heritage of now and future. Thanks to it, Avanos has a special position on the whole World. So, in the region the housing needs of contemporary life can not have been fulfiled with non-identity the construction of singular or mass housing. To break this texture for momentary and personal interests, causes to lose the memory of the community. Therefore Local government is responsible from the protection of the North coast and compatible revision of the South coast. Because only the protection of traditional building types are insufficient for the protection of this identity. The streets of these buildings and also natural elements must be protected. In short, urban identity can be endured by protection of the historic core of the city and everything belonging to the core. Each addition added to the core, must be compatible with the texture of the city. Also according to the Venice Charter (Url 3), the sites of cultural assets must be the object of special care in order to safeguard their integrity and ensure that they are cleared and presented in a seemly manner. In this context, it can be said that urban identity is perused by holistic approach. Each new functions can be adapted to modern life via traditional materials and methods with new techniques and equipments. It can be achieved that local people should be informed and supported. REFERENCES Berkmen, H. (2015). Avanos Kültür Varlıkları Çalışması, Kapadokya Bölgesinde Suyun İzi, Yıldız Teknik University Journal of Faculty of Architecture, Megaron:10 (url:http://www.journalagent.com/megaron/pdfs/MEGARON_10_4_595_609.pdf) Birlik, S. (2006). Tarihi Çevrelerde Kentsel Kimlik-Değişiminin Eşik Analizi: Trabzon’da Bir Deneme, Master Thesis, Karadeniz Teknik University, Institute of Science and Technology Architecture Department, Trabzon. Esmer, M. (1992). Avanos’un Eski Türk Evleri, Kültür Bakanlığı Publishing, Ankara Gregory of Nyssa, Gregory of Nyssa: Dogmatic Treatises, Etc., Ebook, (url: http://www.documentacatholicaomnia.eu/03d/18191893,_Schaff._Philip,_3_Vol_05_Gregory_Of_Nyssa,_EN.pdf) Hisarlıgil B. (2008). Martin Heidegger’de Mekan Düşüncesi: Hermeneutik-Fenomenolojik Bir Yaklaşım, Journal of the Institute of Social Sciences, Kayseri Lefebvre, H. (1991). The Production of Space, Blackwell Publishing, U.S.A. Lynch, K. (2014). Kent İmgesi (4. Basım), Türkiye İş Bankası Kültür Publishing, İstanbul. Özkan, S. (1999). Anadolu’da Zaman, Anytime Conference Book, Association of Architects, Ankara. Pala, H. (2012). Şehir, Beden ve Ateromik Bir Nesne Olarak Otomobil, Aynur Can (Ed.), Teori ile Pratik Arasında Mekan, (s. 13-40), City Thinking Center: City Publishing, İstanbul. Taşçı, H. (2012). İslam ve Batı Şehrinde Kentsel Mekanın Kimlik Bileşenleri, Aynur Can (Ed.), Teori ile Pratik Arasında Mekan, (s. 13-40), City Thinking Center: City Publishing, İstanbul. Yıldırım, Y. (2006). Avanos Kenti, Master Thesis, Atatürk University, Institute of Social Sciences Geography Department, Erzurum Url 1: Figure References (Date of Access: 25.04.2016). https://www.google.com.tr/maps/place/Avanos,+Nev%C5%9Fehir/@38.717703,34.843448,3a,75y,128h,90t/d ata=!3m8!1e2!3m6!1s98912566!2e1!3e10!6s%2F%2Flh3.googleusercontent.com%2Fproxy%2FyvCvejJnJ8o9_X vRrd7wNhLLEusiuqKXmDUdrZb6q3yY4zUdzAH2e16ctPOAmwxQHMEjRInsSYJiZ7uBiwKX9KLrOAKR_Q%3Dw203h134!7i1280!8i850!4m5!3m4!1s0x152a60b2a2803d65:0x54d4f071e88dc217!8m2!3d38.710814!4d34.842081! 6m1!1e1

Url 2: Figure References, (Date of Access: 25.04.2016). http://www.avanos.gov.tr/default_B0.aspx?id=97

Url 3: Venice Charter, (Date of Access: 25.04.2016). http://bursamimar.org.tr/tuzukler/venedik_tuzuk.pdf

PRECEDENT KNOWLEDGE AS REPRESENTATIVE OF MEMES IN ARCHITECTURE SİNEM ÖZGÜR, BELKIS ULUOĞLU Sinem Özgür, Mimar Sinan Fine Arts University, Belkıs Uluoğlu, İstanbul Technical University

ABSTRACT The use of precedents in architectural design represented in visual media forms the substantial material of our argument. It is believed that mimesis phenomenon, when considered with the memetics theory’s point of view will open new perspectives in the interpretation and analysis of architectural design knowledge that circulates in ubiquitous media. Although images were of primary expressions of humanity and cultural production depends mostly on visual representation today, architecture has been represented in many different forms of visuality throughout centuries. Mimesis theory certifies that the mind is not a tabula rasa and it goes through a reproduction process and makes use of that which pre-exists at a certain period of time with a certain prevailing paradigm. This also works for architecture as it does for many other fields of design; the architect designs mimetically with the influence of the existing media regulated by the medium that s/he lives within. Memes are defined as components of human culture with an analogy that depends on Darwinian evolution theory. We consider today’s domineering memes to be in the form of images basically, though the knowledge of architecture and space involves more than that and beyond which is merely visual. Production of architectural knowledge with a mimetic process through memes will be discussed via the following features of the replicated meme: its environment, its type, its structure, and its relation with the other memes. Finally, an alternative interpretation of memes, which considers precedents, as representative of those other qualities of architectural space beyond which are basically visual will be proposed. Keywords: precedent knowledge, mimesis, memetics, and representation INTRODUCTION With his famous quote “Medium is the message.” McLuhan (1962) indicates that medium is the affective on message; they have a symbiotic relation with each other. This can be considered as that media is created by message, and the message supports media’s features, in which the situation is confusing to decide on/about which one had started first. We should bear in mind that they are symbiotically connected and are inseparable. Burke (2012) proposes that since the encyclopaedia was first published, meaning and features of knowledge have changed significantly. During the last century, its characteristics have changed from being an accurate and hierarchical compilation and presentation, produced by a group of selected decision makers; to an interactive web where everybody is connected and which has democratic implications. It is possible to define the change as evolving from knowledge conceived as collected information to connected information systems that any individual could create and participate. Here, the point is that the presented information needs a medium and an audience, to be transformed into knowledge. Accordingly, as a discipline, whose knowledge is spread via different media and in various modes, architecture and its knowledge are worth considering with such a point of view. Architecture and many other fields of design; have the designed object’s information to be presented via diverse portals, in which they have the message itself in a “democratic” manner. These messages have the potential to be imitated or copied by audiences. Today, the numbers that such digital information systems like search engines, vertical media portals, social media networks, etc. put forth that billions of people acquire information ubiquitously. Around 40% of the world population has an Internet connection today. In 1995, it was less than 1%.” and it is estimated 3,5 billion people is going to have an Internet connection in 2016 (Figure-1) (Internet Live Stats, 2014). Accordingly, statistics present that since 10 years, the increase is quite considerable.

Figure 1: Internet users in the world, (Internet Live Stats, 2014). In this paper, we assert that dissemination of the architectural precedent has quite strong relations with the media via which it is presented, and the message carried by them have a large potential to be imitated by other architects. It is argued that precedent knowledge is reproduced within various dimensions and could be understood in terms of the mimesis phenomenon. And the initial form, that is to say the potential knowledge to be copied is the issue to be considered here, and one way of interpreting this could be by the use of memetics theory. Precedent Knowledge It is important to discuss precedent knowledge, because the situation is different than before. In order to become prominent, one’s work does not need to be published by distinguished editorial magazines and an architect can reach the information of any built environment within seconds. Information concerning the architectural object, acting as a motivation for other designs is quite easily accessible. There are various portals, which can either be prepared by editors or individuals, where any designed object can be represented; i.e. via which, the precedent takes place. There are various media portals that knowledge could be acquired, transformed, produced, and shared today. As Burke (2012) states, it is possible to call this phenomenon as knowledge being democratic. Any kind of information concerning a precedent is not bound to time and place. It can be accessed from anywhere, by anyone, and at any time; and this is what ubiquitous means. Therefore, it is possible to say that, by means of these information portals that have quite a large capacity for information to be imitated, today star-architects and distinguished editors, meaning those who are hierarchical policy makers, majorly do not determine the precedents of architecture, as they were in the past. The present structure of media and its ubiquitous order, enhance the permanency of subject matters like, imitation, copy, transformation of knowledge, and interaction of one pattern with other patterns of knowledge, which in turn promote the re-writing of new stories. According to Dooren (2011), Cross (2007) concludes that “The knowledge designers are using, is embedded in the artificial world” and continues as follows: “The frame of reference is a reservoir of knowledge in the designer’s mind, or in the words of Hertzberger (1991) a library or collection. This library contains what is often called precedents or references. A reference is (a part of) a design; it serves as an example.” According to Lawson (2004), architects “…need to have studied a substantial body of precedent in order to have developed schemata that enable them to recognize underlying structures in design situations that allow them to employ and adapt gambits” and concludes that architects usually have a point of departure, which is tacitly established by the precedent’s schemata created according to their experience. Clark and Pause (2005) interpret precedent knowledge as that which can aid architects, as the archetypical essences of various formations and space uses while they state that precedent identifies patterns and themes. According to Goldschmidt (1998), “the most effective displays are ones that leave the designer much room for transformation and interpretation” and concludes that the term “reference” is much more suitable for the example architect uses in his design rather calling it as precedent. She also attributes precedent as the whole designed architectural object and they are the most famous, most published and the most admired ones in general and that the thing to be considered is not the precedent itself but the data, pattern and the knowledge it holds; and emphasizes that a reference can be

any building’s any part of any knowledge, it doesn’t have to be a famous building’s whole existence (Goldschmidt, 1998). Jormakka (2008) mentions that designing through a precedent can be one of the basic design methods and asserts that using precedents in design is two-fold: first, taking the typology as a basis, than transforming it to a specific model. He emphasizes that when using a precedent, it is important to transform it, instead of just imitating its familiar aspects; and that the precedent does not have to be a masterpiece of architecture (Jormakka, 2008). Zarzar (2008) looks at precedents with the point of view of reasoning by analogy paradigm; past experiences in the form of concepts, principles, and cases are used by analogy to explain certain phenomena, to solve current problems, and to serve as standards for judgements. She explains the process of reasoning creatively with precedents, in following phases: recollection, adaptation, functional displacement, and recombination (Zarzar, 2008). The most noteworthy thing that she points out to is that, the transference of the relevant characteristic in a source towards the targeted state starts with the recognition of the phenomenon. Also, Lawson (2004) states that having a precedent pool, which refers to an accumulation of knowledge and understanding of design solutions, helps the expert designer to recognize the underlying patterns or the theme easily, and to make a connection, which is a process of the episodic memory. The state of affairs is similar in design education. Dooren (2011), who tries to underline the importance of explicit design education, stated that during the design process, a student develops a “frame of reference” by analysing and studying previous designs; and in these reference projects, different kinds of knowledge are coming together, so that they can recognize many aspects in one previously established solution. She also adds that if not trained, students often use examples as “pictures in an inspirational, but superficial way (Dooren, 2011). “Relating the frame of reference to the design process, more specific relating the analysing of ‘example’ projects to the means to be explored in the design at hand, can help the students to discover more architectural knowledge and principles” (Dooren, 2011). In her study, which offers a computational model that offers a memory organization for precedent based design; Oxman (1994) develops the story concept, which had been offered by Schank (1990) as Oxman (1994) states, for a complete case, into design stories. The term “design stories” refers to distinct chunks of knowledge and the aim is to decompose a complex design precedent’s existing definitions into descriptive knowledge chunks (Oxman, 1994). The knowledge chunk defined comprises of design issue (i), design concept (ii) and design form (iii) which is materialized in the precedent. Each of these three items composes the design story (Figure 2).

Figure 2. “Design stories” model which refers to distinct chunks of knowledge. The aim is to decompose a complex design precedent’s existing definitions into descriptive knowledge chunks (Oxman, 1994). Precedent Knowledge and Its Imitation Today Today, precedent knowledge and its re-establishment in another design, which can be considered as imitation, is in question. It is irrelevant to discuss the matter in terms of identity, originality or authority, because due to digital media portals, the transmitted information is ubiquitous. When it comes to “The message is the medium.” (McLuhan, 1962) argument than any information piece can become a part of the precedent’s knowledge. One who designs any kind of a thing should be aware of the fact that the designed object’s representation has the potential of spreading all around the world simultaneously, and knowledge and ideas concerning that design have the possibility of being replicated or imitated by others. In other words, the imitated is not the designed object itself, but the idea, which can be called as the previously actualized knowledge in general, because the imitation process is done via the information about the object not the object itself or the experience in real physical world.

The imitated item’s structure can be defined in different terms such as pattern, unit, information chunk, etc. The point is that the precedent’s knowledge is used by re-interpretation if the needed design idea fits the design problem at hand. It is the stories of the designed, formed or actualized product that is re-established and adapted in the design problem at hand. Precedent knowledge can be considered as one of the most important and extensive information sources both for the expert and the novice, as well as architecture students. They all design by re-establishing the ideas of previous solutions from their precedent pools, which is created in experiential memory. According to the precedent knowledge literature, this process works as recognition rather than analysis, in general. In other words, using other’s experience as a guide is the process of recognizing rather than merely seeing and analysing the precedent’s knowledge. Sometimes this phenomenon can serve as one of the tactics during design process. We claim that this process, which can be defined briefly as the imitation and creation of one’s own story from previous experiences, employed for the design task at hand, can be defined as a process of mimesis. Mimesis theory certifies that the mind is not a tabula rasa and it goes through a reproduction process and makes use of that which pre-exists at a certain period of time imbedded in a certain prevailing paradigm. This also works for architecture as it does for many other fields of design; the architect designs mimetically with the influence of the existing media regulated by the medium that s/he lives within. Mimesis According to Tanyeli (2002), since there is no certain power of control, freely wandering images would definitely emphasize Adorno’s argument: culture is commodified and in this case trade objects are architectural images. Hence, architectural image becomes an item that is prohibited to be used but free to be purchased and sold (Tanyeli, 2002). Although it seems as an old and sometimes useless concept, it is worth to consider mimesis in terms of precedent knowledge, and its representation in today’s media. On the whole, it means wandering among identity and authority debates, however Tanyeli (2002) states that the term needs to be re-considered, since today originality is a dream, imitation is an ordinary practice, copy is a daily activity and therefore creativity is an illusion and dishonesty, and he concludes that architectural ethics needs to change its attention towards the notion of mimesis, because it keeps repeating cheap advises such as; “derive lessons from past but do not quote”, “enhance your visual culture but do not steal”, etc. Research and debates on such encounters are important; because the encountering and replications, which are simultaneous, majorly occur through information and ideas rather than the real bodily experiences. As Tanyeli (2002) puts forward, “everybody knows Taj Mahal, but the only knowledge of it is recognition of it as soon as its photograph is seen.” When considered from this point of view, mimesis generally connotes copy, yet originality since the Modernist discourses, however we assume that mimesis in architecture is the phenomenon of re-establishing a new knowledge, which can be called as a design object or built environment, from the previously re-established knowledge sources; precedents. A new perspective should be presented in order to grasp the constant and limitless imitation phenomenon via the numerous media for knowledge, because the notion of mimesis, which is interrelated with copy, imitation, replication, transformation, and transmission, is worth to develop a new discourse within the paradigm, which says that knowledge is democratic and ubiquitous. Democratic information systems and ubiquitous knowledge acquisition enable such encounters, which would have infinite and unpredictable possibilities. According to Oxford Dictionary (2015), the term mimesis corresponds to imitation and its origin comes from the word mimeisthai from Greek in 16th Century and in particular, the word means; “imitative representation of the real world in art and literature, and the deliberate imitation of the behaviour of one group of people by another as a factor in social change.” It is one of the basic debates of aesthetics theory that mainly deals with the representation and reality issues. However, although it has relation with the debates on representation of the reality, in this paper, the main themes to be discussed on mimesis can be framed basically as the human’s imitation of each other and the creativity issues. The term has various relationships with such notions; copy, imitation, representation, similarity, resembling, replica, reflection, reproduction, duplication, etc. Four basic debate fields concerning the mimesis phenomena could be defined: imitation of role models, theatre and theatricality, the reality notion, and imitation in human behaviour. Potolsky (2006) concludes that mimesis can either be treated negatively or positively and the main distinction is made by discussing two point of views; Plato’s and Aristotle’s different approaches to the phenomenon. Plato’s point of view presents mimesis as re-representing the idea, which is already been represented once, therefore, moved away already once from reality, and re-representing the represented is dangerous and useless, because it makes humans get much more far away from the reality (Potolsky, 2006). However, Aristotle expresses mimesis as a natural means of learning and creation process of anything that cannot be denied, this process can be called as imitation (Potolsky, 2006). The term is interpreted as either negatively or positively, based on these two

distinctive approaches as if they were opposites. Nevertheless, the point that has to be made considering these two distinctions is that, Plato’s approach pays attention to the final product, while Aristotle’s considers the process. According to Arnheim (1969), “Reasoning says Schopenhauer is of feminine nature: it can give only after it has received. Without information on what is going on in time and space the brain cannot work” and concludes that they all happen simultaneously. Benjamin (1933) states that, “nature creates similarities and the highest capacity for creating similarities is man’s” and presents the mimetic faculty of the human being as his gift of seeing resemblances that the faculty has the main role in decisions. We have to bear in mind that “seeing resemblances” refers to recognizing of the situation as in precedent knowledge studies. According to Leach (2005), Benjamin’s mimesis consideration certifies that it has a formation of imitation that something from the original disappears naturally, while Adorno’s mimesis consideration certifies that imitation and searching for the similarities are inside of that of the human, therefore human becomes human and mimetic behaviour does not only imitate something but also assimilates itself to them. Moreover, according to Tierney (2007), imitation presents tendency to dissociation with difference conceptualization according to Deleuze. Yürekli and Yürekli (2002) puts forth that mimesis phenomenon is not merely a copy; it is a very natural, exploratory and creative process, it is about the essence of the original while copy interests only about its appearance, it is the reproduction of the existing original and in mimesis, there is the filter of the self-conscious. If we consider mimesis phenomenon in architecture with an approach focusing on the imitation of the final architectural product’s form, than we only can define mimesis as copy and may consider it as useless and may blame the phenomenon. On the other hand, if we consider the notion as a natural process of creativity and learning, than we can consider it as creating new ideas by using other’s experience as a guide. This point of view can present the relation of mimesis phenomenon with re-establishing precedent’s knowledge. A new perspective of mimesis phenomenon Mimesis discussions widely have been in the form of identity, authority, and originality discourses since modernity; however, the concept needs to be considered with a different approach, because the amount and the occurrence of information systems and media portals are numerous, and hence ubiquitous, as well. Herewith, we can assume that mimesis phenomenon is re-establishing and creative for reasoning processes of the mind. Mimesis is not just merely the copying of either the reality or the design object, or the idea of the designed object; it is a very natural human behaviour for learning and especially for the creative processes such as design. The term “imitation” is much more suitable rather than using the term “copy”, because imitation and mimesis have similar etymological bases and imitation helps in connoting a process that is not just the final object. The imitated entity can be the reasoning that is recognized or the intellectual background, which can be defined as its story in terms of design ideas, but it is not the object itself. Every imitated item, whether it is a pattern, a concept, a materialized unit or an information chunk, it is a unique production which is differentiated from its original, for better or worse; because it involves the process of re-establishing its own design story; it has its own issues, its own solutions for these issues and own formalizations which means materialized versions of the issue and the idea developed as a reply to this issue. Here, we also argue that this imitation in fact, which is considered as mimesis in this article, should be considered in conjunction with its media, since according to McLuhan’s (1962) pioneer argument “The medium is the message.” the message to be imitated cannot be considered without its medium; they are interrelated with each other. It is possible to benefit from another theory, which seems to be from another paradigm while they have similar etymological origins: memetics. Memetics We assume that, due to the above-mentioned issues, memetics theory can be revealing for the definition of precedent’s knowledge as mimesis in architectural design studies. Memetics discourses have suggestions for the media where the information is presented, the structure of the item imitated, and its imitation process, besides they have parallels with knowledge theories. We believe that these suggestions can open a new perspective for debates on mimesis and precedent knowledge in architectural design studies, also it is possible to create an open-ended perspective with the evolutionary point of view towards replication and imitation phenomena, in terms of precedent knowledge in architectural theory. Since precedent itself holds the knowledge of space holistically, acquiring this knowledge in different ways, such as, through visual or textual representation and bodily experience, can be asserted as factors that have influence on the imitation process. The meme term was literally created by Richard Dawkins who is an ethologist, biologist and a writer. In his book Selfish Gene (1976) his aim is to put forth that Darwinian evolution is misinterpreted, because first of all,

Darwin never used the term evolution and assumes that Darwin only mentions replicators and environment, thus genes should not be considered the only replicators and evolution should not be considered as a progressive case. In order to point out this, Dawkins (1976) puts forth that the basis of the origins of the species approach of Darwin depends on two main items, there has to be replicators for reproducing the new generations (i) and they have to fit their environment in order to survive their generation (ii) and raises a question; “what if there are other kinds of replicators rather than genes such as cultural replicators?” and suggests the word meme, which phonetically sounds similar with the term gene. Moreover, he proposes this word with the etymological similarity to “mimeme10” as “a cultural transmission item and the denotation to the idea of imitation” and there can be made a connection with the words “mémoire11” and “même12” in French and in his words, “meme is a cultural transmission and an imitation unit” (Dawkins, 1976). Dawkins (1976) defines memes as melodies, ideas, mottos, fashion in clothes, methods of making pottery, making a belt, etc. and indicates that just as the genes that are in the gene pools, memes move from one brain to another and are reproduced in meme pool alike in the gene pool. “When the scientist mentions a valuable idea to his students or his colleagues and this idea gets credit, then it can be said that this idea is being replicated from one brain to another” (Dawkins, 1976). According to Salingaros (2002), memetics theory can be grounded to Donald T. Campell’s (1974) evolutionary epistemology approach. According to Heylighen (1997), Campbell (1974) states that there are selecting criteria for the knowledge to be accepted in a society, which are objective, subjective and inter-subjective criteria. Therefore, it is possible to consider meme replication among the inter-subjective criteria field, because they are assumed that they are replicated from one brain to another. There are different meme structure definitions; Blackmore (1999) states that there is no specific meme unit definition, it is just a replicator, and it is transmitted by imitation and adds that memes can have different levels and they can be such complicated that can be defined as memplexes. How the memes are stored is not important; they are the knowledge (Blackmore, 1999). Aunger (2002) states that memes are replicated as prions rather than DNA, because prions are only transmitted and they do not tend to become DNA again, they are just transmitted and replicated like the electric signals on the Internet. This point of view arises from the question “Does information have been replicated when it is merely transmitted?” (Aunger, 2002). Heylighen (1999) states that the memetic life cycle has four basic phases: assimilation, retention, expression, and transmission. Salingaros (2006) states that memes are the clusters of information, which propagate freely and compete with our ideas, our knowledge, our thoughts, and our cultural products. Langrish (2004) distinguishes the situation as epidemiological spread, which is not possible to be controlled, and this spread affects the other, thus this creates a wide diversity. Langrish (2004), who considers memetics in design studies, states that a meme structure cannot be a unit; it can be a pattern-like structure, because the imitated thing is not the design object but the idea of the designed object. Moreover, he defines meme types such as selecteme, explaneme, and recipeme (Langrish, 1999). Selectemes are the memes that defines what the selected idea is and therefore which is better than the other; social factors and tendencies are determinants of these kinds of memes (Langrish, 1999). Explanemes are the memes that explain the reason of the idea; they are transmitted by language and symbols and not replicated always, the determinants of these kinds of memes can be conventions or traditions (Langrish, 1999). Recipemes are the ones that stand for how the idea is created; these memes can be acquired by experience (Langrish, 1999). The main questions of these meme types can be summarized as “which?” for selecteme, “why?” for explaneme, and “how?” for recipeme. In addition to that, these types show parallelism with knowledge categories put forth by the research done by Uluoğlu (2000) (Figure 3). SELECTEME

EXPLANEME

RECIPEME

Question

What?

Why?

How?

Features of the competing ideas

Defines what the selected idea is and therefore which is better than the other.

Explains the reason of the selected idea.

Corresponds to how the idea is created.

Replication

Social factors tendencies are determiners.

Transmitted by language and symbols. Conventions or traditions can be determiners usually.

Acquired by experience.

10

and the

Mimeme: Imitation in Greek, the thing that is imitated (Dawkins, 1976). Mémoire: Memory in French (Dawkins, 1976). 12 Même: Own, in person, same in French (Dawkins, 1976). 11

Sample knowledge

"Faster plane is better" idea of designers of Concord.

Faster flight is better, because time is saved. Saving time idea is the privileged one.

You can learn cycling only by trying it.

Parallelism with design knowledge categories

Declarative knowledge: naming and specifying things and events; single concepts.

Declarative knowledge: declaring relationships and occasions in a descriptive or normative manner; concept networks.

Procedural knowledge: knowledge of the designing process

Examples from architecture

"It is better not to build a high-rise building in a historical environment."

"It is better not to build a high-rise building, because it effects the environment worse aesthetically and the historical environment loses its identity." (Conventional point of view)

Strategies and tactics that an architect creates and uses during the design process.

Figure 3. Relation of meme types and their transmission, which were put forth by Langrish (1999), and design knowledge categories, which were put forth by Uluoğlu (2000). On the other hand, Salingaros’ (2006) claims for memes are, “the simpler they are, the faster they can proliferate. Simple slogans, tunes, and images have enormous mnemonic power.” and concludes that architectural patterns differ from architectural memes, because he assumes memes as image fragments of the architectural products while “patterns benefit human life” 13. However, in this point of view, when it comes to consider memes’ evolution with the perspective of Darwinian evolution, the environment of the meme, than would be considered as the information medium of architecture today. The essence of meme seems to be unnoticed, because a meme can be transmitted by an image, which can be called as its environment, but the idea of the form can get the credit not the image itself. We assume that, getting the credit is dependent on the replicator’s conscious and purposeful act, which means fitting to its environment and surviving through evolution. The designed object would harbour ideas, issues, concept solution, “patterns benefiting human life”, and the materialized formation in reality would be introduced as the final image. With this in mind, it is important to think that a meme’s structure and definition is quite complicated. Although today’s paradigm and information systems generally depend on visual representation, and it can be considered as the zeitgeist of the era, while representing a designed object’s idea, there are many means to represent diverse features of the object. It is not a proof that an image is a viral meme today by stating; images are captured and spread very quickly rather than the “patterns that benefit human life”, just merely because images are a kind of new language and architecture is a very vision-based discipline, as has been since centuries. In other words, memes cannot be considered without considering their environment according to the evolutionary idea. “Visual memes”, which correspond to photographs and images of popular buildings, not the images themselves but the image and form of the idea seem to be the survivals of their environment the most fitting. If the information medium and the replicators, who correspond to architects, are ready for replicating the “patterns that benefit human life”, then they again would be able to continue their existence. Briefly, the persistence of any meme is very much related to its environment; therefore all patterns, ideas, or visual features can be treated as memes’ transmission agencies as long as they are replicated. According to the approach that “design objects are extensions of the design ideas”, than it is possible to define the precedent as the environment of design ideas and their stories. To sum up, neo-Darwinian evolution theory certifies that three basic principles should be supported in order for natural selection to occur: inheritance, variety, and selection. There has to be inheritance; replicator needs predecessor to be replicated. There has to be variety, so that the posteriors will be different from each other. And, there has to be selection, so that not all of the replicated items would exist. This point of view presents parallels with three faculties of mimesis: the ability to decide what to imitate, which can be called as recognition (inheritance), the transformations from the essence of the original to the new, which can be called as reestablishment or adaptation (variety), and choosing the appropriate activity, which can be called imitation or assimilation (selection) (Figure 4). Moreover, as Potolsky (2006) claims, mimesis is the most successful memplex ever and states that it is strange for the memetics theoreticians that they never mention about mimesis phenomenon while they discussing the imitation and meme terms. He also suggests that memetics theory can be the new meaning of mimesis phenomenon (Potolsky, 2006). Darwinian principles

13

NATURAL

SELECTION

Darwinian principles' parallelisms with MEMETICS discourses

Darwinian principles' parallelisms with MIMESIS discourses

Salingaros refers with the term “patterns benefit human life” to C. Alexander’s Pattern Languages, which he claims that they are vital for architectural design for creating liveable spaces.

INHERITANCE: items need to be acquired from parents in order to transmitted to the next generation.

DECISION of what to be replicated

VARIETY: phenomenon preventing all living beings to be the same

TRANSFORMATION from one point of view towards the other

SELECTION: phenomenon causes not all the living beings continue their existence

SELECTION movements

of

the

convenient

RECOGNITION what to be imitated from the precedent's design stories RE-ESTABLISHMENT/ ADAPTATION done to make the knowledge convenient for the design issue at hand IMITATION/ASSIMILATION process depending on both the imitators faculty and the issue at hand

Figure 4. Relation of Darwinian natural selection principles to memetics and mimesis discourses. Defining a meme’s structure is not very easy and there are different explanations of it, however although it is variable, there is a tendency that they are represented generally as information chunks or clusters and can vary; either they are patterns, units, fragments or images that create abstract or reductive imagery. The point is that the environment of a meme to be replicated has the main influence on its definition. The structure and perception of the media, which the information is presented and acquired, is one of the most affective parameters of the meme’s evolution and existence. While environment is an substantial effect on this variety, the faculty and experience and the consciousness level of the replicator is also affective for the meme to be recognized rather than to be analysed and re-establish a new knowledge, the Purposive Pattern Recognition (PPR), which is a term presented in Langrish and AbuRisha’a’s (2009) research that explains the process of a graphic designer’s selection of the images in terms of memetics theory. Therefore, we can define the Purposive Pattern Recognition process as the transcendent and tacit environment of a meme in terms of design idea. CONCLUDING REMARKS In brief, we claim that using the precedent knowledge in a design is a phenomenon of mimesis, because it is considered as recognizing the precedent’s pre-established knowledge and re-establish it in the design issue at hand. Precedents, which have potentials to be imitated in terms of mimesis at all levels of its meanings and discourses, could be considered as memes, because ideas that represent design stories implicitly can be imitated and the media where they are represented and the way of representation is quite effective. The story of the precedent can be re-written every time, in every experience in so many different ways, hence at various levels. “Design stories” could be considered as patterns because although there are constraints, main items like the theme and the characters in a story stay similar to some extent. Stories can be re-created every time in different cultures or places by different narrators, however constant rules of the story that creates the main pattern of it stays usually the same or at least similar while every story has a unique quality according to the narrator, the narrated items, which can appear or disappear. This frame is important for discussing precedent knowledge, as well. The precedent’s knowledge representation and its relation with other dynamics, which the precedent has, could be understood by memetics theory’s basic arguments. According to the pilot study conducted for the PhD research of S. Özgür, it could be observed that the majority of the represented data in architectural digital media, which are commonly used, is found to be the materialized form of “design stories”, which was put forward by Oxman (1994). The media comprise generally photographs, merely there are drawings that present the whole object as a schema, and if the audience pays attention (most of the users express that they skim only through the images not the texts in interviews), it is possible to follow the design issue and the concept solution within the texts. None of them include information about how the idea was created in terms of precedent knowledge that has been transmitted from their personal library. It is observed that the majority of the information presented depends on photographic representation which corresponds to a declarative presentation of the idea and which can be considered as representative of the precedent. The published information in the digital architectural media cannot be considered as a design memory that are for design14 in the way that these portals emphasize as the main issue of their publish comprehension; to help inspiration process and enhance architects’ perspective. On the other hand, since they reduce much of the information that the precedent harbours, the audience can focus on some specific parts of the precedent more easily and this situation have the potential for the audience to replicate the idea presented easily in terms of 14

Oxman (1994) offer a model of a memory organization for architectural precedents. This model claims that it is not a memory organization of the precedents, but it is the organization for design.

mimesis. Herein, questions occur: Can these media present the knowledge of the precedent, which would provide the audience means to ask those questions that the memetics discourses ask to talk about design: what, why, how, and more? Do they merely present the architectural product’s visual features so that only they can be grasped easily at first sight? Is it possible to conceive the precedent’s design idea (design story), which means the qualities of the architectural space that is possible to be imitated in terms of mimesis and can be considered as a meme, merely by skimming through photographs and texts that are prepared by the architect and one of the editors? The precedent harbours the knowledge of why it has formalized it the way it is (explaneme) in terms of the “design issue” of the precedent; what was the selected solution (selecteme) as the “design concept”, from the personal precedent library; how it was designed and constructed (recipeme); and more various types of knowledge. However, from the representation of the precedent merely by visual means, usually it is not enough to receive the design stories of the whole precedent, in terms of its re-establishment in mimesis process. Therefore, these three meme types offered in memetics theory, could be considered, as they come altogether and create the precedent’s design story at different levels. It is not possible to say that a meme is a unit that has a particular type or it is a piece of pattern; they might be pattern-structured however, in terms of precedent knowledge, that has the potential to be imitated and therefore involve idea’s evolution process, which all appear simultaneously. The point is that the recognition level of the imitator should be high, besides the media that the knowledge acquired should support this simultaneous happening. From this point of view, besides representation techniques commonly used in architectural media structures among architects, the representative structure of architectural media portals should be researched and developed with arguments developed among precedent knowledge, mimesis phenomenon and memetics theory. Precedent knowledge imitation in terms of mimesis is a tough issue; sometimes pieces of information is imitated, sometimes clusters or chunks of information is imitated either abstractly or physically, so that new stories can evolve. Whether the new story will be superficial or more complicated, it depends, since the meme can only survive and develop if it fits its environment. There is no guarantee that the subsequently designed architectural object would be intellectually more complicated, because the evolution is not a progressive process, only the survival of the fittest is what is crucial. Some of the debates of precedent knowledge and memetics in design studies state that either imitating the precedent, or replicating the meme, is a mere copying process. However, these arguments may become irrelevant if they are done ignoring the two main points of the issue. One of them is the audience’s consciousness, experience and self-awareness of the pattern needed at design issue at hand. Dooren (2011) puts forth this point of view with the statement “When not trained, students often use examples as ‘pictures’ in an inspirational, but superficial way”. Also, Lawson (2004) concludes, “… the more experienced design students tend to use symbolic references to design precedent whereas novices use formal geometric descriptions more”. Moreover, as in Langrish and Abu-Risha’s (2009) case study, it is obvious that designers have a tacit pattern in their minds and look for the pattern that would fit in them. If the eye is not trained, if the experience of precedent and design is superficial, and if the designer is not aware of the pattern of the story that he is establishing, then recognition of the precedent knowledge can be superficial, which is possible to conclude as a mere copy. Also, it becomes possible to state that “The alternative to intelligent design is unreasoned matching to some given visual or mnemonic prototype—a meme” like in Salingaros’s (2006) argument. The other substantial point that had to be kept in mind is that, environment or the media that the knowledge is transmitted has a vital role in imitation. It is reality and a need that today the knowledge is ubiquitous and “democratic” and it is widely used according to the statistics. Since the digital architectural publish portals argue that they publish architectural designs in order architects to be inspired and informed with the new and pioneering designs, than portals have to consider if they present the precedents as for design or of designed objects. Designed object, which corresponds to precedent itself that harbours memes, which have the potential to be imitated, occurs many various stories in many different levels, beyond visual features. However, if the precedent’s knowledge is considered to be represented with only the final materialized version, which is named as form with its visual existence by photographs apart from the design issue and the concept idea as solution, then it is possible to argue that precedent knowledge as a meme can be merely a copy of the appearance. Than the questions to be searched for occurs as: Is it possible to recognize the diverse stories of a precedent via the represented knowledge in visual media that are ubiquitously and democratically existing today? Therefore, what could be suggested for the medium of architectural knowledge for this to happen?

REFERENCES Arnheim, R., 1962. Görsel düşünme. Translated by R. Öğdül, 2007. İstanbul: Metis Yayınları. Aunger, R., 2002. Memetik evrim: Nasıl düşündüğümüz üzerine yeni bir kuram. Translated by S. Çevik, 2012. İstanbul: Alfa Yayınları. Benjamin, W. 1933. On the mimetic faculty. In: One Way Street and Other Writings. Translated by E. Jephcott and K. Shorter, 1979. London: NLB. Blackmore, S.J., 1999. Mem makinesi: Genetik evrimin devamı olarak genetik evrim. Translated by N. Şimşek, 2011. İstanbul: Alfa Yayınları. Burke, P., 2012. Bilginin toplumsal tarihi II: Encyclopedie’den Wikipedia’ya. Translated by M. Tunçay, 2013. İstanbul: Tarih Vakfı Yurt Yayınları. Clark, R. H. and Pause, M., 2005. Precedents in architecture: Analytic diagrams, formative ideas, and parts. 3rd ed. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Dawkins, R., 1976. The selfish gene. 30th anniv. ed. 2006. New York: Oxford University Press Inc. Dooren, E., 2011. Making explicit in design education: Generic elements in the design process. In: N.FM. Roozenburg, L.L. Chen, and P.J. Stappers, Diversity and Unity: Proceedings of IASDR 2011, the 4th World Conference on Design Research. Delft, the Netherlands, 31 October-4 November 2011. Delft: Delft University. Goldschmidt, G., 1998. Creative architectural design: reference versus precedence. Journal of Architectural and Planning Research, 15(3), pp. 258-270. Heylighen, F., 1997. Objective, subjective and intersubjective selectors of the knowledge. Evolution and Cognition, 3(1), pp. 63-67. Heylighen, F., 1999. What makes a meme successful? Selection Criteria for cultural evolution. In: 15 th International Congress on Cybernetics. Namur, Belgium, 24-18 August 1998. Internet Live Stats, 2014. Internet Users in the World. [online] Available at: [Accessed 14 May 2016]. Jormakka, K., 2008. Basics design methods. Berlin: Birkhauser Verlag AG. Langrish, J.Z., 1999. Different types of memes: Recipemes, selectemes and explanemes. Journal of MemeticsEvolutionary Models of Information Transmission. [e-journal] 3(2). Available through: < http://jomemit.cfpm.org/1999/vol3/langrish_jz.html> [Accessed 10 February 2014]. Langrish, J.Z., 2004. Darwinian design: The memetic evolution of design ideas. Design Studies, 20(4), pp. 4-19. Langrish, J.Z. and Abu-Risha, M., 2009. Purposive pattern recognition: The nature of visual choice in graphic design. In: Undisciplined! Design Research Society Conference 2008. Sheffield Hallam University, Sheffield, UK, 16-19 July 2008. Lawson, B.R., 2004. Schemata, gambits and precedent: some factors in design expertise. Design Studies, 25(5), pp. 443-457. Leach, N., 2005. Mimesis. Architectural Theory Review, 10(1), pp.93-104. McLuhan, M., 1962. Gutenberg galaksisi: Tipografik insanın oluşumu. Translated by G. Ç. Güven, 2001. İstanbul: Yapı Kredi Yayınları. Oxford Dictionaries, 2015. Oxford Dictionaries Online. [online] Oxford university Press. Available through: [Accessed 11 January 2016]. Oxman, R.E., 1994. Precedents in design: a computational model for the organization of precedent knowledge. Design Studies, 15(2), pp. 141-157. Potolsky, M., 2006. Mimesis. New York: Routledge. Salingaros, N.A., 2002. Architectural memes in a universe of information. Journal of Memetics-Evolutionary Models of Information Transmission. [e-journal] 6(1). Available through: [Accessed 14 December 2015]. Salingaros, N.A., 2006. A Theory of Architecture. Solingen: UMBAU-VERLAG Harald Püschel. Tanyeli, U., 2002. Eskimiş bir kavramı yenileme çağrısı. Arredamento Mimarlık, 02, pp. 61-62. Tierney, T., 2007. Abstract space: Beneath the media surface. London; New York: Taylor & Francis Uluoğlu, B., 2000. Design knowledge communicated in studio critiques. Design Studies, 21(1), pp. 33-58. Yürekli, H. and Yürekli, F., 2002. Rasyonalitenin yapılanmasında irrasyonalin, metaforların ve taklidin rolü. In: A. Şentürer, Ş. Ural, F. U. Sönmez eds. 2004. Etik-Estetik. İstanbul: YEM Yayınları. pp. 156-165. Zarzar, K.M., 2008. The use of architectural precedents in creative design: An approach using the Modernist technique of defamiliarization and the biological theory of evolution. In: K.M. Zarzar and A. Güney eds. 2008. Understanding meaningful environments: Architectural precedents and the question of identity in creative design. Amsterdam: IOS Press. pp. 7-22.

THE TERM “DISEGNO” IN THE AGE OF RENAISSANCE AND THE PROBLEM OF DESIGN IN POSTHUMANIST CONDITION ÖNDER ÇELIK ABSTRACT This paper will focus on the term “disegno” in the age of Renaissance and try to compare the recent problems of design in posthumanist ideals. The term “disegno” was related to the problem of humanism. This problem was thought in the body-mind problematic. The architectural thought and the body of a building had been re-defined with these humanist approaches. Alberti’s concept of “lineament” was related to the word “disegno.” The word “lineament” was a kind of abstraction that is related with the life of mind that determines the body of architecture according to the humanist ideals. The invention of perspective and the Renaissance architects’ construction of vision is related to the design strategies of these ideals. The distictions that organised in this humanistic problem have been dominated the architectural thought and its body for hundreds years. And recently, there are some discussions in the architectural theory on posthumanist condition. What may be the meaning of this debate in architecture after humanist ideals? What may be the new distinctions in architectural design theory? What may be the new position of perspective problem? Or, what may be the new position of vision in posthumanist condition?

DECORATIVE APPROACHES IN SOME OTTOMAN BATHS KADER REYHAN Kader Reyhan, Asst. Prof. Dr., Eskişehir Osmangazi University, Department of Architecture, 26480 Eskişehir/TURKEY

ABSTRACT The Ottoman baths (hamam), a symbol of cultural identity and continuity in Ottoman architecture, built in all settlements as a social building type in which Ottoman life took place during Ottoman period. Despite their unpretentious exterior appearance, they have adjoined dynamic superstructure constituted with domes and vaults and a great number of architectural features and they involve decorative approaches through formations of the superstructure components and architectural elements in the bathing spaces. The aim of this paper is to document and identify the decorative characteristics of some Ottoman baths dated to 15th and 16th centuries according to their architectural features, built in small settlements of Western Turkey. In the scope of the study, decorative approaches and details in the baths were documented and identified through field surveys and analysis of the original design qualifications both graphically and descriptively. Decorative approaches can be examined in the arrangements through both structural and non-structural formations. Adjoined dynamic constituents in varied numbers and sizes in exterior adjustment of the superstructure, various wall bonding systems, morphological characteristics of domes and vaults of the superstructure elements and transition elements to dome can be attached to the structural approaches. On the other hand, the volumetric forms of oculi and cupolas in the various arrangements on the superstructures, geometric and herbal motives formed by plaster on the surfaces of the architectural elements, and ornamented architectural elements themselves such as basins in various forms can be evaluated in the non-structural formations. 1. INTRODUCTION The Ottoman baths carried out the bathing activity in daily life as important social buildings were built in all settlements during Ottoman period (Reyhan, 2004). Seen generally modest and unpretentious exterior appearance of the buildings in the Ottoman architecture was carried on in the baths likewise. Yet, by contrast with the modest appearance, dynamic superstructure constituted with domes and vaults adjoined each other in varied geometries, numbers and sizes in exterior adjustment of the superstructure, various wall bonding arrangements, morphological and geometric compositions of architectural elements gain the aesthetic wealth to the baths in the interior. On the other hand, geometric compositions and herbal motives formed by plaster on the surfaces of the architectural elements and ornamented architectural elements by themselves such as basins in various forms contribute values to this aesthetic manner. The aim of this paper is to document and identify the decorative characteristics of some Ottoman baths dated to 15th and 16th centuries according to their architectural features (Reyhan, 2004), a symbol of cultural identity and continuity in Ottoman architecture, built in small settlements of Western Turkey. The studied baths are Tahtakale Bath, Hekim Bath, and Yalınayak Bath in Tire; Great and Small Baths, Ulamış Village Bath, and Düzce (Hereke) Village Bath in Seferihisar; Kamanlı Bath (Yahşi Bey Bath) in Kamanlı neighbourhood and Urla Double Bath (Hersekzade Ahmet Paşa Bath) in Urla; and Seljuk İsa Bey Bath in Seljuk. Ottoman baths involve a dressing hall (soyunmalık), a warm area (ılıklık), a hot area (sıcaklık), and a water reservoir with the furnace juxtaposed to each other in the spatial order (Reyhan, 2004). In the scope of the study, decorative approaches and details in the baths were documented through field surveys and analysis. Field surveys are based on conventional measurement techniques together with freehand sketches of decorative details and supplemented with photographic documentation. 2. TYPES OF DECORATIVE APPROACHES IN THE OTTOMAN BATHS Decorative approaches can be examined in two main types; structural and non-structural formations. Structural formations involve arrangements by means of forming dynamic superstructure constituents morphologically in the exterior and interior, transition elements in the interior, various bonding arrangements and profiled arches. On the other hand, in non-structural formations, the arrangements of placing terracotta pipes or lighting cupola on the dome in various arrangements, forming geometric and herbal motives by plaster on the surfaces of the architectural elements such as dome, vault, and transition elements in the interior or forming geometric

arrangements by using bricks in the exterior, and placing ornamented architectural elements themselves as a decorative object in the bathing spaces. 2.1. Structural formation Decorative formation of load bearing structural elements either individual or into connection with each other forms this entity. They involve four different approaches; forming domes and vaults morphologically individual or together in the exterior adjustment in various arrangements, forming domes and transition elements morphologically in the interior adjustment in various arrangements, approaches formed by different bonding arrangements, and forming arches in different profiles. 2.1.1. Decorative approaches through forming domes and vaults morphologically in the exterior Forming multiple relationships among properties, such as geometry, volumetric dimensions, juxtaposing styles, form and size of domes and vaults which constitute superstructure of baths in masonry construction system reflects dynamic spatial order in the exterior adjustment. In general, dimensions of superstructure constituents take various forms and sizes. The spaces in rectangular geometric forms were covered with vaults while the spaces in square, squarish or polygonal geometric forms were covered with domes according to use density in the bathing spaces and volumetric size of spaces. Transition to the rectangle or square spaces from the square or polygonal spaces juxtaposed to each other in different sizes and reflected in superstructure composition morphologically gains dynamism and creates the aesthetic appearance (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Superstructure constituents juxtaposed to each other in different sizes in Seljuk İsa Bey Bath. 2.1.2. Decorative approaches through forming domes and transition elements morphologically in the interior In Ottoman bath architecture, the dome is the spherical structural components covering the square planned dressing hall, warm and hot spaces. Transition elements are load bearing elements that provide transition loads from the dome to the walls, which are vertical supporting elements, in the square spaces. These elements can be examined each one separately below; 2.1.2.1. Decorative approaches through forming domes in the interior Domes provide both dynamic mass order on the exterior and impressive optical effects in the interior spatial perception for special spaces and units. In Ottoman architecture, dome is a focal point as a superstructure element in the public buildings such as mosque, madrasah, khan, and bath (Reyhan, 2011). Domes in Ottoman bath architecture provide dynamic mass feature with various numbers and sizes by juxtaposing to each other on the exterior. Light for the bathing spaces was provided with either terracotta pipes placed in the brick bonds or oculi formed by brick bond. These elements constituted spectacular and striking spatial features (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Forming the segmented dome in the interior and places terracotta pipes in the segments for lighting in the warm area of men’s section of Tire Hekim Bath (Reyhan, 2011). Long span domes have depressed profiles while short span domes have semi-circular profiles (Reyhan, 2011). As an impressive sample for forming dome approach, the dome of in the main hot space of women’s section in Urla Double Bath can be given. It rises as octagonal pyramid at the interior and close to the top it turns into a circular shape. On the level of transformation, an octagonal border was built with a course of brick (Figure 3).

Figure 3. Forming the dome of in the main hot space of women’s section in Urla Double Bath, the dome rises as octagonal pyramid at the interior and close to the top it turns into a circular shape. 2.1.2.2. Decorative approaches through forming transition elements in the interior In the studied baths, transition elements from square or squarish plan to the springing level of the domes are squinches, pendentives, plane triangles, and belts of Turkish triangles. Using transition element to dome in the warm and hot spaces was generally preferred pendentives in 16th century (Önge 1995, p.81). In the studied bath, pendentives were also used as transition element in the warm and bathing spaces, while squinches in the dressing halls (Reyhan, 2011). When the transition elements to the dome is pendentive or plane triangle, there is a drum built with brick bond between the springing level of the dome and transition elements and dome starts from the top of it. Drum was formed as an octagonal frame between the walls and the dome on the exterior, which rises and supports the

dome from the exterior (Reyhan, 2011). While in the interior drum increases volumetric sizes of the spaces, it gives visual emphasis and height in the size of the space at the exterior view. Transition elements were made of brick and plaster as binder material (Reyhan, 2004). Various forms of transition elements lead a rich perspective and aesthetic appearance in the spaces. They can be evaluated as special decorative compositions. Forming some transition elements were differentiated, which were constituted particular arrangements. These can be identified as follows; In the dressing hall of Seferihisar Great Bath and in the warm area of Tire Hekim Bath transition to the dome was provided with segmented squinches (Figure 4). Subsequently, pendentives with muqarnas (a three-dimensional decoration of Islamic architecture) were determined in the iwan unit of Tire Tahtakale Bath and in the main hot space of Urla Kamanlı Bath (Figure 5). Serrated pendentive was used in the main hot space of Tire Yalınayak Bath as a single sample.

Figure 4. Using segmented squinches as transition element in the dressing hall of Seferihisar Great Bath.

Figure 5. Pendentives with muqarnas were arranged in the main hot space of Urla Kamanlı Bath. Forming belts of Turkish triangles as transition element were determined in the warm area of women’s section in Urla Double Bath and southwest private room of Kamanlı Bath; in the warm sub-unit, main hot space, and dressing hall of Tire Tahtakale Bath; in the private room of men’s section of Tire Hekim Bath as special decorative

arrangements. The corners of the base and the top of the prismatic triangle units were connected each other by turns in the form of lozenge shape in these forming types. 2.1.3. Decorative approaches through by forming various bonding arrangements Of the load bearing elements the walls, which constitute the vertical structural elements, were not plastered on the exterior, however; they were plastered on interior. Stone, both in the form of rubble and cut stone was the major structural material in the walls. Brick, on the other hand, was generally used in the upper parts of masonry such as arches, vaults, and domes as secondary structural material. Wall bonds were differentiated according to the usage patterns. Decorative approaches in the bonding arrangements was considered for using stone and brick together in various alternating bonding types which are random rubble stone/brick and regular rubble stone/brick, rough cut stone/brick and reused cut stone/brick bonds (Figure 6).

Figure 6. Decorative approaches by forming various alternating bonding arrangements in the exterior walls of Ottoman baths (Reyhan, 2004).

Figure 7. Forming decorative arrangement by using cut stone/brick alternating bonding technique at the east wall in Seferihisar Great Bath. In Seferihisar Small Bath, all walls of Düzce Bath, the north, west and all interior walls of Seferihisar Great Bath, the northern wall belonging to the water reservoir of Özbek Bath, rubble stone/brick bonding technique was used for wall of bathing spaces. In the baths constructed with random rubble stone/brick bond types such as Seferihisar Great Bath, Düzce Bath, and Seljuk İsa Bey Bath, the corners of exterior walls were strengthened with a vertical line of reused cut stone. Rough cut stone/brick alternating bonding technique was only applied to the exterior wall of the warm and hot spaces in Kamanlı Bath. Cut stone/brick alternating bonding technique were used in Seferihisar Great Bath, on

the parts belonging to the dressing hall and the parts of warm space at the east wall in which the entrance was placed and at the corners of the exterior walls and sides of doors and windows in Düzce Bath (Figure 7). Stone/brick bonding arrangements can be evaluated as decorative approaches in the Ottoman bath architecture and they gives wealthy aesthetic appearance to the exterior bath surfaces. 2.1.4. Decorative approaches through forming various profiled arches The arches are generally structural elements used on the squinches, in the openings of side units in the warm area and bathing spaces, in the niches on the walls as well as in the window and door openings. According to the spaces and their openings where they were used, they are in different dimensions, shapes and materials. They are also blind arches on the surface of the walls of interior spaces and in the entrance and window openings, which were used as a relieving arch in brick bonding in some facades. At the springing levels of arches, mostly large ruble or cut impost stones were placed inside the wall bond. When impost was a cut stone, it was in various profiles. It can be given an example in Düzce Bath for these types. The arches were used in the forms of depressed pointed, semi-circular, and Bursa (semi-circular panelled) arches. A few of these forms applied in the same building can be evaluated as continuance of an application, coming from Principalities period (Altuğ Kolay, 1999). The most common is depressed pointed arch (Figure 8). Semi circular arch, seen in Roman and Byzantine architecture, can be observed in Düzce Bath, Urla Double Bath and in the profiles of barrel vaults. Bursa arch is determined in the arch opening of southeast side of women’s section in Urla Double Bath and in the blind niches which were on the walls of the west side unit of warm area in Seferihisar Great Bath.

Figure 8. Forming depressed pointed arch, which was used the most common profiled arch in the baths, as the side unit opening arch in the main hot space of Seferihisar Great Bath. 2.2. Non- structural formation In the non-structural formation types, all approaches can be considered as purely aesthetic attitudes without structural concerns. These types involve three different approaches as below; 2.2.1. Non-structural decorative approaches through placing terracotta pipes or lighting cupola on the dome in various arrangements On the top of dome, at the keystone opening either an oculus in the shape of hexagon by placing terracotta pipes or lighting cupola in the depressed hemispherical shape were arranged. On the cupola there are also oculi. The lighting cupolas were built in Urla Double Bath and Kamanlı Bath only in the main hot spaces, in Düzce Bath in the main hot space and southeast private room, in Seferihisar Great Bath in the dressing hall, main hot space and east private room and in all of the hot spaces of Seferihisar Small Bath. The examples on which the oculi were designed in different alignments for decorative purpose are; Tire Tahtakale Bath, Yalınayak Bath, Hekim Bath, Urla Double Bath, Seferihisar Great Bath. Oculi organizations with different size and forms can be seen in Urla Kamanlı Bath, Seferihisar Great Bath, Tire Yalınayak Bath, and Hekim Bath

(Figure 9). These organizations can be classified as; organization of oculi in ternary, double or single order with decorative purposes in Tire Tahtakale Bath; in spiral organization starting from springing level towards top in Tire Yalınayak Bath; organization of oculi in segmented domes in Tire Hekim Bath; and construction of eight-strand star with horasan (a plaster typical in Islamic architecture) plaster and organization of oculi in edge of each strand in Tire Tahtakale Bath (Figure 10). Different geometrical organizations observed in Tire Yalınayak and Tire Hekim Baths’ domes and decorative organizations observed in Tire Tahtakale Bath can be evaluated as particular applications unusual for Tire baths (Reyhan, 2011)

Figure 9. Oculi organizations with using star and hexagon shapes together seen in the main hot space of Urla Kamanlı Bath (Reyhan, 2011).

Figure 10. Oculi designed in spiral organization starting from springing level towards top in Tire Yalınayak Bath for decorative purpose (Reyhan, 2013). 2.2.2. Non-structural decorative approaches through forming geometric and herbal motives by plaster on the surfaces of the architectural elements (dome, vault, transition elements) in the interior or forming geometric arrangements by using bricks in the exterior Forming geometric and herbal motives by plaster in relief plaster work technique called malakari on the surfaces of the architectural elements can be seen in bathing spaces of the baths. In Tahtakale Bath, in the interior surface of the depressed pyramidal dome of northeast iwan of main hot space, eight-strand star ornament was created

with horasan plaster by using malakari relief work techniques and placed oculus in each strand (Figure 11). By using the same malakari technique, pendentives as transition element to dome were decorated in various arrangements, such as encircled with decorative border made of horasan plaster, encircled with decorative border and the end of the pendentives finishing with herbal pattern, and the surfaces formed with muqarnas units made of brick. Encircled by border can be seen on the pendentives in the hot spaces of women’s section in Urla Double Bath, in the warm and southwest private room of Kamanlı Bath. Pendentives encircled by border and having herbal pattern at the end decorative approach can be seen in the main hot space of men’s section and southwest private rooms of Urla Double Bath. The pendentives decorated with muqarnas units were used in the main hot space of Kamanlı Bath. At the springing level of domes and on the drums were also created some decorative arrangements, such as the rich muqarnas decorations at the corners and between them a row of muqarnas which has low depth arrangement in Düzce Bath and also muqarnas decorations at the corners and between them geometric and herbal decorations on the surfaces in Urla Double Bath (Figure 12).

Figure 11. In Tahtakale Bath, in the interior surface of the depressed pyramidal dome of northeast iwan of main hot space, eight-strand star ornament was created with horasan plaster by using malakari relief work techniques and placed oculus in each strand (Reyhan 2011).

Figure 12. At the springing level of dome and the end of segmented squinches in the northeast private room of Kamanlı Bath muqarnas decorations as the low depth arrangements were formed.

Through using various materials on the domes and vaults or three-dimensional arrangements like saw-tooth arrangement at the springing level on the exterior for giving aesthetic effects to baths can be seen in rare. At the exterior, on the upper level of wall, in the shape of saw-tooth arrangements arranged with three rows of brick in Seferihisar Great Bath can be given an example for this type of decorative approach (Figure 13).

Figure 13. Saw-tooth arrangements with three rows of brick in Seferihisar Great Bath. 2.2.3. Non -structural decorative approaches through placing ornamented architectural elements themselves as a decorative object in the bathing spaces (basin, stone seat, fountain niche, etc) In Kamanlı Bath, on the north wall of the main hot space between entrances of two private rooms there is a fountain niche decorated with muqarnas units built of bricks (Figure 14). Basins that were placed on the floor of hot spaces were made of stone. For basins in women’s section of Urla Double Bath and some basins in Seferihisar Small Bath reused materials were used. The basins are in the shape of circle, semi-circle, semi-octagon or semidecagon. In the west private room of Seferihisar Small Bath and the women’s section of Urla Double Bath, geometric or muqarnas decorated marble basins were used. In Seferihisar Small Bath, the upper sides of stone seat, in front of the east wall of the west private room, have muqarnas decorations. In the women’s section of Urla Doube Bath, semi-octagonal planned, reused marble basins are observed (Figure 15).

Figure 14. A fountain niche decorated with muqarnas units built of bricks placing as ornamented architectural elements itself in the main hot space of Kamanlı Bath.

Figure 15. Using decorated marble basins in the private hot room of women’s section of Urla Double Bath as a decorative object 3. CONCLUSION In this study, decorative approaches are separated into two groups according to the load bearing characteristics; structural and non-structural approaches. With regard to decorative approaches the obtained findings that come from the investigation of structural and non-structural decorative organizations in some Ottoman baths can be summarized as follows: Structural approaches are the arrangements by using structural architectural elements; moreover, they are strong relationships between each other. All arrangements have structural concern in one side while aesthetic concern as decorative approaches in the other side.

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Structural approaches can be summarized into four different types: Decorative approaches through forming domes and vaults morphologically in the exterior and forming domes and transition elements morphologically in the interior, decorative approaches through by forming various bonding arrangements, decorative approaches through forming various profiled arches. Non-structural approaches are evaluated as arrangement on the surface of architectural elements by using plaster in malakari techniques or arranging terracotta material in the bond in various geometric compositions and forms. Non-structural approaches can be grouped into three different types: Non-structural decorative approaches through placing terracotta pipes or lighting cupola on the dome in various geometric organizations and arrangements, non-structural decorative approaches through forming geometric and herbal motives by plaster on the surfaces of the architectural elements in the interior or forming geometric arrangements by using bricks in the exterior, and non-structural decorative approaches through placing ornamented architectural elements themselves as an decorative object in the bathing spaces. During the restoration process and in the previous situation of the masonry historic buildings, decorative elements generally constituted on the surface of the buildings as a part of finishing layer are faced with the danger of being damaged or of extinction their original features partly or entirely. In particular, relief works, geometrical and herbal motives on the surface made of plaster could be easily being in extinction process due to lack of maintenance, being parts mostly exposed to natural effect, and vandalism. Before losing their features, it is necessary to be documented decorative elements and to be taken protection decisions healthy for preventing the extinction process and retain ultimately. The study of the decorative approaches is significant in terms of contributing to determine original decorative qualifications to guide for preservation decisions of their historical identities and architectural features which have high potential to disappear or to be damaged in implementation process of conservation work. REFERENCES Aktuğ Kolay, İ., 1999. Batı Anadolu 14. yüzyıl Beylikler mimarisinde yapım teknikleri. Atatürk Kültür Merkezi Başkanlığı Yayınları, Ankara. Reyhan K., 2004. Construction techniques and materials of the Ottoman period baths in Seferihisar-Urla region. Unpublished MSc thesis, İzmir Institute of Technology, İzmir. Reyhan K., İpekoğlu B., 2006. Investigation of construction techniques and materials in a group of Ottoman baths. SAHC'2006 - V International conference on structural analysis of historical constructions, 2006, New Delhi-India. Reyhan, K., 2011. Architectural characteristics and construction techniques of domes in a group of Ottoman baths. Ph.D. thesis, İzmir Institute of Technology, İzmir. Reyhan, K., İpekoğlu, B., Böke, H. 2013. Construction techniques of domes in some Ottoman baths. Journal of Cultural Heritage 14S (2013) e35-e40. Önge, Y., 1995. Anadolu’da XII-XIII. yüzyıl Türk hamamları. Vakıflar Genel Müdürlüğü Yayınları, Ankara.

FOUCAULT DISCOURSE ANALYSIS ON INFORMAL SETTLEMENTS' REPRESENTATION IN FICTION-GARBAGE COLLECTION AREAMANSHIET NASSER- CAIRO SEIF EL DINE SAAD GHALLAB, Architect preparing master at AAST (Arab Academy for Science and Technology); Manal Abou El-Ela, Associate professor at AAST (current) and Banha University; Mona Abdelwahab, Assistant professor at AAST, visiting research fellow Newcastle University (U.K.)

ABSTRACT As a global controversial issue, informal settlements are propagated all over the world. A dialect is present between the classifications of informal settlements. This is manifested in different representation of informal settlements in diverse domains. It is mainly represented to be a problem more than a potential. Using Foucault Discourse Analysis (FDA), this paper considers the construction of informal settlements in fiction with relation to a case study. In doing so, an exploratory explanatory approach is practiced. This occurs by the investigation of the consistencies/inconsistencies between fiction's representation and the case study. In this sense, three main terminologies of FDA are used: object, subject and power. The case study is approached through observations and an interview with a resident. Fiction as utterances, meaning and practice, reflects a version about informal settlements. This makes fiction the main milieu in which FDA is used. At the same time, the case study as a discourse representing an example on site, is used as a background upon which fiction is reflected. In this paper, a debate is present between different discourses that define informal settlements differently (fictional discourse, resident discourse and researcher's observation discourse). It is not a case of granted conclusions but rather an understanding of informal settlements' different constructions. INTRODUCTION Informal settlements exist in various capitals all over the world; some of which are Jakarta, Lusaka, Mexico City and Cairo (Mccarthy, 2003; Sims, 2012; UNHabitat, 2007; Wigle, 2010). How Informal settlements are viewed varies. In most literature informal settlements give a negative image to the country, while other researchers argue that informal settlements represent a positive aspect. On one hand, informal settlements are the reason of all urban problems as represented in media and fiction (Mouelhi, 2014, Sims, 2012, AboGallil, 2009, AbdelMorid, 2008). On the other hand, many attempts highlight the various potential inherited in the urban fabric: social, physical and economic (Doherty, E Silva, 2011; Dovey, King, 2011; Jacobs, 1961; Shehayeb, 2009; El-Batran, Arandel, 1998; DeSoto, 2000; Turner, 1976). Accordingly, this paper is interested in the study of the variation in the representation of informal settlements through the representation of INFORMAL SETTLEMNTS in fiction versus its physical appearance in the urban form. In Cairo informal settlements are negatively viewed, specially through media, due to two main incidents. The first incident occurred between terrorists and the state in 1990 within Imbaba neighborhood in Cairo. The problem started with the announcement of terrorists that Imbaba is an independent State within Cairo which led to a security confrontation between the police forces and terrorists in Imbaba (Singerman, 2009). The second was a cliff collapse in 2008 that resulted many deaths and injuries at Dweiqa settlement (Manshiet Nasser-Cairo) (Mouelhi, 2014). Consequently, both incidents inspired the stereotyping of informal settlements in media as dangerous areas (Sims, 2012) thus affected people’s perception of informal settlements. According to Abbott, Fiction is related to real world by its components and similarities. This makes people Sometimes reflect fiction on the world and understand the world through it (Abbott, 2008). On the other hand, Egyptian researchers as Shohaib and El Battran argue that informal settlements in Cairo embody social, economic and physical capabilities to the community. This paper will investigate the dilemma between both views drawing on Foucault Discourse Analysis (FDA), where the novel of Kiryalisson's represents the studied fiction representing the garbage collection area in Manshiet Nasser.

This paper is not interested in linguistic discourse analysis but rather interested in the way by which issues (objects) and individuals' opinion (subjects) are formed within discourse (Potter, Wetherell, 1987). Discourse is related to itself as the context of its own (Foucault, 1972). For Foucault, what is formed inside the discourse is not reality but rather a representation of reality (Jorgensen, Phillips, 2002). There exists different representation of reality within different discourses about the same issue (Talja, 1999). Thus, ideas, meanings and truth versions are built inside the discourse (Jorgensen, Phillips, 2002). Some versions became more dominant by the concept of power-knowledge (Georgaca, Avdi, 2012). This paper constitutes of three main parts to study three main questions: How are informal settlements constructed in fiction? What are the consistencies/inconsistencies between fiction's representation and the case study? Why does these consistencies/inconsistencies present? The First part introduces Foucauldian discourse analysis as an analytic framework to examine the fiction. The second part examines the Kiryalisson discourse in reflection to Garbage Collection settlement's spatial characteristics. The later is drawing on observations by the researcher as well as an interview with a resident. The tried path attempts to draw a concluding insight to understand the significance of the consistencies/inconsistencies between fiction and the case study. Foucauldian Discourse Analysis Foucault re-approached the themes of the object, subject and power. For Foucault, the topic constructed within the discourse is the object (Hall, 2001); and the subject is the position taken by an individual from an object (Foucault, 1982). This position is created in discourse through power(Foucault, 1982). Power is thus practices between every one rather than owned by special institutions or classes (Băllan, 2010). So, power is not repressive but constructive (Jorgensen, Phillips, 2002). In the same direction, Foucault is interested in the way by which objects and subjects are constructed within discourse by power (Marianne Jorgensen,Louise J. Phillips, 2002). Power holds a key factor in Foucauldian discourse analysis. According to Foucault "The exercise of power is not simply a relationship between partners individual or collective; it is a way in which certain actions modify 'others. Which is to say, of course, that something called Power, with or without a capital letter, which is assumed to exist universally in a concentrated or diffused form, does not exist. Power exists only when it is put into action, " (Foucault M. , 1982)p.788 For Foucault, power is present by practice which makes it relational (Foucault, 1982). It takes place when a person practices affect another person conduit (Lemke, 2010). Power relations are in the form of something that moves through individuals but they don’t own it, they exercise it in practice (Băllan, 2010). Power does not affect individuals directly but rather affect their actions (Foucault, 1982). It is described by Foucault as "an action upon an action" (Foucault, 1982, p.789). In this article a power relation is obvious between power of representation by the fiction's author, power of investigation by the researcher and power of ownership by the inhabitants, which reflects a struggle to identify the object. According to Foucault" it is not possible for power to be exercised without knowledge, it is impossible for knowledge not to engender power" (Townley, 1993)p.521. Moreover, power affects/is affected by knowledge (Townley, 1993). It is a two directional relation between power-knowledge (Townley, 1993). Power affects knowledge in the way by which knowledge moves and is gained (Foucault M., 1982). This influence is seen by knowledge's limitation through power which lends knowledge attainable (Khologlugil, 2010). At the same time, things or objects have to be known before being able to practice power through it (Townley, 1993). According to Foucault "Individuals are the vehicles of power, not its points of application" (Băllan, 2010 p.56). Accordingly, power moves through people's practice by means of knowledge and vice versa (Townley, 1993). Foucault is also concerned with the ways of the object formation and construction within discourse (Graham, 2005). Also concerned with the “rules and regularities” that defines objects (Khologlugil, 2010). Objects are constructed by a network of relations through descriptions that define the objects in the manner that allows them to exist (Foucault , 1969). According to Foucault the formation of objects within the discourse helps in constructing multiple “versions of reality” (Georgaca, Avdi, 2012). As a result, the constructed object is exposed to interventions that are relevant to its construction (Townley, 1993). Also, the same object may be identified by different discourses in different ways (Foucault, 1969). Those discourses compete to present their perspective about the object (Jorgensen, Phillips, 2002). The relation between different ways of classifying the object and the knowledge formed about the object within discourses make the object influenced by power/knowledge and power relations concept. So, while studying object formation, power is a factor that affects this formation. Power not only forms objects but also makes us recognize them and divide them by an understanding for their characteristics formed in discourse (Jorgensen, Phillips, 2002). Accordingly, objects are constructed within discourse and knowledge about this object is formed within the discourse (Talja, 1999).

Furthermore, Foucault wanted to study how individuals are transformed into subjects about a specific object (Foucault, 1982). Individuals become subjects by two ways. The first is knowledge (Foucault, 1982). Knowledge is formed within discourse (Talja, 1999). Due to the difference between discourses that give several interpretations when perceiving the same issue (Jorgensen, Phillips, 2002), the same individual can take different subject positions when investigating the object from different “angles” (Talja, 1999). Also, subjects in the discourse doesn’t reflect individual place from an object but reflect a version of the community perception of the object, because individuals get their vocabulary from the community around them (Talja, 1999). The second is positioning in relation to another subject position (Foucault, 1982). Subject position may be in the form of a resistance to the community version about the object (Jackson, 2013). As seen, subject is formed by knowledge and in relation to another subject position, which means that it is affected by power concept. Accordingly, in this article, the novel "Kiryalisson" is investigated by the analysis of object formation, subject position and power and their reflection on the case study. The object (Garbage Collection area) is studied by the analysis of its construction through a network of relations between different aspects of life embedded in the discourse of Kiryalisson. This construction is reflected on the case study to understand its convenience/ inconvenience. Also the subject positions taken by the author of the novel through his pivot character is studied and reflected on the case study. This reflection helps in understanding the relevance of subject position between fiction and the case study. Due to the presence of different discourses about the same object in this article, knowledge about the object is formed in each discourse and in relation to other discourses. So, Power as a factor affecting subject position and object formation is used to understand the relation between the representation of both fiction and the case study. Also, the convenience/ inconvenience between different constructions of the Garbage Collection settlement are investigated to understand how does this convenience/inconvenience happen? Fiction And The Case Study The setting: The addressed case study of Garbage Collection settlement has the largest total area of Manshiet Nasser (143.09 Acre) (ElSheikh, 2014). At the same time, the un-built spaces' percentage (46.9 percent) is higher than its' percentage in the remaining parts (24.2 percent) of Manshiet Nasser(Fig 2) (ElSheikh, 2014) and the area has a lower density with respect to other areas within Manshiet Nasser(Joos, Conrad, 2010). This is due to the main work of the residents in garbage collection which need more open spaces and wide streets for vehicles' access (Joos, Conrad, 2010). The streets are not in a grid form but rather in a non-geometric form (Joos, Conrad, 2010). The main street is "El Mokattam" street where different activities are available (ex; shops and cafés) (Joos, Conrad, 2010). Also, most buildings are built from skeleton structure (Fahmi, Sutton, 2006), with four to seven floors' height (Fig3) (ElSheikh, 2014).

Figure 16: Manshiet Nasser location within Cairo and its' division by GTZ, where MN7 is the Garbage Collection area (Runkel, 2009 p.74, Google Earth)

Figure 17 Built and unbuilt spaces of the garbage collection settlement where the unbuilt spaces percentage is higher than those in the remaining parts of Manshiet Nasser (CAPMAS: Central Agency for Public Mobilization and Statistics) The story Kiryalisson is one of various fictions that represent informal settlements negatively (Ahmed, 2014; AboGallil, 2009; ElAdly, 2015; ElFakarany, 2014; Salama, 2014). The events of Kiryalisson take place in Garbage Collection area within Manshiet Nasser neighborhood/Cairo and show the suffering of an informal settlement's inhabitant. It revolves around a pivot character "Nageh" who is condemned to death, remembered his life by a flash back describing his life within garbage collection settlement. Nageh constructs the reader's knowledge about the informal settlement (as the object) through his point of view for his life. Nageh reflects his miserable life by representing the inhabitants struggle each day, only to live and that his loneliness in prison is better than living in Garbage Collection settlement. Nageh used his childhood suffering in garbage collection work, to build and justify his feeling of hate to the settlement. He worked in many other jobs to earn money (a building security, in a factory's accountant office, a military officer and a teacher). Nageh presenting himself as the victim, blames his family (narrow-minded father, his governing grandmother and his submissive mother) and the society for his present situation. He hated his family and all the inhabitants that have forgotten him. Nageh uses the story of Saint "Simon the Tanner" (an unknown man in his time, who helped Pope "Abram" to relocate the Mokattam Mountain by telling him the word "Kiryalisson") to justify his position, that sometimes an unknown man as Saint "Simon the Tanner" could be better than many others. Nageh wanted to give a meaning to his death by justifying that he is dying in prison to protect the freedom and life of many others outside the prison. So Nageh builds the object by using different subject positions (hate, blame and heroic) to reflect a pessimistic image about his life in Garbage Collection area. Nageh took several subject positions that have significances. First, He hates the garbage collection settlement, the inhabitants and his family. This position is used by Nageh to differentiate himself from the inhabitants doing immoral acts (his father, his uncle, a criminal, a thief, a homosexual, a crook, himself). This position reflects Nageh's shame from himself and his settlement's main work (garbage collection). Second, Nageh blames his family and his settlement to reflect that he is not responsible for his actual situation (condemned to death). Third, Nageh represents himself as the hero who is proud of himself as a form of resistance to the community's negative perspective about informal settlements.

The people: This representation by the author seems to be different from informal settlements' reflection within Garbage Collection settlement, which is limiting other form of knowledge about the area's life. Several NGOs' were observed to operate within the area. First, the APE (The Association for The Protection Of The Environment) inaugurated in 1984 and developed several programs as learning (reading, writing), nursery, paper recycling, personal cleanliness , hand loom and summer camps. These programs have products that generate incomes and provide work for the inhabitants (especially women) as rug weaving, rag rug, bathroom set, patches rug, necklace, souvenir cards, paper, blankets and earrings (Fig 4). Through an unstructured interview, Moussa Zekry (an inhabitant) revealed that these products are sold inside Egypt (Zamalek, El Gonna in Hurghada, Omar Affandy stores) and exported outside Egypt (USA). At the same time, these programs gave an opportunity for women to learn, work, and get an income to live by giving them trainings and providing child care for their children who by their turn learn (Fig 5).

Figure 18 Buildings' materials and heights in Garbage Collection area (by the

Figure 19 Products made by the inhabitants of Garbage Collection settlement in the APE(textures, gift cards, paper, accessories) (by the researcher)

researcher) Also, another NGO (SOY: Spirit of Youth Association) is seen to be involved within the area. SOY's main project is "Proctor and Gamble recycling school" founded in 2004 that has different activities within the settlement especially for boys. Boys are learning to write, read, English language, computer skills, mathematics, drawing, acting, music, recycling, personal cleanliness, and recycling using safety tools (Fig 6). Similarly Moussa Zekry revealed that he is not ashamed of the garbage collection work, but hate the society despise to his career. So the two cited NGOs were inaugurated (1986, 2004) before the publish date of the fiction (2008) which means that these programs were present when the fiction's author was writing his novel. As a result, it is obvious that the area is differently represented and power is present in different kind of knowledge about the object and between different authorities.

Figure 20 Children playing area inside the APE (the researcher)

Figure 21 Garbage Collection School (the researcher)

Object construction within fiction The object is constructed differently between the fiction and the Garbage Collection settlement. This is obvious through various aspects mentioned in fiction: First, environmental aspects are used to reflect the unhealthy conditions for life in the area. The area is represented to be unclean and the sorting of unhealthy materials as a reason for diseases (uncleanliness, rats, syringes containing AIDS illness, dead birds, broken glass, blood, bad smells). Also Nageh described in detail a dream where he is seeing inhabitants living underground in unclean world, this ends by his death and he transferred to another place which is cleaner, full of trees and good smells. In the Garbage Collection area, due to the hard work done by NGOs, churches and mosques in the area on cleanliness awareness and garbage sorting tools, the death rate decreased (Iskander, 1994). At the same time, the air quality is seen to be affected by the uncovered garbage exposed to air, which requires a healthy storage for wastes. The author representation in this aspect is partially relevant to the Garbage Collection settlement. At the same time, there is a lack of knowledge for the occurred improvements and ignorance for the cost that this area is paying to make other areas clean. This has place by a focused, detailed prolonged description for events of garbage sorting uncleanliness. This reflects an irrelevance in the object construction because while focusing on uncleanness, the author ignored that this is the reason of other areas' cleanliness. This knowledge formation within the novel makes uncleanliness as one of the first images coming to the reader's mind when he remembers the area which is affected by power. Second, physical aspects are reflected in fiction. The area is represented to be hardly accessed through a high ramp which reflects a suffering in access to the area. Also, an example of a ten years old building's eviction reveals the unstable life of the inhabitants who are threatened by eviction in any time. Moreover, buildings are represented to be from concrete slabs in two to three floors, where the first is used for garbage sorting, workshops, coffee shops and the remaining floors are used as residence. Streets hierarchies are represented by Nageh, where the main streets are crowded while the secondary streets are calmer. These last two points reflects the presence of some physical characteristics within the area:- mixture of uses and sustenance for life except the unhealthy conditions differently represented by the novel. Physical safety is unclearly represented in the novel. On the other hand, the researcher entered the area on foot by walking from five to ten minutes to reach the area and cars accessed the area easily through streets (approximately of nine meters width). Also, the evicted residences are those exposed to mountain collapse. This type of eviction may not be applicable in this area. This is due to the strong social relations present between inhabitants who are relatives from Upper Egypt. This is obvious in Moussa Zekry description to the area as a tribal society where problems are solved by families, the church and the mosque. So any forced eviction may face a resistance which risk generating a social disorder. At the same time, the area's type of work depends on social cooperation and group work which may be negatively affected by social segregation between the inhabitants. Furthermore, from observations, Garbage Collection area appears to have a diversity of primary uses (residence, work, touristic) that generated other secondary uses (shops, area for selling recycled materials by APE, café, schools, hospitals and police station) and life is sustained by the availability of basic needs. Accordingly, the access to the area and the inhabitants threat of eviction are

differently represented (fiction, Garbage Collection area), while the mixture of uses is represented as a partial point which is not in the same value of uncleanliness representation, and the physical safety is unclearly represented. Also, while the diversity of uses has a great effect on vitality and safety (Jacobs, 1961), the author did not emphasis the diversity of uses by the same weight he focused on uncleanliness. This reflects an effect of power in knowledge formation by/for the author. The author practices in forming the object reflect his focus on some characteristics and the ignorance or the minimization of others. Third, a conflict in social aspects representation is present within the novel: First, a conflict is seen in social contact representation with itself inside the novel. The inhabitants are represented to have good contact (Nageh conversation with the street vendor, Akrash's talk with some of the inhabitants, William saluting passers, Am Mentawy discussion with his friends, rumors about the reason of Joseph presence in the settlement). Contact formed a trust between residents which make them take their responsibility in public space (Jacobs, 1961), this is seen in the novel (people attack to Nageh after his objection on his father "Sheikh Taysser"'s opinion in the mosque, traders' donation to "Am Amer" after his eviction to build a mosque and live in it, Nageh helping a tea vendor each day). The three incidents occurred in public spaces (mosque, street). Contrary to this representation, the inhabitants did not take their responsibility to prevent the occurrence of some events within the novel (Akrash's attack to Juliet, Nageh and his friends waiting outside the school with chains to revenge from another student). The first incident (Akrash) happened in a garbage sorting workshop which makes it unseen from others, but this incident was known by all the area and no one tried to act toward Akrash for his action. The second incident (chains) took place in the street which makes it more relevant for public action, but nobody intervened to ask the children about the reason of carrying chains in front of a school. So, residents who are represented to be in good contact, did not take their responsibility in two important incidents. Second, social safety is negatively represented. The inhabitants are represented to get their rights by their own hands which reflects the absence of law (Nageh's father protect his neighbor, Akrash a criminal frightening inhabitants, Nageh threaten his colleague in school by metal chains). Also the residents reflected to have many ethical problems doing immoral acts (Nageh, his friend Yehia, his father, his drunk uncle, William a homosexual, workers stealing from their factory and inhabitant deceiving others to gain money). At the same time, Nageh situation as condemned to death reflects that he did something wrong toward the community. This reflects that he is a danger threatening the community. At the Garbage Collection settlement, contact, trust and act with responsibility are present because inhabitants are all relatives from the same origins, they share the same work which depends on group effort and NGOs gathering the residents in many programs. Also buildings facing streets, contact between residents and the presence of different primary uses bringing people to the streets for various reasons (garbage collection recycling work, residence and the historical church of Saint "Simon the Tanner"), added to the secondary uses (shops, coffee shops and area for selling recycled products by the APE), make the area under surveillance. As a result the entrance of any stranger to the area is faced by questions about the reason of his presence in the area. Although the informal settlement is represented in the novel to contain an appropriate level of social contact, which has to lead to trust and act, some events reflected the absence of social action. This is a conflict in the object formation within the novel. Also, the diversity of uses, kin relations, streets under surveillance and contact are significant factor in the presence of safety. Contrary, the novel represents the area as unsafe. It is obvious that the fiction representation to social aspects is different from the Garbage Collection settlement. This difference in knowledge formation seems to contain power. The author who represented contact positively to be present, was affected in part by the media discourse in its' formation of the object (informal settlements) as the problem (socially). This was reflected on the irrelevance between the manifestation and the results of social contact. Accordingly, the author's position may be formed by knowledge from media discourse. This knowledge is transmitted through the writer's authority of writing as a practice forming others knowledge. So in this point, media power affected the writer's knowledge who by his turn affected the reader. Power moved by practices through media, the author and the reader. As result, the concept of informal settlements is dynamic. It is not a continuous rule that media engender power but in this situation media affected (in part) the author's knowledge. As can be seen, there exists some differences in the representation of the garbage collection settlement which is related to power. Obviously, some positive aspects which are seen to be present in the case study, were ignored by fiction's representation (garbage collection profit for the community, work provision, education provision, NGOs' work, mixture of uses, vitality), while other negative aspects were maximized (uncleanliness and unsafe social life). Also some aspects reflect a contradiction in object formation to itself inside the fiction (social contact, social safety). Other aspects are represented differently from the case study (access, forced

evictions, social safety and inhabitants hate to their settlement). This ignorance, maximization and differences reflect a presence of power/knowledge and power relation concept. A power relation is present between different actors about the same object (fiction's author, the inhabitants and the researcher). The author with a right to represent a community problem –for him- practiced this power through writing a novel. The inhabitants with their right as owners of daily life details have power which is represented by the researcher (using interview with an inhabitant who practiced power by participating in this interview). The third is the researcher using his own observation as a practice to use the right of presenting information about the notion of informal settlements. So, power relational concept is present by different actors' practices which affects/ is affected by knowledge. Similarily, power/knowledge concept is present in this study. It seems that media discourse affected the author's knowledge (in part) about informal settlements' notion. The main stream in Media reflects informal settlements as the reason of all problems in Cairo (Mouelhi, 2014, Sims, 2012). This was manifested through two elements. The first is the author's ignorance of some positive aspects and the maximization of other negative aspects about Garbage Collection settlement. The second is the conflict between the object formations with itself inside the fiction. This means that the author practiced power through fiction. This power affects the knowledge of the reader who practiced his right to know. So, the fiction as a discourse forms/is formed by knowledge. The same effect of media is seen through the resistance of the interviewee to this mis-representation- from his opinionabout his settlement. In this case, the interviewee took a subject position against this kind of knowledge (media version). On the other hand, the researcher was affected by theoretical discourse. Theoretical discourse represented (in part) informal settlements as a potential. So, the researcher is positioned by theoretical knowledge which is added to observations against the knowledge formed by media about the object. This reflects the effect of power/knowledge concept on the object formation and subjects positions. Also reflects the presence of different discourses trying to impose their version about the object. Obviously, power/knowledge and power relations are present and affect informal settlements' formation and classification. CONCLUSION Three questions were raised in this paper: How are informal settlements (as the object) constructed in fiction? What is the difference between fiction's representation and the case study's representation? How does it happen? Garbage Collection area is constructed within the novel as a socio-physical problem. It is represented to contain problems for its inhabitants (socially unsafe, unhealthy, hardly accessed and unstable life), and for the community (Nageh's threat to the community). This representation differs from the Garbage Collection area findings through observations and interview. The Garbage Collection settlement is seen to contain some positive aspects. Those aspects are useful for its inhabitants and the community (work, goods export, good social relations, good social safety, diversity of uses, streets vitality, garbage collection and recycling). So, Garbage Collection settlement is considered as an example of success (Iskander, 1994). This success is due to hard work from the inhabitants and NGOs (Iskander, 1994). Moreover, while Garbage Collection settlement is represented in fiction as a problem, it is seen through observations and an interview as a potential. This reflects that although the object is mostly defined by a dominant discourse as problem, other discourses are present about the same object with a different point of view. This is seen in a concept presented by Jane Jacob about informal settlements that informal settlements are not as it ought to be (Jacobs, 1961). This reveals that the dominance of a specific version of a specific discourse about an object cannot be taken for granted. This was seen in Foucault concept of the unreachable truth (Marianne Jorgensen,Louise J. Phillips, 2002). Accordingly, the dominant representation about Garbage Collection Settlement as a problem cannot be taken for granted. This difference in representation happened mainly by the concept of power. According to Foucault, power makes us recognize objects and divide them by an understanding for their characteristics formed in discourse (Marianne Jorgensen,Louise J. Phillips, 2002). This was seen in different construction of the object. Each discourse builds the Garbage Collection area by focusing on some aspects which limits the knowledge about other aspects. This justifies the presence of different versions about Garbage Collection settlement. This means that it is not a concept of truth but rather associated to the way by which the object is formed within discourse (Graham, 2005). Accordingly, the same object contains different aspects but it is only through discourse that some aspects are more visible than others. This may be a reason of the different formation of informal settlements' notion within various discourses. In the same direction, some discourses are more dominant than others because of Power relations effect on knowledge formation (Eugenie Georgaca, Evirnomy Avdi, 2012; Townley, 1993). This is the case in the fiction Kiryalisson, where Garbage Collection area is represented as a problem. This happened by the effect of

knowledge formed over time by media about informal settlements. Media version formed a stereotyping about informal settlements. This stereotyping worked as a group of pre-assumptions that filters informations about informal settlements before allowing its' transmition to be known in Kiryalisson. This is seen in the focus on the area's problems , the minimization of the area's potentials and the conflict between the object formation inside Kiryalisson. This happened by the refraction of the problems which passed the stereotyping filter to be seen inside the fiction while the potentials are rejected and reflected away from Kiryalisson. Generally speaking, the issue of informal settlement is differently represented. It is in this difference that power moves through practices of different actors in relation to each other trying to form the object. This difference makes the informal settlements' concept dynamic, which provide more analysis, filtering and assessment to the object. This diversion in object formation need to be taken into account while trying to understand, study and interpret informal settlements issue. The knowledge of this difference may help in forming an objective view, definition and act toward informal settlements. As a result informal settlements has to be considered as an unlinear object that contains rupture in its formation as Foucault description to history. It is not a simple notion which can be classified directly as an advantage or a problem but rather a complex issue. This issue contains a mixture of potentials and problems that need to be approched from different perspectives before dealing with it. In object definition, there are no way of granted conclusion but rather differentiation that leads to an objective understanding. As can be seen, informal settlements' issue is a complex issue defined in media's discourse by prejudgment stereotyping which affected the knowledge about it. This means that an objective view can not be present by the dominance of only one representation about a complex issue. For better understanding to this issue, there is a need for more interaction and integration between different discourses about informal settlements. As a result, informal settlements' potentials are required to be presented side by side with the problems to help in forming an objective view. This view will form the knowledge upon which decisions toward informal settlements could be taken to benefit from potentials and decrease the effects of the problems. This means that it is useful to have diversity in knowledge about informal setllements i.e. the more diversity existed, the more we have a broader view and understanding to informal settlements. This may help in the action toward this issue. In one word, differentiation is the way for objective view. REFERENCES Abbott, H., 2008. The Cambridge Introduction to narrative, second edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University press. AbdElBasset, M., 2015. Hekr El Anssary. Cairo: ‫فرست بوك للنشر و التوزيع‬. AbdelMorid, H., 2008. Kiryalisson. Cairo: ‫الدار للنشر و التوزيع‬. AboGallil, H., 2009. Lussoss Mutkaaedon. Cairo: ‫ميريت للنشر و التوزيع‬. Ahmed, K., 2014. Sharq El Da'ery. Cairo: ‫المصري للنشر و التوزيع‬. Ambord, D. W., 2009. Wrong turns on the way to graveyard: The Death of Man and the Status of the Subject in Foucault Studies. Internet Journal of Philosophy, 13 (2009), pp.53-66. Băllan, S., 2010. M.Foucault's view on power relations. cogito.Multidisciplinary research journal, 2 (2), pp. 55-61. Sims,D., Sejoume,M. and El Shorbagi,M., 2003. The case of Cairo. Understanding slums: Case Studies for the Global Report on Human Settlements. UN-Habitat. Dijk, T. A., 2001. Critical discourse analysis. In J. R. Elizabeth Couper-Kuhlen, S. D. Livia Polanyi, J. A. Michael Stubbs, J. W. Ruth Wodak and Martin Reisigl, R. W. Colleen Cotter, S. F. Nancy Ainsworth-Vaughn, et al., The handbook of discourse analysis. USA: Blackwell Publishers. ElAdly, A., 2015. Rehlet Al A'ela Gheir Al Mokadassa. Cairo: ‫الدار المصرية اللبنانية‬. ElFakarany, M., 2014. Fassel lel Dahsha. Cairo: ‫الكتب خان للنشر‬. ElSheikh, K., 2014. ‫مظاهر التعايش البيئي في المجتمعات الوظيفية‬: ‫دراسة تحليلية لمنطقة الزبالين بمنشأة ناصر‬. Giza: Cairo University. Georgaca, E., Avdi., E., 2012. Discourse analysis. In D. H. Andrew R. Thompson, S. S. Michael Murray, M. Rapley, P. O. Wendy Stainton Rogers, H. Joffe, J. R. Liz Spencer, et al., Qualitative Research Methods in Mental Health and Psychotherapy: A Guide for Students and Practitioners. United kingdom: JohnWiley & Sons, Ltd. Foucault, M., 1969. L'archeology du savoir. France: Gallimard. Foucault, M., 1972. The archaeology of knowledge and the discourse on language. NEWYORK: PANTHEON BOOKS. Foucault, M., 1982. The Subject and Power. Chicago journal, 8(4), 777-795.

Doherty, G., E Silva, M., 2011. Formally Informal: Daily Life and the Shock of Order in a Brazilian Favela. BUILT ENVIRONMENT, 37(1),pp.30-41 Graham, L. J., 2005. Discourse analysis andthe critical use of Foucault. Sydney: Annual conference. Hall, S., 2001. Foucault: Power, Knowledge and discourse. In Wetherell, M.,Taylor, S. & Yates, S., 2001. Discourse Theory and practice : A Reader. london: SAGE. Iskander, L., 1994. Mokattam Garbage Village. Cairo: Stallion Graphics. Jackson, A. Y., 2013. Spaces of Power/Knowledge: A Foucauldian Methodology for Qualitative Inquiry. Sage , 19(10),pp.839-847. Jacobs, J., 1961. The Death and Life of Great American Cities. NewYork: Random House. Jonathan Potter, Margret Wetherell., 1987. Discourse and social psychology beyond attitudes and behavior. London: SAGE. Kandil, M. E., 2012. Ana Esheqt. Cairo: ‫دار الشروق‬. Khologlugil, S., 2010. Michel Foucault’s archaeology of knowledge and economic discourse. Erasmus Journal for Philosophy and Economics, 3(2), pp.1-25. Dovey, K., King, R., 2011. Forms of Informality: Morphology and Visibility of Informal Settlements. BUILT ENVIRONMENT, 37(1), pp.11-29. Lemke, T., 2010. Foucault’s Hypothesis: From the critique of the juridico-discursive concept of power to an analytics of government. Parrhesia, 9(2010), pp.31-43. Jorgensen, M., Phillips, L., 2002. Discourse Analysis as theory and method. London: SAGE Publications Ltd. Mccarthy, P., 2003. Urban Slums Report : The Case of Jakarta,Indonesia. Understanding slums: Case Studies for the Global Rreport on Human Settlements. London: UN Habitat. Miller, C., 2006. Upper Egyptian regionally based communities in Cairo traditional or modern forms of urbanization? In O. E. Eric Denis, N. P. Vincent Batteseti, & P. A. Diane Singerman, Cairo Cosmopolitan politics, culture, and urban space in the new globalized Middle East. Cairo: The American University in Cairo press. Mouelhi, H. E., 2014. Culture and informal urban development,the case of Cairo "Ashwa'eyat"( informal settlements). Berlin: Berlin University of Technology. Rady, R., 2014. Mir'at Farida. Giza: ‫الرواق للنشر و التوزيع‬. Diaz-Bone, R., Bührmann, A., Rodríguez, E., Schneider, W., Kendall, G. & Tirado, F., 2007. The field of Foucauldian discourse analysis: structures, development and perspectives. Forum qualitative social research FQS, 8(2). Runkel, C., 2009. The Role of Urban Land Titling in Slum Improvement –the Case of Cairo:- A critical examination of the GTZ land titling programme. Berlin: Institute for city and regional planning, Technical university . Salama, M., 2014. Kighar. Cairo: ‫عصير الكتب للنشر و التوزيع‬. Sims, D., 2012. Understanding Cairo the logic of a city out of control. Cairo: American university. Singerman, D., 2009. The siege of Imbaba,Egypt's inteernal 'other', and the criminalization of politics. In K. A. Samia Mehrez, Cairo Contested governance, urban space, and global modernity. Cairo: The American university in Cairo. Talja, S., 1999. Analyzing Qualitative Interview Data: The Discourse Analytic method. Library & Information Science Research, 21(4). Tawfiq, A. K., 2012. El Senga. Cairo: ‫صحارا للطباعة‬. Tawfiq, M., 2011. Fatat El Halwa. Cairo: ‫الدار المصرية اللبنانية‬. Townley, B., 1993. FOUCAULT. POWER/KNOWLEDGE. AND ITS RELEVANCE FOR HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT. The Academy of Management Review, 18(3), pp.518-545. Turner, J. (1976). Housing By People: Towards Autonomy in Building Environments. London: Marion Boyars. UNHabitat., 2007. Zabmbia Lusaka Urban Profile. Kenya: UN Habitat. Joos, V., Conrad, F., 2010. Mokattam World's Largest Recycling Hub. ETH Studio Basel Contemporary City Institute. Fahmi, W.S., Sutton, K., 2006. Cairo’s Zabaleen garbage recyclers: Multi-nationals’ takeover and state relocation plans. Habitat International, 30(2006), pp. 809-837. Wigle, J., 2010. Social Relations, Property and ‘Peripheral’ Informal Settlement:The Case of Ampliación San Marcos, Mexico City. Urban Studies, 411-436.

BUILDING ENERGY PERFORMANCE GAP BETWEEN DESIGN AND OPERATION: A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW BASAK GUCYETER Basak Gucyeter, Asst. Prof. Dr., Eskisehir Osmangazi University, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Department of Architecture

ABSTRACT Building energy performance gap is one of the widely discussed issues associated with energy use in the built environment. Despite efforts to establish national/international regulations that endorse accurate assessment of building energy performance, the discrepancy between the design and as-built performance of buildings is still significant due to an array of reasons (such as occupant behavior, simulation model simplifications, poor assumptions, etc.) concerning energy consumption. Moreover, the inherent uncertainty within these factors and their effect on overall consumption patterns are distinctive for each building. Given this multifaceted nature of building energy performance predictions, it is possible to assert that the potential implications of building performance gap would continue to have a substantial impact on the energy demand of the built environment. In order to narrow this gap, it is necessary that building energy performance predictions should be attributed further with validation, verification, post occupancy evaluation and improved building performance monitoring. Thenceforth, the designs that constitute the built environment would become more environmentally responsible with reduced adverse impacts. Hence, this paper aims to identify the discussions and approaches focusing on the building energy performance gap through a systematic literature review. This paper initially frames the question of performance gap between the predicted and actual consumption patterns of buildings and extensively identifies the relevant literature. This meta-analysis on the evidence of performance gap in literature aims to categorize factors and assumptions that cause the building performance gap and performs as a basis for a holistic conceptualization that accounts for measures to tackle this gap. In the discussion and concluding remarks, this paper emphasizes the importance of methods such as post occupancy evaluation, undertakes the responsibility to address approaches in tackling building performance gap and aims to describe directions for further research by providing implications for practice, policy-making and theoretical approaches. Keywords: Building energy performance, Modeling, Prediction, Performance gap, Post occupancy evaluation Building Energy Performance Gap: The Significance Since the oil crisis of 1970’s, there is a gradually increasing concern on reducing energy consumption and carbon dioxide emissions in all sectors including the built environment, with respect to the distressing effects expected of global warming, climate change and resource depletion. Given the facts that approximately 40% of the world energy consumption originates from energy use in buildings for space conditioning, ventilation, hot water, lighting and appliance use (DoE, 2008) and energy use in buildings is anticipated to escalate each year by 1% (IEA, 2008), research and practice became committed to provide measures that are environmentally sensitive and ensure the efficacy of these measures. Efforts were set to improve energy-efficient buildings including both new designs and retrofit of existing buildings. Significant scientific and regulatory initiatives were established in the last three decades, in order to decrease the energy demand and carbon dioxide emissions of buildings. The major focus of such initiatives could be summarized as: imposing assessment procedures to determine the energy performance of buildings, promoting decrease in primary energy resource consumption based on fossil fuels through efficiency measures and endorsing the utilization of technologies that support integration of nonrenewable energy sources (Fumo, 2014; Ahmad & Culp, 2006). Due to the emergence of regulatory approaches, majority of the research focused on the means to decrease energy consumption on building level via the use of building envelope interventions (increasing the level of insulation, providing glazing with better performance, utilization of solar shading) and integration of renewable or clean energy technologies within the building services (Hens et al., 2010; Diakaki et al., 2010). In this framework it became crucial to assess the effects of such interventions and technological solutions on energy performance of buildings through employment of assessment methodologies for new design or retrofit, with the aim to achieve decreased energy consumption

levels in the built environment. Tools such as simulation software, machine learning, compliance systems (de Wilde, 2014) gained importance due to their capability to replicate real world phenomena and especially simulation tools were considered reliable when results within the error margins that were set via regulations such as IPMVP (2001), ASHRAE Guideline 14 (2002), M&V (2008) were obtained. Simulation modeling, the widely anticipated energy performance assessment methodology, was distinguished with its capability to integrate the multi-dimensional influences on the energy performance of the buildings (Crawley et al., 2005). Validation and testing became of utmost importance in order to accurately assess the realistic energy performance of the buildings. However, starting from the mid 1990s, strong indications of a “performance gap” became evident and extremely high discrepancies (in some cases, more than 100%) between the predicted and actual energy consumption were reported (de Wilde, 2014; Bordass et al. 2004, Menezes et al. 2012). Consequently, building energy performance gap turned out to be one of the widely discussed issues associated with energy use in the built environment. It became evident that, despite the efforts to establish national/international regulations that endorse accurate assessment of building energy performance, the discrepancy between the design predictions and as-built energy performance of buildings was still significant due to an array of reasons related to factors affecting energy consumption (such as occupant behavior, simulation model simplifications, poor assumptions etc.). Buildings, modeled and simulated consequent to decision-making in design phase, tend to under-perform or over-perform (Bordass et al., 2001c). Furthermore, the inherent uncertainty within these factors were translated into the simulation environments with their distinctive effects on the overall consumption patterns for each building. Due to the multidimensional nature of building energy performance predictions, it is possible to assert that the potential implications of building performance gap might continue to have a substantial impact on the energy demand of the built environment, since efforts to meet the energy-efficiency goals for the built environment is at substantial risk due to the occurrence of the performance gap. The research and practice should therefore focus on improving the assessment procedures, prior and latter to the execution of performance measures related to energy consumption in buildings, in addition to the robustness of design and construction (ZCH, 2010). Consequently, it is evident that building energy performance predictions should be improved further through validation, testing, feedback from post occupancy evaluation and advanced building performance monitoring, in order to narrow the building performance gap. In this framework, this paper aims to provide a theoretical understanding of the reasons behind performance gap, its magnitude, the barriers and limitations in narrowing the gap, its implications, and finally the possible solutions to narrow the performance gap. Having established its methodology on a systematic review, this paper does not only seek the means to review the literature through definitive keywords such as “building performance gap” or “rebound effect”, but also aims to address contributing research that solely focus on the inadequacy in building performance assessment through measurements, walkthrough audits, and surveys. The reason for such perspective stems from the idea that building performance obsolescence is a widespread issue, whether or not it is addressed in the angle of building performance gap. Given this scope, the second section of this paper aims to briefly define the building energy performance gap concept, provide a systemic review on the factors that cause the gap and their implications. For further comprehension on the subject, the third chapter aims to underpin the magnitude of the building energy performance gap in order to demonstrate the evidence for further discussions and applied research. The fourth chapter summarizes the theoretical and evidence-based findings on building performance gap obtained from the cause, implication, and magnitude studies and emphasizes the possible approaches to narrow the gap. A Systematic Review of Building Performance Gap: Causes and Implications Addressing the energy performance of buildings requires employment of holistic approaches in diverse intensities, such as precision in decision-making during the design phase, inclusion of distinct variables in assessment procedures, meticulous inspection throughout the construction process, and comprehensive operational decisions throughout the service life of buildings. The imperative of delivering efficient spatial and performance characteristics, accompanied by an environmentally sensitive artificial setting as a mutual product of architecture and engineering, became one of the major concerns in building science and physics studies for almost three decades. As the research progressed with the aim to achieve advances in building energy performance levels, hence the overall performance of the built environment, it became evident that overestimation or underestimation of building performance is a recurrent incident observed within the comparison of assessment and actual outcomes could be the source of. Such discrepancy, characterized with expressions as “building energy performance gap” (Herrando et al., 2016; Menezes et al., 2012; de Wilde, 2014), “the rebound effect” (Herring, 2006; Sorrell et al., 2009; Grossmann et al., 2016) or the “take-back effect” (Greening et al., 2000), is considered as an important barrier contradicting the efforts to attain an energyefficient built environment. Hence, several research undertook the responsibility to frame and emphasize the

significance of such deviation, via identifying the causes and implications. Menezes et al. (2012) define building performance gap as the exhibited discrepancy of actual performance from the prediction assessment results or the attained benchmark levels via compliance procedures. Nevertheless, the definition implies a straightforward relationship between assessed and actual performances, it is possible to state that the causes and implications of performance gap are highly complex in nature and interrelatedly influential on the magnitudes that denote the gap. Building energy performance gap could not be considered as the result of assessment and calculation procedures only, since any prediction model comprises an intrinsic uncertainty in replicating real-world phenomena and discrepancies are inevitable between the predicted and actual consumption levels for buildings. In addition, contrary to the option of optimization via actual data for existing buildings’ performance assessment, calculation-based methodologies are the only option for the design of new buildings in performance assessment (Wang et al., 2012). Given this scope, it is possible to assert that discrepancies between the predicted and actual performances is inevitable in the building energy performance research, however, narrowing the magnitude of the discrepancy as much as possible should be considered essential in order to achieve the necessary reductions in energy consumption in buildings. Discrepancy between the predicted and actual consumption of a building could not only be regarded as a quantitative evidence of performance gap and the sole amplifier for the causes of climate change, but also should be evaluated in terms of its direct influence on the economic aspects related to operation of buildings and on the productivity, health and wellbeing of occupants due to indoor environmental conditions. In order to narrow the building performance gap, it is critical to comprehend the building performance gap holistically, regarding its causes and implications. Thus, this section focuses on tracing the emphases on the causes of performance gap in literature. Several causes that contribute to the building performance gap, could be addressed within a holistic perspective that covers the contextual, climatic, physical, constructional, operational and occupancy characteristics of a building. Ramallo-González et al. (2015) suggest that uncertainties related to building energy performance consists of environmental factors (e.g. uncertainties regarding the weather data), factors related to building construction (e.g. workmanship and quality of building elements) and behavioral factors (e.g. occupancy). de Wilde (2014) asserts that building performance gap occurs due to one or more problems that emerge during the following four major phases; design, prediction, construction and operation of a building. In view of these assertions, Table 1 presents the review of relevant literature that principally addresses the possible causes of performance gap in establishing their argument. 20 papers were selected for review that address the causes and implications of performance gap, with respect to their scope in indicating at least one of the underlying causes of the performance gap. The meta-analysis of the 20 papers revealed that 80% of the papers indicated building operation and schedules as one of the causes for performance gap, where 55% of the papers considered occupant behavior as a cause. Assessment methodologies, construction and workmanship, climate, and design decision are mentioned as the cause of performance gap with the frequencies 40%, 35%, 35%, and 25%, respectively. It would therefore be useful to address each cause and their significance in the following paragraphs, pertaining to the order of frequency of causes appearing in the reviewed papers. Operation and schedules are the most frequently mentioned causes of building performance gap in the literature. Due to the completion of the construction process, the buildings are commissioned and their actual performance, which is idealized during the design and assessment processes, could be monitored during the operation phase. Commonly, the actual performance exhibits discrepant performance parameters when compared to the idealized design conditions (van Dronkelaar et al., 2016). According to de Wilde (2014) causes of building performance gap due to the operation and schedules of a building includes occupant behavior, inaccurate load assessment, adjustment of control settings such as thermostat and schedules deviating from design. Menezes et al. (2012) indicate that appropriate management and controls would facilitate an efficient operation of the building, while inappropriate strategies could result in vice versa. Cohen et al., 2001 emphasizes the significance of regular occupant surveys and energy monitoring during the operational period of the buildings, through which benchmarking for energy consumption could be improved, and the information gathered could be used as feedback for new building designs, in PROBE (Post-occupancy Review of Buildings and their Engineering) studies. In another PROBE paper, it was determined that deficiencies in control of building installation systems, which propagate excessive energy use while supplying inadequate comfort levels, turned out to be a significant problem identified through the investigation of 16 PROBE buildings (Bordass et al., 2001a). Bordass et al. (2001b) reveal that 16 PROBE buildings that were investigated during the study, claiming to be lowenergy, presented unacceptable outcomes and only 4 buildings met the consumption

profiles defined by the employed benchmarking. Bordass et al. (2001a) state that assessments during the design phase commonly indicated consumption levels in the region of 50 kWh/m 2, yet the evidence suggested that buildings with a 100 kWh/m2 consumption levels are frequent, relating a portion of such performance gap to a widespread lack of interest in technical and operational details and energy management in general. Similarly, in Majcen et al.’s (2013) study for the residential stock in the Netherlands, it was concluded that assessment procedures only take account of energy for certain end uses and neglects to account for those determined by the occupants. However, the operation and schedules are controlled by the occupants in residential buildings, and therefore variable decisions on use of gas and electricity emerges as unregulated loads that contribute to the performance gap. Abovementioned findings, related to the operation and schedules of the building, indicate a vast array of causes for building performance gap and such causes could stem from the complexity of control strategies, insufficient commissioning and management of the building systems' performance during operation, and lack of post occupancy evaluation by designers and contractors after the building is completed (Burman et al., 2014; Torcellini et al., 2004). It is therefore necessary to address the importance of post occupancy evaluation and control strategies that exhibit the potential to contribute the means to tackle the building performance gap. Occupant behavior is regarded as one of the most influential uncertainties in predicting building energy use, since the behavior of building occupants could not be integrated into building energy performance assessment procedures with appropriate resolution and instead they are accepted as assumed and fixed data sets that represent the presence of occupants. Various research demonstrated that occupant behavior should be included in assessment procedures through data based on measurement and observation (Virote & Neves-Silva, 2012), since fixed modes of occupancy cause certain discrepancy between predicted and actual energy performance of buildings (Menezes et al., 2012; de Wilde, 2014). Especially, insufficient interpretation of occupant activities in new building designs and use of stereotype and static occupancy information for the evaluation of existing buildings could contribute to broadening the performance gap (Sunikka -Blank & Galvin, 2012). van Dronkelaar et al. (2016) suggest that occupant behavior could cause an estimated effect of 10 to 80% on the energy consumption of a building. Estimation of occupant behavior and integrating this estimation as a dynamic input within assessment methodologies in order to narrow the performance gap are highly complex processes that require meticulous investigation and measurement protocols. Hence, monitoring occupant behavior becomes a highly anticipated strategy that covers both the movement, presence and activity measurements and surveys and questionnaires that derive the responses of building occupants in different conditions. Grossmann et al. (2016) suggest to work with questionnaires and interviews with the aim to exploit the possible determinants of the performance gap originating from occupant behavior, focusing on the questions of periodicity, continuity in office space use, number of users, habits and attitudes concerning heating and ventilation, where Cohen et al. (2001) propose spot measurements reinforcing the qualitative data in order to understand the magnitude of

occupant behavior. On the other hand, Niu et al. (2016) argue that such information collection methods are inefficient in the inclusion of time-dependent and interactive behavior of occupants, and claim that postoccupancy evaluation should be coupled with pre-occupancy evaluation for testing how occupants might interact with a building before it is physically completed. Despite the differences observed in approaches, the studies on occupant behavior underscore the significance of the aspect that appropriate evaluation of occupant behavior would contribute to narrowing the building performance gap. Assessment methodologies consist of strategies such as simulation and modeling, calculation methodologies, compliance and benchmarking (de Wilde, 2014). Modeling and simulation are vastly applied dynamic performance assessment procedures for new designs and retrofit of existing buildings with various parameter sets through which the users could define the different physical characteristics of a building, as well as the contextual information (such as environmental and climatic data) and occupancy patterns in order to accurately replicate the real world phenomena (Zhao & Magoulès, 2012). Due to the strength that simulation tools possess in handling detailed and various data related to building energy performance, they are frequently applied for evaluation and optimization of energy-efficiency measures before being installed as a fundamental part of the building. Nevertheless, certain share of the reported performance gap between the predicted and actual energy consumption levels, occasionally in excess of 100% (Bordass et al., 2004; Menezes et al., 2012), is considered to stem from employment of incorrect data/methods in modeling and simulation procedures (de Wilde, 2014). The forward approach in modeling and simulation briefly emphasizes importance of acquiring (1) climate data of the for the case building, (2) building design, (3) geographical data (location, orientation, obstructions etc.), (3) construction data, (4) building installation characteristics, (5) building operations, occupancy and schedules (Harish & Kumar, 2016), yet inadequacy in above data could result with a performance gap between the design and operation. It is crucial to emphasize that simulation tools are not referred as inadequate in such argument, yet the specialists/architects/engineers involved in the modeling and simulation process might fail to address unclear or variable aspects in design parameters, occupant behavior, thermal zoning, etc. (de Wilde, 2014). Inaccurate integration of energy-related data such as the physical characteristics of the building envelope and/or the installation systems, thermal bridges, infiltration could provide significant errors for the outcomes representing the predicted consumption levels. Ahmad and Culp (2006) established that uncalibrated simulation models produce discrepancies between the measured and calculated consumption levels in a range of ±30%, and suggested that the discrepancies even rise to a range of ±90% for individual end uses such as chilled water, hot water, and electricity consumption. Therefore, it is possible to assert that employment of uncalibrated simulation models is an important factor in the emergence of building performance gap and simulation models should be calibrated in order to decrease the effect of modeling errors, insufficient inputs, imprecise assumptions, and uncertainty related to design and operation on the simulation outcomes. Testing and verifying the inputs through calibration procedures is proven effective for better executed models within accepted margins of discrepancy between simulated energy performance and actual energy performance. Calibrating building energy models based on monitoring data for existing buildings and from feedback data from various field studies for new designs could facilitate performance predictions with high accuracy (Raftery et al., 2011; Zhao & Magoulès, 2012). Variations to design decisions due to construction and workmanship might occur during the manufacture of the building and these variations might cause a gap between the design and operational energy performance of the buildings. These variations could occur due to factors such as unspecified details (de Wilde, 2014; Bordass et al., 2001a), occurrence of thermal bridges and air infiltration during construction, decrease in the quality of construction due to misapplications in workmanship, and poor construction management (Bordass et al., 2001a; Bordass et al., 2001c; van Dronkelaar et al., 2016; Herrando et al., 2016). Such alterations and misapplication of design decisions regarding energy efficiency could be the main cause of obsolescence in proposed efficiency measures. For instance, in Doran (2008), the U-values of insulated cavity walls were investigated in residential buildings and the findings presented an average increase of 0.85 m 2K/W due to U-value measurements. It is evident that such increase in opaque wall constructions would eventually contribute to the building performance gap with high rates. Doran (2008) argue that abovementioned discrepancy in U-values might occur due to alteration in the thickness of the insulation, in the thermal conductivity of the insulation depending on the material used, its density and the environmental conditions the material is subject to, the presence of air gaps, discontinuities, inhomogeneity of the insulation, convection around the insulation due to low air-tightness, thermal bridging, and so forth. Therefore, it is possible to assess that the design decisions are commonly in compliance with specifications and compliance criteria, yet the quality of the building constructions could fail to keep up with these specifications and criteria, due to inadequate/erroneous applications during construction (de Wilde, 2014; Torcellini et al., 2004). van Dronkelaar et al. (2016) assert that robust inspection and testing are essential during the construction process, in order to ensure the design performance of building elements and maintain the quality of construction. During the design process, it is imperative to inform the

specialists/architects/engineers involved in the modeling and simulation process on the performance discrepancies caused by discontinuities in insulation layers, thermal bridges and airtightness occurring during construction and their possible implications (van Dronkelaar et al. 2016; Herrando et al. 2016). Concerning the implications of the energy performance gap, Ramallo-González et al. (2015) suggests that possible variations in construction should be included in the energy performance assessment procedures as a means of optimization as well as other determinants such as dynamic occupant behavior, since a fragment of building performance gap stems from the unknown or “ill-defined” parameters. Therefore, it would be beneficial to consider these parameters as potential risks and assessment procedures should include these risks as a part of building energy performance. There is strong consensus that climate is a significant factor in building performance gap, since weather data is an essential input for performance assessment utilized for simulation and modeling (de Wilde, 2014; RamalloGonzález et al., 2015; Li et al., 2014). In general, obtaining a site-specific, long-term weather data might not always be possible, yet the microclimate effects the building and its energy performance (Torcellini et al., 2004). Furthermore, Ramallo-González et al. (2015) emphasizes the effect of climate on building performance gap from a different point of view, asserting that there is uncertainty related to the weather predictions in a changing climate, thus the weather data information could be related to performance gap, in regard to utilization of a reference year data or obtaining the weather data not from the exact location but from a close station. de Wilde, (2014) as well refers to climate change and urban microclimatic developments as factors that affect the emergence of building performance gap. Waddicor et al. (2016) suggest the evaluation of an extensive set of future climate change scenarios and their consequences on the energy performance of the buildings. In their research, it was revealed that climate warming could cause a significant reduction in the heating load and an increase in cooling load of buildings. Measures taken with respect to reference year climate data could therefore become obsolete during the operational phase of buildings, with implications such as overheating due to excessive thermal insulation, insufficient HVAC capacities etc. The early design stage is the process that comprises vast amount of decision-making on the economic, environmental, energy-efficiency, comfort characteristics of the building, as well as the functional and spatial. It is evident that the decisions taken at initial design stage extensively determines the performance during the assessment, construction and operation of buildings, even more than the measures that would be taken during latter stages (Picco et al., 2014). Therefore, design decisions, concerning the abovementioned characteristic, exhibit extreme influence on the overall performance of a building. During the early design stage, only a description of the building with numerous design decisions exists and the actual performance could be determined after the building is commenced to the operation phase (de Wilde, 2014). The design of new buildings is therefore more prone to discrepancies between the design and actual performance in comparison to the retrofit of existing buildings, since the design decisions are set early in the process. As Menezes et al. (2012) argues, the input data into an energy performance assessment methodology highly relies on the decisions made during the design phase, in which uncertainty due to operation, occupancy, physical and system related performances are inherent. Despite the fact that design decisions completely aim desirable conditions in the indoor environment of the building (such as thermal, visual, acoustical) and energy performance levels, the complexity of these design decisions acting simultaneously in a building might present diverse effects that invalidate these assumptions (Bordass et al., 2001c). Design decisions regarding form, orientation, material selection, utilization of high-efficiency or renewable energy systems, passive design considerations, etc., should be evaluated with a serious focus incorporating the uncertainty and sensitivity of each design decisions on the overall design decision (van Dronkelaar et al., 2016). On the other hand, overly-complex energy-efficient design decisions might exhibit underperformance, since buildability, simplicity, sequencing of construction process could not effectively be executed during the construction process (de Wilde, 2014; van Dronkelaar et al., 2016). Torcellini et al. (2004) emphasize that energy performance goals that are set comprehensively in commencement of the conceptual design are likely to perform better in accordance with compliance procedures, hence presents lower levels of performance gap. Therefore, it is possible to assert that there is certain necessity for feedback optimization between the assessment and design stages in order to eliminate the risks of performance gap arising due to design decisions. Frequently, building energy performance simulation is employed consequent to the completion of design decisions, almost in the further steps in which the changes to these decisions become impractical. Hence, additional measures that emerge during the latter stages could involve significant performance deviations from the initial goals. However, incorporating the simulation modeling approach within the early design stage in order to evaluate the sensitivity of each design decision could become beneficial in terms of bridging the gap between design and operation performance of buildings. Understanding the fact that each building is a unique construct that functions within a multi-dimensioned system, composed of physical, functional, and environmental characteristics, design decisions should be defined according to the case-specific

quantifiable aspects and should be fully transferred to simulation environments to evaluate their effects on the overall performance. In addition to the discerned causes of performance gap, discussed in the previous paragraphs, Table 1 demonstrates the means of investigating the performance gap, the building type, employed strategy to demonstrate the performance gap through consumption levels, and the proposed strategy to narrow the gap. According to the findings in Table 1, it is possible to assert that majority of the work dedicated to provide evidence for performance gap use case study (through measurement and audit of a building) as the main means to investigate the performance gap. This is highly comprehensible given the fact that the building performance gap in definition tackles with assessed and actual performances. Rarely, studies employ hypothetical modeling to point out the performance gap, where Niu et al. (2016) aim to propose a virtual reality integrated design approach to understand occupant interactions within a building on the pre-construction phase, RamalloGonzález et al. (2015) aim to unfold the effects of occupant behavior and climate on the performance gap, and Majcen et al. (2013) aim to verify and compare the finding of household surveys through theoretical modeling. Another finding that could be inferred from the information in Table 1 is that the majority of research targets office and multipurpose (commercial/public) buildings to demonstrate the building performance gap, due to the convenience of estimating the extents of occupant behavior and interpreting the operation and schedule data, in comparison to the amplitude of activities that might take place and flexibility of operation and schedules in residential buildings. 75% of the papers dealt with the actual data in order to point out the performance gap either in comparison to simulation/benchmarking predictions, or building codes relevant to the context buildings are studied at. Magnitude of Building Performance Gap: Residential and Non-Residential Buildings Consequent to describing the causes and implications of the performance gap, it is necessary to indicate the magnitude of performance gap from various sources in literature. Table 2 presents the data gathered from 28 papers, reviewed to evaluate the magnitude of performance gap. In selecting these papers, it was aimed to focus on the work that quantitatively indicate the discrepancy between the predicted and actual energy consumption of buildings that were either subject to calculations or energy performance simulation during the design phase and were evaluated through utility bills and performance monitoring through their operational period. In this regard, the aim of this section is to present the magnitude of performance gap via a systematic analysis conducted, with respect to residential and non-residential buildings. 7 studies addressed different sizes of data sets (number of buildings evaluated) for residential buildings regarding their annual electricity and gas consumptions (Knissel & Loga, 2006; Loga et al., 2011; Kaßner et al., 2010; Jagnow & Wolf, 2008; Erhorn, 2007; Majcen et al., 2013; Diamond et al., 2006). Except Diamond et al., the authors focused solely on gas consumption including heating and hot water energy use on annual basis. The findings indicate that the discrepancies for gas consumption are within the range of -20.0% and -42.5% in a total of 9 evaluation sets, with an average of -29.0%. The minus sign before the percentage indicates that the assessed performance is greater than the measured performance, since the magnitude of performance gap in Table 2 are calculated via Equation 1. 𝑀𝑜𝑃𝐺 =

(𝑀𝑃−𝐴𝑃) 𝐴𝑃

𝑥 100

Eq.1

where, MoPG denotes the magnitude of performance gap in (%), MP denotes the measured annual performance, and AP denotes the measured annual performance. Studies of residential buildings highly overlooked the residential electricity consumption and focused more on gas consumption for heating and domestic hot water. The sole example in the reviewed works that evaluate the electricity consumption of residential buildings is the work of Majcen et al. (2013), which compasses an extremely high dataset of two hundred thousand buildings in Netherlands. The research results indicate a median of +175% discrepancy between the assessed and actual performance for electricity consumption regarding the large dataset of residential buildings. The magnitude of performance gap in electricity consumption for the investigated residential building stock indicates that household electricity consumption exceeds the assessed performance levels due to variations in appliance use. Diamond et al. (2006) studied both residential and nonresidential buildings, among them three multi-family/mixed residential buildings were selected for Table 2 due to the complete data provided for assessed and measured performances. Residential buildings investigated in Diamond et al. exhibited an annual energy performance gap of -31.8%, -22.2% and +113.3%, with respect to the order in the table, with an average of +19.8%.

21 studies addressed solely non-residential buildings regarding their annual electricity and gas consumptions and 68 buildings were studied in total including the case studies from PROBE and CarbonBuzz (Torcellini et al., 2004; Hisrch et al., 2014; de Wilde, 2014; Menezes et al., 2012; Burman et al., 2014; Ahmad & Culp, 2006; Bordass & Leaman, 1995; Standeven et al., 1996; Ashbridge & Cohen, 1996; Standeved & Cohen, 1996; Cohen et al., 1996; Standeven et al., 1997; Standeven et al., 1998a; Standeven et al., 1998b; Cohen et al., 2000; Calderone, 2011; Diamond et al., 2006; Gucyeter & Gunaydin, 2012; Korjenic & Bednar, 2012; Herrando et al., 2016; Ruyssevelt, 2014). Among these studies Diamond et al. investigated non-residential buildings along with the residential buildings. The performance gap for annual gas consumption was studied for 32 non-residential buildings, one building’s data was excluded for the validity of the evaluation (from Herrando et al., 2016), since it was a zeroenergy building that exhibited heating energy consumption and thus was indicated with a 100% magnitude of performance gap. The findings from Table 2 indicated that annual performance gap for gas consumption for the 32 buildings investigated ranged between -80.0% and +166.9%, with an average of +22.1%. The performance gap for annual electricity consumption was studied for 27 non-residential buildings, two building’s data were excluded for the validity of the evaluation (from Herrando et al., 2016), which yielded +617.5% discrepancy due to the auxiliary equipment in the research facility and +479.7% due to the obsolescence of passive design measures. The annual performance gap for electricity consumption for the 27 buildings ranged between -34.7% and +222.3%, with an average of +22.8%. It is possible to assert that the

performance gap between the assessed and measured consumption levels might present large overestimations or underestimations depending on the case-specific characteristics of the investigated building. Yet, even with a relatively small data set of buildings, it becomes evident that the buildings that present a performance gap within the threshold of -10% and +10% for gas and electricity consumption only around 21.8% and 19%, respectively. These percentages represent that almost one fifth of the evaluated buildings have an actual performance that is close to the assessed performance by +/- 10%. 35 buildings were evaluated for annual total energy consumption (no distinction specified between end-uses) and three building’s data were excluded for the validity of the evaluation, which yielded +100% discrepancy due to being designed as a zero energy building and the two others exhibited no performance gap (from Torcellini et al., 2004, Hirsch et al., 2014, and Diamond et al., 2006, respectively). The annual performance gap for energy consumption for the 35 buildings ranged between -82.1% and +130.0%, with an average of +4.7%. The average value for annual consumption performance gap for represents a +4.7% overestimation, however, when analyzed in detail it could be determined that almost 77% of the buildings exhibited performance gap larger than +/- 10%. Discussion and Concluding Remarks: What Evidence Reveals The magnitude of performance gap provided through a systematic review in this paper indicates ranges between -20.0% and -42.5%, with an average of -29.0% for residential annual gas consumption, a median of +175% discrepancy between the assessed and actual performance for residential electricity consumption, range between 22.2% and +113.3%, with an average of +19.8% for annual residential energy consumption. For nonresidential buildings, the performance gap for annual gas consumption presents a range between 80.0% and +166.9%, with an average of +22.1%, where annual electricity consumption exhibits a gap between -34.7% and +222.3%, with an average of +22.8%. In addition, annual energy consumption investigated in several buildings indicates a range between -82.1% and +130.0%, with an average of +4.7%. Based on these results, it is possible to assert that, in both cases, either the performance gap indicates a negative sign that corresponds to an overestimation or a positive sign that corresponds to an underestimation, there is significant problem with obsolescence of investments, measures and resource use despite all the efforts to create an efficient building stock. In the case of overestimation, meticulous optimization of the building could avoid excessive material and system design related to energy efficiency. The significance of overestimation does not only relate to resource consumption, but also is directly related to investment considerations for energy-efficiency in buildings. In case of underestimation, the building performance gap proves that the efficiency measures designed for a building are insufficient and this insufficiency could occur due to an array of causes explained in Section 2. As a result, it is possible to assert that, performance gap beyond acceptable margins intrinsic to assessment methodologies, causes inefficient measures, depending either on over-designed or under-designed energy related parameters. Given the causes and the magnitude of performance gap scrutinized in this study, it becomes possible to assert that there is concrete evidence indicating significant levels of performance gap within the built environment, including both new designs and existing buildings. Performance gap therefore stands as the main barrier against the efforts to achieve decreased energy consumption levels within the built environment. The causes and implications of the performance gap are vast and could be related to specific building characteristics. Since, each building is a unique construct with unique physical, functional, and environmental characteristics, the performance gap inherent to each building is unique as well (de Wilde, 2014). Therefore, detailed analysis through all the phases of a building project (design, assessment, construction, commissioning and operation) becomes necessary to narrow this gap. The efforts to be put in narrowing the building performance gap could not be undertaken as a linear, straightforward methods between the phases of a building project. Rather, the means to narrow the performance gap should be regarded as the components of a design phase that provide continuous feedback for the previous/subsequent phases. Meir et al., 2009 compares buildings to other commodities and asserts that once the buildings are commissioned to owners/occupants, they are hardly reevaluated for their performance. Under or non-evaluated buildings causes lack of feedback on poor design decision, construction and workmanship decisions occurring during the execution of the building, poor occupant comfort and satisfaction and inadequate operation schemes. The deficiencies in adjusting such feedback methods results in the building energy performance gap and consequently high energy consumption through building services, obsolescence in energy-efficiency measures, continuous depletion of environment and resources, ineffectiveness in benchmarking and dependent economic decisions, decline in the comfort, health and productivity of occupants. Studies investigated for Table 1 therefore suggest two main approaches in order to reduce the performance gap, (1) post-occupancy evaluation (de Wilde, 2014; Cohen et al., 2001; Bordass et al., 2001a, 2001b, 2001c; Leaman & Bordass, 2001; Torcellini et al., 2004; Niu et al., 2016; van Dronkelaar et al., 2016; Fedoruk et al., 2015) and (2) optimization techniques (Ramallo-González et al., 2015; Torcellini et al., 2004; Burman et al., 2014; Calderone, 2011; van Dronkelaar et al., 2016; Herrando

et al., 2016; Fedoruk et al., 2015; Li et al., 2014). Commonly all studies that address post occupancy evaluation as the means to narrow the building performance gap and importance of providing continuous feedback that could influence the design decisions, assessment procedures, construction and workmanship characteristics, underscore the fact that post occupancy evaluation should cover the analysis of design decisions in the actual building, monitoring indoor air quality and thermal performance, regular occupant satisfaction surveys/questionnaires, regular building energy performance audits. The feedback gathered from continuous post-occupancy evaluation would facilitate higher precision in design, assessment, construction and operation measures for new designs and retrofit of existing buildings. Employment of such feedback would increase the accuracy of predictions, leading to an increased performance of the built environment. Optimization approaches could be employed to achieve the performance levels particular for each building, regarding the environmental, climatic, programmatic, physical, and occupancy characteristics, especially during the design and assessment phases. The feedback from post occupancy evaluation could be utilized during the optimization of design decisions, validation of assessment methods through uncertainty, sensitivity analysis, and utilization of actual data in model calibration in order to narrow the performance gap between the design and the operation phases of a building. Consequently, with meticulous inspection of construction, commissioning and operation phases, the building performance gap could be decreased to levels that contribute to the targeted energy-efficiency of the built environment. In this regard, this paper offers a systematic summary in identifying the performance gap, its causes, implications and magnitude. 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ENVIRONMENTAL AND CONTEXTUAL INTEGRATION OF WATERFRONTS SHERINE ALY Associate Professor, Arab Academy for Science, Technology & Maritime Transport

ABSTRACT Waterfronts are unique places and finite resources embodying the special history and character of each community. The growing diversity of uses of urban waterfronts lands indicates the presence of complex and powerful demands on the scarce waterfront resource. Consequently, these structures have created formidable physical and visual barriers between city dwellers and naturally appealing waterfront sites and view, as well as other environmental consequences, and thus separating the water edge from the city. After the development of Alexandria’s Corniche in 1998, the lack of physical, functional and ecological features does not allow the city residents to engage with their waterfront. Hence this research aims to suggest a method for the city to reclaim back its waterfront by suggesting a theory for contextual and environmental integration of the waterfront with the city. The research will start with a theoretical analysis of the theory. The findings of this analysis are informative for how the waterfront could be redeveloped towards a more sustainable environment with a more comprehensive approach. Finally, the research will set general recommendations with a conceptual design idea for the development of the Corniche of Alexandria as an approach towards sustainability. Keywords: waterfront; development; context; environment; integration INTRODUCTION Water was an important natural resource in the growth of early settlements. Places that existed on water edges became favorable sites for the foundation of ancient cities. There was a close and integrated water-city relation, the very fabric of many cities are strongly linked to the water bodies that contributed to their founding and to their subsequent development. Besides water’s dominance in settlement’s activities, it also determined the development of urban form and pattern. (Wrenn 1983, 26). In this context, by being an interface between city and water, waterfronts are one of the most complex and challenging urban areas in cities. They are finite resources embodying the history and character of each community. For contemporary waterfront cities, it is critical to understand the changing structure of urban waterfronts and their integration with the existing city structure. For this reason, this paper focuses on waterfront revitalization in old cities that have specific character and heritage. (Butuner, 2006). In order to improve the quality of the environment, most cities raise projects to revitalize the waterfront. However, the waterfront exploration and utilization are still in the preliminary stage. Sustainability and the environmental management processes are of critical importance to the future growth of cities. Cities located along coastal waterways must make use of limited land while protecting critical natural resources from damage due to the continuous growth. Such urban settlements and their ports were intimately related in both functional and spatial terms owing their prosperity to waterbodies' usefulness and ease of transportation. In port cities today, the symbiosis between water and human based functions has changed dramatically, challenging cities to transform spaces to expand economic growth, protect the environment, and create a sense of place for local residents. This paper is based on qualitative studies. The methodology is based on two approaches: theoretical and a case study. It discusses the development of a sustainable waterfront through physical, functional and environmental dimensions. It aims to derive the attributes of creating sustainable & environmental waterfronts, then evaluate Alexandria's waterfront and how it is integrated with its surrounding environment. The paper presents a set of recommendations with a conceptual design idea to develop Alexandria's waterfront to meet the recent challenges of the development process. 1.1. Research Problem: Urban waterfronts throughout the world are in deteriorated condition. Alexandria’s waterfront has been through a cycle of development, deterioration, and reuse. This resulted from uncoordinated interaction of economic factors, changes in technology, social forces and political decisions. Alexandria's waterfront lacks the necessary and fundamental criteria of urban design. The functional and aesthetic aspects of the constructed environment

are also negatively impacted which leads to the deterioration of the visual image of the city. Reclaiming the waterfront back to the city as an approach to achieve a sustainable and livable environment is a current issue that should be considered. 2. Definition of Urban Waterfront Urban waterfronts are defined as those shorelines within urbanized areas that lie along waterways. Urban waterfronts encourage basic activities including the development of trade. They became heart of the cities’ economy and serve as social interaction points. They are located close to city centers, connecting the whole city together. As water’s edges are places where settlements originated, many historical buildings exist on waterfronts. They offer unique potentials for new urban developments. Increasing demand for recreational activities became determinant in the development of waterfronts which are mostly designed as new public open spaces (Butuner, 2006). 3. Historical Brief of Waterfront Development Waterfronts and birth of cities cannot be studied separately as they have a strong link in the early settlement of many cities. Waterfronts underwent three main transformation phases; the establishment of waterfronts, their declination and then regeneration. Waterfront Establishment: Waterfronts are considered one of the determinants of urban form. According to the physical character of water, the lands of waterfronts are developed. In these settlements the direction of growth extends away from the nucleus. Waterfronts are situated at the intersection between the land and water that allow accessibility between them. This also provided various opportunities for the city to grow. Many cities use waterfront as their ‘window on the world’ and the city’s ‘front door’. Also waterfronts acted as nodes where the community socializes and set up commercial areas. (Latip, 2011) The Decline of Waterfronts: There are a lot of factors affecting the decline of waterfronts, economic, political, social, cultural and urban factors. Waterfronts were the main focus of transportation of goods, so they survived on trade, but when the industrial revolution began to take shape, shipping and manufacturing became powerful. The bulk transport of cargo required that manufacturing be done near the port, reducing further transportation costs. This resulted in the building of massive industrial buildings and warehouses along the waterfronts. As trade was focused on the waterfront, the city center was often located as close as possible to the water. However urban waterfronts lacked residential land use (Ryckbost, 2005). This resulted in restricted access and view towards the water. Waterfronts became socially unacceptable and unsightly for many communities and thus changed the perception of people towards the use of waterfronts. The hazardous industrial work also affected their comfort, which makes people stay away from the water. The absence of human scale activities created physical and social segregation between the port and the city. Transportation technology is another reason for the decline of waterfronts. The introduction of highways along the waterfront caused the deterioration of the waterfront environment which was stripped to allow space for massive highway projects, once again separating the city from its edge, beside the vast damage of the coastal environment caused by vehicles pollution. As the function of the waterfronts changed, people's awareness of the value of waterfronts became less (Latip, 2011). Many major political decisions were taken and plans applied on the waterfronts were not well studied, thus had large negative impacts on the coastal waterfront of the city. For example, in Alexandria, the widening of the waterfront road was a political decision that wasn’t well studied neither its consequences explored, therefore led to major problems that the inhabitants suffer now a days, the widening project only gave an instant solution to the traffic congestion without considering other aspects. Waterfront Regeneration: The aim of waterfront redevelopment is providing new opportunities for urban space and reintegrating the waterfront with the city (Cloutier, 2012). The environmental integration is sometimes considered in the development projects, however sometimes further damage to the environment is caused. This suggests that access to nature is acknowledged to have an important contribution to the community well-being. 4. Importance of the Waterfronts: Water is the fundamental attraction in all cultures: it is a favorable location for celebrations, ceremonies, and a gathering space for all kinds of activities. The green strips along waterfronts provide relaxation to all users and decrease the stress and feeling of anxiety in addition to providing a great view to the water body. One major objective of urban waterfronts revitalization projects is: to improve urban image (Short 1996) and promote the economic growth of cities. 5. Waterfront development principles: 1. More open space for recreation and physical activities should be provided.

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Historic preservation and the adaptive reuse of historic buildings should be emphasized. The historic spirit and image of the city should be prevailed thus creating a sense of identity. There should be at least 40 meters (width) as a strip of various green and recreational areas right before the coastal edge to offer chances for different activities for all ages. The waterfront should be integrated with the existing urban fabric of the city. Respond to society’s needs. Rejoining the city and waterfront physically and functionally Give easy and safe accessibility to the water edge for all users Bruttomesso (2001) identifies 3 types of activity which waterfronts normally require: "Re-composition": giving a common unitary sense to the different parts, both physically and functionally, “Regeneration”: revitalizing urban areas which can be of considerable size and often centrally located; and “Recovery”: the restructuring and restoration of existing buildings and structures. (Harry Smith, Maria Soledad, 2010, p. 1)

6. Integrative Theory and Attributes for Waterfront Development There are several attributes that should be integrated in the development of waterfronts. Many urban design authors have discussed these attributes separately; Kevin Lynch and Legibility in 1960, Camillo Sitte and Good form in 1965, Norberg-shulz and Meaning in 1980, Jane Jacobs and Vitality in 1992. However, Ernest Sternberg (2000) studied the work of these leading thinkers in search for a theory to combine the different attributes for good urban design, a theory that reflects the principles of these thinkers’ approaches as shown in (Fig 1). He suggested the ‘Integrative Theory of Urban Design’ that included five main principles; good form, legibility, vitality, meaning and comfort. Urban design of waterfronts is now challenged by contemporary concept of regeneration which means creating sustainable places integrating the three sectors of sustainability; economy, society and environment for both built and natural environment (Mrdenovic, 2011). However, the contextual integration theory did not include the environmental approach. To achieve quality of life, the agenda of urban design has shifted from the traditional concentration on the visual and functional aspects to a position which reflects a concern for the social and environmental consequences of design decision (Latip, 2011). The attributes extracted are discussed and categorized into: physical, functional and environmental attributes.

Meaning Norbergshulz

Kevin Lynch Legibility

Camillo Sitte Good form

General Principles

Meaning

Legibility

Integrative Theory

Comfort

By

of urban design Jane Jacobs Vitality

Good form

Sternberg Vitality

Fig. (1) Integrative theory of Sternberg ( Sternberg, 2000,modified by the researcher) 6.1. Physical Attributes: The urban designer when shaping the physical features of any urban space he manipulates distance, material, scale, view, landscape, building style and many others. Urban design is the profession that shapes the spatial or physical environment and encompass the intellectual heritage that gives it a distinctive perspective. It should engage the human experiences in the built environment; the sense of understandability, security, or any apprehensive state the built environment evokes (Sternberg, 2000). Physical attributes include: good form, legibility, accessibility & visual access.  Good Form: There are different types of the physical form of the waterfronts. This depends on the shape and size of the water areas, different forms of buildings and structures, and the different treatments to water edge. There are nine types of waterfront forms; vertical cliff edge, perforated edge, beach or bank, hard formal constructed edge, a bay or open square, pier and building floating, dump lands, setback building, and a bridge (Latip, 2011). The good form of waterfronts can be related to: the physical character of the water, the building form that is oriented towards the water, the building enclosure.

 The Physical Character of the Water: It is the natural physical appearance of the water edge treatment which is the most preferred environment for the response of people towards their environment. The natural setting provides a restorative and refreshing experience for people and sharpen their value. The visual appeal doesn’t lie only in the natural appearance of water but also in the quality of water (Latip, 2011).  Building Form Oriented Towards the Water: A water frontage can be a catalyst to development. Therefore it is crucial that the design includes buildings, a series of complexes and recreational areas at the waterfront oriented towards the water to strengthen its attraction.  Building Enclosure: ‘Enclosure’ is the relation between the height of the enclosing elements and the width of the public space. The continuity of the buildings strengthens the sense of enclosure therefore it is better to use horizontal blocks. The public space on a waterfront is considered a semi-enclosed space. Therefore, a good sense of enclosure could be achieved when the height of the enclosing element is one-quarter the width of the space (Latip, 2011).  Legibility: Lynch (1960) in his book ‘The Image of the City’ stressed on ‘Imageability’ which is important for each individual to have images of a city to successfully operate within his environment. Imageability also has other influences, such as social meaning of an area, its function, its history or even its name. City's Image is shaped by five elements; paths, edges, districts, nodes and landmarks (Lynch, 1960). These elements overlap to operate together in a context and to provide a satisfying form. Waterfronts should have elements of environmental image to intensify its identity, character and a distinctive waterfront that form a mental map and give a sense of place.  Accessibility and Visual Access: There are physical and psychological barriers that prevent the public and visual access to the waterfront. Some of these barriers existed before the redevelopment phase as prior to the industrial revolution. Other barriers existed in the redevelopment phase of the waterfront, such as building waterfront highways, that makes pedestrian crossing unsafe (Cloutier R. , 2012). Psychological barriers occur when people perceive a space as ‘over there’, because of the feeling that it is not part of their district or the lack of clarity between public and private areas (Cloutier R. , 2012). When considering transportation, linking waterfronts with city centers improve their accessibility. It is further integrated with the city by allowing continuous pedestrian linkage along the waterfront and encouraging the flow of activities from the city to the waterfront. Walkability allows the pedestrians to experience the spaces, form and order. It also enhances the quality of life and safety aspects of the area (Latip, 2011). On the other hand, increasing public access to waterfronts could have negative impacts. Therefore, accessibility must be complemented by adequate zoning, suitable parking, garbage disposal and sanitary facilities that accommodate the number of users.(Navarro, 2000) 6.2. FUNCTIONAL ATTRIBUTES Functional attributes include vitality, comfort, meaning:  Vitality: Jane Jacobs (1961) advocated the importance of diversity of uses to create lively streets (Jacobs, 1961) to attract people. The activities at the waterfront can be categorized into three categories: water dependent activities as port, marine construction and repair, ferry, marina company, water related activities that have the advantage of being close to the water. Yet it can also function anywhere else such as parks, restaurants and aquariums and water independent activities that can function equally without the water in other areas such as hotels, apartment buildings, and retail (Latip, 2011). The development projects of waterfront should enhance water dependent and water related activities with different shapes, scales and locations as they connect the public with the water (Latip, 2011). There are two types of spaces that form activities; dynamic and static spaces. Human activities in urban spaces depend on the quality of the environment and include necessary, optional and social resultant activities. High quality waterfront is developed by optional and social resultant activities. Also the length of the space affects human activities in it. Considering the context and understanding the traditions and cultural activities are another important factor that affects pedestrian street life (Latip, 2011).  Comfort: It includes a good state of physiological, psychological and physical harmony between the human being and the environment. As Allan B. Jacobs (1993) stated that best streets are comfortable, in their setting without trying to avoid or negate the natural environment. Providing comfort for people at waterfronts will allow them to stay longer and promote the optional and social-resultant activities. (Latip, 2011)Comfort can be enhanced by an attractive and comfortable environment such as shades or access to sun, seating areas, adequate lighting and universal design of the space. (Sullivan, 2003).  Meaning: It is people’s awareness of a place, their perception of its use and connection with it. The meaning of an urban environment lies in its capability to show ‘history, tradition, nature, nationality or other themes

which solidify the identity of the place’. Relating to the five principles previously discussed (good form, legibility. accessibility, comfort and vitality), the integration between the physical and functional attributes provides meaningful environment (Latip, 2011). 6.3. ENVIRONMENTAL ATTRIBUTES: Environmental attributes include green infrastructure and multiple modes of transportation.  Green Infrastructure: It is the physical environment within and between cities, region’s life support system, and a network of natural environment elements. It helps to maintain the balance in the natural system; and improves the quality of the urban environment in addition to providing access to natural habitats. It performs ecological, recreational and aesthetic function in the city. Thus developing green infrastructure along the waterfront can contribute to a sustainable resource management. (Schneekloth, 2003) There are two design strategies that help increase the viability of green infrastructure; by decreasing and replacing impervious materials by porous paving and bioswales. Waterfronts developments can use porous concrete, grass pavers and unit pavers as substitutes of impermeable materials (Schneekloth, 2003). In addition to providing more vegetation such as trees and native plants in waterfront parks (Abd Shukor et al, 2012).  Multiple Modes of Transportation: Waterfronts should include multiple modes of transportation to ease people’s movement to and from the waterfront. The dominance of the vehicles causes traffic congestions, difficulty of walkability and street crossing, safety and health problems, and environmental concerns. Reducing the car dependence and introducing other modes of transportation will create a more holistic and healthy lifestyle. From the previous discussion, the research summarizes that the integrated theory for sustainable waterfront advocates a number of design principles and attributes as shown in table (1)

Contextual and Environmental Integration of Waterfront PHYSICAL ATTRIBUTES

Good Form

Legibility

FUNCTIONAL ATTRIBUTES

Accessibility Visual access

Vitality

Comfort

Physical character of water

Paths

Accessibility barriers

Diversity of use

Seating

Building form oriented towards water

Edges

Visual access

Seasonal activities

Shade

Building enclosure

Districts

Continuous pedestrian linkage

Continuous pedestrian linkage

Lighting

Nodes

Link waterfront to the city

Quality & length of environment

Universal design

Landmark

Meaning

ENVIRONMENTAL ATTRIBUTES Green Infrastructure

Multiple modes of transportation

Indigeneous Character

Reduced paving

Light rail

Natural features & local landform

More vegetation

Water taxi

History

Walking and biking

Culture and traditions

Transit bus system

Identity

Table (1) The principles & attributes of the integrative theory for sustainable waterfront (by the researcher) 8. Case Study: Alexandria Waterfront, Egypt Alexandria is Egypt’s second capital after Cairo and it is the main seaport. Alexandria stretches 90 kilometers along the Mediterranean coast at its northern edge (M. Abuo EL-Ela et al., 2007). In the 1900’s, the Corniche was built by Khedive Ismail, a 20km long seacoast promenade (figure 6). The development and widening of the Corniche was done in 1998. Alexandria's main public spaces are located along the waterfront. (M. Abuo EL-Ela et al., 2007).

Figure (6) Alexandria urban waterfront (www.google.com) 8.1. Location of the Study Zone: The case study runs from El-Shatby to El-Azarita District, the study zone includes the following districts: El-Shatby, El-Silsila, the library of Alexandria, Kouta public space. (figure 8) 8.2. Study zone Analysis: Accessibility: The selected zone is divided by 5 main streets perpendicular to the Cornish road (Champolion, Ali Mostapha Moshrefa, Suez Canal street, Selim Hassan, Mohamed Shafik Ghorbal streets) . There are 3 parallel main streets to El-cornish street which are Port-said street, Abdel-sallam Aref (the Tram street) and Abou-kir street (figure 7)

Figure (7) The accessibility and the surrounding streets of the study zone (www.googleearth.com, modified by the researcher) Landmarks and focal points of the site: There are four landmarks in the site: 1. Archeological monuments under the sea (El-selsela Zone) 2. Library of Alexandria 3. El Shalalat park 4. Archeological tombs Ali Moustafa street acts as a spine that connects 3 main landmarks (El-shalalat park, Alexandria library and ElSelsela zone ) Land-uses: Most of the land-uses are residential at the upper floors and commercial uses in the ground floor, in addition to some public facilities as the library and hospital. Building heights: Most of the residential buildings (30% of the total buildings) are more than 12 floors. There is no clear skyline and the buildings lack identity & character. Building conditions & structure: Most of the buildings are in good conditions but lack maintenance. Most of the structural system used in buildings are skeleton.

Figure (8) Landmarks and focal points of the site (www.googleearth.com, modified by the researcher) 8.3. SWOT Analysis: Strengths of the existing situation: 1. The presence of the historical spirit in the ancient districts of Alexandria. 2. The waterfront is monotonous, thus can be redeveloped easily. 3. The natural water element acts as a vital attracting node. 4. The residential side of the waterfront is vital thus could be connected to the water edge in various ways. 5. It acts as the main axis of the city that holds a large percentage of the city’s traffic 6. Availability of good facilities for traffic circulation 7. Some nodes on the waterfront are very vital 8. There are some entertainment places on the coast which attracts people, that are only accessed by cars. 9. It is alive and attracts a variety of people, activities and business. 10. The waterfront gives the user the feeling of being part of the maritime world and within the historic city. 11. It is human scale and it has a small town feeling. 12. Alexandria' s heritage is historic and maritime in nature. 13. Presence of touristic attractions: library of Alexandria, old light house and underwater museum. Weaknesses of the existing situation 1. The waterfront is separated from the city by 2 way street (8 lanes each) and the natural and man-made linkage between the buildings and their urban context is lost. 2. Lack of vibrant public green spaces and recreational zones. 3. Undefined skyline of buildings . 4. Lack of identity for buildings on the waterfront. 5. Inaccessible for handicapped 6. There are several street curves along the waterfront causing a lot of car accidents. 7. Very few and unplanned mass transit stops along the waterfront leading to congestions. 8. Pedestrians use tunnels that are far away from each other to cross the street. 9. Lack of bike lanes and ambulance lanes 10. A large percentage of the waterfront doesn’t have a beach as a result of the Cornish widening project. 11. At winter times, waves are accelerated and come over the vehicles passing by the Cornish. 12. The waterfront lacks public parks. 13. Insufficient public services 14. The deterioration of the beaches and landscape furniture Figure (11) Problems of 15. Lack of security especially at night or in the underground tunnel. the study zone (the 16. The waterfront is not linked with the urban fabric and not integrated with researcher) the attraction nodes. 17. The dominance of car and insufficient public transportation.

18. Neglect of the public art elements. Opportunities of the existing situation 1. Availability of space for green strips. 2. There is a room to have bicycle lane. 3. Few squares can be developed and connected to the waterfront edge, to act as vital focal points. 4. The historic spirit prevailing in the ancient districts can be replicated. 5. The water front is a very good potential for tourism industry. Threats of the existing situation 1. Unsafe traffic causing a lot of accidents. 2. It is not pedestrian friendly. 3. The pedestrian tunnels are unsafe giving chances for crime actions. 4. The rocks along the waterfront are dangerous and become slippery by time. 5. No ambulance lanes. 8.4. PHYSICAL ATTRIBUTES Good Form: The Corniche takes the shape of a setback; a highway separates the water from the waterfront, thus the relation between the city and its waterfront is lost. Buildings are oriented towards the water. The water quality is good as the city sewage was redirected from the sea to Lake Marriott in the south of Alexandria in 1987(O. El Rayes et al., 2008). The Waterfront is lined with building complexes, residential buildings, office buildings, hotels that have views towards the sea. There are very few parks overlooking the sea. The buildings along the waterfront forms a good feeling of enclosure towards the sea. There are continuous horizontal blocks separated by streets that provide a good semi-enclosed space. Legibility: The Corniche is lined with a promenade that encourages walking and biking. It acts as Alexandria’s northern edge with multiple nodes and landmarks. Accessibility and Visual Access: After widening the Corniche road, the waterfront highway became a barrier limiting the access to the water. It results in difficulty of pedestrian crossing, fatal traffic accidents and creates a psychological barrier as people see the Corniche as a place ‘over there’ and not part of their district. To Link the waterfront promenade with the city underground pedestrian crossings are provided at intervals. Yet the Corniche is still separated from the city and the people. (figure 12) 8.5. FUNCTIONAL ATTRIBUTES Vitality: There are several activities at the Corniche which include water related activities; restaurants, resorts, sea-related commercial products. The Corniche allows all year round activities It also hosts events and festivals. The Corniche encourages both static and dynamic activities. As for the quality of the environment, the attractive environment of the Corniche attracts more people to it and results in more activities. In some areas the concrete blocks are not maintained and the absence of cleaning efforts leaves the sea shore uninviting (figure 12). The water edge is wide and convenient for different activities and there are nodes placed at different intervals for gathering and sitting. Parking lots are also provided at some points.

Figure (12), on the right: the Corniche promenade with green patches, in the middle: good quality of the Corniche and parking lots provided, on the right: absence of maintenance and cleaning services (the researcher) Comfort: Seating is provided along the whole Corniche. Different choices of public seating are present; wooden and concrete benches, and sea blocks. The seats are oriented towards the water, with convenient spacing and they are durable, but few are comfortable with seat backs. For shading and protection, several pergolas are provided. There are also some green areas, trees and palm trees. General site lighting is provided although the inner promenade is not sufficiently lighted, and lacks pedestrian lighting. Universal design was not considered, it is not accessible for all people. Sidewalks lacks ramps for handicapped and there is no pedestrian crossings.

8.6 ENVIRONMENTAL ATTRIBUTES Green Infrastructure: Widening the waterfront street, resulted in more asphalt areas which increase urban heat island and increase runoff. Unit pavers are used for the outer promenade that allows water infiltration. Some areas lack greenery while other areas have trees, palm trees and limited areas are covered with lawn.The Corniche lacks a continuous network of green spaces that connects the city with the water edge.(Schneekloth, 2003) Modes of transportation: Vehicles dominate the Corniche and there are multiple modes of transportation yet not efficient enough and not well maintained. Bus stops are provided but not arranged along the Corniche. Walking and biking are not encouraged due to absence of cycling lanes and unsafe street crossings. 8.7. Proposal of a conceptual design for Alexandria's urban waterfront: From the previous analysis of the Corniche's built environment Zone 1: El-Selsela; Zone 2 : The light house; Zone 3 and according to the contextual integration theory, a : Kouta Park; Zone 4 : The under-water museum of conceptual design is proposed for the study area. The project Alexandria suggests a solution by connecting the city’s main squares with the waterfront through an uninterrupted network of green spaces. The development project links Kouta park with the water by a green spine and a mixed use waterfront public plaza that encourage activities. The line of palm trees persists on the concept of connectivity. Different seating choices and shading will be provided. The site of the ancient library, now the modern Bibliotheca Alexandrina, is expanded into a new museum district, a place of culture and learning that benefits from its proximity to the water. The design of the green network guides the development towards sustainable and integrative thinking. Around the harbor, a new breakwater is suggested to protect the ruins from further erosion while improving access to archeological sites. A towering solar power generator is designed to glow by night at the water's edge, evoking both Alexandria's ancient Pharaohs and the sustainable thinking of the city. The proposal focused on several qualities:(figure 15)  Comfort and aesthetic- the study area should be comfortable and attractive on a human scale as well as on the greater "civic" scale. It should encourage fine arts along the water Figure (15) the proposed conceptual idea. edge. (source: the researcher)  Engaging- the space should promote mixed use activities that attracts people, create places for people. To widen the pedestrian strip along the water edge and implement more green and recreational areas addressing various types of users.  Water-centric - features of the space should allow people to connect directly with water without barriers.  Mobility and Accessibility- the area should be accessed by all users. Create bike and ambulance lanes and well designed mass transit stops. New transportation schemes should be proposed for the waterfront as Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) and monorail, thus decreasing car dependence. Centralized parking reduces traffic congestion  Connection- the main landmarks along the urban waterfront are connected to the existing waterbody, walking paths, floating piers and water taxis improve connectivity.  Adaptable and Flexible - promote dynamic design that adapts to daily and seasonally changes.  Integrated- develop the physical and functional aspects of the waterfront and integrate it with the urban fabric of its surrounding.  Identity- Protect character, heritage and context of Alexandria, emphasize landmarks and reveal the history of the places.  Sustainability- work with nature and not against it, turn the waterfront into a passive green linear edge.  Safety and security- create people friendly environment and safe crossings for pedestrians.

Zone 1 and 2 1. Boat parking lots 2. Dynamic Stepped recreation area 3. Green areas 4. Public services 5. Pavement

Zone 3 1. A lane for the tram 2. Bicycle lane 3. Path to the sea used for fishing, walking and seating. 4. A well defined lane for walking and running 5. The seating area is designed as steps to the water.

Zone 4 1. The light house 2. Stepped green area and seating 3. Deck and boat lots 4. Public services 5. Parking area 6. Recreation zones 7. Fishing zone

Figure (16) proposed conceptual idea for the different zones

Figure ( 17 ) Details (source: the researcher) Conclusion Waterfront revitalization can be criticized as being standardized. Since there is a competition between cities to attract more tourists and investments, cities began to copy models that have been successfully implemented in other world cities in order to warranty their success. Therefore several models of a waterfront revitalization program were determined from the projects that were successfully completed and adapted by many small and medium size cities. But, standardization of the process creates several challenges; because it does not include only construction standards but also organizational methods, spatial typologies, and architectural forms. Thus, generating a monotonous sense that make places and structures impossible to distinguish. Redevelopment of Alexandria’s waterfront is important as it will enhance the sense of identity of this ancient city. It will integrate the urban coast with the urban fabric thus reconnecting the city with its coast. Hence this research aims to suggest a method for the city to reclaim back its waterfront by suggesting a theory for contextual and environmental integration of the waterfront with the city.

REFERENCES 1. Cloutier, R. (2012). Designing Access to Waterfront Public Spaces: General Principles and Case Studies from Vancouver, B.C. Minnesota: Issuu. 2.Innocent, I. C. (2003). Doha's Interface with Doha Bay. Retrieved 2013, from Archnet: www.arcnet.org 3. Jacobs, A. B. (1993). Makin Great Streets. Cambridge: MIT Press. 4. Jacobs, J. (1961). The Death and Life of Great American Cities. New York: Random house. 5. Khalil, R., & Shaaban, K. (2012). Rebuilding old Downtowns: the Case of Doha, Qatar. REAL CORP Conference, (pp. 677-689). Schwechat. 6. Latip, N. S. (2011, January). Contextual Integration in Waterfront Development. 7. Lynch, K. (1960). The Image of the City. Massachusetts: MIT Press. 8. M. Abuo EL-Ela et al. (2007). Urban Waterfronts between Cultural and Physical Influences, The case of Jeddah and Alexandria. 43rd ISoCaRP 2007 Congress, (pp. 1-11). 9. Mrdenovic, T. (2011). Integrative Urban Design in Regeneration- Principles for Achieving Sustainabe Places. Journal of Applied Engineering Science, 305-316. 10. Navarro, N. G. (2000). Public Waterfront Access-A Comparison of Integrated Coastal Managment in Canada and the United States. 11. O. El Rayes et al. (2008). Wastewater Treatment in Alexandria. 11th International Conference on Urban Drainage, (pp. 1-9). Scotland. 12. Quinn, K. J. (2012). Sustainable Urban Waterfront- Reimagining Waterfronts as Inclusive Spaces. thesis report, Arizona. 13. Rahman, M. A. (2010). Development Opportunities for the New Waterfront in South Side of Kungsholmen in Terms of Tourism and Recreation. Stokholm. 14. Ryckbost, P. (2005). Redevelopping Urban Waterfront Property. Retrieved April 22, 2013, from Urban and Regional Planning: www.umich.edu/~econdev/waterfronts 15. Schneekloth, L. H. (2003). Urban Green Infrastructure. In D. W. al., Time Saver Standards for (pp. 7.4:1-12). United States of America: McGraw-Hill. 16. Siti Rukiah binti Abd Shukor , M. Zainora Asmawi. (2012). Green Infrastructure in Waterfront Development Towards Achieving Sustainable Environment. Retrieved May 2013, from EASTERN REGIONAL ORGANIZATION FOR PLANNING HUMAN SETTLEMENTS (EAROPH) : http://www.earoph.info/ 17. Sternberg, E. (2000). An Integrative Theory of Urban Design. Journal of the American Planning Association, 265-269. 18. Sullivan, E. C. (2003). Time Saver Standards for Urban Design. United States of America: McGraw Hill. 21. Bruttomesso, R. (2001), Complexity on the urban waterfront, In R. Marshall (eds), waterfronts in postindustrial cities (pp.39-51), New York, Spon Press. 22. Brutuner, B. (2006), Waterfront revitalization as a challenging urban issue, 42nd ISOCARP Congress in Istanbul. 25. Harry Smith, Maria Soledad, (2010), Waterfront Regeneration, Experiences in city-building, New York, Routledge

TRANSPORTABILITY AND ADAPTATION THROUGH DESIGN FOR DISASSEMBLY; THE CASE OF CONCRETE BUILDINGS WASIM SALAMA, ALEXANDER FURCHE Wasim Salama, PhD Student, Institute for design and construction, Leibniz University, Hanover – Germany, Alexander Furche, Prof. Dipl. Ing, Institute for design and construction, Leibniz University, Hanover – Germany ABSTRACT In architecture, transformation, transportability, flexibility and adaptation are different expressions but lead to the same objective that concerns in increasing livability and sustainability of buildings through change, which may include: building site, building function or building appearance and skin. Change may occur due to development and technology that reflects continuous increasing demands of people that need to be satisfied (Durmisevic 2010), or due to obsolescence (Crowther 1999) . This tendency in architecture and construction contributes to conservation of energy and natural resources through reuse of building component and materials as well as extension of buildings life. Recently increasing concern is given to design of building for disassembly as a key to adaptability and flexibility. The review of state of the art in this context shows that research and developments regarding adaptability have been restricted to some building types such as steel and timber construction, while other building types such as concrete buildings have been ignored or incidentally indicated. This paper explores the current construction practices for concrete buildings from a design for disassembly point of view, defines hindrances, highlights promising aspects and indicates domains for further developments. It also defines the range of buildings in terms of their suitability to be designed for disassembly and at what level. Furthermore it presents a PhD research methodology of a study at Leibniz University Hanover that considers concrete buildings in this context; with reference to its focus the study extends the previous work and researches that aim to increase adaptability and flexibility of buildings. Keywords: Adaptation, design for disassembly, concrete buildings, precast concrete, technical composition of building, theory of levels, independence and exchangeability, open-building, connection, joint. Background Architecture and building has always been recognized through history for their static and rigid entity; pyramids of the ancient Egyptian civilizations, Parthenon of the ancient Greek architecture, and Guggenheim Museum by Frank Lloyd wright are some examples. However with the development and technology in construction and building materials other aspects started to affect the architecture of buildings; elegance and lightness, transformability and adaptation has become distinctive aspects. At the same time buildings and construction showed a grate participation in global warming and other environmental problems, due to the consumption of resources and energy as well as generation of waste and CO2 through the whole life of the building. While such none environmental aspects could be reduced through the use of energy efficient applications, insulation materials, and renewable energy - which will decrease the running costs of buildings and comparatively increase the embodied energy of building materials (Cabeza et al. 2013)- others such as consumption of resources and production of waste needs another new way of thinking. Some architects tried to hindrance this problem by using fewer materials by optimizing the form and order to provide the best efficiency, and some start to reuse unwanted or disposed materials, others believed that the building itself with most of its material could be reused if designed in a way that allows safe and simple disassembly such as Philip Crowther (Crowther 1999). Elma Durmisevic went further than that and showed that building can transform and adapt to various conditions and be more environmentally efficient through design for disassembly (Durmisevic 2010).

Reuse of concrete buildings and their elements

In the sought to reduce resources depletion and waste generation a great effort has been made to reuse and recycle the unwanted building materials which suites some materials more than others, as an example timber and steel can be reused since it is easy to dismantle building made of steel or timber. The case is very different when mentioning concrete, where demolition is not only the common dominant choice but also the only solution to the existed concrete buildings that reach the end of its function due to the absence of the required dismantling technology. Imagining the amount of concrete buildings that are going to be demolished and the size of unnecessary waste from concrete that is going to be disposed in the near future should alert and push towards other solutions than demolition. Not only because concrete is the most used building material (Crow 2008) with a production rate of more than 6 km³ per year all over the world according to Worrell et al. (Worrell et al. 1999) or because recycling of concrete is not worthy from an environmental point of view as Huuhka et al. believe - Huuhka found that the process of recycling and crashing concrete for the production of aggregate that may be used in roadbeds has higher carbon footprint than virgin aggregate(Huuhka et al. 2015)- but also because concrete is a very durable material that could last hundreds of years when properly handled and contains cement which is a relatively high embodied energy material. In case of concrete the reuse option is the best economic and environmental choice in terms of reserving resources as well as decreasing waste, however In this context very limit attempts have been made to reuse concrete elements, the most successful ones was by reuse precast concrete panels, as it can be dismantled in a way or another. As in the design of new housing in Mehrow near Berlin by Herve Biele Figure 22, which gives an indication that a new way of designing concrete buildings is required in which elements and components can be dismantled for reuse and adaptation at the end of the building life which in many cases does not mean the end of the element life.

Figure 22: Reuse of precast concrete slabs and panels for new housing construction in Mehrow, near Berlin. Source: (Stacey 2011)

The current construction practice of concrete buildings Concrete as a building material is a very preferable material due to its potential and flexibility in making various forms, as well as it’s relatively reasonable cost compared to other building materials such as stone and steel. Concrete also is preferable because of its strength so it is used for structural and nonstructural purposes. Concrete buildings can be categorized into three categories in term of its construction: 1- Cast-in-situ 2- Precast 3- Hybrid (precast and cast-in-situ). It is globally accepted that buildings can be dismantled when separation of their layers and functional levels is possible, also independence and emancipation of physical system levels which has been borrowed from the theory of levels by Duffy and Brand and their exchangeability are crucial aspects to disassembly of buildings. While cast-in-situ concrete buildings and structures are made monolithic, closed and static in which interpenetration of functions and material occurred - the same for hybrid systems- precast concrete buildings that use mechanical or dry demountable connections have promising aspects and can be developed to have a higher disassembly potential and to follow an open system that allow adaptation and exchangeability.

Figure 23 below shows two undesired aspects that these construction ways have, in hybrid systems wet hard connections are used which prevent from disassembly of elements, in cast-in-situ system gathering of different functions in a stuck assembly that is difficult to be disassembled also a non-preferable aspect. The potential of precast systems is going to be shown in the next sections.

Figure 23: Cast-in-situ and hybrid construction Types of concrete buildings and a representation for their disassembly hindrances based on Durmisevic definition. Source of pictures to the left: (New Zealand Concrete Society 1999), to the right: (precise forms, Inc 2016), representation by the author.

Research methodology To test the ability of concrete buildings to transform for adaptation, transportability and reuse, analysis of the current practice of constructing and designing concrete building is required as a first step, and then evaluation criteria to decide the status are needed. In this research which is a part of a PhD thesis carried out at Leibniz University in Hanover, it has been proposed that precast concrete elements and components have promising aspects with regard to their disassembly potential based on the review of the available literature and the indications from the previously mentioned successful projects in which concrete elements have been reused. The following steps have shaped the methodology: 1- Literature from authors such as Crowther, Habraken and Durmisevic shaped the theoretical background and evaluation tools, then 2- a comprehensive review of the current common used precast systems and elements from different parts of the world have been carried out. 3- Analysis and evaluation based on the literature have been implemented. This methodology is going to provide a comprehensive besetment to the current concrete applications, products, elements and systems that are used in forming buildings, analyzes them with regard to their disassembly potential as well as define their promising aspects and show their weakness areas. Types of concrete buildings and level of disassembly It is clearly justified that as long as there is potential for reuse elements and materials design for disassembly is recommended, however this must be accompanied by environmental and economic benefits. The decision to design a building for disassembly or not is not an easy decision since design for disassembly is not a common construction practice and it affects the initial cost as well as the construction costs. So it is important to define the range of concrete buildings that are suitable to be designed for disassembly and at what level. Studies in this context showed that group of buildings that have one owner such as schools, hospitals, housings for example is more suitable than individual projects or buildings, since the potential for reuse the disassembled elements and materials to extend or modify other projects is higher, in another meaning there must be a market for the disassembled elements and materials. According to Durmisevic in addition to exchangeability of elements

or systems, the use strategy of buildings also determines the suitability of buildings to be designed for disassembly. Her definition of elements and components that are suitable to be design for disassembly required the existence of disproportion between the technical and use life cycles and the high potential for reuse. To define the range of buildings and level of disassembly in concrete buildings the expected life of concrete components and elements are presented in table 1 below. Building functional level

System level

Structure

load bearing

Element Level

Average expected Life

Foundation 110 Columns 90.5 Beams 90.5 Structural walls 90.5 Spanning elements Floors/Ground Slabs 86.5 Roofs 100 Enclosure facades Support 100 Finishing/cladding 100 Insulation 100 Openings Services 11 Infill Partitions Support 100 Finishing/cladding 75 Services 11 Stairs Support 90.5 Finishing/flooring 75 Table 4: Typical life expectancy of concrete building components and integrated services and finishes, Source: (Stacey 2011, p.215), (True Professionals, Inc. 2014), (AECB n.d.)

However these values are affected directly by the external exposure and quality of material, more accurate values could be obtained from a study by D J Kelly (SBSA 2007). Durmisevic in her study of design for disassembly of buildings developed a life cycle coordination matrix to specify disassembly sensitive elements that are environmentally and economically valuable, this matrix is going to be used in a reverse way, to do that it is proposed that environmentally and economic valuable concrete elements are those that can be reused at least for a second time after the end of its first cycle. Which means that the reuse potential must be at least 50% of the technical life cycle of the element, to clarify that Figure 24 shows all possible concrete elements in a precast building, their technical life cycle, their expected use life cycle (end of life), and the reuse potential (a new life cycle). Reuse Potential

Use L.C

Technical L.C

Life cycle in Years

250 200

55 45,25 45,25 45,25 43,25

150

50

50

50

50

50

45,25 37,5

37,5

100 50

110

90,5 90,5 90,5 86,5 100

100

100

100 5,5

0

Structural system

100

0

Enclosure system

11

Infill system

90,5

75

75

5,5

11

Elements/ Components

Figure 24: A reverse model of the life cycle coordination matrix of concrete component. Source: the Author.

The decision to design a building for disassembly or not will be affected by its use strategy and the expected life that it may serve, due to different kind of obsolescence a large number of buildings around the world face demolition before the end of its technical life, In figure 3 It is clear that item (13) and (16) have the less technical

life cycle, about 75 years which means that to reuse these elements for a full second life its reuse potential should be about 37.5 years, and as all other concrete elements and components have longer life, buildings that are expected to serve for about 37.5 years and after that it may face some kind of obsolescence are suitable for total disassembly which provide a possibility to reuse all of its components and materials. However partial design for disassembly will be more suitable in building functional levels such as the enclosure and infill systems when these systems have exchangeability rate less than 37 years and the intended use of the building is more than 43 years (which is equal to reuse potential of the floors; one of the structural spanning elements). Here design of disassembly does not include the structural system due to the lack of potential to reuse structural elements in a full second cycle. Arguments regarding elements that end its function while it has third or fourth of its technical life could be justified through a holistic plan that specify the group of buildings of limited use life and the elements that have a compatible rest life that suite these buildings. Disassembly potential of precast concrete elements To test the disassembly potential of concrete buildings the concept of levels of technical composition that dividing the building into building functional levels, physical system levels, component/material levels is going to be used, figure 4 below represents the levels of technical composition of concrete buildings with focus on precast concrete elements and components.

Figure 25: Levels of technical composition of concrete building

Based on conception of typology of configuration precast concrete elements and components in the proposed technical composition above are going to be inspected. Three levels of decision making regarding emancipation of technical composition of building assemblies are included in this model: - Material levels: allocation of functions into separate materials that have different lives will facilitate decomposition. - Technical composition: hierarchal arrangements of materials and relation between materials also affect decomposition of materials.

- Physical integration: interfaces that define the physical integrity have a great influence on decomposition of buildings.

Figure 26: Schematic representation of the concept of configuration and its defining elements based on Durmisevic conception

Disassembly of elements and systems will be satisfied by independence and exchangeability of the previous mentioned levels. The independence and exchangeability of physical integration is determined by type of connection between elements, assembly sequence, and geometry of element edge. One obvious aspect that can be recognized in precast concrete buildings is the level of separation between building functions that are satisfied by load bearing elements, enclosure elements and infill through individual components and elements. Analysis and evaluation In the following example the disassembly potential of a precast concrete system is going to be analyzed to show its promising aspects and area for further development based on the conception of typology of configuration and Appendix 1 which represents the evaluation knowledge model of design for disassembly. Eight disassembly aspects and their sub aspects have been considered, every sub aspect has a scoring value from 0.1-1. Disassembly potential of precast concrete sandwich panels The use of precast sandwich panels is common in facades of buildings due to the efficiency and fast assembly despite the fact that these panels are designed just for fast assembly, but it may have most of the design for disassembly aspects, the following analysis and evaluation shows its potentials. Material levels and technical composition Figure 6 aşağıda helps in clarifying the hierarchal arrangements as well as the relations between functions and their materials at the system level of precast sandwich panel, which affects the independence and exchangeability of material levels and technical composition.

Figure 27: Analysis of the material levels and technical composition of precast sandwich wall system, (A): materials and functional levels, (B) hierarchal arrangement of material, (C) relation between material

Despite the fact that independence and exchangeability of functions through separate material is satisfied, but the type of connection in the system level which is permanent and chemical prevents from disassembly of material levels in composite sandwich panels. Physical Integration The following aspects affect the independence and exchangeability of the physical integration - Assembly sequence Figure 7 below indicate the independence of the enclosure system as in part (A), and shows the sequential assembly of it in the building and system levels which indicate independence of the enclosure system due to its relation with other systems and its assembly sequence that support independence also, all of these are positive aspects regarding its disassembly potential.

Figure 28: (A) Hierarchal arrangement of functional systems in precast buildings, (B), (C) Assembly sequence

- Connection type Figure 8 shows the different types of connections used to fix the sandwich panels with the structural system, two types could be distinguished as clarified in table 2 below.

Figure 29: types of connections used to fix precast sandwich panels with structure system

Table 5: Connection types between sandwich panels and the structural system

Despite the fact that mechanical connection are used to fix sandwich panels with the structure system which makes their disassembly possible, but the independence and exchangeability also affected by the disassembly direction that the connection requires as in the bearing shear connection when the bolt is cased in beam and cannot be dismantled. - Geometry of element edge The last aspect that affects the physical integration is the geometry of element edge; Figure 30 clarifies the effect of element edge of sandwich panels on disassembly potential.

Figure 30: Effect of Geometry of element edge on independence and exchangeability of physical integration

fs (Functional seperation) fs 01 fdp (Functional dependance) fdp 02 Result ……………………………………………………………………………….. st Structure and material levels st 05 SY (Systemization c Clustering c 04 Result ……………………………………………………………………………….. BE (Base element) b Base element specification b 04 Result ……………………………………………………………………………….. ucl Used life cycle coordination ucl 01 LCC ( Life cycle tcl Technical life cycle coordination tcl 01 coordination) s Coordination of life cycle and size s 01 Result ……………………………………………………………………………….. RP (Relational patern) r Type of relational pattern r 01 Result ……………………………………………………………………………….. ad Assembly direction ad 03 A (Aseembly process) as Assembly sequence as 07 Result ……………………………………………………………………………….. gp Geometry of product edge gp 04 G (Geometry) spe Standarization of product edge spe 01 Result ……………………………………………………………………………….. tc Type of connection tc 02 af Accessibility to fixin af 03 C (Connection) t Tollerance t 02 mj Morphology of joint mj 04 Result ……………………………………………………………………………….. Disassembly potential >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>

FD ( Functional 1 decomposition 2 3

4

5 6

7

8

panel

Sandwich

Determining factor (D.F.)

D.F. type

aspect

tion

Nu.

Design for disassembly

Abbrevia

The previous figure shows that the use of drained joint panel-to-panel geometry of edge creates an unsymmetrical overlapping which restricts disassembly of elements to one direction and govern the disassembly of an element by the disassembly sequence, which restricts disassembly and required elements that have been assembled first to be disassembled last. Evaluation The figure to the left below shows a table considering the eight aspects of design for disassembly and the scoring that sandwich panels obtain (based on the evaluation criteria and scoring in Appendix 1). According to this evaluation model sandwich panels have medium transformation capacity (TC) since its disassembly potential was 0.54 which is more than 0.33 (low TC) and less than 0.67(High TC).

1 0.8 0.90 0.2 0.1 0.15 0.1 0.10 1 1 1 1.00 1 1.00 0.1 0.1 0.10 0.1 1 0.55 0.8 0.6 0.5 0.1 0.50 0.54

af tc

mj 1 0,8 t 0,6 0,4 0,2 0

fs fdp st c b

spe

ucl gp

tcl as

ad

r

s

determining factors of design for disassembly aspects

Figure 31: To the left an evaluation table shows precast sandwich panels and its scoring for design for disassembly aspects, to the right a radial chart shows areas of weak and strong aspects.

To the right of the above figure the blue area represents the score; areas of scoring less than 0.67 are those that need further development to satisfy high potential of disassembly requirements as well as transformation capacity. The evaluation of this example shows that some areas need further development to achieve a higher transformation capacity, aspects regarding: systemization, base element, and assembly process, geometry of product edge and morphology of joint need to be considered. Conclusion This study provides a clear understanding with regard to design for disassembly of concrete buildings, the current construction practice of concrete buildings from a design for disassembly point of view has been discussed and showed that generally precast concrete elements have promising aspects, the research methodology has been shown, levels of technical composition of precast concrete buildings have been identified which helped in studying and analyzing various systems, range of buildings that are suitable to be designed for disassembly as well as the level of disassembly has been proposed and explained and an example analyzing and evaluating

precast concrete sandwich panels has been carried out. Furthermore, this study contributes to the global effort in improving the quality of life through reduction of building waste and CO2 emissions at the end of buildings life by facilitating reuse and adaptation of concrete building elements and components. REFERENCES AECB , Building knowledge. "building life expectancy of building components." AECB Building knowledge. n.d. https://www.aecb.net/wp-content/plugins/aecb-carbonliteknowledgebase/librarian.php?id=10293&file=10294. (accessed 1 8, 2016). Cabeza, Luisa F., Camila Barreneche, Laia Miró, Josep M. Morera, Esther Bartolí, and a. Inés Fernández. 2013. “Low Carbon and Low Embodied Energy Materials in Buildings: A Review.” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 23: 536–42. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2013.03.017. Crowther, P. "Design for disassembly to extend life and increase sustainability." 8th international Conference on Durability of Building Materials and Components. Service Life and Asset Management:. Vancouver (Canada): Institute for Research in construction, 1999. Crow, James Mitchell. 2008. “The Concrete Conundrum.” Chemistry World, no. March: 62–66. Crowther, Philip. 1999. “Design for Disassembly: An Architectural Strategy for Sustainability.” In Proceedings of the 1998 QUT Winter Colloquium, 27–33. Brisbane: Queensland University of Technology, Queensland University of Technology. Durmisevic, EL. Green design and assembly of buildings and systems: Design for Disassembly a key to Life Cycle Design of buildings and building products. Saarbrüken (Germany): VDM Verlag Dr. Müller Aktiengesellschaft & Co. KG, 2010. Huuhka, S, T Kaasalainen, J H Hakanen, and J Lahdensivu. 2015. “Reusing Concrete Panels from Buildings for Building : Potential in Finnish 1970s Mass Housing.” “Resources, Conservation & Recycling” 101. Elsevier B.V.: 105–21. doi:10.1016/j.resconrec.2015.05.017. New Zealand Concrete Society. 1999. Guidelines for the Use of Structural Precast Concrete in Buildings. Christchurch, New Zealand: Center for advanced engineering, University of Cnterbury. precise forms, Inc. precise forms, Inc. 2016. http://www.preciseforms.com/insulated_easiwall.html#prettyPhoto[easiwall]/1/ (accessed 4 15, 2016). Stacey, Michael. Concrete: a studio design guide. London: RIBA, 2011. SBSA. 2007. “Design Life of Buildings A Scoping Study Provided on Request to the Scottish Building Standards Agency,” no. January. True Professionals, Inc., Information Courtesy of InterNACHI . "Typical “Life Expectancy” Table for common building materials & systems." Inspection pros. 8 2014. http://inspectionprosla.com/wpcontent/uploads/2014/08/Life_Expectancy_Table.pdf (accessed 1 8, 2016). Worrell, Lynn, Ernst Phylipsen, Dian Publication Date, and Copyright Information. 1999. “Energy Use and Carbon Dioxide Emissions in Energy-Intensive Industries in Key Developing Countries.” Proceedings of the 1999 Earth Technologies Forum,.

Appendix 1

Functional decomposition

FD

Systematization

SY

fs 01 Separation of functions fs 02 Integration of functions with same LC into one element fs 03 integration of functions with different LC into one element fs= (fs1 + fs2+…… fs(n))/n Fdp 01 Modular zoning Fdp 02 Planed interpenetrating for different solutions (Overcapacity) functional Fdp 03 Planed interpenetrating for one solution dependence Fdp 04 Unplanned interpenetrating Fdp 05 Total dependence fdp= (fdp1+fdp2+….fdp(n))/n FD= Fuzzy calculation based on "fs" and "fdp" and their weighting factors st 01 Components st 02 Elements/Components Elements Structure and st 03 material levels st 04 Material/Element/Component st 05 Material/Element st 06 Material st=(St1+st2+…st(n))/n c 01 Clustering according to the functionality Clustering c 02 Clustering according to the material life cycle functional separation

1 0.6 0.1 1 0.8 0.4 0.2 0.1

1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.1 1 0.6

c 03 c 04

Base element

BE

Life cycle coordination

LCC

cycle Life coordination

LCC

Relational pattern

RP

Assembly

A

Geometry

G

Connections

C

Clustering for fast assembly no clustering

c=(c1+c2+…=c(n))/n SY=fuzzy calculation based on "st" and "c" and their weighting factors b 01 Base element intermediary between systems and components Base element on two levels Base element b 02 specification b 03 element with two functions b 04 No base element b=(b1+b2+…+b(n))n b=fuzzy calculation based on "b"and its weighting factors ulc 01 long LC (1)/ long LC (2) or short LC (1) short LC (2) Used life cycle ulc 02 Long L.C. (1)/ short L.C. (2) coordination (1)ulc 03 Medium L.C. (1) / long L.C. (2) Assembles first ulc 04 Short L.C. (1) / medium L.C. (2) (2)- Second ulc 05 Short L.C. (1) / long L.C. (2) ulc=(ulc1+ulc2+…ucl(n))/n tcl 01 Long L.C. (1)/ long L.C. (2) or short (1)/ short2 or long (1) short (2) Technical life tcl 02 Medium L.C. (1) / long L.C. (2) cycle tcl 03 Short L.C. (1)/ medium (2) coordination tcl 04 Short L.C.1/ short (2) tlc=(tcl1+tlc2+…+tlc(n))/n Life cycle of s 01 Small element (1)/ short L.C. or medium component (1)/ short LC components and s 02 Big component (1)/ long L.C. elements in s 03 Big (small element (1)/ long L.C. relation to the s 04 Big component (1)/short L.C. size (1) s 05 Material (1)/short L.C. Assembled first s 06 Big element/ short L.C. or material/ short L.C. s=(s1+s2+…+s(n))/n LCC= Fuzzy calculation based on "ulc"."tlc" and "s" and their weighting factors Vertical Position of r 01 Horizontal in lower zone in the diagram relations in r 02 relational r 03 horizontal between upper and lower zone of the diagram diagram r 04 Horizontal in upper zone r=(r1+r2+…+r(n))/n RP= Fuzzy calculation based on "r" and its weighting factors ad 01 Parallel - open assembly Assembly ad 02 Stuck assembly direction based ad 03 Base el. In stuck assembly on assembly type ad 04 sequential seq. base el. ad=((ad1+ad2+…+ad(n))/n Assembly as 01 Component (1)/ component (2) sequence as 02 Component (1)/ element (2) regarding as 03 Element (1)/ component (2) material levels as 04 Element (1)/ element (2) (1)- Assembled as 05 material (1)/ component (2) first (2)- as 06 Component (1)/ material (2) Assembled second as 07 Material (1)/ material (2) as=(as1+as2+…+as(n))/n A= Fuzzy calculation based on "ad" and "as" and their weighting factors gp 01 Open linear gp 02 Symmetrical overlapping Overlapping on one side Geometry of gp 03 product edge gp 04 Unsymmetrical overlapping gp 05 Insert in one side gp 06 Insert on two sides gp=(gp1+gp2+…+gp(n))/n spe 01 Premade geometry Standardization spe 02 Half standardized geometry of product edge spe 03 Geometry made on the construction site spe=(spe1+spe2+…spe (n)/n gG= Fuzzy calculation based on "gp" and" spe" and their weighting factors tc 01 Accessory external connection or connection system tc 02 Direct connection with additional fixing devices Direct integral connection with inserts bin Type of tc 03 connection tc 04 Direct integral connection tc 05 Accessory internal connection tc 06 Filled soft chemical connection

0.3 0.1

1 0.6 0.3 0.1

1 0.8 0.6 0.3 0.1 1 0.5 0.3 0.1 1 1 0.8 0.4 0.2 0.1

1 0.6 0.4 0.1

1 0.6 0.4 0.1 1 0.8 0.6 0.5 0.3 0.2 0.1

1 0.8 0.7 0.4 0.2 0.1 1 0.5 0.1

1 0.8 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3

tc 07 Filled hard chemical connection tc 08 Direct chemical connection tc=(tc1+tc2+…tc(n))/n af 01 Accessible Accessible with additional operation which causes no damage Accessibility to af 02 fixing and af 03 Accessible with additional operation/ causes reparable damage intermediary af 04 Accessible with additional operation / causes partly reparable damage af 05 Not accessible total damage of both elements af=(af1+af2+…+af(n))/n t 01 High tolerance Tolerance t 02 Minimum tolerance t 03 No tolerance t=(t1+t2+…+t(n))/n mc 01 Knot (3D connections) Point Morphology of mc 02 joint mc 03 liner ( 1D connection) mc 04 service (2D connection mc=(mc1+mc2+…+mc(n))/n C= Fuzzy calculation based on "tc", "af", "t" and "mc" and their weighting factors

0.2 0.1 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.1 1 0.5 0.1 1 0.8 0.6 0.1

Table 6: Evaluation of various aspects of design for disassembly with respect to independency and exchangeability of components, Source: (Durmisevic 2010)

UNDERGROUND TRANSIT SPACE AND WOMEN’S FEAR OF CRİME NEVINE RAFA KUSUMA, ENIRA ARVANDA Nevine Rafa, MA, Universitas Indonesia, Enira Arvanda, M. Dipl, Universitas Indonesia

ABSTRACT This paper deals with women's fear of crime in underground transit spaces. Attention wrll be paid to identify the importance of physical and physiological factors in terms of women's perception on underground transit space, which added more value into the design. A qualitative approach, based on direct observation and literature study, has allowed us to discover architectural elements that could affect women’s feeling, in terms of safety and comfort, in underground spaces. Findings show that to design an underground transit space, which is secure and friendly for women passenger, it should have several aspects that consider human factor (psychological and physical factors) in experiencing the space. INTRODUCTION In designing public places, architects are mainly concerned about the fulfillment of various considerations, instead of objective ones. It seemed that public places are built without considering gender as part of their design. Although women and men are equally treated in this space, they have varied distinctive needs. Women are particularly tended to experience anxiety of crime in public places, especially in underground spaces. Utilization of underground spaces can be seen in cities all over the world – mainly for mobility purposes, where it plays role as transit space, a passage that connect movement from point to point in the city. From 2014 the city of Jakarta has finally begun to build its first underground mass transportation system, where the first corridor (Lebak Bulus-Bundaran HI) will be expected to operate by 2018 (PT. MRT Jakarta, 2014). Women passengers’ safety becomes one of the crucial issues recently that it needs to be thoroughly examined. Not only the security when the passengers are on the train, but also when they are traveling in the station during the day. Thus, to successfully make underground transportation as the backbone of future transportation scheme in Jakarta, a careful planning needs to be done with many considerations, not only on the functional and technological aspects but also on the understanding of social and human factors (tangible and intangible) aspects in the design of underground transit space. To support that, we examined the relationship between those aspects and women passengers’ feeling while traveling in underground spaces through a case Study in Depok Baru Underground Station. The objective of this study is to analyze factors that influencing perception of safety and comfort in the design of underground transit space, especially for women passengers. It will focus on the spatial qualities of underground transit space and the aspects that influence how women perceived the space and its relation to fear of crime. The result of this observation then being analyzed and concluded therefore become a suggestion to develop Jakarta underground transit space. Moreover we expect findings from this study will contribute to government’s planning of Jakarta as conducive and hospitable city for women and children. Underground Transit Space and Women’s Perception Public spaces should be accessible for everyone, where people could do their daily activities without any disruption. Public places would appear to be occupied by both men and women. The differences of gender, race, religion, age, and alike should be consequently embodied in public spaces. In terms of this matter, comfort and safety become the main factors that need to be considered in designing public spaces, especially in transportation setting. In running their activities, people keep moving from one to another point. They need to feel safe first while traveling, and the convenient state of mind will emerge later. Having say that, their demand to the transportation system is always high. Hence, to support people’s routines, the transportation setting (e.g., bus stop, train platform, parking structure) should be reliable in terms of safety. The fact is that most of them do not provide it at all. Several empirical studies have shown that the presences of certain environmental factors in a transportation setting are generally associated with greater fear. Nowadays, the fear of victimization and crime is spread quite widely among women. Almost every fear of crime survey reports that women indicated much more fears of crime compared to men. A number of explanations have been given to this phenomenon, which includes the perceived vulnerability of women because of a lesser

physical ability to defend themselves (Loukaitou-Sideris, 2009). Women are typically more fearful in public settings because they tend to perceive a higher risk there than men. RIger, Gordon, and Lebailly (1981) suggested that women perceive themselves as more vulnerable, weaker, and slower on foot than men. The main reason of women’s anxiety is that they do not know where it might lead and they anticipate it will get out of their control. While women’s fear of public and transit environments has frequently social connotations, it also appears to be firmly situated in particularly built environments. Gil Valentine emphasizes two general categories of spaces as particularly frightening to women: 1) enclosed spaces with limited exit opportunities such as multistories parking structures, underground passages, and subway stations, and 2) anonymous and deserted open spaces such as desolated transit stops (Loukaitou-sideris, 2009). The former provide opportunities for criminals to trap and attack women, while the latter may allow potential offenders to conceal themselves and act outside the visual range of other people. Moreover, her statement is supported by Durmisevic (2002) as detailed below: Fisher (1992)

and

Nasar

Prospects and access to escape has a significant impact on user's perception of public security.

Korz (1998)

Lighting, ability to observe the space and access to escape from the building.

De Boer (1997)

Four aspects that affected people’s perception in public: presence of other people, access to escape, prospect and surveillance.

Van Wegen en Van der Voordt (1991)

Presence of other people, visibility, attractiveness of surrounding, accessibility and possibility to escape.

Nasar and Jones (1997)

There are several social and physical elements that associated to fear of crime and public safety: 1. Physical elements:  Entrapment  Concealment (space that provides opportunities to hide, thus increased uncertainty). 2. Social elements: the absence of other people causes lack of supervision and possibility to ask help in emergency condition.

Laarhoven (1997)

Safety perception in underground spaces caused by these factors below: 1. Public control in the route to spaces 2. Activities, situation and spatial quality around the spaces. 3. Spatial organization / layout 4. Lighting 5. Presence of other people 6. Surveillance

Table 1. Factors that affected user’s perception in public safety (Source: Durmisevic, 2002)

Wilson and Kelling (1982) stated that Criminologists have long talked about the relationship between physical incivilities (litter, or graffiti) and fear. The physical elements of a transportation setting can induce fear among passengers. Underpasses, tunnels, and dark underground stations are typically more feared than open, groundlevel transit facilities (Loukiatou-sideris, 2004). To summarize based on the explanation above, criminals does not randomly distributed, yet the physical settings of its space still could affect women’s feeling of safety and comfort. Therefore, in order to reduce women’s fear of crime, a thoughtful plan should be examined further in designing women friendly public facilities. Methodology Method used for conducting this study is qualitative analysis of aspects regarding the design of underground transit space and its influence on well-being of female users. The first stage of this study is to collect primary and

secondary data from literature and other studies related to the topic. Field studies in Depok Baru underground transit space were conducted to gain insight of how underground transit space actually plays its roles in the city and to provide a basic understanding of spatial practice at Jakarta’s underground transit space. The second stage of this study is data analysis resulted from field study to examine the tangible and intangible aspects in the underground transit space that influence women’s perception of the space. Case Study Field observation was conducted in Depok Baru underground station. The aim of this observation is mapping the physical and non-physical elements that appear in the space, based on identified aspects and literature study. Moreover, mapping was managed to happen at night in supporting the explanation regarding women’s fear of crime. It stated that women feel more insecure while traveling at night in the transit space. Depok Baru Underground Station is located in a strategic area. There are various amenities nearby the station, such as restaurant, school, hospital, and many others. Thus, the users of this station are varied from school children to adult worker.

Figure 1. The surrounding of Depok Baru Underground Station (Source: Personal Documentation) Women’s fear of crime in public facilities is mostly affected by the physiological condition of its space. Anastasia Loukaitou-Sideris (et al) stated that women passengers feel more insecure while they are waiting in the station and on their way to or from the station rather than on the vehicle itself. Below are the aspects in Depok Baru Underground Station that affected women’s fear feeling of transit space, such as lighting, surveillance, and lack of maintenance. Nook corners, length of the corridors, access, attempt to find a way, are also involved in creating fear of crime in public transit space. a) Lighting Cited from Lin (2010), the crucial element that can influence women’s feeling of safety on public transit is lighting. This acknowledgement is also supported by Security by Design principles in 2004 that improved lighting could be effective in reducing fear of crime, and in certain circumstances reducing the incidence of crime as well. Research confirms that improving weak or patchy public lighting and increasing the levels and consistency of illumination are capable to reduce the fear of crime and makes people feel more secure (Secure by design principles 2004, p. 13). Moreover, in terms of women’s safety in underground space, poor lighting and nook corners can create shadows. It causes fear feeling and serves as cover for potential crimes (Lin 2010, p.10).

Weak to good lighting (left to right)

Figure 2. Lighting condition along the corridor (Source: personal documentation) The picture above showed that the transit space is not illuminated by natural light. Hence, artificial light (fluorescent lamp) becomes the only light source in this corridor. Furthermore, the air circulation in this corridor comes from both corner of the corridor that connected to the ground level and it is an open space. On a peak hour in the morning, this area along the corridor suffered from lack of air and crowded too, that it makes people feel anxious and quicken their steps. The only audible sound came from train and the echo of people steps. These conditions created more frightening surrounding to women passengers especially at night.

Figure 3. Light and air circulation in Depok Baru Underground transit space (source: personal documentation) In terms of visibility in this underground, there are some differences in light intensity that provide different perception among the users (Figure 3). According to the observation, when female passengers traveled down to underground corridors through the stairs, they experienced poor lighting. At some points, it creates fear feeling for them, especially during night times. However, when they were in the corridors, they feel more secure because of better lighting intensity. b) Maintenance In this station, we found that 70% of surface condition is well maintained (Figure 4). The cracks were only visible on the wall and there were some broken ceramics that did not affect female passengers visibility and activities along the corridor. Unlike the wall condition, apart from the good condition of some areas, there were broken ceramics that are potential to cause stumbling incidence.

Figure 4. Wall and floor condition in Depok Baru Underground Station (source: personal documentation)

A positive attempt to improve the amiability was found in this station. The ceiling painted in cloud motives with bright color (combination of blue and white color) successfully created a pleasant ambience on the underground space. However, we spotted one area on the ceiling that was left unclosed. It may potentially create a fear that something will come out from that particular hole. This opinion is supported by Loukitou-sideris et al. (2009) that lack of maintenance over the wall or ceilings in underground spaces could generate a perception of terrible behavior that will affect women’s perception on safety in turn.

Figure 5. Ceiling current condition along the corridor (source: personal documentation)

c) Distance and Crowd Considering the crowd in underground station, the size of underground passage does matter. In fact, the spacious passage can accommodate people in the peak time as because it enables people to move conveniently and decrease the possibilities of pick pocketing. As examined by Yavuz and Welch (2010, P. 2499), overcrowding during peak hours may encourage the endorsement of crimes, such as purse snatching and sexual harassment may cause increasing fear among female passengers. This passage shown below has a width of 3400 mm, where only 4 people can pass this way in line. This passage is quite narrow according to the minimum width standard of a passage. Moreover, it will not be able to fulfill the disabled people needs. As stated by UK Government guideline, a clear width of 2000mm will allow two wheelchairs to pass one another comfortably. This should be regarded as the minimum under normal circumstances.

Figure 6. The passage width and minimum recommended circulation width (source: personal documentation) According to Lin (2010, p. 31) physical arrangement could allow the offender to commit crime and the aisles may increase women’s fear of crime in the underground station. Therefore, the platform should be designed to give free visual areas along its length, allowing passengers to easily read the signs and catch the staff to ensure safety when dispatching the trains. Consequently, platform edges should be straight to assist operations by allowing clear sight lines. d) Access In this station, there is only one entrance and exit access available. The use of entrance and exit system in this station was a positive approach in providing safety for all passengers. In terms of safety, limited access to enter the station brings more secure impressions to women while they travel on this underground. As noted by Lin (2000 p. 9), limiting the number of entrances or exit in a well-designed space with good natural access control may prevent unauthorized access to buildings and restricted interior areas. It is supported by Loukitou-Sideris et al. (2008, p.1) that women often felt unsafe and entrapped in corridors and ramp leading to underground station; consequently, the length of corridor matters. This is caused by women’s nature that they are more likely to feel insecure and hardly to navigate them in a space when they get lost, compared to men.

Figure 7. Current escape condition (source: personal documentation)

Referring to the explanation above in terms of safety, emergency access becomes essential in this underground. Unfortunately, we cannot found any emergency access along the passage. When an emergency situation happened, there will be no access available for the passengers. They should take a quite long time through 16 and 25 stair steps (figure 7) during emergency condition.

e) Way finding and Signage In relation to spatial cognition, women usually encounter difficulties in routine spatial navigation tasks, such as finding way with map or getting good sense of direction (Kim et al. 2007, p. 29) compared to men. Due to this matter, existence of appropriate signs in underground station is critical. In fact, better signs can reduce fear of crime, because signs can raise awareness of security (Lin 2010, p. 19). Hence, useful signs should be able to communicate information in an efficient and effective manner and can assist women in turn to navigate themselves in the underground station.

Figure 8. Current finding way and Signage in Depok Baru Underground Station The passage in this underground station constitutes a long corridor without isles or nook corners, and the access to this passage is on both corners (figure 8), consequently female passengers will not be entrapped in finding the way out or platform destination and feel secure at the same time. Unfortunately, there is only a small signage on the top of the corridor that shows the exit (figure 8), and signage that easily found was only in the form of standard signage such as signage for exit, entrance, toilet and train route (Jakarta - Bogor or Bogor - Jakarta). Additionally, there is no standard on the signage system that sometimes confuses people when they try to read the signage (figure 9). Having say that, in the enclosed space, confined and busy environment of the underground, lack of clear directions may raise considerable anxieties.

Figure 9. Signage system in the Underground (source: personal documentation)

Figure 10. Non-standard signage in Depok Baru Underground Station (source: personal documentation) Basically, signage may consist of text and graphics, which work together to convey the required information in short, time to the reader. As a signage basic design, signage should be clear and uncluttered, using the minimum of content to convey the necessary information. In short, I would say that signing is essential for customers to safely find their way from platform to the right exit, or to escape in case of emergency condition. For this reason, signage in the underground passage must be carefully considered. CONCLUSION The design of the public environment may affect women's perception of safety and in turn their willingness to use public spaces and places. Based on the discussion above, to design an underground station that are secured and friendly for female passenger, it should consider several aspects by taking account human factors (psychological and physical factors) that will experience that space in question. Conclusion is illustrated in the diagram below (figure 11)

Figure 11. Conclusion Diagram of literature study (source: Arvanda, 2014) According to the diagram above, the design can be applied to different components of the transit space in an effort to enhance the environmental factors that reduce fear and eliminate the causes that stimulate it. The observation in Depok Baru underground station showed that good lighting on the transit space is the major element in reducing passenger’s fear. As the transit settings are not equipped with lighting, as required, related agencies should make sure that there is a well-lit area around the station without any dark corners. Additionally, general maintenance on transit facilities and the regular cleaning of graffiti and litter was found to provide convenience to riders. As argued, “Keeping an environment clean not only encourages positive behavior therefore discouraging potential perpetrators; it also makes things feel comfortable for someone who might have anxiety or fear” (Loukitou-Sideris, 2009). Furthermore, the design of public transit space should ensure that there are no hidden or dark corners, enclosed spaces with few exits or signs that neglect and lack of social control. Such measures will help women to use and take greater control over public space, whether or not they increase women's real safety. In conclusion, good lighting, maximize the entrance/exit access, clear signage, less corners and broad visibility are important in increasing surveillance and wayfinding in underground station. If good surveillance and wayfinding finally achieved, then, women will find safety and comfort in underground stations. Such measures will help women to use and take greater control over public space, whether or not they increase women's real safety.

Finally, through the examination above, we possibly understand how the physical elements have an impact on women's fear of crime in the station. Therefore, we hope these findings along will be contributed to the development of underground station in Jakarta, by taking female passengers psychological and physical needs into consideration in their design process. acknowledgement We are thankful to PT. KAI (Indonesian Train) who provided expertise that greatly assisted this study, although they may not agree with all of the interpretations provided in this paper. We are also immensely grateful to Rini Suryantini for sharing her pearls of wisdom with us during this study. REFERENCES A. Loukaitou-Sideris, 2004. Is It Safe to Walk Here? Design and Policy Responses to Women’s Fear of Victimization in Public Places. Research on Women’s Issues in Transportation proceeding Vl. 2, University of California, LA. Downloaded in January 25th 2014 from http://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/conf/CP35v2.pdf A. Loukaitou-Sideris, A. Bornstein, C. Fink, l. Samuels, and S. Gerami. 2009. How to Ease Women’s Fear of Transporta- tion Environments: Case Studies and Best Practices. MTI Report 09-01. Mineta Transportation Institute, San José State university, Calif. A. Loukaitou-Sideris. 2004. What Is Blocking Her Path? Women, Mobility, and Security. Research on Women’s Issues in Transportation proceeding IV. Department of Urban Planning, University of California, Los Angeles. B. Kim, S. Lee and J. Lee, 2007. Gender Differences in Spatial Navigation. World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology. Downloaded in January 20th 2012 from http://www.waset.org/journals/waset/v31/v31-53.pdf D. Locton, 2011. Architecture, urbanism, design and behavior: a b rief review. Retrieved February 5, 2013, from http://architectures.danlocton.co.uk/2011/09/12/architecture-urbanism-design-and-behaviour-a-brief-review/ E. Arvanda, N.R. Kusuma, R. Suryantini, 2014. Underground Transportation Transit Space : Qualitative Analysis of Spatial Qualities on the Safety and Comfort of Women Passengers, Universitas Indonesia (an unpublished research). G. Valentine, 1990. Women’s Fear and the Design of Public Space. Alexandrine Press, S. Durmisevic, (2002) p. 1-167. Perception Aspects in Underground Spaces using Intelligent Knowledge Modeling. Doctoral Dissertation. Delft University of Technology. S. Riger, R. LeBailly, & M. T. Gordon (1981). Community ties and urbanites’ fear of crime: An ecological investigation. American Journal of Community Psychology, 9, 653-665. Secured by design Principles 2004. Retrieved January 30, 2013 from http://www.securebydesign.com/pdfs/SBD-principles.pdf UK Government Guideline. Downloaded in 20 may 2016 from https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/3695/inclusive-mobility.pdf. V. Ceccato, A. Uittenbogaard, R. Bamzar, (2013) p. 33-59. Security in Stockholm’s Underground Stations: The Importance of Environmental Attributes and Context. Security Journal Vol. 26, 1. Macmillan Publishers Ltd X. Lin, 2010. Exploring the Relationship Between Environmental Design and Crime: A Case Study Of the Gonzaga University District’. MSC Thesis. Washington state University. Retrieved February 1, 2012 from http://spokane.wsu.edu/academics/design/researchService/x_lin_072310.pdf Yavuz, Nilay, and Welch, Eric W, 2010. Addressing Fear of Crimein Public Space: Gender Differences in Reaction to Safety’, Urban Studies Journal Limited. Retrieved January 30, 2013 from http://usj.sagepub.com/content/47/12/2491

THE ROLES OF QANAT AS A MODE OF VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE & URBAN LANDSCAPE IN IRANIAN EVERYDAY LIFE SINA RAZZAGHI-ASL Assistant Professor in Urban Design, Shahid Rajaee Teacher Training University. ABSTRACT Qanat / Karez is one the most important and profound inventions of the Iran’s Hydraulic engineering and Vernacular Architecture. Use of this technique to utilize the underground water (and sometimes groundwater) resources can be aged to more than 3000 years. Today, qanats are being used in 35 other countries, except Iran, in four different continents, and they are still used as irrigation mean. As most publications have focused the technical side of the qanats, this article is trying to study the role of the qanats in the everyday life of the residents in cities like Kashan, Tehran and Yazd with emphasis on urban landscapes. And as such, with the structure interview and case study techniques, we will explore the realities and perceptions of people regarding the functional roles and aspects of qanats in different levels of each city. This article’s results will show that roles of qanats in the different aspects lives of the Iran’s central cities residents which can be categorized into: Functional, Socio-cultural, Ecological, Economical, Visual, Cooling, Psychological and tourism - heritage. Therefore, different features relating to each of these roles are also provided. INTRODUCTION There has been a stress on the importance of qanats as the first stable and regenerative system of irrigation in urban areas across the world (English, 1968; Cressey,1958; Lightfoot,2000; Beaumont,1971; Wulff,1971; Haeri,2008). Approximately 4000 B.C., Iranian people with knowledge of geology and hydrology have had constructed qanat (Bernerian,1976). It appears that the people of the kingdom of Urartu (the city of Uhli, presentdat Marand), just north of the Zagros, solved the problem with a system of undergrounded conduits to channel snowmelt. Sargon II of Assyria discovered them during his conquest of the kingdom in 714 B.C. which, admired and imitated them (Gobolt,1979; Khansari et.al,2003). After renovation of Qanat in Iran and complication of their technologies, it was exported to the other regions in relation to various reasons. Dominance of Iranian kingdoms including “Hakhamaneshian, medes, Part-ha and Sasanian empire” in 800 B.C to other countries, immigration of Iranian people to other regions and family relationships between Iranian with non-Iranian people can address some of these reasons. Studying technical and hydraulic structures of qanats is like urban facilities and infrastructure besides taking into account the environmental, ecological, and social aspects of these structures; are among the most important topics in the recent decade. Considering that Iran has been the first place to adopt the qanats in 3000 years ago, studying their roles and values in urbanism system of Iranian cities, is of great importance. Concept of qanat is almost a familiar one in the Iranian’s perception, especially in deserts regions; Because of approximately up to 50 years ago, qanat was the main water resource of many Iranian cities. In addition, Qanats have also had a significant role in formation of cities such as Yazd, Kazeroon, Esfadan, Tabriz, Shiraz, Ghazvin, Zanjan, and Kashan. As a result, these regions have developed quite a distinct culture and civilization which can be called the Qanat civilization sharing a unique cultural, socio-economic, architectural and political characteristic that would distinguish this region from others. It can be said that, the lessons of living with desert came from there (Cenesta,2003). The term qanat, deriving from an ancient Semitic word meaning ‘‘to dig’’, describes an underground water channel, consisting of vertical shafts connected at their bottom with a sub-horizontal tunnel. In general, qanat is a resource for water supply both in rural and urban areas. It is a utility system based on hydraulic engineering which delivers water from upper topographic level, especially from underground water resources, to down grade zone using merely gravity power. In the other hand, it is a water supply system which collects, and delivers underground water using the capability of nature itself. Its function is to exploit a certain aquifer pierced by a main well and convey water to communities in the desert at distances of 2-80 km (Stiros,2006) (Fig.1).

Figure 1. Map shows the Main Structure of Qanat Source: Behzadfar, 2009 & Stiros, 2006 Most of the researches in this area is about this role in forming the city structure and has focused the engineering aspects of their plan, planning & structure. There is a small awareness to the role of the qanat, as the central element of city building, in the minds of residents and people regarding the effective aspects of qanats in their lifestyle and everyday lives especially with emphasis on public space & urban landscape. in the current situation, there is a destructive & non-environmental view among some people regarding this phenomenon (Maleki and Khorsandi,2006). This article is paying attention to the exploring perceptions and thoughts of people regarding the effects of qanats in their lifestyle and its relative values; by using case study about these roles in some cities. Hence, the most important purpose of this study is to identify the values and functional aspects around the qanats in image that citizens have now, aiming to find a holistic image in regenerating qanat’s socioenvironmental phenomenon. The remainder of this article is structured as follows: first, the impact of qanat as a water supply infrastructure in urban landscape is investigated. Second, the role of qanat in forming the urban structure and morphology is monitored. The following section provides research methodology for gaining data based on everyday life qualitative technique. Finally, the main multi-dimensional roles of qanats in Iranian everyday life are shown. QANAT INFRASTRUCTURE AS URBAN LANDSCAPE Landscape urbanism as a modern approach in urbanism and architecture; is focusing on the role of urban infrastructures as the most important public generative landscapes. According to this approach, urban infrastructures as crystallized in water supply system of qanat in the past; are major elements of urban form which shaping considerable and special visual, social and aesthetic effects on urban form. What most approaches and their publications have argued so far, was the way to standardise the technical aspect of the infrastructure systems in order to find an optimised structure for water supply their aspects of them. Instead, aesthetic, ecologic and social implications have had little attention so far (Mossop, 2006). At the beginning, the main concern of making qanat was access to the underground water by an innovative form (technique). But, later on, considering the environmental, social and physical aspects of this innovative structure in city assembles, have become one of the main factors of shaping Iranian cities morphology (Haeri,2008). It seems that consideration to the position of urban infrastructures as natural and ecological factor on built environment can be taken into account more than as it is as functional factor. Thus, the main role of the designers (urban designers, architects, and landscape architects) is now to create meaningful forms of the landscape to improve the position and the effects of infrastructures and showing the applications of their natural capability in the urban form (Strang,2002). For qanats, this has been done by mixing and integrating open space features with the water management system and irrigation for thousands of years among the Iranian communities. Qanat has also been a central sociocultural point in the urban fabric in addition to supplying potable water and irrigating farms and lands. In relation to the accurate understanding of the qanat natural value, Muqannis (qanat diggers) have made a chain of qanats; as constructive ecological system some more than 50 kilometres long; without any damage to the natural resources, including water resource and performance of farmlands, because the designed path of qanats exactly match the natural ground’s slope relating the natural capabilities of nature (Bonine,1979).

The example of Mehriz reveals the integration of street networks, water channels, urban blocks, urban landscapes and building plot forms, all following unique ecological direction. It is happened while qanat have been used as a sustainable water resource (Behzadfar, 2009). In contrary, the functional modern deep well based water resource, not only damage the sustainability of urban ecological system, but also works as segregated element within the urban fabric and form which caused negative effects on urban landscape as well (English, 1968). Qanat Impacts on Urban Form & Environment The large numbers of Iranian cities have qanats as an internal part of their built environment. The organic form of that network and neighbourhood centres of the cities like Yazd & Mehriz has integrated with and defined by the formation of qanats’ general network (Behzadfar,2009) (Fig. 2).

Figure 2. The Formation of Street Network based on Qanat Steam Network, the City of Mehriz, Yazd Province, Iran. Most designers have not considered the infrastructures as influential elements on urban form either in whole or in district level (Strang,2002). But, about thousand years ago, according to mughannis own intuition and visions, applied the configuration of qanat in formation of galleries; outlet & following streams have been the basis for shaping urban open spaces, configurations in various aspects. Interestingly, qanats also underlie the street patterns of larger cities as well. In some cities, qanat water flows in tunnels beneath residential areas and surfaces near the cultivated area. Staircases from the surface (payab) reach down to these streams. The first payab usually is at a public cistern (domain) where drinking water is available to the entire community (English, 1968). Bonine has discerned an orthogonal street pattern in cities like Kirman, Yazd, and Sabzevar where long, straight streets intersect at right angles forming huge “super blocks” with many short, blind alleys branching off major thoroughfares at right angles (Bonine, 1979). In many towns, qanats terminate in the bazaar as suq or in a mosque or in the home of their owner. In Yazd there is an extensive network of qanat channels beneath the city, often at different depths. Many of these flow to cultivated lands around the city or to villages at greater distances down slope, but the city dwellers usually had access to these water sources. Qanat Forming Public Buildings Some of the qanats in Iran of which most evident is 40 kilometre Mehriz-Yazd qanat, not only join two cities together but also attach the main parts of the outstanding buildings to each other. For instance, the Mehriz-Yazd qanat first shapes the most beautiful elements of the Iranian residential architecture in inner city of Mehriz, and then it vitalize to Dolat-abad garden in the old city of Yazd (Behzadfar, 2009). In addition, to constructing qanats by ancient Iranians in order to prepare potable water in dry seasons, other facilities have been thought of such as water storages called ab-anbars, dykes and refrigerators known as Yakhchals. Meanwhile, ab-anbars as an effective public building in urban structure is used for saving water in rainy seasons and consuming it in rest of the year (Ghobadian,2004). Domes and the upper badgirs (wind catchers) are the symbols of ab-anbars in

building forms, from the viewpoint of visual landscape. These elements have the main role in legibility of the urban landscape. They are considered as a result of conformity between the image and the visual landscape. Abanbars in Naragh city are one of the architectural masterpieces from Qajar era which are working at the moment and people take advantage of their cold waters in summer (Fig. 3). These elements, as mentioned above, have the ability to save the water as well as forming the visual landscape of neighborhood centers.

Figure 3. The Formation of Street Network based on Qanat Steam Network, the City of Mehriz, Yazd Province, Iran. Qanat Forming Urban Environments In some Iranian cities, such as Mehriz, qanats outlet becomes the basis of urban open spaces in neighbourhood scale. In architecture scale, qanats become important elements in interior design of vernacular and historic buildings and landscaping. Thus, qanats are as a one of the most important structures in efficiency, prominence and flourish of Iranian vernacular architecture and urbanism (Behzadfar,2009). Downstream of the outlet, the water runs through surface canals called ‘jubs’ (jūbs) which run downhill, with lateral branches to carry water to the neighbourhood, gardens and fields. The streets normally parallel the water streams called jubs and their lateral branches. As a result, cities and towns are oriented consistent compatible with the gradient of the land; what is sometimes viewed as chaotic to the western eye is a practical response to efficient water distribution over varying terrain (Kheirabadi,1991). Vail-e-Asr Street in Tehran is a good example of this phenomenon. Even now, qanat of this street until irrigate trees and greening the streetscape as well. Private subterranean reservoirs could supply houses and buildings for domestic use and garden irrigation as well. Further, air flow from the qanat is used to cool an underground summer room known as shabestan, found in many older houses and buildings (Kheirabadi,,1991). Where a qanat passes beneath a residential area, some houses have a summer living room alongside the flowing stream, several tens of feet underground. The water is usually cool throughout the year but may become polluted from use in similar room’s upstream (Cressey,1958). Case Study & Interviewing Implications Everyday life as a participatory action research method is not isolated; rather, it is embedded in people and situations. Researchers often negotiate during research that is collected traditionally through means of data collection and creative and introspective research that relies on the positionality, perspective, and viewpoint of participants. Everyday life research focuses on the details and seemingly insignificant occurrences that collectively contribute to how a situation, phenomenon, or occurrence such as Qanats is interpreted and experienced by people. Such research seeks to understand social experience based on how people do and experience social life, which privileges experience as knowledge. The perspective becomes a study of social interaction in a natural environment that acknowledges extraordinary happenings while legitimating the ordinary events of life(Robin Boylorn,2008). The basic data in this method is collected through interviews, participant observation, introspective journal writings, and other qualitative techniques. This approach is useful in analyzing qualitative data because it requires researcher to consider and negotiate ubiquitous themes that occur in everyday life, from work to play. Thus, two qualitative techniques were used: case study and structure interview. A sample of 216 (n=56, Tehran; n=96, Yazd and n=64, Kashan) persons was selected for the research work using the stratified random sampling technique in winter 2009. Elderly people above 55 years old are questioned about

the values of qanats in the past. Since most of the qanats exist in Yazd city (Semsare-Yazdi, 2000), 44% of the people in this research are from Yazd. Resident’s perception can give a distinctive insight to design criteria of qanat which originally routed in their day to day life experience relating the form & structure of qanat itself and in city texture. The term ‘perception’ is used here in the general sense of how things are ‘seen’ (Rapoport,1977). It reflects motives, preferences and attitude to space. These people and cases were identified through reports and the observation technique within the condition that they be highly knowledgeable of the objective and diverse contexts of the study. Tehran, Kashan, Yazd, Naragh , Mehriz and Kish island are the most important cases of iran which have been invistigated in this research for exploring values are critical to be mentioned. A semi-structured discussion guide was developed and pilot tested. It explored functions, insights and values about qanat roles, opinions and suggestions on qanat regeneration. Table 2 presents the questions contained in the discussion guide (Table 1). Table 1: Discussion Guide Questions Questions People (aged>= 55) What was the most important application of the qanat in house courtyard? What were the most important application & implications of the qanat in the past in the neighbourhood centre and alleys and streets? Do you think qanats must be regenerated and new ones being constructed across the city and neighbourhoods? In the current situation what is the most important role that can be imagined for qanats in the alleys and streets?

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Three perspectives have emerged from the analysis and interpretation of the data obtained: First, the qanat usage and values in micro scale as house courtyard. Second, roles and values of qanat in the public open spaces scale known as streets and neighbourhood centre. Third, considering the Regeneration of qanats in cities from elderly viewpoint. The Position of qanat in house courtyard scale Respondents Over 55 years old knew more functions for qanats, as have spent their childhood with qanat. In their responses, functions such as washing, irrigation, watering, aesthetical, security, rest, keeping historical and monumental aspects, and water economy; were among the most important roles of qanats in courtyards. In addition, having both qanat and Badgir in traditional Iranian houses for cooling purposes in the summer is another role in such places. Results show that about 94% of respondents point out the washing, irrigating and watering purposes as most important roles of qanats in the past and present. With a slight difference (92%) aesthetical function was seen as a next important role of qanats in house courtyards (Table 2). Table 2: Operation of Existing Qanats in Iranian Houses Usage for qanat Washing, irrigation and watering Beautifying house negotiation and relaxing Weather coolness Security comfort Keeping historical and metaphorical aspects Water economy

persons (aged>= 55) (n=216) (%) 94 92 82 78 58 46 32 21

In a specific situations, a 71 years old man from Kashan, explain that “qanats maybe neither were nor touched in courtyard but these structures provided washing and drinking usages of people in house”. The other 56 years old

woman from Tehran points out that “the most important role of qanat in courtyards was washing things and dishes. This action was done through manual wells and ponds in houses”. The position of qanat in street and neighbourhood scale Responders have emphasized on the factors including environmental beautification, irrigation of trees, weather coolness, neighbourhood activity nodes, comfort and symbolic& historic aspects in qanat neighbourhoods. Table 4 indicates the usages and frequencies of interviewees. Most of the interviewees considered to the irrigation (89%) and beautification (86%) roles of qanat in neighbourhood centres. People above 55 and older, because of dealing with different aspects of qanats in neighbourhood centres and urban alleys and streets; have directly referred to its historic, symbolic and cultural aspects in urban landscape (81%). In fact if we return to the definition of cultural landscape by UNESCO (1992) which is “the combination of human and nature works”, we arrive at a unique sample of qanat which includes historic, cultural and natural aspects (Table 3). Table 3: Operation of Existing Qanats in Iranian Urban Neighbourhoods Usage for qanat persons (aged>= 55) (n=216) (%) Irrigation of trees 89 Environment beautification 86 Protection of the historic 81 &symbolic aspects Weather coolness 78 Neighbourhood act. nodes 64 comfort 48

Regeneration of qanats in cities Even though qanats may not feature strongly in the usage arena, there appears to be a general sense of support for qanats provision. When asked, “Do you think we should provide more qanats in city?” about 75% of the respondents voted for more qanats provision. It is possible that some respondents may have been inclined to indicate ‘yes’ as they were not asked to bear the provision costs. Respondents were asked to share their personal thoughts in a follow-up open-ended question of why they support or do not support more qanats provision in cities (Kashan, Yazd & Tehran). The replies were content analyzed, similar thoughts and words were coded and grouped under same representative themes and then independently verified to unpack the focus of individual attention. As summarized in Table 5, the main reasons point to considerations of aesthetics (93%) to beautify the environment & functional (91%) including personal usage for irrigation and washing purposes. In some specific situations, a 62 years old man makes clear that pumps and modern pipes could not replace the old qanats. He says: “qanats used to provide the water of the neighbourhood for different purposes. And in addition, they were an aesthetic factor for the houses and the neighbourhood.” 82 years elderly man says: “from what I have lived in traditional yazd houses, qanats can have a special role in the aesthetic point of view of the landscape and irrigation – and that’s because of their special natural and environmental characteristics.” In addition to these, some people, argued the historical- metaphorical (78%), and tourism points (43%). The existence of qanats in most parts of the historic quarters of Yazd is widely one of the main potentials for attracting tourists (Table 4). Table 4: Reason for More Qanat Provision Reason for more qanat provision aesthetic functional environmental socio-cultural historic- monumental tourism - heritage

persons (age>= 55) (n=216) (%) 93 91 53 62 78 43

CONCLUSION As UNESCO has announced, 60% of the qanats across the world are located in Iran. But, in very few cities the subject of qanats and their mutual effects has been considered seriously. In fact, qanat for its visual aspects in the city – no matter it is still in use or not – must be considered in city development plans as a major element of the city infrastructures and utilities. As the most respondents to the study & also current formal urban development process in Iran shows the capability of qanat and its design configuration have been mainly neglected. The most respondent emphasized on the necessity of making reconstruction plan for qanats respecting their original design themes. It has been stressed that although the traditional function of qanat can not be completely resumed, but it can be reorganized through specific role mainly in relation to urban landscape & reinforcement of urban open space. The reconstruction of the underground city of Kish in Iran based on qanat is a good example in this mater (Sohrabi,2007; Ahmadi et.al,2010). Concluding the results in the case studies and structured interviews with some of the elderly citizens old (+55 yrs old) in the cities of Kashan, Tehran and Yazd; shows: there can be eight roles for qanats in the Iranian everyday life. The first is Functional Role: Qanats from the long past have been the main providers of water for agricultural purposes. Although At the present time, the qanats have been replaced by the modern deep wells, the agricultural lands of many Iranian cities in the central part of Iran such as Yazd, Kerman, Naein, Kashan, Shiraz, and Isfahan are still benefited from the qanats. In some cases, people also used to take advantages of the water of qanats for their personal use such as drinking, washing and irrigating their small gardens (Abouei,2006). The second aspect is Socio-cultural role. qanats as the centres for socio-cultural activities and can be effective in definition of the neighbourhood activity nodes. The Third role is Ecological. The design & construction paradigm of qanat integrated with ecological process of each geographic region. The climatic & geological structure of geographic locales in an environmental friendly approach was the essence of qanat construction & operation system. Qanat as a watering system is operating based on its capacity to irrigate a specific geographical locale. A society created based on the qanat, understand the value of its each drop of water. Hence, waste of water reaches its minimum stage. Preventing the damage to the underground water supplies by qanats, because of its slow use of water resources; comparing to the damage caused by pumping water; is the most important value of the qanat from the ecological point of view. In other words, qanat is the metaphor of sustainable development (Semsare-Yazdi,2000). The Fourth aspect is Economic role. value of qanat and making the underground water flow without gravity, with no need to use any mechanical force and energy with considering all other environmental issues and other costs; is also very important from the economical point of view. It seems that qanats are still effective in economic improvement, using farmlands and a sustainable development. So removing qanats would be an irreversible mistake in economic terms (Sohrabi, 2007; Bagheri, 2000). The fifth aspect is visual role. effect of visually aesthetic and improving visual quality of the landscape is obvious for everyone. Qanat path chains with its presence in the floorscape, is playing river role that beautifies the public view as well as supplying water for trees and plants. Attributes such as reflection, pleasant and vitality, from the presence of water in the urban landscape would be seen in qanats. The sixth aspect is cooling role. Qanats can be used for cooling as well as water supply (Bahadori,2008) Traditionally In wealthy homes, special rooms are constructed beside the underground stream with tall shafts reaching upward to wind catchers (badgir) above roof level. Air caught by the badgirs, which are oriented to prevailing summer winds, is forced down the shaft, circulates at water level, and provides a cool refuge from the afternoon heat of summer. Needless to say, land located above submerged qanat tunnels, and houses with private payabs, are highly valued (Honari,1989). The seventh aspect is psychological role. in eastern culture, water with its clearness characteristic – which means having visual clarity and cleaning power – is always one of the most important quadratic elements and a metaphor of clearness and transparency. This attribute that applies to the spiritual dimension of the human beings in its living environment, has a specific role in homes and public places. On the other hand, clearness with the water is the first condition for praying the creator of the universe. The eight & final aspect is tourism and heritage role. as qanats are artefacts relating to old ages of life, has a historical and nostalgic figure with the Iranians. In views collected in this study, some respondents admitted this fact. But what is important for the time being is the saving and improving these aspects for the next generations and foreign visitors. For that, with the experiences like the underground city of Kish, we can bear tourism and heritage role for these cultural landscapes. With such view, qanats are part of country’s cultural urban landscapes (Jomehpour,2009) and serious attention needs to be paid from people and officials to save them.

REFERENCES Abouei, R., 2006. Conservation of Badgirs and Qanats in Yazd, Central Iran, the 23th conference on passive and low energy architecture, Geneva, Switzerland, 38-47. Ahmadi, H. and A. Nazari Samani, & A. Malekian, 2010. The Qanat: A Living History in Iran, in: G. SchneierMadanes & M.F. Courel (Eds) Water and Sustainability in Arid Regions. Netherlands: Springer,. Bagheri, M.E., 1978. the economical value of qanat and comparision it with pomps, 3th Congree of qanat, regional M.N. Bahadori, Passive Cooling Systems in Iranian Architecture, Scientific American, February, 144-154,. Beaumont, P., 1971. Qanat systems in Iran. Bulletin of the international association of scientific hydrology, 16, 39-50. Bernerian, M., 1976. Contribution to the Seismotectonics of Iran, Part II. Geological Survey of Iran; First Edition edition,. Behzadfar, M., 2009. Urban Infrastructures. Tehran: Shahidi Publisher. Behzadfar, M., 2009. Designs and Plans in urban development.Tehran: city publisher. Behzadfar, M., 2008. the Identity of Tehran. Tehran: City Publisher. Bonine, M., 1979. the morphogenesis of Iranian cities, Annals of the Association of American Geographers, Vol. 69, No. 2 208-224. Centre For Sustainable Development (Cenesta), (2003). Qanat Irrigation Systems: An Ancient Water Distribution System Allowing Specialised And Diverse Cropping İn Desert Regions Of Iran, Tehran. Cressey, G. B., 1958. Qanats, Karez, and Foggaras, Geographical Review, 48, 27-44. English, P. W., 1968. The origin and spread of qanats in the Old World, Proceedings of the American. Ghobadian, V., 2004. Climatic analysis of Iranian traditional buildings, University of Tehran Press, Tehran. Philosophical Society, 112, , 170-181. Gobolt, H., 1979. Les qanats: Une technique d'acquisition de l'eau. Mouton. Haeri, M., 2008. Qanat in Iran. Tehran: Cultural Research Bbureau. Honari, M., 1989. Qanats and human settlement in Iran, In: Beaumont, Bonine, and McLachlan (Eds) op. cit.. Jomehpour, M., 2009. Qanat irrigation systems as important and ingenious agricultural heritage: case study of the qanats of Kashan, Iran, International Journal of Environmental Studies, V. 66, Issue 3 297– 315 Khansari, M., Moghtader, M. R. and M. Yavari, 2003. the Persian Garden: Ecohoes of Paradise. Mage Publishers, , 22-27. Kheirabadi, M., 1991. Iranian Cities: Formation and Development. Austin: University of Texas Press. Lightfoot, D., 2000. The Origin and Diffusion of Qanats in Arabia: New Evidence from the Northern and Southern Peninsula , The Geographical Journal, Vol. 166, No. 3 215-226. Maleki, A., and Khorsandi, A., 2006. Qanat in Iran: the case study of Tehran qanats. Tehran: urban planning and processing co. Mossop, E., 2006. Landscape Of Infrastructure, İn: C. Waldheim (Ed.), The Landscape Urbanism Reader. New York: Princeton Architectural Press. Rapoport, A., 1977. HumanAspects of Urban Form. (Oxford: Pergamon Press. Robin Boylorn, M., 2008. “everyday life” in: Given, L., (ed.) the SAGE Encyclopedia of qualitative research methods. California: SAGE Publications, Inc . Stiros, S., 2006. Accurate measurements with primitive instruments: the ‘‘paradox’’ in the qanat design, Journal of Archaeological Science, 33, 1058-1064. Semsare-Yazdi, A., 2000. an analysis of yazd qanats, 2th Congree of qanat, regional water co. yazd 65-75 Sohrabi, N., 2007. an investigation of qanats functions and roles in last and now, 3th cnogress of iranian architecture and urbanism history, Arge-Bam, Kerman 114-127 Strang, G., 2002. Infrastructure as Landscape, in: S. Swaffield (ed.) Theory in Landscape Achitecture. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Wulff, H.E., 1971. The traditional crafts of Persia: their development, technology, and influence on eastern and western civilizations. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.

NURSING CABIN PROJECT: TOWARD INCLUSIVE BREASTFEEDING SPACE IN TRANSPORTATION FACILITIES ENIRA ARVANDA, NEVINE RAFA KUSUMA Enira Arvanda, S.T,M.Dipl, Universitas Indonesia, Nevine Rafa Kusuma, S.Ars,M.A., Universitas Indonesia

ABSTRACT Breastfeeding in public can be difficult. A lot of nursing mothers feel insecure while doing it for various reasons: for some it’s about negative perceptions they receive, while for the others it’s about having to deal with bringing their private activity into public eyes. Thus, for many, nursing room is a safe haven. Nowadays, being out in public is inevitable, especially when performing mobility with public transportation modes. Unfortunately, based on our 2012 research on Lactation Space in Public Facilities in Jakarta, Indonesia, majority of transportation facilities haven’t yet provided supportive space for nursing mothers (Suryantini,2012). Morevoer, research findings also showed that in transportation space typology, programatically there are clear separations between transit platform area (waiting and boarding) and amenities area (restrooms,nursing rooms,retail,etc), which is often placed outside the control gate. Therefore, even when nursing room is available, its accessibility might cause discomfort among its users. Based on this issue, at beginning of 2014, we accomplished a research based community engagement project. The objective of the project, which we call Nursing Cabin project, is to design and build knock-down nursing space which can be placed in close proximity to waiting area and can be easily accessed by breastfeeding mothers without leaving transit platform too far. This project was not only aiming to ‘produce’ nursing space. The cabin is a catalyst for understanding nursing mothers’ behavior and public responses toward the space. It also acts as negotiator for breastfeeding bodies, to be included into the collective space of public despite being secluded and invisible. In response to its Indonesian context, despite its visibility from the public eyes, the cabin also functions as a shield, which protects the private body. Furthermore, this paper will reflect findings from the project and emphasizes the importance of creating inclusive environment for breastfeeding women and their babies through design of nursing facilities. INTRODUCTION Jakarta is a megacity with 10.1 millions of inhabitants (Dinas Kependudukan dan Pencatatan Sipil Provinsi DKI Jakarta, 2015). According to Indonesian Statistic Bureau in 2012 there are approximately 3.07 millions women in reproductive age (between 15-49 years old) and 0.9 million children below 4 years old (Badan Pusat Statistik 2012). Women from this age group are the most active and mobile, and most likely are still breastfeeding their babies. Unfortunately, public transportation facilities are still left behind in providing supporting facilities for women and children. With only 42% of babies under 6 months old are exclusively breastfed (UNICEF, 2014) Indonesian government has to work hard to raise awareness on the importance of breastfeeding and supporting breastfeeding mothers through laws, government and regional regulations on nursing women’s rights such as the latest ministerial decrees on conducting nursing and or lactating facilities issued in 2013 by Indonesian Ministry of Health (Permenkes no.15 tahun 2013). Aside growing support from the government, however, in a 2012 research of Public Lactation Facilities in Jakarta (Suryantini, Arvanda, Murniawati and Kusuma, 2012) we found out that among 3 public transportation types (airline,bus,railway) only airports and a few number of rail stations which already had provided lactation rooms. Conditions of nursing facilities found in airports and rail stations were still not satisfying and some were in poor state. Nursing rooms were only present to provide isolation and privacy, but they had not yet provided comfort for its users. Moreover, its distance and seclusion seemed to amplify the feeling of a non-place, a term which is often used to describe the interiority of transit spaces where connections can’t be made, which then leads to negative perceptions about the space itself (Cresswell, 2006; Cresswell and Peter, 2011). The number of nursing rooms available in Jakarta’s public transportation facilities is disappointing and rather contradictory to government’s campaign of transforming Jakarta as a hospitable city for women and children. Moreover, with the government aiming to lure its citizen to use public transportation, it should be important to dismiss negative perceptions attached to transportation spaces (Raahauge, 2008; Jarrett, 2012; Jensen, 2009;

Loukaitou-Sideris et al., 2009). One of the strategy is to create safe and inclusive environment, thus it is crucial to meet passengers’ needs and to provide decent facilities for all. Based on issues described above, in 2014 we started an initiative to develop a research-based nursing room design for transit spaces, specifically for urban railway stations as the pilot project. Project Background In Indonesia, breastfeeding is a well-accepted activity presumably due to religious reason, state philosophy and local norms which are supportive of breastfeeding (Fikawati and Syafiq, 2010). For example, for the muslims the Quran verses play an important role in promoting breastfeeding, it strongly encourages breastfeeding for 2 years and consider it as a child’s right (Quran 2:233,31:14,46:15). In result, breastfeeding mothers are rarely mistreated even when they’re performing breastfeeding in public space. This condition is rather different from the situation in western context where nursing in public might be considered inappropriate (Boyer, 2011, 2012; Grant, 2016; Hausman, 2013) and might disrupt the comfort of others (Boyer, 2012). However, eventhough Indonesians are more accepting to public nursing, many mothers are quite opposing to the idea of exposing themselves in public while breastfeeding. This might be related to both religious believe and cultural background, where exposing one’s private body part (awrah) in public is unacceptable and can be regarded as sin and taboo. Aside from that, eventhough nursing mothers are rarely mistreated directly (with sharp remarks or rejection) in public space, they reportedly still often receive unwanted glare and other small gestures which caused discomfort when they performed breastfeeding publicly (Suryantini et al., 2012). Thus, the demand for privacy while breastfeeding is high and nursing room is seen as an important facility that is able to contain both the needs and comfort. Most of nursing mothers prefer to nurse in a dedicated space, and if there isn’t any nursing facility then they choose to nurse inside prayer rooms/mushalla and even toilet. Other options are to use various method to limit public view toward nursing activity and create their own boundary from public eyes using their dress, shawl/hijab or special cover for nursing (nursing cover), in order to create a semi-private space between their body and the public space. The self-created boundary is the simplest and most common method found for women when nursing in public, but it is not without difficulties as older babies tend to move a lot when nursed, thus it’s possible that the breast is accidentally revealed. Moreover, being inside a nursing cover isn’t always convenient for baby. The coverage around baby’s body, mother’s body heat and Jakarta’s hot and humid climate will raise the temperature inside and could possibly overheat the baby. Hence, many mothers still opt for nursing room when available. The demands and preference for breastfeeding in nursing room were clearly shown in questionnaire and interview result from our preceding research (Suryantini et al., 2012). From 95 nursing mothers who participated in the survey, it revealed that 69% were expecting nursing room facility and always use it when they are in public facilities, 23.7% would only use it when the room meet their standard of hygiene,cleanliness and safety, while only 1% were reluctant to use the facility. During field survey, our team discovered that accesibility was a major issue for mothers who were trying to use the space. Typologically passenger facilities in rail stations are placed in a seperate zone from waiting and boarding platforms (AMTRAK, 2013; Andersen, Goldstein and Fish, 2014; DfT, 2015; Wilson and Boaz, 2015), thus most nursing rooms are located at a separate zone from the waiting area, therefore mothers have to travel some distance to access it. Some nursing rooms are even located at a different level from the waiting platform and outside the control gate. In result, many nursing mothers felt reluctant and nursing rooms were mostly unoccupied and some were even locked. Our surveyors also reported many misused of nursing rooms, such as being used for activities unrelated to nursing (praying,eating,resting) and converted into other use (storage).

Fig.1 Typical railway station program, waiting and boarding is at seperate zone from amenities Source: (AMTRAK, 2013)

Design Method Objective of the project is to design an object that will accommodate nursing activities which located in public transportation space, specifically Jakarta’s commuter line station. Thus, the object will be designed to meet the context and requirements of urban railway station. Aim of this project is to accommodate nursing mother passengers so they can nurse comfortably while travelling. Thus the object,which we later called Nursing Cabin, is a modular and enclosed nursing space which can be placed in close proximity to waiting area and can be easily accessed by breastfeeding mothers without leaving transit platform area. Method used for developing the design is based on our preceding qualitative research which titled “Lactation Facilities in Urban Public Space” (Suryantini et al., 2012) that became the basis for design development. Outcome from the earlier study was a planning guideline for lactation facility within public space, which also included an ergonomic and anthropometric study of nursing activities and furniture. The guideline was used as point of reference for nursing cabin design. To understand better about the context and future user, we collaborated with PT.KAI, an Indonesian Railway Company and major railway operator in Indonesia, which is also the operator of our selected line (commuter line operates in greater Jakarta area or Jabodetabek). We also partnered with a train rider community, KRLmania, to get insight directly from its female members on their nursing experiences and preferences. Our two partners acted as stakeholders for the project, which represent operator and end-user. As a community engagement project,participation from the community involved is an important aspect (Simonsen and Robertson, 2013). During early design stages, we tried to involve both our partners in the process. Several focus group discussions were conducted to discuss about the project and to know better about the communities’ needs and preferences. After project completion, the installed design became a tool for understanding how users and operator interact with it. Observations on users’ behavior and their feedbacks were the key to fully understand how the design worked. Project Development Regarding to the issue of separation of waiting-transit and amenities area, we proposed a design which can be fitted into waiting platform area without violating circulation space. Waiting area is an ideal spot for the cabin due to its proximity to transit platform (in some smaller station these two areas are often merged). The cabin need to be located not too far from the transit platform,otherwise nursing mothers would hesitate to use it. It’s also based on an important finding from our preceding survey that despite opting for privacy, however nursing mothers also desire to be able to perform breastfeeding without being ‘away’ from the public. Therefore, we explored the idea and mechanism of being private in public, on how to create enclosure without being detached from surroundings and how to limit visual intrusion from outside but not entirely blocking other senses (user can still hear sounds, can still sense the changing of weather and time, can still smell its surrounding). It’s also important to note that, different from other nursing space, in railway station context the nursing bodies are in transit, hence they need to be more alert of their surroundings. This time-space limitation also applied to our initial ideas about form and structure. We decided that the object should be flexible enough to install or uninstall.

Project challenge and limitation Our Decision to place the nursing cabin within waiting area had led us to reduce the ideal dimension for the cabin. After much discussions with PT.KAI as operator, dimension of the cabin’s base should not exceed 1.5x1.5 m, or else it would interrupt the circulation space. Due to operator’s concern on the safety of passengers’ movement, cabin’s location decidedly couldn’t be located at the waiting platform but at the transition area right after ticketing gate. However, the appointed location was still not far apart from waiting platform and could be easily recognisable. The downside was the given location had difficult access to water and electricity. Ideally, the cabin should also accomodates other method of lactation instead of direct feeding eg. Expressing/pumping breastmilk, but due to very limited space and no access to water and electrical it is very hard to accomplish a proper lactation space as indicated by the AIA guideline and local breastfeeding associations (AIMI and Better Work Indonesia, 2013; USBC, 2011; AIA, 2008) Proposed Design Initially our design concept was to use existing furniture at waiting area (figure 2). We wanted to emphasize the ‘immediacy’ of nursing activity and that it can be done at the same furniture used by other passengers. Therefore, the object became an added feature to existing furniture by occupying a few seatings and enclosed it with modular partitions. Despite the simple mechanism, however, this design is problematic because according to PT.KAI, seating furnitures were not uniform in every stations. In addition to that, existing furniture at some stations were not suitable at all for breastfeeding activity (figure 3).

Fig.2 Our initial design: nursing space is merged into existing furniture at waiting area (source: Arvanda 2013)

Fig.3 Different type of seating furniture at commuterline stations. (Source : Made 2015)

Our discussions with train riders community gave significant insights and feedbacks for the design. Nursing mothers in the community were very detailed when asked to describe the qualities they wanted or not wanted. They also reminded us a lot about how perceptions affect breastfeeding, including material perception. Hence, after much discussion with both of our partners, we decided that the design need to be revised.

Figure 4. Words used to describe unwanted condition of nursing spaces

(Source: Arvanda 2016)

Figure 5. Words used to describe desired quality for nursing space (Source: Arvanda 2016)

The revised design still tried to maintain our initial idea of a flexible structure. In the second approach, the cabin was no longer depend on existing seating element but a freestanding knock-down structure which consisted of several surface modules that could be transported easily. The process of assembling and dismantling the cabin should be uncomplicated and doesn’t take too much time. With only 1.5x1.5m at base, the form need to be manipulated so the inside space wouldn’t feel too oppressive. The cabin’s materiality (the combination of solid and translucent parts, type of finishes, color and pattern of the surface) plays an important role to the perception of space and also on the durability, safety and hygiene aspect of the object. Eventhough the interior space dimension is small, we wanted to create a warm and welcoming atmosphere through its form and materiality.

Fig.6 Revised and final design. (Source: Harahap,2014)

Post Occupancy Evaluation The cabin was being installed and launched in January 2015 at two commuterline train stations in Jakarta. News of the cabin’s launching went viral after our train rider community partner upload the news on their twitter feed (figure 7). It even made news at two national television channel. Most important aspects from all the media coverage were the exposure on the importance of providing breastfeeding support in public facilities, and to spread widely the information about the facility to as many nursing mothers as possible. Our evaluation on the cabin’s performance began shortly after it was being installed. Although response from women passengers who were interviewed about the facility were positive, at its first months, usage of the cabin were still low. According to observations and interviews with passengers and station officers, we summed up several factors : lack of information about the facility (only few passengers had known about it prior to the interview); cabin was located nearby retail area and was often mistaken as part of the retail space hence wasn’t free to use; cabin was too publicly located (some passengers felt the location was too exposed); no extra space inside for accompanying spouse or older child. Interestingly, there were also comments about hesitation on using the cabin because it’s too boldly designed and preferred the design to be less stood out and blend well with the surroundings. After several months, usage were reported to be increased, although unfortunately we didn’t have the quantitive numbers. We presumed that riders had become familiar with the facility. Condition of the cabin was quite good, though cleanliness still need to be improved by more frequent cleanings. The cabin’s knock-down structure was still in good condition, but door hinges were reportedly broke down due to rough handling by the users (slamming,kicking door to shut).

fig.7 Installed cabin at Depok Baru station and netizens reactions on several social media platforms (source: Arvanda,2014)

Finally, after a year of being installed, we conclude that aside from technical aspects, issues regarding users’ perception need to be taken into account seriously otherwise the cabin would fail to provide comfort for its users. Location need to be renegotiated with the operator,because it turned out that although distance and accesibility is important the desire to maintain the acitvity as private is also necessary. Further improvement also need to address possibilities on providing facility to support other method of lactating (availability of electric sockets,access to water, sterilizing utility,etc) as for now, the only method is direct breastfeeding. Although PT.KAI as operator seemed to be convinced by the cabin’s performance and interested in duplicating it to more stations , they required that some features of the cabin need to be improved. We were delighted to find that PT.KAI as major transportation operator has taken nursing room issue very seriously. Thus, in the future hopefully nursing in public transportation facilities won’t be as troublesome as today. CONCLUSION The nursing cabin project started as a community engagement project under the category of technology transfer to society which directed at nursing facility issue in public transportation space. But as the project developed, it turned out that the cabin has another potential which was not merely for accomodating nursing space in train stations. The cabin also potentially becomes a tool for challenging the common practice of breastfeeding as a secluded activity within public space, and negotiate its presence within settled programmatic space of railway station typology. By bringing nursing space forward, hopefully it would boost nursing mothers’ will and confidence to keep breastfeeding even when they’re travelling. However, in regard to its cultural context, the cabin need to maintain breastfeeding as a private activity. Thus, enclosure was needed to protect privacy and private body parts from being visible to public eyes. Findings from post occupancy evaluation of the cabin showed that despite its seemingly small scale and uncomplex program, design of nursing spaces turned out to be very complicated. The cabin must contained activities which were very private yet had to be conducted in a very public space. Breastfeeding activity also relied on so many spatial perceptions and senses which when disturbed could possibly disrupt its quality. Hence, designer and operators of public facilities need to be aware that the design of nursing space is not only about providing space equipped with breastfeeding related furnishings, but to also taken into account intangible aspects and spatial perceptions which will influence the experience of breastfeeding within. In the future, we hope that all public facilities can be designed inclusively and fully considered of mothers and childrens’ needs. If this happens,hopefully the negative label attached to transportation space as a non-space will soon diminish and replaced by more human friendly and inclusive environment. Acknowledgement We would like to thank Ms. Rini Suryantini of Universitas Indonesia for her initiative to begin the initial research on Public Lactation Space and to support her fellow researchers to expand the topic. Thank you for sharing your thoughts of the paper, that greatly improved the writing. We would also like to show gratitude to PT Kereta Api Indonesia (KAI) for the partnership and to make this project possible.

REFERENCES AIA, 2008. Lactation Room Design. AIMI and Better Work Indonesia, 2013. Lingkungan Kerja Ramah Laktasi : Pedoman Untuk Perusahaan. AMTRAK, 2013. Amtrak Station Program and Planning Guidelines. Andersen, K., Goldstein, S. and Fish, C., 2014. STATION TYPOLOGY STUDY : CITY OF CHICAGO & METRA. Boyer, K., 2011. ‘The way to break the taboo is to do the taboo thing’ breastfeeding in public and citizenactivism in the UK. Health and Place, [online] 17(2), pp.430–437. Available at: . Boyer, K., 2012. Affect, corporeality and the limits of belonging: Breastfeeding in public in the contemporary UK. Health and Place, [online] 18(3), pp.552–560. Available at: . Cresswell, T. and Peter, M., 2011. Geographies of Mobilities: Practices, Spaces, Subjects. Ashgate. Cresswell, T., 2006. On The Move: Mobility in the Modern Western World. New York: Routledge. DfT, 2015. Design Standards for Accessible Railway Stations. London: BSI. Dinas Kependudukan dan Pencatatan Sipil Provinsi DKI Jakarta, 2015. Kepadatan Penduduk Per Wilayah Kota Administrasi. [online] Available at: [Accessed 16 May 2016]. Fikawati, S. and Syafiq, A., 2010. Kajian implementasi dan kebijakan air susu ibu ekslusif dan inisiasi menyusui dini di Indonesia. Makara Kesehatan, 14(1), pp.17–24. Grant, A., 2016. I Don’t want to see you flashing your bits around: Exhibitionism, othering and good motherhood in perceptions of public breastfeeding. Geoforum, [online] 71, pp.52–61. Available at: . Hausman, B.L., 2013. Things ( Not ) to Do with Breasts in Public : Maternal Embodiment and the Biocultural Politics of Infant Feeding Maternal ( Not ) to Do with Breasts in Public : Politics of Infant Feeding. 38(3), pp.479– 504. Jarrett, W., 2012. Human Transit : How Clearer Thinking About Public Transit Can Enrich Our Communities and Our Lives. Washington, DC: Island Press. Jensen, O.B., 2009. Flows of Meaning, Cultures of Movements – Urban Mobility as Meaningful Everyday Life Practice. Mobilities, [online] 4(1), pp.139–158. Available at: [Accessed 5 Jun. 2014]. Loukaitou-Sideris, A., Bornstein, A., Fink, C., Samuels, L. and Gerami, S., 2009. How to Ease Women ’ s Fear of Transportation Environments: Case Studies and Best Practices. San José, CA. Made, A., 2015. Aneka Bangku Penumpang Di Stasiun KRL Commuter Line. [online] Available at: [Accessed 26 May 2016]. Raahauge, K.M., 2008. Transit Space: No Place is Nowhere. Knowledge, Technology & Policy, [online] 21(3), pp.125–130. Available at: [Accessed 15 Jun. 2014]. Simonsen, J. and Robertson, T., 2013. Routledge International Handbook of Participatory Design. New York: Routledge. Suryantini, R., Arvanda, E., Murniawati and Kusuma, N.R., 2012. Ruang Laktasi di Kota : Kebutuhan dan Keberadaan Ruang Laktasi pada Fasilitas Umum. Depok. UNICEF, 2014. Annual Report Indonesia. [online] Available at: [Accessed 16 May 2016]. USBC, 2011. Statement On Lactation Accommodations In The Workplace. Wilson, T. and Boaz, Y., 2015. Station Design Principles for Network Rail. London.

READING RELIGIOUS SPACES THROUGH BELIEF SYSTEMS: THE COMPARISON OF SYNAGOGUE, CHURCH AND MOSQUE INTERIORS DILARA TÜFEKÇİOĞLU Research Asistant, Hacettepe University, Fine Arts Faculty, İnterior Architecture and Environmental Design, 06100 Ankara, e-posta: [email protected] Tel: 0506 564 45 42

ABSTRACT There are many different communities living in the world. The main reason for this difference is cultural differences. Culture; impacts on the community and distinguish between them through items such as experienced geography, climatic conditions, religious beliefs, worldview, economic and social structures. Thus, living spaces develop and differ in this direction. Religious belief systems are at the beginning of this items. Religion is a opinions about spiritual reality or the supernatural, as well as an organized system of beliefs and ceremonial traditions that are associated with each other. Almost all social-cultural systems -from the most primitive to the most advanced- have been found concepts of the religion. Human beings throughout the centuries have used the religious beliefs to give meaning existence, and have benefited from religion to bring order to the environment that they live together and to keep the connectivity of the community. They have also enabled the spread of religious beliefs by creating an rapturous impact on human consciousness shaping aesthetically object of religious worship. Hence, the conceps of religion and belief by making a big place in life, has demonstrated the effectiveness on the living spaces, including housing. This situation has given rise to religious buildings and places of worship that represents beliefs and worship that each of the systems to which they belong. How cultural items important to explain social differences in the community, it is extremely important that a study of the religious internal architecture to understand life of the community have specific religious traditions. Because, these structures; not only functionality in interior design but also meets the expectations of the place based on the atmosphere, also must meet. İn design of these spaces; it is important to make sense of the whole place for faith by balancing between space’s functional characters, symbolic values, visual quailities. The differences (which is) observed in interior design stems from differences in represented religious belief systems and in it’s forms of worship. At this point; to examine different belief systems and assess the relationship between faith-worship-space, it will help to understand the life of societies with different religious beliefs. İn line with this, in this study; from existing belief systems, three religious belief which will offer the possibility of a more accurate comparison – monotheistic religions – and their religious buidings have been selected for analysis. The aim of this studyis; to understand social life of different religious beliefs, to reveal the religion’s affects as cultural elements of spatial design and to share this information with designers so as to be used for good design; by comparing commonalities and differences of the belief systems of these three monotheistic religions and the spatial reflections on interior spaces. Keywords: Religious Belief, Religious Space Design, Forms of Worship, Religious İnterior

1. INTRODUCTION Through the history, from the lifestyles to the living spaces of the people, everything takes its shape via the concept of culture. Culture has become the reason of differences between societies by means of many elements like history, geography, language, religion, social order, customs and art. Among them, the religion has major weight and importance. The concept of religion could be observed almost at all socio-cultural systems, from the most primitive to the most sophisticated ones. For ages, human being has floundered to work out its social and ethical problems by appealing some imaginary entities, made use of uniting capacity of religion to hold the society together and it also ensured the pervasion of religious beliefs by creating an enthusiastic impact on human consciousness by way of aesthetic forming of worship objects. (Rızaoğlu, 2012 p. 16-17)

The individual adoption of the religion engendered the separation of special spaces in the houses for the religious beliefs and prayers. Then the recognition of the faith collectively, the emergence of monotheistic religions and the rise of the fact of community praying paved the way of constituting special spaces for worshipping. These spaces were shaped through the requirements of adopted religious orders. In this sense, within the monotheistic religions, it is crucial to scrutinize the belief and worship systems and their spatial equivalents in comprehending the construction of the religious interior spaces. 2. The Phenomenon of Religion and Fundamental Religious Concepts Religion is an organized system of interrelated faiths and ceremonial customs as well as the spiritual reality or metaphysical notions. Religion which ensures people to cope with problems that they could hardly elucidate or overcome – and moral faiths and customs which are less formalized – orient the people’s endeavors in interpreting the world at the same time. (Haviland, 2008 p.642) The word of “religion” in western languages derived from the “religio” in Latin which means “liability” or “tie”. In other words, it tells the connections of the believers to god or gods and to themselves by means of religion. (Adam, 2000 p.134) 2.1 Faith and Worship According to Erginer (1997 p.41) religion has two aspects with regard to its structure and function. One of these aspects consists of ideas and faiths, and the other is the deeds and liabilities related with these ideas and faiths. In general, in many of the definitions regarding to religion two basic features of it, the commitment that links people to god (faith) and performing some certain manners (worship) (Apaydın, 1999 p.2), become apparent. The matter of faith and belief appears at the substance of the religions and the necessity of confidence is the foremost element of every religion. The reflection of religions in the real life as practices constitutes the worship which is the second and perhaps the most important dimensions of religion. In this perspective, religion could turn into a concrete, observable and livable form from its abstract belief extent (…) only through the agency of worship. (Katar, 1998 p.59) Worships are recurring ceremonial practices which are done according to predetermined rules. (Matthews, 2010 p.3) Historically, human being always reflects his/her creed to a superior and sacred being through some deeds and prayers. (Olgun, 1963 p.XIII) 2.2 Sacred, Sanctity and Sacred Space From the outset, the sacred as a part of human experience signifies the case of having a peculiar character which is devoted for a religious aim or sprung from its relations with the god. (Hinnels, 1998 p.151) On the other hand, sanctity is a character that individuals or things possess owing to their close relations with god. (Güç, 1992 p.XIII) In this context, “the place that sacrifice offered to god (altar), temple or church is a sacred place; king or the priest is a sacred person; the book that god explains his own willpower is a sacred text; dance, music, chants and the manner of speaking that exalts supernatural beings are sacred rituals” (Sharp, 2000 p.49-50). Thus, the sacred describes the divinity and the scope of supernatural venue. Above all, sacred space is a predetermined place separated from all other areas. A location is sacred since a society heads for or conducts a sacrament there. This locus is regarded as the center of religious life and separated from other areas physically and holds in high esteem. (Eliade, 1991 p.X) According to Brereton "a sacred space attributes sanctity to religious activities performed in there and to figures and objects it has. […] The sacred space involves either constructed temples for religious purposes or religiously esteemed rivers, mountains etc. (Eliade, ibid p.XII) The primordial sacred places, [...] were the natural space or natural beings existed there. These were gained spiritual meanings over time and people believed that these places had divine contents. […] After adopting a sedentary life, parallel with the rise of civilization, the division of sacred places instituted by humans. This phase is the base of the phenomenon of sanctuary. During this period, people constructed various altars, sacred spaces and temples, tents, synagogues, churches, stupas, mosques, pilgrimage and holy fields where divine activities held or holy persons (saints) buried in, holy cities and districts as a part of collective prayer. […] these constructions as the oldest forms of sacred spaces are found in all cultures and religions. (Güç, ibid p.XIV-XV)

2.3 Place of Worship: Sanctuary, House of Prayer and Temple It is important to comprehend the notion of sacred space in explaining the concepts of “place and space of worship”. The definition of sanctuary like “considering its basic function and progress, a construction built in a sacred or common area at which collective worship take place” (De Vaux, 1988 p.282), “a place of worship, a peculiar structure to prayer in any of the religion” (Sami, 1899-1900 p.1396), “a specific construction for the people who belong to a religion to pray individually or collectively in some certain times” (Tuğlacı, 1972 p.1810)

could be made and its synonym is “house of prayers, place of worship” (Sami, ibid p.926). (in Güç, ibid p.IX) Every religion gives different names to worship spaces. But the meaning of these names are common and their contents are same with the Arabic originated concept of “mabed” (sanctuary). Generally, while in describing the sacred spaces of monotheistic religions Arabic and Persian words of “ibadethane” (house of prayer) and rarely “ibadetgah” (place of worship) are employed, for the sacred spaces of antiquity and polytheistic religions the word of “temple” is used. In the dictionary of TDK (Turkish Language Association) all the words have same meaning. The term of temple is defined in TDK dictionary as “a construction established for worship to god collectively”. Its equivalents in western languages derived from the Latin word “templum” and have the meaning of “a place reserved for oracle purposes” and “every closed and encircled place devoted to gods, shelter, tomb […]” (in Güç, ibid p.XI). This word is derived from the Greek words temenos-temno and refers to “an area devoted to gods, which is separated from the common usage of people, and defining the celestial area in which divine signs could be seen”. In the Hebrew and some other ancient languages, “Mabed = Temple” words have the meaning of “dome” or “palace”. Based on this definition, Orthodox priest Malaty (1994 p.23) characterized the church as a “temple”. In brief, the most important features of these structures are; a) these are the places where humans meet god, feel his existence and evaluate the place as the house of god, b) these are the places where communities come together and worship collectively. The most concrete examples are synagogues in Judaism, church in Christianity and mosque in Islam. 3. Monotheistic Religions and Faith-Belief Systems Monotheistic religious doctrine, material and spiritual, depends on a priori and constant assents which are composed of apparent or invisible truths. These assents are based on an absolute belief to supernatural existence, so to speak the god, his messengers and holy books. A belief to a universal, omnipotent and omnipresent and a unique god has come into question. As Hegel states (2008 p.182) that “there is only one god, god […] is god since he is the unigue”. According to these doctrines the god is the creator of world and asks human beings only to worship the god himself by means of his prophets (messengers). The messages (revelations) were collected in the holy books (texts) and these guide books turned into fundamental references of related belief system and religious doctrine. (Sargın, 2012 p.26) 3.1 Judaism and its Perception of Worship Judaism (Yehuda/Judea in Hebrew, Jew and Jewish clans in Arabic) is a belief system appeared for the first time among the Hebraic people who were one of the Semitic groups and migrated from Arab Peninsula to the city of Ur in Mesopotamia (Altıntaş, 2012 web). The base of this belief was one of the oldest living religious customs and depends on the existence and uniqueness of the god. Judaism (about 2000 B.C), […] was commenced with an agreement made between the prophets who were the ancestors of Jewish people at the same time, and the god. Basically, the usage of the terms of the “Judaist”, the “Jew”, “Jewish” and the “Israelite” refers to the religious of Judaism (pertaining to Moses). (Kaufmann, 1974 p.270, 268) For these reasons the God – Israel – the Torah (Agreement, Testament = the Torah) are the inseparable trinity. In Judaism, especially during the first temple period, sacrificing was seem to be the most crucial pray and for this purpose, animals were sacrificed in the Temple in the Jerusalem during the daytime. (Katar, 1997 p.45-46) Besides […] sacrificing ceremonies performed in some spaces out of the Jerusalem. After the Babylon exile, the sacrifice ceremonies were hold only in the temple of the Jerusalem. Therefore, various worships like prays and the reading of the holy book in the synagogues which built away from the Jerusalem, replaced the altars. (Parrinder, 1961 p. 173-174, Moore, 1920 II p. 76-77) (in Katar, 1998 p.69)

After the Babylon exile, during the second temple period […] daily praying practices came into prominence. After the second and the last destruction of the temple and the scattering of the Jewish population all around the world the possibility of sacrificing terminated totally. This was substituted by praying three times in a day […] and Sabbath day. (Cohon, 1948 p.298, Moore, 1920 II p.76-77) (in Katar, 1998 p.70) Sacraments are practiced towards the direction of the Jerusalem (Yeruşalayim). The effects of the Persian and Mesopotamian religious thoughts could somehow be observed in the Jewish holy books written during and after the Babylon exile. (Encyclopedia Iranica, 2005) These are the belief of descend of a redeemer, the concepts of heaven and hell as instruments of reward and punishment, and the idea of judgment after the life. Furthermore, these thoughts, customs and morality have significant impacts on the other monotheistic religions as well as the Judaism. In this regard, these common texts and practices took place in the bases of Christianity and Islam as well.

Jewish faith is a life style which associates with fundamental moral values and concepts, and inherited customs. There is no clergy. Instead, there are rabbis which means “wise person” in Hebrew. “The rabbis are the spiritual leaders who find solutions to social and religious problems of the society with their deep Torah knowledge and intuitions” (Sargın, ibid p.30). Ethnic and ideological discrepancies and different sects and movements appeared among the Jewish community who expanded different parts of the world after the Babylon exile. Thus, there emerged some worship differences between distinctive convictions. 3.2 Christianity and its Perception of Worship Christianity is a Middle East originated monotheistic religion. The principal of the faith is the “holy trinity” of the God, Jesus Christ and the Holy Spirit. That means one god in three divine persons. Although, it implies three different notions related to the god, all three notions merged in a unique conception of the god. In Turkish, Christians are also called “İsevi” which means pertaining to Jesus Christ. There is no consensus on the exact dates of birth and death of the Christ. Nevertheless, Christians were thought to appeared for the first time in the course of the great fire of the Rome in 64 AC. Initially, there was no peculiar Christian praying practice except the rite of bread and wine. Indeed, historical sources indicate that the very first Christians continued to practice Jewish prays 15, […] and visited synagogues for their daily prays. (in Katar, 1998 p.71) Besides, the holy text of the Christianity composes of two parts; the Old Testament and the New Testament. Christians, attribute sanctity to the Old Testament as well, since they embrace the agreement in Judaism made between the god and Moses. However, due to their beliefs to a new testament 16, they tended to dissociate from the practices and beliefs of Judaism. On the other hand, as the number of the idolatry originated Christians […] increased within the synagogues and they hold exempted from the Jewish worships that the first Christians practiced. (Katar, 1997 p.99-100) Thus […] from the initial phase of Christianity onward, the “Eucharist” rite related with the resurrection of the Jesus […] continued to sustain its existence. At the beginning of the 4 th century […] several churches organized different liturgies for the Eucharist rites (bread-wine). (Happold, 1971 p.52-53) While in the ceremonies of Orthodox churches incense, chrism and candles are used in the standing rites in addition to hymns and holy texts; in Catholic churches confession made in the holy text reading rituals in which the sign of cross and genuflection being made occasionally, and host and wine (as the representation of blood and body of the Jesus) are served. Although, the practices and perceptions of the worship vary across the churches depending on their social conditions, the Eucharist has always been the base of the worship. The Eucharist which means thanksgiving and the belief that people get purified after baptism are common in all churches. Baptism is mandatory to attain this belief system. The church has been conducted by persons who employed by the first apostle or chosen by the believers. Thus, there emerged a clergy. There are some conviction and worship differences between sects as a result of dissidences on religious thoughts, Jesus, Mother Marry and the bible. 3.3 Islam and its Perception of Worship Islam is a monotheistic and Middle East originated religion as well. In 7th century, it started to spread around the Arab Peninsula through the Prophet Mohammad. “Islam” as an Arabic word literally means submission or surrender to the will of god. The Muslims’ “Allah” is the unique (el-vahid) god who been believed, surrendered and has no rival, and Mohammad is his prophet. The notion of indivisible oneness (tawhid in Arabic), which also means believing in Allah and describing him as being one and unique, is the principle of the Islam. (Faruki, 2006 p.27-30) Muslims regard that the will of the Allah of which all humanity should submit is inspired to the Prophet Mohammed by the Archangel Gabriel and gathered in the holy Qur’an. There are some rules and worship forms in Islam that is related with the daily life practices of individuals and social life. Namaz (Salah) is one of the most important of them. After the Miraj (the Prophet Mohammed ascension) Muslims are commanded to perform the Namaz five times a day. The practice of this pray underwent no change until today. “The verses of the Qur’an are read during the Namaz which performed through a series of physical behaviors like ‘ruku’, ‘qiyam’ and ‘sajdah’” (Katar, 1998 p.75). The Islam diverged from the other religions since the systematic, steady and well-disciplined Namaz pray is subject to no change. The most prominent and significant prayers in other religions are either affiliated or 15 The very first Christian community was percieved as a peculiar sect of the Judaism since they had firm connections with the norms and the prays of Jews. (in Katar 1998, p.71) 16 The second part of the Holy Bible, the New Testament, was written during the life or after the death of Jesus by his followers. Matthew, Mark, Luke and John bibles consist of the first four parts of the new testament. (Sargın, ibid p.34)

changed by religious dignitaries or differentiated its own meanings and forms. However, among the Muslim societies, there are disaccords in political, administrative, hermeneutic and praying practices. Nonetheless, “apart from the numerous different sights and sectarian movements, all Muslims have an ideal and common conviction and a sense of pertaining to a unique community (ummahism)” (Sargın, ibid p.39). On the other hand, all other religions instrumentalize some persons like religious men and objects like god image or sculptures in their prayers. But in Islam, there are no means and mediators between humans and the god, and each individual prays directly to the god. (Katar, 1998 p.75) Every monotheistic religion venerates the previous monotheistic belief systems. For instance, the Jerusalem is the spiritual center of the Judaism and it is seen sacred in Islam as well. The spiritual center of the (the Qibla) Islam is Mecca and the Caaba. The Namaz is performed and verses and surahs of the Qur’an are read through the direction of Mecca. 4. The Phenomenon of Religious Space in the Monotheistic Religions, Religious Interior Architecture: The Spatial Reflection of Worship Perception Sanctuaries are the organized religion and prayer spaces. […] In particular, traditional sanctuary architecture and interior architecture reflect the basic thoughts of related belief systems. (Sargın, ibid p.67-68) The notion of God is a common feature of the Judaism, the Christianity and the Islam and all of their worship spaces are buildings with surrounded walls and generally sheltered with roof. […] Under the space of dome or roof the tiny universe, so to say, the earth is located and it reflects the great universe, in other words the firmament. (Sargın, ibid p.69) In all three religion, collective prays hold in high esteem than the individual prays. For this purpose, there is a central space in the sanctuaries of three religions which enables collective praying. Additionally, designing some certain equipments or special spaces for the holy books to be preserved and read is identical more particularly in Islam and Judaism. The differences between sanctuaries, in the sense that each belief system describes itself, reveal in expressing different interior architecture styles. The decorations of the houses of the prayer, particular spaces allocated to religious officials, the plans concerning the communities’ sitting sites and their flows to inside or outside, other service spaces and their extensions realized as regards to instructions. Furthermore, it is clear that several elements that constitute the culture like the construction date, region, climate, local character and building material, social demands and technology are influential factors on religious architecture and interior architecture. 4.1 Jewish Belief and Synagogues Jewish temples are called “Havra” in Turkish which means “unity” in Hebrew. Its equivalent is “Synagogue” in the western languages. According to Alalu et. al. (2001 p.255) “Besides being a house of worship in Jewish life style, “Havra” is also a space that organization and implementation of culture, education and social service and solidarity take place.” Having a glance over, synagogues do not have a strict architecture style; instead, they are compatible with the local architecture forms and culture (plan types with courtyard and dome). Moreover, the other religions’ structures influence the synagogues (basilica plan type). (Figure 2, 4) In addition to that, there are some peculiar and characteristic interior space elements in the synagogues architecture which cover the requirements of faith and worship system.

Figure 32 Hurva Synagogue, Jerusalem (www.myjewishlearning.com)

Figure 2 Reader’s platform in Synagogue (http://www.eldridgestreet.org/)

The basic prayer that forms the construction of the interior space of synagogues is rites of reading Torah texts. “Reading the Torah which preserved in the shelves located in the part of synagogues facing the Jerusalem is the most important phase of the rites. During the process of taking out and putting back of the texts, community comes to its feet respectfully.” (Parrinder, ibid p.174, Hillard, 1978 p.143-144) (in Katar, 1998 p.71) Alaha (Sargın, ibid p.72) depicts the interior space organization as; “The Ark of the Covenant (a place that Torah texts preserved in) should located in the direction that community looking at and the platform that Torah is read on (bima) should be at the center.” (Figure 1, 2, 5) Thus, the location and point of the reading platform designate the composition of the seats of the community, in other words order of the all the interior space. This is generally like theater array. The reading platform is at the center, sitting benches are located in front of or around the three sides of it. (Figure 1-3, 5)

Figure 3 Beth Sholom Synagogue, Pennsylvania, ABD (www.jewishjournal.com)

Figure 4 Sofia's Central Synagogue, Bulgaria (www.novinite.com)

In Judaism, religious obligations take place with the attendance of at least 10 men older than 13. This is called “minyan” and these obligations entail a gathering space. (Figure 5 No:3) The women stand at a different place which is separated by a lattice or curtains. This is, however, not a privacy measure, but the fact that only men can worship in Judaism.

1.Kutsal Dolap 2. Kürsü 3. Merkezi İbadet Alanı 4. Oturma sıraları 5. Ön Bölüm 6. Giriş Kapısı

Figure 5 Central plan scheme in synagogue interior architecture (Sargın, ibid p.73)

Figure 6. Cesky Krumlov Synagogue, Chech Republic (www.jewish-heritage-europe.eu/)

According to Alalu (ibid p.258) the Talmud forbids the praying in a place with no window. It is emphasized that windows are needful to ensure the light that enables the power of self-esteem and self-surrender which are required for the praying. Even, it is indicated that the place should have 12 windows that represent 12 clans. For this reason, in synagogues natural illumination acquired from the windows (included stained-glass windows) is crucial. (Figure 3-5) Various botanical and geometric adornments, mosaic and motifs are used in the surface ornaments of interior spaces. Jewish belief forbids the usage of icons, portraits, pictures, statues or figures belonging to human body (Figure 4, 6) Although, the usage of the colors varies, in special days and occasions, also in Torah covers and all other religious accessories white is preferred. For Jews, white “symbolizes purity and purification” (Alalu, ibid p.48). (Figure 1, 3, 5)

Apart from them, in great synagogues, there are ceremony room, two separate kitchen, milk and meat, where kosher (prepared in accordance with Jewish religious practices) foods prepared, water basin at the basement floor which is called “mikve” and used for physical and spiritual purification, and an archive room, called “genize”, for the abandoned religious stuffs. (Sargın, ibid p.73) 4.2 Christian Belief and Churches In its historical process, church interior architecture differentiated considering period, geographical region, culture and religious thought. There are lots of different interior space types from the home-churches to Roman basilical planned and Byzantine dome shaped and central planned churches. However, all of them established “for performing basic worships” and all of their parts facing to east (the Jerusalem = Qibla) called “Holy Zone”. The principal worship of the Christianity is “the Eucharist”. In the ritual, bread and wine, representing the body and blood of the Jesus, are blessed. Stegers (2008 p.13) explains this issue as; “The worship of the Christianity has dual character. Commemoration of the sacrifice of the Christ contains the communion of the bread and wines both in verbal and ritual forms.” The verbal communion begins with the reading of the bible which conveys the Christ’s message, and then followed by reading the letters of apostles. (Sargın, ibid p.36) This kind of worship brings about the need for a rostrum and altar as two focal points. The positions of these points are interpreted differently in different sects and forms the general plan schemes of the churches. There are two types of interior space constructions which are “traditional plan scheme” (Figure 7) that bases the altar and “central plan scheme” (Figure 8) that bases the rostrum.

Figure 7-8 “Traditional plan scheme” and “Central plan scheme” in interior architecture of the Church (Sargın, ibid p.76)

It is thought that the traditional plan scheme depends on the interior space constructions of the Roman period home-churches. According to Ken Collins (2012) “[…] when the building converted to the church, the courtyard turned into nave, dining place into altar area and chopping block into altar”. While this kind of plan was adopted by all the sects, the central plan scheme adopted by the sects emerged in 19 th century USA. The positioning of the altar in a platform across the sitting benches (nave) is common in two plan types. Furthermore, in central plan type, in front of the altar, there is a bulge called “bema” (synagogue-bima) where the seats for rostrum, choir and other important persons located. (Figure 9,10) Baptism bowl that is used during the baptism, another important worship, composes one of the four focal points in churches’ interior spaces with nave, altar and rostrum. The nave, gathering area, is built as sitting on benches in some sects and standing on feet in some others. (Figure 10,11) In the construction of the churches, natural materials like wood, natural stones and bricks are used as the expression of the idea that the god is the creator of all things. Natural stones are rather preferred because of representing the holy power with their durability and solidity features.

Figure 9 St. Peter's Bazilical Church’ plan - Nave - Bema – Altar (Sargın, ibid p.75)

Figure 10 Mater Dolorosa Katholic church, Turkey (www.wikimapia.org /8218007/tr/)

Forms and adornments like frescos, carvings, sculptures and mosaics used typically in interior spaces. (Figure 11) But Protestant thoughts strictly forbid the drawing, sculpture and depictions. Although the use of colors varies depending on designs, white, red and blue17 have spiritual meanings. Windows are elements of interior space as well. Vitreous glasses depicting scenes in the bible set in the windows. (Figure 12, 13) These stained-glass windows have been used for ages as an instrument for the believers’ commitments to religion. “As Otterstatter, a Protestant priest asserts that artistic glasses call the worshippers attention to the natural light coming inside, function as a barrier to disconnect them from the outer world and so support the sense of unity and solidarity.” (in Sargın, ibid p.77)

Figure 11 Otosefal Orthodox church, Ukrania (www.tuid.org.ua)

Figure 12, 13 stained-glass windows in churches (Rızaoğlu, ibid p.78,84)

The use of the some elements of the interior architecture of the churches diminished or disappeared over time. Also some elements differentiated as regards to region, culture and sects. Apsis, atrium, courtyard, chapel and side altar and even altar are some of these elements. (Figure 9) Elements like dressing room, holly stuff relic room and confession place are existed in most of the churches. Besides the worships, wedding and funeral ceremonies are performed in the churches as well. 4.3 Islam Belief and Mosques In Islam, all parts of the world are the masjids of the god. Thus, one does not need a specific place to worship. Nevertheless, the motives like the importance of unity and solidarity; ensuring social control and the consciousness of spirituality lead to requirement of performing prays collectively in a certain space. Muslims developed their own architectural styles in a short period of time due to the religious necessities like cleaning and praying (Namaz) collectively. As well as the regional and cultural differences, all plans of the mosques base on Masjid Nabawi (Figure 14) which was built in 7th century and serves as public prayer space, administration and education center and finally shelter (Külliye = Social Complex) for poor. This structure facing 17 White symbolizes as the innocence of the spirit, the purity of thought and the sanctity of life in the Old Testament. Red symbolizes the protection of Rehab’s house at the cost of his blood and blue which used in the holy tent is a symbol of celestial life. (Malaty, ibid p. 253)

Mecca is a building which has a courtyard with two or three doors and a roofed area of praying fortified by pillars. The construction of the interior space of the mosque is basically set up on this central indoor space and open spaces of central courtyard. (Figure 14, 15)

Figure 14 Masjid Nabawi plan scheme (Çam, 2008 p.231)

Figure 15 Mosque interior plan scheme (Sargın, ibid p.87)

Indoor central space is identified by a regular geometric floor and dome-shaped, conical or another central ceiling form. […] While the ceiling emphasizes the centrality and unity, the floor emphasizes the direction and spatial expansion. The central space is not divided by walls since Muslim communities need a wide area for the collective worship. […] There is no center for praying in a mosque […] quite simple interior spaces in respect to spatial images and symbols express the fact that the divinity is omnipresent. (Akkach, 2005 p.179, in Sargın, ibid p. 82) (Figure 15-18)

In the doom-shaped plan types, the doom refers to volume and splendor of the interior space, arranges acoustic functionally and symbolizes the universe emblematically. (Figure 16, 17)

Figure 16, 17 Suleymaniye Mosque interior, Turkey (www.hvac.turkey.com)

Figure 18 Spatial expansion in Mosque (www.dubaiinteriors.ae)

The interior elements of the mosques that define the spatial construction is much more simple and the space is almost empty. The basic elements are “mihrab” and “minbar”. The Mihrab is embedded in the wall of the Qibla and is the determinant of worship direction both in inner and outer space. Minbar is a raised rostrum with stairs in which imam reads the “khutbah”. It is believed that the god is standing at the uppermost, thus the orator stands at the middle and denotes to believers that he is on the way going to the god. Functionally, it is aimed for imam to announce to the community and to stay at the center of their interests. Furthermore, there is a platform, raised with same purposes, called “dikkah in the same direction with the mihrab” in which muezzin recites the Azan. (Figure 19)

Figure 19 Sultan Hassan Mosque, Egypt –mihrab and minbar– (www.marvelbuilding.com/sultan-hassan-mosque.html)

Figure 20 Mosque interior surface ornaments (www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheikh_Lotfollah_Mosque)

The most significant conditions of the Islam are cleaning and purification. For this reason, there are shelves or cabinets for the shoes in the entrance of the mosques; since it is not possible to enter worship space with shoes. Due to the fact that the performing of ritual ablution is essential, there are ablution places located in inner and outer spaces. Apart from these, there is a part in the mosques called “the last community place” for the ones who arrive late to the salah (namaz). This place, generally with arcade, is located out of central worship place, in other words nave, and at a point higher than the courtyard which is in front of the entrance door. There is a separate entrance and worship place for women in the mosques. However, the position of this place has sectarian differences. The mosque is also a culture and education center and a meeting place. For this reason, as well as the parts like “gasilhane” (a place where the deceased are washed and prepared before the burial), there are some spaces like rooms for imam and muezzin, classes for teaching and libraries in the mosques. The fundamental principal of the monotheistic religions is the refusal of the graven images. From this point of view, it is strictly forbidden to use any human or animal statues or pictures in the inner space of the mosques. Alternatively, on the walls, doors and doom or roof of the mosques, there are botanical and geometric engravings, handwriting techniques like calligraphy on plates and boards which composes the verses of Qur’an and names of the Allah. (KAhera, 2009 p.84, in Sargın ibid p.85) (Figure 19, 20)

The ornament materials, colors and methods vary with regard to local culture; for instance, at the inner walls tile laying, marble, wood and natural stones could be used. (Figure 20) 5. Conclusion The concept of religion is basically based on belief and the reification of this belief by going into action. For ages, human being needs to believe a transcendence existence beyond his/her own being and reflects this necessity by the worship. He/she attributes sanctity to all the things related to transcendence existence, “the God or Allah”. One of these things is the worship places – temples. People construct the place of worships to represent their belief systems and perform religious practices. While the architecture and interior architecture of the temples have been shaped by the impacts of geography, history, art and many others which are the sub elements of the culture, the primary determinant of the religious structures has been the religious orders. In this context, the differences originated from the peculiar religious thoughts and practices rise to surface in the religious spaces. Above all, in the monotheistic religions, the existence being believed is common and unique, thus graven images are denied. Similarly, it is believed that the will of the god transferred by the messengers and holy books. Worships like reading the holy texts and praying, and the perception of sacred places and qiblah are common. Also, in all the three religions, collective prayers regarded as more virtuous. For this reason, there are some special elements like holy cabinet – rostrums – minbar within the house of prayers of these religions primarily for the preservation and reading of the holy texts. The construction of the space is shaped since these elements are at focal points. The altar used in the Christian prayers has the same role in a manner. The position of these elements is planned towards the perception of Qiblah. In fact, the qiblah is the major elements in determining the direction of the worships and construction of interior space. For the reason that the community prays together, a central meeting spaces are constructed in all temples. These spaces are interpreted diversely in each religion; one of them is organized suitable for the standing and the other for sitting benches, and the floor of one other is kept empty or covered with carpets for the praying. However, the purpose is same. Denial of the graven

images leads to use of plain, simpler and modest spaces and abstract decorations especially in the interior architectures of the synagogue and the mosque. It is aimed for the prayers to feel the spiritual ambient and set a connection with the god by not concentrating on worldly things. But the churches are the house of gods in the Christian belief. This case inspires the usage of a series of interior architecture elements in symbolic expressions which draw attention by the various ornament and accessory items to make feel the supreme of the god in an impressive atmosphere. The temples of the monotheistic religions, function as a point of connection between the God, the creator of all the things, and the creatures. This connection materialized in the interior space with the continuation of the outer space. Because, in the designs of these places, the continuity of the social life is constitutive. In this context, besides the religious functions, another common point of temples of each three religions is their social functions like weddings, funerals and education. In conclusion, although the religious thoughts and their practices differ from each other, the fundamental features of the religious interior space are same. Temples are the “god centered” structures that reflect the belief systems and lead the believers to connect with the divine. They are substantially the spaces that the same belief shared but differently interpreted and expressed with different ways. What really matter in the religious interior space is that to truly comprehend belief system, the logic of worship and spatial tradition; to find out their interrelations; and then to conceive the meaningful whole through the pieces by internalizing absorbed information. To blend this holistic view with the professional knowledge would enable new creative and inspirational contributions and add different dimensions to the designs of temples and places of worships.

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A CURRENT SPECTRUM OF PARTICIPATORY DESIGN APPROACHES IN TURKEY: LEARNING FROM A GRADUATE COURSE MELAHAT KÜÇÜKARSLAN EMİROĞLU Assist. Prof., Bahçeşehir University

ABSTRACT This study deals with participatory design, its implementations in practice -mostly in urban context- and its influences on design education to understand the current situation of co-designing in Turkey. Participatory design for -architectural space- is not a very recent term in means of its connotative meanings, but in practice still not a well-known phenomenon in Turkey. It is often in some cases that the challenges by citizens or occupants of urban space or residential areas make impacts on emergency of merging roles in dialogue between players in design process and some educational initiatives to bring close together users, professionals, locals, and other stakeholders to collaborate within co-designing activities. In the content of a graduate course titled as User Participation: Customization of Spaces, Interior Design graduated students raised important questions. This paper tries to enlighten highlighted questions of students dealing specifically on the place of participatory design in design education in Turkey, and practices and realized implementations of participatory design as a manifestation of the current spectrum of Turkey. Keywords: participatory design, design education, implementations, Turkey Prologue: Demand or invitation to participate The term participation can be taken into consideration both as a demand to participate or invitation to participate. Demanding of participating in a process or to have a right to say a word, to add opinion for a new entry to public life mostly comes to being as a public challenge or comes up as civil commotions in developing countries, such as Turkey. Moreover, inviting for participation in a process or to involve others to say their words, to vote, to select or to work together mostly happens as loose end in countries where democratic reflexes are not yet adequately assimilated via all citizens. De facto is that participation is an existential status. Since very beginning of the humankind, participation as a part of social life has been developed and come around in different conditions and levels. In architectural design field, after the social destructions in cities and societies left behind the 2nd World War, there had initiated a recuperation period in 1960s in which human-centred design and decision processes had gained value (Sanoff, 2008). As a return of this, the idea of including user into designing process systematically has penetrated into discussions of architectural design. Sanoff (2000) predicates the achievement of the approaches with user participation on the reality that the locals have more awareness on environmental realities than architects, designers or other professionals. This point of view is embraced with recognition of the values and experiences of the user and thoughts that the communication and interaction between designer and user should be enriched. The levels of user’s participation to design process as passively or actively, or directly or indirectly and the status of designer in design process had been taken as determinants of the process, while analysing the participatory cases. These determinants distinguish the levels of participation during design process as ‘designing for user’ or ‘designing with user’, in another words taking ‘user as subject’ or ‘user as partner’. Actually, distinction with these two viewpoints manifests the definition of co-designing, which is actually not new at all, has taken significantly different paths in the US and in Europe. The evolution in design research from a user-centred approach to co-designing is changing the roles of the designer, the researcher and the person formerly known as the ‘user’ (Sanders and others, 2008); the actual actor of the process who will be affected from the end product. In this respect, it is the most initial question to be asked for participatory cases in countries such as Turkey that whether the situation can be described as a demand for participation or an invitation to participate. Collective acts of creativity: a third space Within this kind of landscape, although from a general perception the term ‘participatory design’ signifies the dialogue, communication, collaboration and co-operation between designers and users, but what kind of

communication, collaboration and even co-operation could be realized? Indeed, participatory design can be defined as set of rules, methods and theories that tries to work towards an enhanced participation of all stakeholders in the design process. Today, in the area of participatory design worldwide, the notions of cocreation and co-design have been growing; terms often confused and/or used synonymously with one another. Confusions are emerging from the different viewpoints on who, in what role and when should be involved in these collective acts of creativity. Thus, more specifically, it is also important to distinguish the proposition that not only the user who is meant to be collaborated with, but also various different participants. For the purpose of understanding the current situation of co-designing in Turkey, it seems compulsorily relevant to deal with urban context and design education by questioning participatory cases of design practices. In the content of architectural design, the term participatory design does not seem as a very recently learned issue, meaning that each citizen or user or so-called participant or prospective participant has more or less a kind of explanation to define what could it be to participate in design. These explanations frequently exhibit an understanding of the need for asking to user in reality what s/he wants, coinciding mainly with the definition of user-centred design. However, in a scientific study of an endeavour to set guidelines for participatory design together with persons with dementia; it is stated that involving all stakeholders in the design process is often seen as a necessity from both a pragmatic and a moral point of view (Hendriks, Truyen, Duval, 2013). From pragmatic point of view, by working in close collaboration, there would be a higher chance to achieve a successful design work, which could manifest the preferences of the future generations. From the moral point of view, particularly, the idea of bridging the knowledge of the actual users and the designers (Spinuzzi, 2005) on political and ethical grounds is the initial acceptance. In this respect, the ultimate targets of participatory design approaches can be set as foreseeing future users and designing together. Muller’s (2002) suggestion provides a seminal input by stepping forward the idea that use of participatory design practices generates in or creates an in-between zone, a hybrid space, or a third space. “This third space gives way for dialogues between the different stakeholders (a designer or developer, an end user, a policy maker, etc.) of a design process and in this way becomes a space where mutual learning and collaboration (designing together) can take place”. Basically, user, as so other suggested participants, is considered as design partner- throughout the designing process. Indeed, theory developed over the last six decades in developed countries and in co-design theories defines participatory approach as collective creativity of collaborating designers and people not trained in design working together in the design development process. In connection with interaction design, service design, transformation design, user-centred design, design processes with co-designing aims getting closer to future users, designing for the future experiences of people, citizens, communities and culture. Particularly, worldwide designers who are increasingly looking towards to users of the future and the innovation in design research have been understood as co-designing with their users. Indeed, it should be mentioned on an evolution in design research from a user-centred approach to co-designing that comprises a power for a change in the designing practice. This is promising in terms of creating new fields of collective creativity, involving such hope that this change will give way for a more sustainable living in the forthcoming times. The inferences of this change for the education of designers, researchers and implementations of practitioners are very important concern of today’s world. However, best-known proposals of co-designing originate from business and marketing fields relative to design practice in developing countries. The primary reason of this can be defined as the threat in co-designing for hierarchy and control in existing power structures. In some cases, the challenges by citizens or occupants of urban space or residential areas make impacts on emergency of merging roles in dialogue between players in design process in Turkey, which may be promising. Relying on this reality, it is considered as a crucial study area to deal with possible third space of Muller; the space created by participatory design approaches as domain of collective acts of creativity, by investigating the ways in which it is generating in the context of place-making activities and educational initiatives in Turkey. In search of participatory design approaches in Turkey In the content of a graduate course titled as User Participation: Customization of Spaces, Interior Design graduated students raised important questions, which are manifesting current enthusiasm of designing together, concurrently with scepticism of whether co-designing and co-creating could be a reality in Turkey: In what way and to what extent should user/citizens be engaged into design process? Is there any realized implementation of participatory design in our country? How is the place of participatory design in curriculum of design educations in our country? Consequently this study tries to enlighten highlighted questions of students dealing specifically on design education, practices and implementations of participatory design and manifests the current spectrum of Turkey. The study presents a comparative analysis of the collected data by the students while concurrently evaluation of student’s getting familiarity to the concept of participatory design and developing tendency to

engage in such a collective activity. Due to limited schedule of an academic semester, the collected data cannot demonstrate a constant end finding on given subject, but adequately exhibits valuable evaluations reflecting the engagement of students to the issue. Method IMT5424 User Participation in Design: Customisation of Spaces is an elective course given in 2015-2016 academic year throughout spring semester in graduate programme of Interior Design at Bahçeşehir University in Istanbul. Within the given course, after overviewing worldwide implementations of participatory design throughout the first half of the course schedule, the students of the course forwarded their questions on the current spectrum of Turkey on participatory design practices. Questions raised by students demonstrated their enthusiasm on codesigning practices and whether they could be participators in any case or not, besides their scepticism on possibility of the realization of this kind of co-operation in the context of Turkey. During the second half of the course, students conducted two separate researches: 1) the place of participatory design in design education in universities of Turkey, and 2) degrees and levels of implementations related to participatory design in Turkey. First group took in consideration the place of participatory design in design education in universities of Turkey by analysing it in means of conceptual and practical involvement of the term. Second group took in consideration the degrees and levels of implementations related to participatory design in Turkey by investigating the phases of participation in different cases categorized by them after scanning all obtainable data about implementations. Each group has conducted researches independently, set their methods of analysis, developed reports by mentoring of the author of this paper. This study is an endeavour to overview the numeric data gathered by these researches to reveal the interpretations of the students of a graduate course on participatory design, spontaneously manifesting a kind of profile for current situation of collective acts of creativity in Turkey. Place of participatory design in design education in universities of Turkey The outcomes from the study of 1st group demonstrate that the concept of participatory design in design departments of universities in Turkey does not taken its role as a catalyser for dominating the whole design education. Practically, workshops and projects applied with participatory approaches exhibit various different valuable initiatives open to improvements. 1 st group of students conducted interviews with valuable number of design department’s heads in Turkey. The data collected from the interviews shows that in case the students are given a real location for scheduled projects throughout the design education; 1. Students have chance to make exposure visits depending on limits that university admins provide, 2. Students have chance to make site-analysis, 3. Students have chance to communicate with real users (if possible) 4. Students may have chance to interview with administrative people if provided by instructors. For the purpose of investigating the place of participatory design conceptually in design education in Turkey, 1st group scanned 124 web-sites of universities in Turkey that are giving architecture education, by filtering terms such as user / people-centred, participatory design, user, needs, etc. in the body of texts titled as ‘department’s mission / vision’ or ‘message from departments’ head’. They coincided with these terms 38 times. The same scanning is done for the departments of Interior Design and Industrial Design for 93 universities in Turkey and coincided with the terms 28 times in Interior Design departments and 59 times in Industrial Design departments. Additionally 1st group conducted a research on the curriculums and course contents of these departments by filtering the terms user, participatory design, participant, human / people and found that %16 of the departments of Interior design curriculums and course contents embrace participatory design conceptually among 93 departments. Moreover, among 59 industrial design departments in Turkey, %23 of their curriculums and course contents has indications on participatory design conceptually. For the purpose of investigating the place of participatory design practically in design education in Turkey, 1 st group scanned 124 architecture, 93 Interior Design, and 58 Industrial Design department’s official Internet sites in terms of the contents of design studio projects by filtering the terms participatory design, user-centred design, joint project and coincide with 8 studies of participatory design among 93 departments of architecture, 6 approaches among 93 Interior Design departments and 4 projects among 58 Industrial Design departments. Generally, the majority of participatory design studies integrated with design projects among these departments are intensifying in metropolitan regions of Turkey such as İstanbul, İzmir, Ankara, etc. Table 1 shows the distribution of the most mentioned practical involvement of participatory design approaches by 1st group students according to the place, time and content of the work done regarding their relation with participatory design.

UNIVERSITY

Kültür University

Bahçeşehir University

İzmir Ekonomi University

İzmir Economy University

Middle East Technical University

CITY

DEPARTMENT

TIME

İstanbul

Interior Architecture and Environmental Design / Project V-VI

20112012 Fall

İstanbul

Interior Architecture department / Architecture department / Graduation project

20142015

İzmir

Interior Architecture Department 3rd & 4th year

-

İzmir

Interior Architecture and Culinary Arts

-

Ankara

Industrial Design Department 3rd year

-

CONTENT OF THE PARTICIPATORY DESIGN PRACTICE Kadıköy / Beyaz Köşk Residential Site: Integrated participatory design concept to design project: students visited site, interviewed with site administrative staff, contact with end-users and social-centre managers, acknowledged with their needs, requirements, expectations, and budget considerations. Yeşilköy Aviation Museum Renovation project: both department’s fourth year students conducted a joint project together, visited site and contacted with administrative staff of the museum, acknowledged on their needs, requirements, made technical trips, and information on product inventory in person. Joint project with İzmir Işıkkent Education Campus: students got in contact with children playground area, then codesigned a product for kinder garden including landscape design Voluntary students from 3rd year and 4th year of the department of Interior Architecture took the responsibility of designing culinary arts department. By the guidance of a group head, students conducted the whole process of design by contacting with users, and other stakeholders and implemented the project. “Çiğdem Neighbourhood in our Dreams” was a joint project with Çiğdem Education Environment and Solidarity Association, developed sustainable future scenarios for Çiğdem Neighbourhood in Ankara; developed workshops, shared ideas, exhibit works. Locals participated directly to phases of the process.

Organized a series of workshops, seminars and exhibitions and invited Prof. Dr. Henry Sanoff (who is the most well-known with his studies on democratic İzmir Faculty of Fine design, participatory design, Economy Izmir Arts and etc.) Sanoff directed workshops University Design with 3rd and 4th year students and conducted 3 days workshop in Ozel TAKEV Schools, developed an evaluation of that school in terms of democratic design. “Pikseli Pasa”: project that aims to experience participatory design with the motto of “Future is not what it used to be” Istanbul including mentors and students Design in design team. By involvement Özyeğin Biennial Istanbul 2014 of international and national University participants volunteers to the project, by from using the advantages of the University physical contactlessness and computer applications their influence on designing process is investigated. Table 1. This table is created by the author according to data mostly mentioned in studies of 1st group (Ayça Esen, Beril Nur Denli, Gizem Saylam, Meryem Odabaşı). For the purpose of understanding the practical involvement of participatory approaches in design education in Turkey, 1st group also conducted research on the applied workshops in these universities. The data collected from this research exhibits that in %3.22 of the architecture departments, in %2.15 of the Interior Architecture departments and in %5.08 of the Industrial Design departments, there have been conducted workshops regarding the concerns of user-centred or participatory design. In theoretical part of the study of 1st group they enhanced the aims of participatory design referring to Jenkins (2012) as; providing joint sessions with professionals, developing dialogues of individuals who are interested in participatory design, detecting students for co-operation and providing them milieu for exchange opinions, constituting mutual space for experiencing participation and informing professional knowledge, and presenting the understanding of participation in designing process with case studies. Consequently, the cases explained deeper by 1st group students especially are the workshops or projects which included real actors throughout the process. The excitement of the students during the definition of these cases manifests their persuasion on the possibility of participatory design realisation only when coincide with real users, locals, the people from real life, and the places of concrete locations. Degrees and levels of implementations related to participatory design in Turkey The outcomes from the study of 2nd group demonstrate the degrees and levels of implementations related to participatory design in Turkey do not diversify much, but forces to question the actors which could be involved into participation processes. In this context, 2nd group in regard of their investigation on implementations related to participatory design in Turkey, initially categorized the degrees of user involvement to participation among the cases they scanned. According to this categorization, they specified three degrees as; a. with user (participation), b. user centred / oriented participation c. demand of user to participate The categorizations of the students on the degrees of participation are an endeavour to answer their basic question? At what level user should or could participate to the process? At the beginning of this study one of the students who is working at municipality was very prejudiced to participatory acts complained that; “even designer can not participate to designing process in Turkey, how can a user participate?” Consequently, the

categorizations of degrees of user involvement to design process as ‘designing with user’, ‘user-centred design’ or ‘demanding to participate’ are manifesting scepticism of students still on realization of co-designing in Turkey. At the same time, the data they collected from Internet sites and library researches provided them adequate information to develop denominations for forms of participation influenced by the cases generated in urban and architectural context. The interpretations of the students of their findings from the investigation of ways in which the phases – manifesting the levels of participation- can be categorized exhibit the following stages: 1st phase; designing stages 2nd phase; construction stages 3rd phase; after designing and construction process 4th phase; when there is an intervention to existing building These phases are used as filters for the categorization of implementations that can be defined as cases of approaches related to participatory design in Turkey. The categorizations include competitions, workshops, and citizen’s public challenges. An example for the user participation during designing phase (1st phase) is given as Van Silkroad Municipality Centre Architectural Project Competition because of the expressions written in agreement of the competition such as “a new participatory and embracing management model”. This expression is used for describing the aim of the project as designing spaces that are open, transparent and perpetually engaged with citizens influenced from the democratic and participatory management models of local authorities. Another example for the user participation during construction phase (2 nd phase) is given as Yeldeğirmeni Neighbourhood Revitalizing Project. The project aims to generate a sustainable revitalization by listening locals via developing neighbourhood forums, constituting an organization of neighbourhood in which the residents can take responsibility for their neighbourhood, establishing union of merchants, conducting workshops and activities. Indeed, the participatoriest act in Yeldeğirmeni case was the occupation of old buildings by locals, artists and transformation of these buildings into art producing spaces and forum centers. Another example given in this category is an open competition for amelioration of Küçük Armutlu Neighbourhood. The open competition is continuing with workshops open to all volunteers and with association of locals who are struggling against destructions of their homes and for continuum of their sense of place. By the participation of voluntary professionals from different design disciplines, from different backgrounds, coming from different parts of the country and engagement of local neighbourhood residents and neighbourhood council and many others the project of ‘in situ with locals’ conducted two major joint workshops, exhibited the end-products and discussed with professionals and locals until now. The forthcoming workshop will be for finalization of the construction drawings as construction for selected plots. When finalized this example will cover 1 st and 2nd phases of userparticipation according to the categorization of 2nd group regarding levels of participation in design process for realized implementations in Turkey. Regarding the 3rd phase, user participation after design and construction another given example by 2 nd group is Inİstanbul Life Residential Project in Topkapı. The project offers a concept titled as ‘foldhome’ that is included as a proposal for customization of the space. This concept proposes the possibility to include required spaces to house in case of necessity. The interpretation of students for this case is that the designer invites the end-user to participate to be a part of the design subsequently and offers living standards for end-user’s choice by leaving gaps in design. Phases

Designing

Construction

Milieu

Cases / Places

Forms of Participating

*Competitions *Workshops *Joint workshops

*Van Silkroad Municipality Centre Architectural Project Competition *TAK Design Research and Participation- create solutions for urban problems with designers, students, volunteers, supporters by conducting national and international co-operations, produce ideas and share with public *Barbaros House (A customized residence)

User-centered / oriented

*Yeldeğirmeni Revitalizing Project

*Küçükarmutlu ‘In-situ with Locals’ Amelioration Competition *Düzce Hope Atelier (under auspieces of ‘A Hope’ Association solidarist Atelier; gatherd interdisciplinary people -co-operation of designers, lawyers, sociologists, civil engineers, etc.) *Bademlidere Child Attraction Center (Joint project conducted by academicians, designers with inclusion of local people) After Design and construction

With users and voluntary participants

* foldhome concept

*protest against destruction of Emek Cinema Intervention *public protest for Taksim Demand of user to participate to building construction projects *public acts for conversion of Beykoz State Hospitals into commercial space Table 2. This table is created by the author according to data mostly mentioned in studies of 2 nd group and with additional researches (Esra Yıldız, Feyza Macit, Özge Özmen, Yasmin Ajami) The manifestation of 2nd group students on this proposal reveals the idea how participation of user could be sustainable and how the understanding of participatory design can be transformed in practice. Additionally, the 4th phase, when it comes to an intervention to existing building, has the maximum number of examples given by the 2nd group. The public challenges for the destruction of Emek Cinema to the contrary of the granted motion for stay of execution; public protests for construction projects in Gezi Parkı within the scope of Taksim Pedestrianization project; public act against destruction of Beykoz State Hospital and its conversion into a commercial space within the frame of ‘transformation in health programmes’, generated by residents, hospital staff and may other participants to protest closure of hospital, disappearance of its corporate identity, and not to be corporatized in the future. Table 2 shows the distribution of the most mentioned practical involvement of participatory design approaches of students according to the categorised phases, milieu of participation, titles of the cases and lastly the forms of participation constituted according to the manifestations of the 2 nd group studies. Yan Chi Jackie Kwok (2014) the author of the article ‘Participatory Design Research adopted by public Space Design’ declares that “the participatory design workshop for the Duckling Hill hiking route, generated from a neighbourhood movement advocating citizens’ participation in public space design, is in itself a democratic process: it has enabled the participants who were non-design experts to contribute their own knowledge to the making of a place of their everyday life” (p. 610). This case constitutes a unique example to understanding the core articulation of demanding and inviting for participation. Both of them integrate one to each other during an endeavour of a participatory action researchers’ approach. The students of graduate course are introduced with such examples throughout their individual studies conducted in borders of Turkey. The ideal examples particularly are examples of designing of visual tools to enable the participants to express themselves and communicate their ideas with each other. By this, the researcher can act only as a facilitator to motivate democratic discussions among the participants. As Kwok suggests their role is not a design collaborator, “but only a facilitator to a democratic movement initiated by the people” in case of the Duckling Hill hiking route. The aim of the project is not just to motivate citizens to use their creativity to make new things, but to put ‘publicness’ back into the public” (Kwok, 2014). In this context, it should be considered specifically that there could be other meanings of participating and also other ways of participation. To conclude, this should be the place where Muller, at the beginning, described as ‘third space’ emerges. Epilogue: Learning From a Participatory Design Course The conclusion of students was oriented unconsciously towards searching for the meaning of ‘demand for participating’ since they concluded their study with the words “the demand of participating has various forms: competitions, joint and individual workshops, public challenges of citizens, …”. In theoretical part of the study

of 2nd group they indicated “go-between” approach (Aren, 1989) developed in Sweden as a specific case in which designer is expected to mediate to a communication between citizens and local authorities. Additionally, they enhanced the concept of “down-up-and top-down” as the foundation of current user participation models in architectural arena (Fung, 2004). According to that approach, relative to the centralized design methods, a mechanism that operates from executives to public, reversely from public to executives democratically is proposed. Moreover, according to the coincided cases of participatory design, 2 nd group included diversity of participatory cases, which are also intersecting with the ones forwarded by the 1st group. According to the these categorizations of students, the category which can be defined with the features demand of user for participate - intervention to building – public space challenges by citizens –, according to author of this paper demonstrates the inherent feeling of students in both two groups as demand for participation. Second group consequently, raised prospective questions as follows; -At what point user realizes that s/he should participate? -What is the reason to demand participation? -Sense of belonging? In such a limited time, it was predictable not to answer all questions that participatory design approach opens up throughout each confronted cases. In this respect, this study can be regarded as a report of a pilot study, which intended to understand comprehensions of participatory design or co-designing in Turkey. The categories set by the students and comparative analysis of the author provided correspondences for the initial question of this paper in prologue: is it a demand or invitation? The concept of participation in design emerges mostly as a demand for enunciation appears in public acts and as an invitation for collaborating with naïve initiatives in such a developing country like Turkey. The examples of the former are proliferating day by day, whereas the latter does not have wholly realized implementation. As can be seen from the mentioned cases, there are many ongoing examples. What is promising is that the outcomes from both group studies finally leaded the graduate students to be engaged into creating new proposals for participatory design. In this context, the 2 nd group, who has studied on degrees and levels of implementations related to participatory design in Turkey, has already participated into a workshop held in a neighbourhood (squatter settlement) in Istanbul conducted with an assembly of architects and via engagement of neighbourhood dwellers and other stakeholders together in order to improve environmental quality of that place and challenge with destructions. The 1 st group, who studied on place of participatory design in design education in universities of Turkey, is still working on creating a workshop proposal for high school students to improve their education environment. For this purpose they realized a field trip and interviewed with the administrative staff in the site, taken photographs and made drawings related with collected date. They conducted with a non-governmental organization to be included their implementations with their workshop proposal and prepared the abstract of their proposal. Within two weeks they will realize this workshop by participation of the students in that high school. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS It is an honour for me to express my gratitude to Ayça Esen, Beril Nur Denli, Esra Yıldız, Feyza Macit, Gizem Saylam, Meryem Odabaşı, Özge Özmen, Yasmin Ajami; the students of IMT5424 User Participation in Design: Customisation of Spaces; for their contribution to this study and their never-ending excitement on participatory design.

REFERENCES Aren, H., A. Törnqvist & P. Ullmark eds. 1989. Local Development Planning – Experiences from the Swedish West Coast, When People Matter, The Swedish Council for Building and ResearchSweden, p. 98. Fung, A., 2006. Empowered Participation: Reinventing Urban Democracy, International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, p.10. Habraken, J.N., 1985. Who is Participating? Towards a Professional Role, Proceedings of the International Design Participation Conference – Design Coalition Team, Eindhoven: TU/e, pp. 1,2,9. Hasırcı, D. & Wilson, S. G. 2009. Involving Children in Participatory Design: The Case of a Children’s Museum in Izmir, ARCHILD: International Congress – Architecture and Children, Ankara: The Chamber of Architects, pp. 101103. Hasırcı D., N. Kural, S. Ozaloglu, S. Tanriover, S.E. Ural, A Participatory Process: Defining Urban Public Space for Children in a Squatter Settlement. Hendriks, N. F. Truyen and E. Duval, 2013. Human-Computer Interaction –INTERACT Lecture Notes in Computer Science, (8117), pp 649-666. Jenkins, H., 2012. Participatory approaches to Professional development in education [online] Available at: [Accessed 17 May 2016]. Kwok, Y. C. J., 2014. Participatory Design Research adopted by public Space Design. Tradition, Transition, Tragectories: major or minor influences? [=ICDHS 2014 - 9th Conference of the International Committee for Design History and Design Studies], SãoPaulo: Blucher, pp. 605-610. Muller, M. J. 2002. Participatory Design: the third space in HCI. The Human-Computer Interaction Handbook (4235)6, pp. 1051-1068. Sanders N., Elizabeth B. and P. J. Stappers, 2008. Co-creation and The New Landscapes of Design. CoDesign. 4(1), pp. 5-18. Spinuzzi, C. 2005. The methodology of participatory design. Technical Communication (52)2, pp. 163-174. Sanders, E.B.N., 2002. From User Centered Design to Participatory Design Approaches, p. 1,8. Sanoff, H. , 2008. Multiple Views of Participation Design. Archnet-IJAR, 2(1), pp. 57-69. Sanoff, H. 2000. Community Participation Methods in Design and Planning, NewYork: John Wiley&Sons.

INSPIRING LEARNING IN ARCHITECTURE AMIDST THE CLUTTER OF THE INFORMATION AGE ALEX NDİBWAMİ Alex Ndibwami, Lecturer, Uganda Martyrs University

ABSTRACT What inspires learning generally? Is it the thirst for knowledge, the encounters in the environment we live in (and the experiences as a result), by association - good role models or simply the quality of the education environments? This paper posits that the diverse [learning] platforms, tools and media, a result of the compact information age while potentially an overwhelming occurrence present an opportunity for an inspiring learning experience for (young) aspiring architects. By comparing the outcomes of some courses in the curriculum of the Bachelor of Environmental Design programme in the Faculty of the Built Environment of the Uganda Martyrs University, the paper presents some pointers on how to deal with the potential dilemma. The genesis of this is in the diminished critical thinking ability and a poor work ethic among students. Often, output on a task falls short on awareness of the scope of the issues about a problem - a result of how much work and critical thought one put into it. The prevalent attitude it appears, is to rely on the temptation that one could simply ‘google’ the answers or visit wikipedia. In all this, we do not ignore the indication that this is a collision between the seemingly opportune straightforward (re)sources online today with the sustained value judgements of rote learning through primary and secondary school. While knowledge can be gathered, learning on the other hand is an experience and later a demonstration borne from reflection, synthesis and application of concepts in reality. Unless this process is acknowledged and the underlying issues that sustain the poor work ethic are addressed, the risk of misdirected learning outcomes is high. The paper concludes that indeed, while potentially overwhelming, there are some techniques based around popular platforms, tools and media in the information age that can promote a gainful learning experience that will also be transformative. Introduction and Background While several options for the potential directions for Architectural Education exist, the debate regarding how well future practitioners (are) will be prepared to deal with real word problems still looms. In an era where we are faced with an uncertain future, one for which prediction is a bigger risk in itself we are left but to wonder how far we are actually prepared to confront this complex future. Worryingly, the apparent characterisation of architects as elitist, or bigger an issue the aloof air toward built environment challenges leading to delivering projects that fall short in their awareness of how people interact with space is no surprise. This is an attitude that might be borne from a certain lack of empathy; the question thus – how can architecture education be more proactive in dealing with the problems associated with practice today? Reflecting on the concept of narrative thinking and Gerards and De Bleeckere (2014) definition that – it is a design attitude, which stimulates the involvement of the final user of a certain building. This paper draws some parallels and builds on the importance of travel in so far as travel can be an experience nurtured through narratives and later a platform to engender empathy. Their definition goes on to reveal that it captures stories, told by client/users about past, present and future actions. In this respect, narrative thinking realizes joint inquiry and moral imagination about the desired use of a certain design. Through thinking narratively we encourage a critical, empathic and democratic attitude. In this way, they conclude, it prevents architects from mutating into narcissistic subjects. Nazidizajia, Tomea, Regateirob and Ghalatic (2015) reiterate that researchers have argued that narration and storytelling as a pedagogical tool has a big role to play in the clarification of academic subjects especially considering the successful experience of using the method in other academic disciplines. The Faculty of the Built Environment, Uganda Martyrs University The multidisciplinary Faculty of the Built Environment (FBE) offers programmes and courses in Architecture, Landscape Architecture, Environmental Design and Building Technology, with an

emphasis on environmental sustainable design (ESD). A key goal is to educate responsible professionals who can contribute to the cultural and socio- economic development of Uganda and the global community through participation in design, construction and interpretation of the built environment. The Faculty recognises that in a continuously changing world, professional experience and research are important contributors to achieve its mission. Academic faculty are therefore accomplished in their fields through research, experience and collaboration, all contributing to teaching and scholarship in the Faculty. Further, to enrich the research and learning environment, the Faculty seeks to recruit staff with teaching and research experience from across the world. Our multidisciplinary curriculum is designed to foster critical and creative thinking, to enable students and graduates to engage with the environmental, social, and aesthetic challenges of the contemporary milieu. Most courses in the Faculty are taught through a problem-based integrated teaching approach, that integrates design with the techniques and practices of construction, structures, materials and building services, all within a theoretical and historical context, keeping in mind human needs (social, physiological and cultural).18 Context and Objectives While learning can be inspired in a number of different ways, some guiding questions might include:  What inspires learning generally? o Is it the thirst for knowledge, the encounters in the environment we live in (and the experiences as a result)? o By association - good role models? o Or, simply the quality of the education environments? Architecture by default as a built environment discipline is borne from day to day encounters, a keener knowledge of which is boosted through apprenticeships either physically or by association. In architecture school, it is taught/learned with the design studio as the nucleus. Skills that are often emphasised include: teamwork, communication and presentation. The design process involves rigorous research, design exploration through iterations and an attitude toward implementation informed by precedent and feasibility studies. But where/why is it all going wrong as the built environment is littered with numerous challenges? This paper thus posits that the diverse [learning] platforms, tools and media, a result of the compact information age while potentially an overwhelming occurrence present an opportunity for an inspiring learning experience for (young) aspiring architects that will equip them with the skills and empathy to deal with the prevalent problems of the world. The objectives of this paper include thus: 1. To explore ways in which learning can be inspiring. 2. To discuss some outcomes on three courses. 3. To develop some strategies for making the most of potentially inspiring platforms. This submission will focus on the first two objectives. Three attempts at inspiring learning We now look at three specific courses in the faculty that were undertaken in the academic year 2014-2015. The three were picked because each of them set out deliberately to engage the learning experience beyond the traditional approaches. While ENDS XXXX – Special Topics in Design – Learn to Learn and ENDS 1232 – Design Fundamentals II were based in class, ENDS 2361 – Field Experience 1 was based out of class; nonetheless all courses employed very similar approaches and techniques. ENDS 2361 – Field Experience 1 Learning from existing (un)built environments is particularly important in the formation of built environment professionals. Also important, is the role of experiencing different cultures and ways of life (as distinct from architectural objects) as part of the appreciation of the development of (un)built environments. The importance of travel is emphasized in this course: the immobility of buildings, and the importance of context, ensuring that travel is not only essential, but a mandatory part of the experience of (un)built environments. Students will 18

Uganda Martyrs University Faculty of the Built Environment student handbook and outline of courses 2014 - 2015 pp 1

undertake to travel around Uganda, exploring different places, spaces and domiciles, reviewing and reflecting on these experiences in the context of their education, demonstrating an appreciation of the development and evolution of (un)built environments and the relationship between global and local factors. These will be documented as part of a formal journal/sketchbook and online travel log and later compiled in report and showcased at an exhibition. 19

Figure 1. A screenshot of one of the 2015 travel narratives on WordPress While previous editions just focused on the travels followed by a report and an exhibition to showcase key lessons, this time round in addition, one new approach was to use social media to engage a diverse audience in real time. The objective here was to test the students’ awareness of key motivators for intellectual dialogue and their commitment to stimulate discourse around key issues. Email and Whatsapp were employed for communication and feedback. Uploads to Instagram included well captioned images at the end of a day’s excursion that illustrated a key issue/s. Of these images, three were well taken photographs, while the fourth had to be a sketch that tied them all together. In addition, these uploads were linked to a well composed summary/narrative of the issues at hand as part of a blog on WordPress.

Figure 2. A screenshot of the 7 themes around which the 24 students based their 2015 excursions

19

Uganda Martyrs University Faculty of the Built Environment student handbook and outline of courses 2014 - 2015 pp 45

ENDS 1232 – Design Fundamentals II This course provides an introduction to the fundamentals of design with reference to the built environment, including: the relationships of climate/site, culture/history and technology, meaning and emotional attachment to space and site, and relating it to the making of projects, and strategies for designing. The course engages students in active learning through research and project work, both individually and in collaboration with others, to translate ideas and concepts into form in a meaningful way. Coursework emphasises developing design communication skills: hand/manual and digital drawing, oral presentation with appropriate visual aids, and written communication.20 While there were some specific learning objectives as highlighted above, the instructor introduced three specific approaches: 1.Setting up a Facebook group for the class 2.Watching a video about how to design for people 3.Watching two other videos on Zaha Hadid and David Adjaye The FaceBook group was set up as a way to communicate with the students since it is a platform they are already familiar. This also offered the opportunity to share ideas and also showcase the best student work and explain why it was selected. The videos only served to inspire the students on how to consider the process and examples of successful attempts in potential role models. ENDS XXXX – Special Topics in Design – Learn to Learn The Faculty through its Special Topics in Design series occasionally offers electives. Special Topics courses offer students an opportunity to undertake work that relates to a particular area of interest. Students may also undertake courses from other faculties in lieu of a Special Topics course.21 The purpose of this course was to inspire the students to appreciate the benefits of learning on one's own, to explore some of the blocks to this learning, and to be introduced to the possibilities of the Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) for a lifetime of learning. The course had some general objectives, which were: 1.Appreciate the necessity of the ability to learn in modern society
 2.Develop the ability to learn almost anything by applying some basic techniques
 3.Modify the students’ attitude towards the process of learning
 4.Improve students’ oral presentation, research, and writing skills
 5.Prepare students for a lifetime of learning. The bulk of this course was based on an online course offered by Coursera, which the instructor had hoped would be undertaken online but the internet was not very reliable at that time so all the instructional videos and quizzes and readings had to be downloaded and weekly presentations to the students to mimic the online format made. Each week had a series of short instructional videos (3-5 minutes each at most), and accompanying readings. The students had to watch these videos and do a quiz on them in class, and then because the readings were quite many different readings to different groups were assigned, and then these groups led a discussion of their readings so the class could get an idea about all the readings. To close out this first part of the course the students were required to reflect on what they had learnt from the videos, readings and discussions by preparing a Pecha Kucha22 style presentation to their classmates. In the latter part of the course, based on the principle that says To Teach is to Learn Twice students were required to learn about a topic that was unfamiliar to them (a list of topics outside the field of Architecture, from history to psychology to philosophy was supplied), and then teach on this topic via three avenues: a Pecha Kucha course, an essay, and finally an educational video. Discussion Success was registered across the courses in the following ways: 1. In the case of ENDS 2361 a lot of work was done in a very short time

20

Uganda Martyrs University Faculty of the Built Environment student handbook and outline of courses 2014 - 2015 pp 41 Uganda Martyrs University Faculty of the Built Environment student handbook and outline of courses 2014 - 2015 pp 10 22 Pecha Kucha is Japanese for the sound of conversion – a creatives platform in cities around the world that attracts creatives from all walks of life to present their work in a very specific format. 21

2. On ENDS 1232 there was visible steady improvement in students’ work over time 3. Discussions during ENDS XXXX actually led to quite lively sessions What these suggest for the learning process is that while gathering a lot of ground is a plus, a lively learning process can boost/sustain the same and, improvement in the students’ work is likely to be registered. Indeed, using tools the students already know, like Email/Whatssap and FaceBook/Instagram, in a way that guides them to specific information could inspire learning. The challenge is getting them to participate/interact consistently and later apply themselves. It is also crucial that each platform is exploited for its strengths and that the online platform can be sustained. An odd but real discovery was that as time went on less students of ENDS 1232 checked the FaceBook page because one of them was copying and pasting the information into a Whatssap group they had set up for themselves. Another reality is the erratic Internet that drags the process as it was encountered in ENDS XXXX. Nonetheless this will always present the instructor and students the opportunity to improvise a learning challenge in its own right. Indeed, digital resources were a novel experience for the students. While the videos on ENDS XXXX were quite well done, the accompanying readings benefited from that digital encounter as the students had a to do a quiz on them right after so they had to pay attention and the subject matter applied directly to them since it dealt with blocks to learning as well as techniques to overcome these blocks. As a result their writing also improved. Being required to learn about a whole new topic and then make a video about it also necessitated students to use video, audio and textual online resources, and thus enjoyed the benefits of the information age. Similarly, the background work on ENDS 2361 that went into photography (and selection of the best three) followed by a sketch and the narrative on WordPress were handled quite excellently by the students. In the case of MOOCs, they have a huge potential for supporting learning in the digital age. They are developed by professionals, targeted in scope, and have active learning communities to help support learners. Some of the MOOCs even require students to form and work in offline groups, and so offer a kind of "blended" learning (if not teaching since there is no offline teaching). In the Learning to Learn MOOC, the (high quality) readings had already been identified and placed on the course site, so this saved a lot of time in having to look for information whose quality one can not always be sure of. That said, it was found that when they had to learn something and then teach it, they did not utilise the learning opportunity that well. In the essay and educational video assignments, in particular, many students still tended to "copy and paste" rather than digest and then re-communicate their learning. That is to say that they were much better at taking the information than in reconstituting and communicating it in new ways. The same weakness was identified in ENDS 1232 and ENDS 2361. In the former, the students struggled to demonstrate through their individual proposals for a small pavilion, which was their final design proposal. Most likely, it was because they were perhaps overwhelmed by the scope of issues to integrate after 8 weeks of introduction, illustration and exploration. In the latter, it was a case of failing to maintain the same level of enthusiasm in subsequent courses. The next big challenge thus is integration with other courses on the programme and application that is a key indicator for a higher level learning. CONCLUSION This paper concerns itself with what inspires learning positing that the diverse [learning] platforms, tools and media, a result of the compact information age while potentially an overwhelming occurrence present an opportunity for an inspiring learning experience for (young) aspiring architects. By discussing the observations and outcomes of three initial attempts at the Faculty of the Built Environment of Uganda Martyrs University the paper has revealed that it is possible to inspire learning amidst the clutter of the information age. The paper also reiterates the logistical challenges of delivery and the human factors with regard to attention spans and the risk of misguided choices. In this regard an awareness of the strength each platform brings and some intelligent ways of integrating the process is key.

REFERENCES Gerards S., De Bleeckere, S., 2014. Narrative Thinking in Architectural Education: Beyond Architecture: New Intersections & Connections
Methods: Agents of Change in Changing Paradigms. Scientific, Technological, Strategic, Intuitive, and Pragmatic. ARCC/EAAE 2014 https://www.facebook.com/groups/1676678345935059/ https://fobetravels.wordpress.com/2015 https://vimeo.com/111488563 https://www.instagram.com/fobetravels/ Nazidizajia, S., Tomea, A., Regateirob, F., Ghalatic, A., 2015. Narrative ways of architecture education: A case study. 7th World Conference on Educational Sciences, (WCES-2015), 05-07 February 2015, Novotel Athens Convention Center, Athens, Greece Uganda Martyrs University Faculty of the Built Environment student handbook and outline of courses, 2014 2015

AN ALTERNATIVE WAY OF CREATING THE CRYSTAL IMAGE IN ARCHITECTURE: THE ARCHITECTONICS OF BODY AND SENSES THROUGH DIGITAL ELIF BELKIS ÖKSÜZ Istanbul Technical University, Faculty of Architecture ABSTRACT: Recently, we are facing a paradigm shift that moves us from the notion of being to becoming in every field. Along with the digital media, inter-, and trans-disciplinary studies; the way we see and perceive space, time, and our existence, and the way we use them in architectural design have changed drastically. Right now, the role of architecture relies heavily on the bounds and relations we make with our very own existence in space-time fragments. As architects, we desire for an architectural space or an image that has the potential for sensational and bodily experience to reach new possibilities in the events. In particular, architectural phenomenology is one of the most affected transdisciplinary fields in terms of design and representation. Besides the sensational use of geometry or material, phenomenological understanding in architecture also implies the role of embodiment. In this paper, I focus on the digital media and its intermediary role for reifying the sensory and bodily experience. From a phenomenological perspective, I discuss the multiple realities of experience and our becoming architectonic through digital. For that, I borrow the notion of “Lived Space” from Juhani Pallasmaa (2002), and “Crystal Image” from Gilles Deleuze’s Cinema 2 (1985). In the end, I posit that within the use of embodied technologies in architectural design, there is no becoming architectural; instead, there is becoming architectonic; and, becoming architectonic provides the multiple realities for an architectural image in advance. From The Experience You Want To The Experience(S) You Get One of the ongoing discussions that takes a place under the dynamic relationship between philosophy and architecture is the notion of existence in space and time. However, instead of what space and time particularly means for us, current studies in design rely heavily on the bounds and relations we make with our very own existence in space-time fragments. We are facing a paradigm shift that moves us from the notion of being to becoming in architecture. Along with the digital media, inter-, and trans-disciplinary studies; the way we see and perceive space, time, and the way we represent them in architectural design have changed drastically. We rethink the space-time relations in architectural geometry and turn our faces from Newton to Leibniz; and right now, rather than being, the architecture we represent prioritizes the action of becoming. In other words, as architects, we no longer speak of being in space; rather, we speak of becoming in space-time (Kavanaugh, 2013). Unlike being, becoming is related to time and the possibilities of time represents. In this regard, you might ask what are the architectural ramifications of becoming and how we represent it as an architectural image. For Brian Massumi (2002), the only way for embedding fourth dimension to a form lies in the “bodily experience.” In particular, architectural phenomenology is one of the most affected transdisciplinary fields in terms of bodily experience in design and representation. To go further, I turn my research area to experience-based phenomenology in architectural design. Although, our bodily movement and senses has been used in architecture for a long time, it requires more to understand why and how we use our own existence for design and representation to enhance the meaning of an architectural image. Therefore, I focus on the digital media and its intermediary role for reifying the sensory and bodily experience. From a phenomenological perspective, I discuss the multiple realities of experience, and our becoming as architectonic through digital. For that, I borrow the notion of “Lived Space” from Juhani Pallasmaa (2002), and “Crystal Image” from Gilles Deleuze’s Cinema 2 (1985). The Lived Space*, Body, and Senses There is no doubt that, architectural phenomenology is one of the leading transdisciplinary fields in terms of experience. Besides the sensational use of geometry or material, phenomenological understanding in architecture also implies the role of embodied experience. From a phenomenological view, we desire for an architectural space/image that involves the sensational and bodily experience and allows us to reach new

possibilities in the events. As one of the most influential phenomenologist of the 21 st century, Juhani Pallasmaa, emphasizes the crucial role of experience and proposes the notion of Lived Space in architecture (Pallasmaa, 2002; 2011). For him, rather than music, cinema should be the discipline to affiliate with architecture; because unlike music, cinema indicates the bodily experience, affects, and events in itself as architecture does (Pallasmaa, 2002). Like cinema, architecture also provides the ambient you gain through the bodily experience and senses with its all reailities. What makes architecture unique and dynamic lies in the sensational experiences it gives. No matter how much you make abstraction in art, it is based on the lived experience; and just like cinema, architecture subtracts the lived images form real life and expand its field of experience (Pallasmaa, 2011). Although, Pallasmaa’s cinema similarity for architecture gives us some clue for the importance of embodiment, I borrow Gilles Deleuze’s “Crystal Image” metaphor from Cinema 2 (1985) to emphasize how embodiment or becoming architectural enhances the experiences in architectural design. Deleuze (1985) describes the creation of new realities, the power of actual/virtual transformations in experience with a metaphor of ‘A Crystal Image’ in cinema. The Crystal Image of a Lived Space “… external images and then my body, and lastly the changes brought about my body in the surrounding images. I see plainly how this body influences external images; it gives back movement to them. My body is then, in the aggregate of the material world, an image which acts like other images, receiving and giving back movement, with perhaps, this difference only, that my body appears to choose within certain limits, the manner in which it shall restore what it receives.” – Henri Bergson Matter and Memory, 1911 When one mentions the bodily experience in architecture, it is inevitable to avoid the role of senses in that experience. For Bergson (1911), our body has an ongoing interaction with its surrounding; and it has certain limits for controlling our experience with that surrounding. If so, I claim that as we consider our body as a mechanism, which receives and restore the experience; our senses are the parts, which control and limit the experience in this mechanism. Additionally, if our senses can limit what we restore or receive in our experiences, they can also enrich what we receive/restore in the experience. The reason I use Deleuze’s Crystal Image metaphor is to indicate the boundaries between what is actual/virtual in architectural design and representation. In other words, to discuss experience we want and the experience we get from an architectural image. Reading an architectural form through crystal image has a lot of potentials for understanding the role of experience in design representation. The new realities we find in the crystal image allows us to think, design, and experience thoroughly. Today, the use of digital media has a crucial role in architectural design and representation. Elizabeth Grosz (2001) mentions, comparing to analog, traditional media, there is no disadvantage of representing the virtualities of architecture with the digital media. However, comparing to analog or traditional approaches in the past, we are in an advanced situation of adapting bodily and sensory experience in the production of architectural image. In this era, almost any qualitative data of a human body production can be reduced and reified with a quantitative data. Especially, the use of embodied technologies allows us not only be in space, but also, it allows us to become in space with our very own existence. They provide the opportunity of becoming a part of a design process/representation. You can embed your senses as design parameters in other words, it has “the crystal image” that we find many realities in it. As an exemplary work, I refer to R(S)ien's ‘Une Architecture des Humeurs’ (2010) installation. In this work, designers use an algorithm which uses the outcomes of a human physiology to create an architectural form (url-1). It is not just designing for a bodily movement, it is also giving the reason for that movement; parameterizing emotions and senses for the embodiment in space.

Figure 1. The design diagram of Une Architecture des Humeurs, (2010), url-1

Figure 2. Stills from the installation of une Architecture des Humeurs, (2010), url-1 While the user is experiencing the process, his/her physiological outcomes manipulates the becoming of form. The productivity of a body in formation process, can be considered as creating new realities through embodiment in their work. Depending on the user’s physiological outcome, the actual becomes virtual and finds new realities in itself. Then, as a lived space, the lived the actual transforms into other virtualities .

Toward new realities in experience through digital In terms of architectural phenomenology, the lived space is also the space where we cause actual/virtual transformations with our very own existence. When we perceive space and experience it through our senses and bodily movements, we also embed new meanings and create different reailities for that particular space. Then again, these new realities reveal and enhance the meaning of the space we perceive. In other words, as we experience architecture, we also create the crystal image of that lived space. Thus, rather than being, the whole idea of an architectural design eventually turns into becoming in space-time. Since we are likely to experience, perceive space with our senses and movements thoroughly, the use of embodied technology has a crucial part in architectural design and representation. As I previously emphasized it for Cruz’s and R(s)ien’s installations, the use of sensory tools in digital media allows to turn the qualitative inputs our body into the quantitative outcomes and use it in architectural design and representation. Therefore, within embodied technologies, we do not only to become architectural, but also become architectonic by conditioning that even the emergence of the architecture depends on our existence and perception. Finally, I conceive that within the use of embodied technologies, there is no becoming architectural; instead, there is becoming architctonic.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT: The former work of this paper is contemplated under a doctoral course named ‘Algılama, Temsil, Tasarım ve Mimarlık’ in Architectural Design at Istanbul Technical University. I would like to thank our lecturer Prof. Ayşe Şentürer for her special contributions. REFERENCES: Bergson, H., Paul, N. M., & Palmer, W. S. (2004). Matter and memory. Courier Corporati Deleuze, G. (1985). ‘Crystals of Time,’ Cinéma2: L’Image-temps, Paris: LesEditionsdeMinuit; trans. Hugh Tomlinson and Robert Galeta, Cinema 2: The Time-Image, London: Athlone, 1989 Grosz, E. (2001) Architecture from the outside: Essays on virtual and real space. MIT press, 2001. Kavanaugh, L. (2013). ‘Space is not a Thing’, in Design Research in Architecture: An Overview, ed. Fraser, M., p.161-184 Massumi, B. (2002). Parables for the virtual: Movement, affect, sensation. Duke University Press. Pallasmaa, J. (2002). ‘The lived space,’ Architecturanimation, ed.Fredy Massad ve Alicia Guerrero Yeste, Collegi di d’Architectes de Catalunya, Barcelona, 54-80 Pallasmaa, J. (2000). ‘The Lived Space in Architecture and Cinema,’ url: , accessed on 04.11.2013. url-1: http://www.new-territories.com/blog/architecturedeshumeurs/?p=

A CRITICAL LOOK AT ARCHITECTURE HISTORY: AN INTERACTIVE LEARNING METHODOLOGY FOR STUDENTS ALESSIA RICCOBONO Alessia Riccobono, Dr. Arch., Köln International School of Design, TH Köln University of Applied Sciences.

ABSTRACT Teaching the history of architecture of the XX Century is a particularly interesting challenge, because it is not simple to deal with the students, who, especially in their first phase of learning lack the right instruments in order to gain a comprehensive knowledge of the historical facts and happenings. Therefore, it needed to experiment a new methodology of teaching, which was based on the pedagogical framework of active learning, where the students are definitely more involved in the education process. The teaching methodology involved different activities, like students presentations, discussion groups, teaching one another, class debates, brainstorming, and concluded with the construction of a special conceptual map, which was thought as a Metro Map. In the paper we would like to further deepen and explain this new methodology of teaching, as well as to critically discuss the results showed in the conceptual map, by analysing how the different argument are related to each other. INTRODUCTION The whole XX Century appears as an intense period, full of happenings, contradictions and revolutions in the society, science, art, technology, which saw the dramatic effects of two world wars. Also for this reason, it is not easy to look at the history of design and architecture in a very deep and comprehensive way, by taking into consideration all the different aspects, such as the birth of different styles, the influence of wars and politics on one side, and of art and new technologies on the other side. So, what are the connections between the artistic and cultural movements and what happened in the whole design area all along this controversial and complex historic period? First, one of the main problems is represented by the lack of critical distance, that is a proper time we need in order to look at a determined period without accumulating «views [...] as a contemporary rather than a scholar» (Hobsbawm, 1994) and, then, to get the most objective approach as possible. This activity becomes even more difficult when we have to teach the history of architecture of the XX Century to the students, who, especially in the first phases of education, are lacking significantly of the proper instruments for a critical understanding of facts, styles and products of the architectural practice. In order to make the whole experience of learning the main facts of the history of architecture and design of the XX Century more attractive, but also in order to understand how these happenings are related to each other, it was applied a new methodology of teaching. This was experimented at Köln International School of Design, an institute of the TH Köln University of Applied Sciences, during a scientific seminar carried out in the last winter semester. Pedagogical framework: active learning. It was decided to apply an interactive approach to history, so far from the traditional teaching, where normally the lecturer speaks and explains the arguments in a two hours class, but where the interactions with the students are very limited. It was an attempt to pass from a teacher-centred orientation to a learner-centred one. Indeed, higher education tends to have a teacher-centred perspective, in which students are passive, as opposed to active, recipients. So, how to make students more involved into the learning process? How to make them curious about the several topics discussed and explained? Finally, how to make learners confident in the arguments and able to build connections among them in a critical way? For this reason, it was chosen to assign the students, subdivided in small study groups, some topics, which then had to be publicly presented in the class (Fig.1). In each meeting, from the teacher perspective, it was made some introductive but synthetic lessons about the main historical facts, trends and political happenings of the period, which it was dealing with; at the same time, the topics assigned to the students for the following class were introduced and presented. Then, in each meeting, the students had to present publicly the assigned arguments,

which then were followed by a collegial debate. In this way the classes were less boring and the students were directly involved in the teaching activities, by having a more direct contact with the topics and the possibility to express freely their point of view. This leads us to the concept of active learning, which could be connected to the assumptions made in the SelfDetermination Theory (SDT) of Ryan and Deci (1985, 2000). The SDT supposes that, for an optimal learning in every human being, three innate psychological needs - competence, autonomy and relatedness - have to be satisfied. Only when a learner is intrinsically motivated and feels free and supported, he will be able to show considerable effort agency and commitment in his learning. Freedom is essential to the development of personal responsibility, because this means that students initiate all their own activities, create their own environments and, finally, this helps them to develop their critical skills. Research derived from SDT suggests that students flourish under conditions when the lecturers give them choice, base the lectures around their interest, and try to understand their internal frame of references. According to SDT, when educators and schools satisfy students’ psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness, students are more intrinsically motivated and autonomously motivated, as opposed to extrinsically and controlled motivated. Active learning techniques are, for example, peer instruction, class debate, role-playing, assignation of case studies, practice by doing, teaching one another, demonstration, discussion groups, where learners give each other an immediate feedback with respect to what they are studying. Active learning is facilitated through teaching that draws on these strategies, whose use in the class eases the understanding of even complex arguments. The mind of our learners, as stated in in Plutarch’s words, “is not a vessel that needs filling, but wood that needs igniting” (Plutarch, 1969). We cannot just fill up our students from our own well of knowledge; we need to turn on their curiosity.

Fig. 1. Students having their presentations. In our case, the teaching approach based on the mixture of two strategies: 1. Assignation of case studies - in this case represented by a topic, which could be about the figure of an architect or an artistic movement. The learners, then, could acquire the knowledge related but not limited just to the studied arguments. They could deepen each fact and also learn actual curiosities or novel elements, by consulting the information available, through books, articles, but even through the internet, movies, informative videos, and so on. 2. Discussion groups - because within each groups, students were forced to have conversations with the other members, in order to set their presentations. The confrontation with fellow group helps the

formation of a critical point of view and own opinions, as well as to direct relation with the topics you are studying. The presentations, which had to be organized in up to twenty minutes, forced the students to synthesize the amount of information found. This is a particularly difficult exercise for a learner nowadays, as there is actually an excess of information available and it is not easy, especially at the beginning of the higher education, to understand what is important to know and what not, what is the level of depth required. For this reason, some guidelines were given: about every architect or designer, the study group should have set out the main facts related to the life and professional curriculum and identify some masterpieces, about which they had to talk in detail. 3. Teaching one another – represented by the public lectures given to every study group to the other fellows. 4. Class Debate that followed each presentation. In this phase, the students were forced to discuss about the argument, first in order to clarify some spots that could be less clear – and in this case it is decisive the contribution of the teacher, who of course has a different level of knowledge and fills the possible lack of it by sharing his own information with the students. Second, the collegial discussion considered to talk about the topic in a critical way. This final part lead us to the core of the experiment, which consisted in the organisation of a new typology of conceptual map, which it is going to be discussed in the next heading. The Conceptual Map: the Metro Map of History. During the seminar, in addition to the each topic that was studied, it was carried out a learning experiment, with the purpose to develop critical skills and increase the awareness to build links and connections among facts and topics in the students. The work regarded the construction of a conceptual map, which has the aim to interpret critically each historical fact. The main activity, which lead to the construction of the conceptual map, was the attempt, at the end of each presentation, to identify some keywords, which could describe, represent and identify each topic. This kind of choice was done through the class debate and it was organized like a brainstorming, where everyone could say what thought. During this brainstorming, the keywords identified were written on the board and all together discussed about these words, by arguing when they seemed to match with the topics and when not. I. E. we found keywords like Technology, Function, Rationality, Utopia, Organicism, Ornament, and so on. The map, then, was thought as an Underground map, “The Metro Map of History” (Fig. 2). The stations of the maps represent each studied argument, while the routes are the keywords, chosen during the brainstorming. It was built a paperboard where put the several station, which were simple post-it with the name of the argument or the printed covers of the student presentations. Then, the stations were connected through some coloured ropes, which represent the routes/keywords. In this way, it was possible to build links and bridges between the topics and this helped students to have a critical approach to the subject. The Keywords/Lines of the Metro Map. While, at first place, the brainstorming is always an operation rather casual and spontaneous, there is a moment where more scientificity is required. Therefore, the words, which could be either nouns or adjectives, needed to be classified properly. For this reason, it was chosen to build a glossary of the keywords/routes; the definitions are based on the Getty Institute Art & Architecture Thesaurus with, in case they were missing, other kind of information from different sources. Function: Doctrine or practice that emphasizes practical utility or functional relations in the design and construction of structures, objects, and systems. The terms is used also when referring to the contemporary design philosophy, relating chiefly to architecture and furnishings, holding that form should be adapted to use, material, and structure. Technology: the general application in architecture and design of latest innovation in science and related disciplines, typically to commercial or industrial objectives, often with the implication of new structural, mechanical, electronic, or computerized components. Global: The approach to social, cultural, scientific, ecological, or humanistic questions involving an orientation to the world as a single interacting system, and the placing of its interests above those of individual regions or nations. In architecture and design it identifies an approach with is international, without relations to the local place and traditions.

Fig. 2. The paperboard where the Metro Map was physically built by the students, with post-it and coloured ropes

Rational: the term generally indicates someone who uses reason or logic in thinking out a problem, with a clear approach. In architecture, this is translated in the application of logical thought, especially in the organization and distribution of the spaces, rethinking architectural problems basing on reason rather than on tradition. Utopia: they are places of ideal perfection, especially with regard to laws, government, and social conditions. In our case, it refers to the architecture which exists only on paper or which has visionary qualities. Architects conceived idealistic, impractical or futuristic environments, which depict some mental pictures produced by the imagination. Organicism: with this term we intend to address the aesthetical look of buildings with curvilinear morphologies and elements. Organicism is also a philosophy of architectural design, emerging in the early 20th century, asserting that in structure and appearance a building should be based on organic forms and should harmonize with its natural environment. Starting from ‘50s the relationship with the nature becomes less strong, without attempts to recall natural elements, as happens in some decorative motifs of Art Nouveau or similar movements, and the attention is focused on the organic surfaces and curvilinear configuration. Ornament: Decoration used to embellish parts of a building, usually in and of itself having no function, although it may decorate functional members. Decorative forms or embellishments are an integral part of a building or object but are not essential to its structure. The term refers also to decorative objects attached to or worn by humans and animals. Minimalism: A style developed in the mid 20th century, characterized by simplicity and lack of decoration to the point of starkness. The movement advocated reducing art to the state of non-art by removing nature and culture, resulting in artwork in pure, simple forms and objects placed randomly. The term can be extended to all art, including literature, design, music, visual art, and performance. Monumentality: it is a trend that refers to architecture, whose size that is very large, solid, and imposing; comparable to a monument in massiveness. Diagram: the definition of the Thesaurus says that a diagram is a graphic design that explain rather than represent. In architecture, it is usually thought of as “graphic tool” (Bijlsma, et al., 1998), that is the translation of a series of possible relationships between the parties in a drawing, but it can’t be attributed either to the type, nor even to a sketch. Although it is usually made up of points, lines and surfaces organized in two-dimensional

patterns or three-dimensional models, it may include data, legends, text, and then relate different aspects at the same time, crossing data, connecting functions and needs (Pellitteri and Riccobono, 2012). Digital: in the definition the dictionary speaks of something “related to a device, instrument, information storage, work, or other application, operating according to the principles or methods using signals, information, or data represented by a series of discrete values (commonly the numbers 0 and 1), such as for electronic storage or processing” (Getty Art & Architecture Thesaurus). Obviously, we refer to something connected to the world of computer and software. Talking about architecture, digital is used to identify all those projects where the influence of the use of software to conceive the architectural form is pretty much evident. The tendency is born in the last years since the advent of digital media and the use of CAD software entered among designers’ tools, both in the representational and conceptual point of views. Deconstruction: Refers to the philosophical and literary movement associated with the writing of French scholar Jacques Derrida in the 1960s and later applied to the visual arts and architecture in the 1980s. The movement advocates undermining the dominant component in established binary structures, such as nature vs culture, in order to arrive at a new dialectic. In architecture, the style is characterized by a purposeful displacement of structural elements, resulting in buildings with no specific purpose. Local: Refers to a general consciousness of and loyalty to a distinct subnational or supranational area usually characterized by a common culture, background, or interests. Local, as opposite to global, indicates all those projects, where the influence of local tradition is strong and there is a great attention to the context. The historian Kenneth Frampton, by studying the influence of local culture in some architects, was the first to identify an authentic trend, that emerged in the '80s, for which he coined the locution Critical Regionalism (Frampton, 1980). Interpretation of the map: how historical facts are related to each other. During the experiment, at first place, the participants did not immediately understand how to interact with the conceptual map and which was its purpose, even after the explanation of what we were about to do, while, at the same time, the brainstorming to identify keywords was something more comprehensible to them. However, since the methodology was rather simple and considered a direct involvement of the students, they started to understand it completely after a couple of classes with the practical direct work on the map. Indeed, a long paperboard was set up with a timeline, which started with the 1851 – date of the first London World Exhibition and the construction of the Crystal Palace by Joseph Paxton, which is traditionally considered a key moment and a major turning point in the history of architecture – and ended in the 2010. There, the learners had to put post-it with the names of the topics, organising them with respect to in temporal order. Then, accordingly with the keywords identified, it was started to connect the arguments with the coloured ropes that represent each route. At that point, by looking at the paperboard, the whole operation became clearer and the students started to note the existing connections among the topics. Why, for instance, Adolf Loos has many links with the masters of the Modern Movement (Gropius, Mies van der Rohe and Le Corbusier), or which is the existing relationship between the Arts & Crafts and the Wiener Secession, and so on.

Fig. 3. The general view of the Metro Map of History. At this point, the intrinsic effectiveness of the map was proved, because, by looking at the map, students were able not only to see the connections, but also to give a critical interpretation of these and to try to explain why facts were linked. The final class of the seminar was organised as a class debate, where, with the support of the materials presented by the students during the classes, we discussed together the final outcome (Fig. 3) of the conceptual map and tried to give some critical explanations. It is important to note that this critical operation would have been rather complicated to carry out without the construction of the Metro Map, especially for learners in the first phase of their education, who were still missing the proper instruments for the critical understanding of facts and relations. Through the final debate, even if it would be very much to say, some main facts emerged.

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It is not surprising at all to note that the period considered, 1850-2010, starts with a style, which at first looks as a continuation of the previous trends of the XIX Century but then began to take advantage of the new technological discoveries and evolved accordingly. We could say that while the first part of XX Century is characterised by a more rational style, which comprise white walls and plain surfaces and avoid the decoration, and ended in the last years with a more organic and curvilinear aesthetics, due to the entry of computing into designers’ practice that makes possible the conception and realization of geometrically complex envelopes. In the first part of the map, in the period between 1920-1930, Mies van der Rohe and Le Corbusier represent crucial points, since many routes converges there and make the two characters like central stations in the underground map (Fig. 4). The technology appears as a transverse trend with respect to the formal style. Indeed it seems, as technology is functional to realise and make buildable a particular concept or even a philosophy. Then, for example, we can note how is present, at the same time, in the topics about Mies van der Rohe or Le Corbusier and also in the work of Eero Saarinen, Pier Luigi Nervi, Hans Scharoun. Naturally, from the stylistic point of view, the connections among these arguments are weak, but the technology always remains a dominant element.

Fig. 4. Mies van der Rohe and Le Corbusier as central stations. -

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As Technology, even the Global approach is independent of the aesthetical style. The contemporary Critical Regionalism seems to be continuation of the ‘20s and ‘30s Rationalism and Modern Movement. Indeed, we can follow both the paths Rationality and Minimalism, which can be considered main characteristics of the Modern Movement, present in the topics like Adolf Loos, Gropius, Bauhaus, and so on, and see that, after a pause, both trends resurface in the ‘80s with Alvaro Siza, Peter Zumthor, Tadao Ando. As in the first part of the century, Le Corbusier and Mies van der Rohe could be considered main stations, in the last part of the century this role is covered by Frank Gehry, where more than six routes converge. The trend Monumentality appears during the ‘50s, as referring to the increased dimension of the buildings of that period and even to an attitude to conceive big structures in order to be new reference points and attractions of modern cities. Indeed, while in the first part of the century the attention of architects was focused on the housing problems, on giving people the best living conditions with respect to a new lifestyle, in the second part all have to deal with the destruction caused by World War II. Many historical buildings, which before were cultural symbols for many cities, were collapsed or massively damaged by the war. Therefore, there was an urge to rebuild these symbols and to do it soon. At the same time, new kind of building types, besides the housings, emerged: office and institutional buildings, theatres, universities, commercial malls. Talking of this, of course the dimension of these structures is much different from housing and this contributed to the sudden appearance of Monumentality exactly in the Post-War period. Starting from the ‘80s it is possible to note the entry of some new keywords and trends, besides the others already identified: Diagram, Digital, Deconstruction. This fact seems to have two main reason. On one side, the influence of the Jacques Derrida’s deconstructivist philosophy, which lead to a real new

architectural trend, known as Deconstructivism, which also made very much use of Diagrams as both conceptual and graphic design tool – notable, are the works of architects as Peter Eisenman and Bernard Tschumi. On the other side, the advent of the computers in architecture which caused a new way to conceive design, that is consequently reflected on the aesthetics of last period (Riccobono and Pellitteri, 2013). Even architects who started at the beginning with a deconstructivist approach, for example, took advantage of new media possibilities in order to push to the limits the formal conception of architecture. It is the case of Frank O. Gehry, but also of Zaha Hadid and the same Eisenman (Fig. 5).

Fig. 5. The last part of the century, with the advent of new trends and when Gehry represents the central station of that period. At the end of the seminar during the class debate, it was even discussed the active learning methodology experimented. All learners, who had to fill out an evaluation form, declared they felt completely involved in the seminar. They definitely appreciated the idea of brainstorming and conceptual map and said that the find it useful not only to look at history of architecture, but that it is a methodology they think to apply even in other situations, for example during a preparatory study for a project or a design concept. They were able to build the connections among facts, happenings and personalities by themselves, without the intervention or the aid of the lecturer, except in order to add more information, and this was the main outcome of the experiment. Indeed, especially in a very concentrated course with a scarce amount of teaching hours, students demonstrated to have learned the basis of the subject studied with its major turning points and also to be able to critically look at it. It was not a passive learning, where, as it was personally already seen in other previous seminars, students tend to be lost in a big amount of information and happenings, without the possibility to deeply understand them. The active learning made them feel free, involved and responsible of their own knowledge, which made, at the end, the seminar to success. REFERENCES Bijlsma, L., Deen, W. and Garritzman, U. (eds.), 1998. Diagrams. Oase, 48. Deci, E. L. and Ryan, R. M., 1985. Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New York, NY: Plenum. Frampton, K., 1980. Modern Architecture: a critical History. London: Thames & Hudson. Ryan, R. M. and Deci, E. L., 2000. Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55, pp. 68-78. Pellitteri G. and Riccobono, A., 2012. Towards which expressive horizons? In SIGraDi 2012, XVI Congresso da Sociedade Iberoamericana De Gráfica Digital, Forma in formação. Fortaleza, 13-16 November 2012. Fortaleza: Expressão Gráfica e Editora, pp. 84-88. Plutarch. Moralia, Volume I. In Loeb Classical Library, 1969. Cambrdige, MA: Harvard University. Riccobono, A. and Pellitteri, G., 2013. Digital revolution in current architecture: towards a new architectural expressivity. In Creativity, Autonomy, Function, ArchTheo ‘13 Conference Proceedings. Istanbul, 4-6 December 2013. Istanbul: Mimar Sinan Fine Arts University, pp. 259-269.

REFERENCES Benevolo, L., 1997. Storia dell’Architettura moderna. Roma-Bari: Laterza. Jencks, C., 2000. Jenck’s theory of evolution. An overview of twentieth century architecture. Architectural Review, 208 (1241), pp. 76-79. Jencks, C., 2011. The story of Postmodernism. London: Wiley. Saggio, A., 2010. Architettura e Modernità. Roma: Carocci. Woodham, J., 2006. Designing Design History: from Pevsner to Postmodernism. Working Papers in Communication Research Archive, 1 (1). Web resources Getty Institute Art & Architecture Thesaurus, http://www.getty.edu/research/tools/vocabularies/aat/

THE CONTINUITY OF CULTURAL AND ARCHITECTURAL IDENTITY IN URBAN CONTEXT: A SAMPLE ANALYSIS FROM RIGA, LATVIA NİLGÜN RENGİN SAZAK Nilgün Rengin Sazak, Master’s Degree, Interior Architecture and Environmental Design Department, Hacettepe University

ABSTRACT After Second World War, the massive destruction in various European cities taught Europeans that the only solution to regain and recover the architectural heritage which they had lost during the war was through protection and conservation of historic values. The post-war period brought increasing population, developing technology and concomitant mass production and as a result Western countries have taken a new different era which has brought some problems such as environmental pollution, overconsumption of natural resources and the decrease in the value of cultural heritage in globalizing world. Therefore, the concept of sustainability has been created as a solution to the environmental and social problems. Idea of conservation of historic cities has also been influenced by this constantly changing era and the headlines of sustainability and continuity. New buildings which provide more comfort and ease of construction started to take the place of historic buildings which needed to be taken care of in a more detailed way. In progress of time, the European countries were aware of the fact that the conservation of historic areas is the most functional way to transfer their culture to next generations. Therefore, in order to ensure the cultural continuity and architectural identity in a modern way, these countries have offered “the adaptive reuse-rehabilitation method”, which allows a historic building to functionalize in contemporary daily life. Despite the difficulties that they had during their intense history; Latvia is also one of the countries of Europe, which took the advantage historic conservation and rehabilitation. After gaining their independence as a result of the dissolution of Soviet Union, Latvia showed a great awareness to their cultural continuity; therefore, this sensitiveness can be also seen in Latvian cities, most notably in capital city Riga. The Art Nouveau-influenced architectural identity of Riga is proven to be very influential, thus it has been added into World Heritage List in 1997 by UNESCO. In this paper, an analysis of the adaptive reuse/rehabilitation process in historic buildings will be provided within the context of a sample from Riga. The chosen sample, Mākslas Muzejs Rīgas Birža (Art Museum Riga Bourse), which has been used as a stock exchange and trade center, is now functioning as a museum and hailed as an important national symbol for Latvia due to its various functional, historical and physical phases. Consequently, the contributions of rehabilitated historic buildings to the cultural continuity will be examined within the scope of the principles of historic building conservation and the technical and functional analysis of the sample building. It is aimed to offer adaptive reuse/rehabilitation method as a solution for sustaining the architectural identity and socio-cultural continuity in urban context. INTRODUCTION The technological improvements after Industrial Revolution in Europe brought new construction and mass production techniquesquickened the process of urbanization in European cities and also revealed the concepts such as population increase, environmental pollution and globalization. Alongside the effects of Industrial Revolution in Europe, II. World War became another milestone for the urbanization process in Europe due to the massive destruction of physical environment. This situation created different approaches and opinions for reconstruction and rebuilding of the urban fabric. One of the main discussions about the reconstruction of damaged cities were either accepting the losses due to the lack of source documents and then encouraging construction of definitely new buildings in cities or attemptingto reconstruct the buildings accordingly to the existing source documents and finally to remind the memories of the World War II, conserving the destroyed cities as they were by freezing them (Arabacıoğlu & Aydemir, 2007, p. 209). But those emotionally and culturally meaningful buildings which could survive after this destruction whether were complete or incomplete (Bollack, 2013, p.15). By this approach, the cultural continuity, national identity and collective memory gained importance

and the idea of reconstruction was chosen to manage new urban planning. In addition to those radical changes in urban planning in Post-War era period, mass housings surrounded the cities and central housings were started to be left (Cantacuzino, 1989, p.8). All of those improvements created a unique architectural identity in the common history of Europe; a pattern which is identified with the culture of the cities. This whole, parallel developed with social life of locals; unique architectural identity has been considered significant in European urbanism. Therefore the need of cultural sustainability and continuity revived. The Concept of Sustainability and Socio-Cultural Continuity Since environmental problems have become significant and caught attention in 1970s, the concept of sustainability has started to be mentioned in many areas. Sustainability was firstly discussed in The United Nations Conference on the Human Environment which is also known as Stockholm Declaration in 1972. In the principles of Stockholm Declaration, it is concluded that “humanity should take the responsibility for preservation and improvement of environment for current and next generations” (Özkaya, 2007, p.15). Also shortage and the rapid decrease of natural resources, and the necessity of creating sustainable resources were pointed out by the principle: “the Earth’s renewability capacity of its vital resources must be saved, enhanced necessarily and restored” (Türkiye Barolar Birliği, 2014). Through this warning for exhaustion of natural resources in future, especially developed countries started to search for new ways for applying sustainable development plans and creating sustainable solutions. In addition to contributions of Stockholm Declaration to concept of sustainability, Our Common Future Report, also known as Brundtland Report, in 1987 includes the concept of sustainable development clearly (Özkaya, 2007, p.15). The report stated that the results for consumption of natural resources and environmental deterioration could no longer proceed as it was and highlighted the fact that economic development must be adapted to resource availability of earth. The report mainly focuses on three main elements of sustainable development: the protection of environment, economic growth and social equality (Rodwell, 2007, p.53). In addition to its responsibility to next generations, Brundtland Report mentions not only economic and environmental connections of sustainable development but also its social, cultural and political elements (Özkaya, 2007, p.15). Principles offered in Stockholm Declaration and Brundtland Report developed the concept of sustainability and its ecological, economical, social and cultural elements in continuum. The main goal of sustainability was clarified as “providing quality life to individuals by connecting those elements with each other”. According to UNESCOMOST the concept of sustainability was “forming the relationships which are connected between society and nature to sustain in long term.” (1996, quoted by; Çahantimur &Yıldız, 2008,p.5). Sustainability brought up the idea of examining all the systems which make cities more livable in context of increasing quality life in cities. Thus the concept of sustainable urban development started to be discussed along with sustainability and additionally attempts in this aspect increased (Çahantimur &Yıldız, 2008,p.5). By the result of those attempts, the common arguments about sustainable cities that are shared by different attempts alternately can be listed as; physical features and high quality life, optimum intensity, multifunctional living spaces, well-organized public transportation and pedestrian traffic, minimum consumption of natural resources and energy, social features and efficient local governments, equality of opportunity, intense social interaction, cultural features and cultural-historical continuity, strong sense of belonging-royalty-urbanity, livable city centers (Çahantimur &Yıldız, 2008,p.5). All of those elements interact with each other and physical, economical, ecological, cultural and social systems in cities must be examined again in order to provide complete sustainable process and constitute livable environments (Becker & Jahn &Stiess, 1999, p.4-14; Sachs, 1999, s.25-28; quoted by Dikmen & Özçetin, 2012). In this context types of sustainability are ecological sustainability which aims conservation of natural resources and ecosystem, economical sustainability which aims long term use of natural resources and making the cost of use lower and finally social and cultural sustainability which contains the strategies for conservation of cultural and social values which provides human health and comfort (Tekeli, 1989; quoted by Dikmen & Özçetin, 2012). Sociocultural sustainability is an article that mainly focuses on mental health, identity and happiness of society. It deals with employment of individuals in a region and their accessibility to cultural and social activities, improvement of living conditions and social equality. Even though it is not possible to separate each of their contents and purposes, social sustainability can be described as “a life-enhancing condition within communities, and a process within communities that can achieve that condition.” The main approaches of social sustainability are “equity of access to key services (including health, education, transport, housing and recreation), equity between generations, meaning that future generations will not be disadvantaged by the activities of the current generation, a system of cultural relations in which the positive aspects of disparate cultures are valued and protected, and in which cultural integration is supported and promoted when it is desired by individuals and groups, the widespread political participation of citizens not only in electoral procedures but also in other areas of political activity, particularly at a local level, a system for

transmitting awareness of social sustainability from one generation to the next, community responsibility for maintaining that system of transmission and mechanisms for a community to collectively identify its strengths and needs.” (McKenzie,2004, p.12). Cultural sustainability and social sustainability are strongly linked with each other because of their common purpose: “protecting cultural continuity.”Cultural sustainability can be described as “the change of the society as accommodating to the requirements of the era without losing its identity and its essence.”(Yaldız, 2010,p.4). Development which is led by culture helps to create a range of non-monetized benefits, such as greater social inclusiveness and rootedness, resilience, innovation, creativity and entrepreneurship for individuals and communities, and the use of local resources, skills, and knowledge. Cultural drivers also effects lifestyles, individual behavior, consumption patterns and values related to environmental management and societies interaction with environments (UNESCO, 2015, p.4). Cities and places are the witnesses of societies and their cultural values. Along with sustainable architectural approaches and cultural and social importance of cities, it is determined to use historic buildings without harming the environment for making human life as efficient as possible and to transfer cultural values to the next generations for ensuring social and cultural continuity. Therefore the most functional approach for ensuring socio-cultural productivity and continuity in urban plans is rehabilitation/adaptive reuse method. The Concept of Continuity and Its Relations with Rehabilitation and Adaptive Reuse Conservation of historic buildings has positive effects on societies socially, culturally and psychologically. Common historical awareness, sense of belonging and identified urban plans are one of the main effects of conservation of historic buildings. Despite all of those advantages of conservation, protecting historic buildings without any alterations as if they are urban furniture may isolate them from today’s context (Kuban, 2000, p.73). The main purpose of traditional conservation notion is to protect the structure without granting it a new function in order to prevent potential damages towards its historical components and historical significance. These methods which have intense sense of authenticity and integrity may be appropriate for historic buildings that need special treatment; otherwise it may also interrupt the capacity of adapting them to daily life with new functions. Therefore rehabilitation or adaptive reuse methods are the most accurate decisions for historic buildings that can make them living spaces along with requirements and conditions of current age. One of the most important reasons that make rehabilitation and adaptive reuse more efficient is its support to sustainability. In 21st century, environmentally-conscious technologies have been adapted to conservation and restoration methods and sustainability has started to be in architects and conservators’ agenda (Aygen, 2013, p.260). Adaptive reuse and rehabilitation of historic buildings’ contributions to sustainability can be considered in different articles. Giving new functions to the historic buildings works for benefits of ecological sustainability by conserving embodied energy which means “the total expenditure of energy involved in the creation of the building and its constituent materials”, leaving less waste materials, giving minimum damage to natural resources and reusing materials (Rypkema, 2005; quoted by Stas, 2007, p.26). But contributions of adaptive reuse and rehabilitation to concept of sustainability do not only include ecological responsibilities. “Maintaining the original fabric is the character of the historic neighborhood. That’s cultural sustainability, also a part of sustainable development.” (Rypkema, 2007, p.2). The main reason of this strong relationship between cultural sustainability and adaptive reuse is the value of cities and places which were given by societies that they belong to. Because of their life-forming effects to societies, sustainable attempts in cities should be based on continuity of cultural dynamism and interactions (Altay, 2007, p.25). Culture and city are concepts that linked so substantially with each other that distinguishing them would decrease the performance of sustainability in urban context. Therefore, the concept of “cultural planning”, suggested by Franco Bianchi, produces a solution to requirements of cultural continuity in cities. Bianchini asserts the idea of “not planning culture, planning the city with culture” and culture should be adapted to city and to every segment of society (Bianchini, 1999; Altay, 2007, p.26). Historic buildings are the city elements which embody sense of social belonging, access to culture, integration and transmission of culture to next generations. Conservation of historic buildings by re-functioning them is an culturally sustainable activity. Therefore a proper city planning should involve conservation and adaptive reuse projects to achieve sustainability (Rypkema, 2007). The adaptive reuse of historic buildings could have positive effects to the environment that they belong in, starting from rehabilitation and maintenance process. All of maintenance processes such as renovation of interiors and consolidation of construction may create new job opportunities to locals. Moreover re-functioned and reused building will continue creating job opportunities in its environment as a result of cultural and sustainable tourism. If the subject of adaptive reuse located in abandoned or ignored places, it is observed that existence of adaptive reuse project may reduce the crime rates in that region. Effects of conservation of historic sites or living in historically conserved cities to communities’ life quality and individual’s psychology are also

socio-cultural sustainability’s concerns. Societies tend to live in more meaningful and satisfying places and this necessity explained by Richard Florida as “We don’t want to live nowhere. We want to live somewhere.” (2004, s.15; quoted by Bond, 2011, p.5). In order to create a healthy society, cities and buildings must provide “sense of a place” and “sense of a community” to their locals. “The academic definition of sense of community is a feeling members have of belonging; a feeling that members matter to one another and the group and a shared faith that member’s needs will be met through their commitment to be together."(Salkhi, 2008; quoted by Shishavan, 2013, p.104). The definition of sense of a place is used for places which creates sense of belonging with their atmosphere and for places which has authenticity and characteristics. According to Rypkema, “A sense of ownership acknowledges an individual benefits from, an individual stake in, and an individual responsibility for one’s place. A sense of community acknowledges the obligations to and interconnectedness with the other residents of that place.” (1999, quoted by Stas, 2007, p.29). Contributions of adaptive reused historic buildings to cities and civic values can be summed up with those principles: 1) If an individual uses a historic building actively during his daily life, he will have a statement from history of society that he belongs and feels a sense of belonging to his society. Since historic buildings make connections between past and today and statements that come from past strengthen sense of a community of individual. The sense of a community means member’s responsibility to one another and one of those purposes of social sustainability is to emphasize “member’s responsibility to one another.” 2) Historic buildings presents the culture, technology, art and architecture of period that they belong in. They can be reused along with the requirements of current time and society by taking into consideration their authenticity and integrity. By those buildings, symbol of society’s culture can be transferred originally to current and next generations; identity of society can be developed. Through adaptive reuse of historic buildings, societies can obtain cultural continuity and therefore, cultural sustainability can achieve its goal. 3) Historic buildings are always remarkable with their unique existence when they are compared with contemporary buildings and they supply the cities their characteristic features. Members of society feel themselves in “more defined environments” with the atmosphere that historic buildings create. As a consequence of this, member has “sense of a place” and through its psychological effects member’s life quality increases which is also a goal of socio-cultural sustainable development. 4) Re-functioned buildings give every segment of society opportunity of self-development in different possibilities. Old buildings are mostly re-functioned as culture centers, museums or art galleries and that helps society to get involved social activities. Thus social equity is provided to society and one of the main goals of social sustainability would be achieved on urban context. Secondly reusing a building which has a social value for cultural aims is also a part of sustainable development. 5) Reusing old and historic buildings with new functions always renews social life of the environment that it belongs in. Participation of every segments of society to those social events supports two aims of social sustainability, social participation and quality life. A Sampleof Adaptive Reuse of Historic Buildings from the Capital City Of Latvia, Riga: Mākslas Muzejs Rīgas Birža (Art Museum Riga Bourse)

Figure 1. View of Riga’s Old Town Latvia, a country which is located in Northern Europe, near to Baltic Sea and one of the Baltic States, borders on Estonia in north, Lithuania in south and Russia in east. The population of Latvia is 2.001.468 and most of its population lives in the capital city, Riga.Latvia was entitled to membership of European Union in 2004 and its capital city, Riga was entitled as European Capital of Culture in 2014. Latvia and Riga stayed under rule of different

countries such as Germany, Sweden and Russia during their intense history and advantages of this variety can be seen in Riga’s architecture. Riga hosts various architectural styles and influences of different cultural values and; because of this unique and intense historic fabric in architecture, Riga is added to World Heritage List by UNESCO in 1997. Riga’s construction started by the end of 13th century and the most productive period in the construction of Riga’s centre occurred in the middle of 19th century (Krastiņš, 2007, p.7-11). The city center Old Town, which has mostly historic buildings and owned its contemporary look mostly in 20th century. “Many of the buildings constructed at that time in the city’s core replaced wooden structures but a number of these mid-19th century buildings have survived to this day. This is a unique phenomenon in the urban milieu of world’s big cities.” (Krastiņš, 2007, p. 11). Art Nouveau district in Riga is the city’s most remarkable region and the city itself was influenced intensively by Art Nouveau style when it was the trade center of Baltic States (State Heritage Protection Republic of Latvia, 2015). Riga’s uniqueness is not only connected with intensity of Art Nouveau buildings but also the variety of its types. Art Nouveau buildings in Riga differ from other examples of this architectural style. Riga’s architectural Art Nouveau combines with Latvian culture’s ethnographic elements, flamboyant shapes and vertical lines; it synthesizes both the eclectic and decorative manner of the early Art Nouveau and an austere rational, structural sense of architectural design (Krastiņš,, 1996, p.36-37). Riga’s variety of architectural styles is not only limited to Art Nouveau style. The other architectural styles that can be observed are Romanesque, Gothic, and Baroque, Neoclassicism, Modernism and traditional wooden architecture.

Figure 2. Remarkable and unique Art Nouveau buildings in Riga In comparison with its surface area and other European countries, Riga includes big amount of cultural heritage and it has an original architectural identity. Therefore Riga improved wide-ranging and proper historic conservation consciousness. Even though Latvia is one of the latest members of EU, it is a country which creates much more awareness to conservation and protection of historic sites and heritage than the oldest members of EU (Aygen, 2013, p. 263). Latvia actively preserves not only architectural heritage but also folkloric, musical and linguistic heritage, and even more than other Baltic countries, (Lithuania and Estonia). Despite Latvia’s intense awareness to cultural values, also other Baltic countries, which are also former members of Soviet Union, have a strong awareness to protecting their cultural values. Today all of the Baltic countries represent their traditions to emphasize national identity and sense of belonging after being under rule of Soviet Union for a long time. Latvians aim to protect their cultural values asa whole, since they count them as a contemporary presence of their culture, by focusing all elements of their cultural heritage from modern architecture to folk traditions (Stubbs & Makaš, 2011, p.197). In spite of all of the struggles that they had during their history, Latvians’ efforts for conservation of their historic buildings, protecting their cultural values and recreating their national identities by synthesizing past and today’s culture can be taken as an example in these cases. Therefore, in this paper, the case study has been chosen from Riga because of their strong awareness to historic conversation and Riga’s varied architectural styles. A efficiently re-functioned; significantly located building Mākslas Muzejs Rīgas Birža (Art Museum Riga Bourse) from Riga will be analyzed. Location, History and Adaptive Reuse Process of Mākslas Muzejs Rīgas Birža (Art Museum Riga Bourse) Mākslas Muzejs Rīgas Birža (Art Museum Riga Bourse) has a long story since its first construction attempts in 19th century. During 19th century, Riga was the trade center of Baltic region and Stock Exchange Committee that had to represent the commercial interest of Riga and promote the city’s trade. Stock Exchange Committee requested a building that could contain the Exchange Committee, the Great Guild and the city theater. In order

to produce such a complex project, it was decided to invite the St. Petersburg architect Harald Julius von Bosse. In 1851 the commission examined 13 possible sites and in the end, they decided to accept the architect’s proposal to construct the building at the corner of Pils, Šķūņu and Jēkaba streets where is one of the main squares of Riga. The new building of the Riga Stock Exchange was ceremoniously opened on 26 May 1856 (LNMM, 2013, p. 13-17). This was the first monumental 19th century building located in today’s Riga’s Old Town region. Architectural style of the building was Neo-renaissance structure in the style of northern Italy, with façades modeled on the characteristic forms and details of Venetian palazzo style. Three floored Riga Stock Exchange building is one of mostly richly decorated buildings in city in architectural sculptures which have mythological symbols. The interiors of the building also designed by one kind of paraphrase of the Italian Neo-renaissance (LNMM, 2011, p.88-89).

Figure 3. Art Museum Riga Bourse’s location in Dome Square

Figure 4. Mākslas Muzejs Rīgas Birža (Art Museum Riga Bourse) The Riga Stock Exchange building began leasing out premises to companies, offices and private individuals in 1880s. The building survived both First World War and Second World War without any damages. After the war the building’s commercial function was changed and it became home to the House of Scientific and Technical Propaganda of the Academy of Sciences of Latvian Soviet Socialist Republic. In the 1970s it was recognized that building needed maintenance and restoration, also a new function. For this purpose restoration works began mostly building’s interiors and it was completed in 1979. During the celebrations remarking the completion of work, a large fire broke out in the upper rooms of the building in January 1980. This fire destroyed two grand

rooms on the top floor, ceilings collapsed and interiors needed another restoration. Therefore it was decided to start another restoration project but unfortunately it was left incomplete because of economical problems. Thus interiors gradually began to deteriorate. In 2004 it was aimed to give the building a new function of Museum of Foreign Art and work of wide-range and accurate restoration started (LNMM, 2011, p. 89). The restoration of Stock Exchange building started in 2008 by architect Liesma Markova and her team, finished in 2011 (LNMM, 2013, p. 21).

Figure 5. First floor plan. Parts of first floor in order: 1) Entrance from Dom Square, 2) Entrance from Mazā Pils Street, 3) Ticket Office, 4) Lift to exhibitions, 5) Lift to Conference Hall and Little School, 6) Lift for Staff, 7) Atrium, 8) Great Exhibition Hall (former meeting hall), 9) Curator Room (former main entrance), 10) Art Nouveau Salon 11) Bosse Hall 12) Shop/Souvenirs 13) Bourse Cafe

Figure 6. and Figure 7. Great Exhibition Hall’s restoration process and its new function as contemporary art gallery During transformation process of Riga Stock Exchange building as an adaptive reuse work, priority was given to “function of the building and its interiors”. In process of re-functioning the monumental building, interventions were applied on elements of building slightly and authentic fabric were tried to be protected as far as possible. Periods that buildings passed through during its history and all documents about those periods were used as a reference to decisions about additions or alterations in building. The Interiors were conserved as they are without any modern alterations since they included sufficient historic plasticity. But the interiors and roof top, which were destroyed by large fire, required replication and reconstruction works. Throughout replication and reconstruction of damaged parts, the ethics of copying were considered and causing fake appearances as replacing damaged parts were completely avoided. The building has changed a bit during its history and therefore it was not possible to convert the building to an exact period of time. Based on this fact, all of the historic segments of building were considered in restoration process.

Figure 8. Restoration process of a gallery in rooftop and its new function

Figure 9. Restoration process of a gallery in rooftop and its new function

In order to find the segment which could guide design and restoration works, the most valuable, reachable and the most convertible segment was taken as a reference. Generally the building was transformed into its former state in 1940s and it was always paid attention to prevent damages on older segments beneath. If the priorities of re-functioning, reconstruction and restoration process of Riga Stock Exchange building were analyzed in general, it can be found that the building was transformed to its most ideal form with few alterations as far as possible and during this process functional necessities, reversibility of alterations and artistic integrity of the building were mostly regarded. The building’s new function is also compatible with sizes of the interiors. The building has grand rooms, halls and atriums and it was designed to have majestic and large spaces because of its former function. It’s an advantage for new function that the building itself has such large and high spaces. But still, according to architects Liesma Markova and Marina Mihailova (2014), who were in charge of restoration project, despite its large spaces lack of exhibition halls was a disadvantage for exhibition functions in building. Another disadvantage of building that derives from its former function was non-existence of reception that museums contain. Therefore architects changed the main entrance’s location to create a reception and used Grand Hall, which was used as meeting place for trade agreements, as an exhibition gallery as possible as they could without any alterations or separators. According to Jānis Krastiņš (2014), an academician at department of Architecture in Riga Technical University, new entrance was not defined properly and he also argued that grand floor could have been more functional. Nevertheless, he confirmed the success of both restoration and building’s transformation. Despite few problems in plans, it can be asserted that new functions correspond to interiors in general. As a result, adaptive reuse of Riga Stock Exchange building combines traditional restoration techniques with functionality in historic building and it is a successful project which can serve user requirements. Compatibility of the New Function with Environment and Its Contributions to Socio-Cultural Continuity In order to evaluate contributions of building and its new function to socio-cultural sustainability, building’s relations with its environment should be taken as a main determinant. Art Museum Riga Bourse is located in one of the most significant squares of Old Town and its location is one of the reasons that makes it remarkable. Therefore museum’s compatibility with its environment and location should be analyzed. Museum is located in Riga’s center, Dom Square and it’s surrounded by several historic buildings and historic churches such as Dom Church. On the other hand there are other museums within walking distance in the same area. As it is encountered in most of European urban plans, the main characteristics of squares in old towns can be also observed in building’s location. When all of those elements around the building are considered, it can be asserted that new function as an art museum is the most accurate choice for that kind of historic and touristic area. Alongside of building’s compatibility with its environment, it also contributes to cultural sustainability by serving with a cultural function in a historic area. Cultural sustainability aims transferring every cultural and historic value to next generations by examining requirements of current time. Cultural transmission is also much more important for Latvia which was under rule of Soviet Russia for a long period of time; hence they have great awareness to their architecture and culture. Latvia’s awareness to cultural heritage can be seen in detailed conservation of Riga’s architecture. The historic building with its new function reminded Riga’s habitants their past, architecture, culture and thus it emphasized habitants’ “sense of a place.” Continuity of a historic building improves “sense of community”, which means a feeling that members matter to one another and the group, among locals of Riga and this effect is exactly what Latvians put emphasis on in recent years. Social sustainability includes purposes such as equally benefiting from opportunities by society members, society’s health and psychology, society’s quality life. Therefore adaptive reuse of Riga Stock Exchange building also contributes to social sustainability on several counts. First of all using Riga Stock Exchange building with the same commercial function wouldn’t be beneficial to Riga’s contemporary daily life. The re-functioned building, brought dynamism to area that it belongs in and it also affects the economy of area in positive way. Every segment of society finds opportunity of participation to cultural activities equally by existence of a new museum and this opportunity increases society’s quality life and satisfaction. CONCLUSION Historic sites and historic buildings are significant cultural accumulations both for societies and cities. They influence societies by transferring messages and symbols from past to today. By the atmosphere they create, they help societies to improve their aesthetic concerns and obtain a healthy psychology. Historic buildings present the politics, technology, art and architecture of period they constructed in and supply the cities their characteristic features. The most important contribution of historic buildings to societies is ensuring them cultural and historical awareness. Consequently it has been always crucial to protection and conservation of historic sites and buildings both for societies’ future and cities’ architectural identity. However, if requirements of our contemporary cities are considered, it will be recognized that not only preserving historic buildings without

any alterations is appropriate for cities, but also reusing and re-functioning them in some cases. Adaptive reuse of historic buildings is an activity that works for the benefits of socio-cultural sustainability, therewith cultural continuity in urban context. The main contributions of adaptive reuse to socio-cultural sustainability are chances to protect architectural identity of cities by contemporary approaches, providing sense of a place and sense of a community to societies, equity among every segment of society and transmission of culture to next generations. Despite the political and economical phrases that they have gone through, Latvia achieved to protect its historical heritage during their history. After gaining their independence as a result of the dissolution of Soviet Union, Latvians showed a great awareness to their cultural heritage and this awareness is not only limited with conservation of historic buildings. They also showed great awareness to continuity of other cultural elements such as music, dance and language. Latvians who represents their cultural heritage by contemporary approaches show much greater awareness to their historic heritage more than most of EU members. Adaptive reuse of Riga Stock Exchange building can be considered as one of those contemporary approaches. The building is located in Riga’s center Old Town, which has highly conserved and protected architectural identity; therefore, any alterations or restoration attempts on the building were crucial. But re-functioning Riga Stock Exchange building as a foreign art museum achieved its aims in various ways. First of all, reusing the building with a contemporary function ensures architectural continuity. As a result, Riga’s architectural identity is properly protected. The building were examined accurately and reused with a new function, and it serves user’s requirements and corresponds with its interiors and environment. Art Museum Riga Bourse building provides cultural continuity among locals by informing about their past, architecture and culture. By this transmission, members of society also feel that they belong to a society. Therefore, “sense of a community” and “sense of a place” were emphasized, and those concepts were one of the main goals of Latvians in last decade. The new function of the building also provided more active social life to its environment and opportunity of participation in cultural activities to locals. In conclusion Art Museum Riga Bourse is a successful example of adaptive reuse which achieved the purposes of Latvian architecture by combining historic and contemporary; moreover it contributed to socio-cultural sustainability in urban context. REFERENCES Altay, C. (2007). Kentsel Sürdürülebilirlik Açısından Kültürel Planlama ve Mekansal İcraatlar. Dosya 05: Sürdürülebilirlik: Kent ve Mimarlık - TMMOB Mimarlar Odası Ankara Şubesi , 25-29. Arabacıoğlu, P., & Aydemir, I. 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Rīgas Jūgendstila Ēkas - Ceļvedis Pa Jūgendstila Metropoles Arhitektūru / Art Nouveau Buildings in Riga - A Guide to Architecture of Art Nouveau Metropolis. Riga: ADD PROJEKTS. Kuban, D. (2000). Tarihi Çevre Korumanın Mimarlık Boyutu Kuram ve Uygulama. İstanbul: YEM Yayın. LNMM. (2013). Art Museum Riga Bourse. Riga: Jumava Publishing House.

LNMM. (2015). Home. Aralık 10, 2015 tarihinde Rigas Birza: http://rigasbirza.lv/node/574 adresinden alındı LNMM. (2011). Mākslas Muzejs Rigas Birža - Art Museum Riga Bourse. Riga: Jumava Publishing House. Markova, L., & Mihailova, M. (2014, Haziran 14). Riga Borsası Sanat Müzesi Binası'nın Dönüşümü. (N. R. Sazak, Interviewer) McKenzie, S. (2004). Social Sustainability: Towards Some Definitions. Ekim 25, 2015 tarihinde University of South Australia-Hawke Research Institute Web Sitesi: http://www.unisa.edu.au/Documents/EASS/HRI/working-papers/wp27.pdf Özkaya, I. (2007). Bir Kalkınmacılık Masalı. Dosya 05: Sürdürülebilirlik: Kent ve Mimarlık - TMMOB Mimarlar Odası Ankara Şubesi , 14-18. Rodwell, D. (2007). Conservation and Sustainability in Historic Cities. Singapore: Blackwell Publishing. Rypkema, D. D. (2007, Mayıs). Economics, Sustainability, & Historic Preservation. Ekim 2015, 25 tarihinde Save Our Heritage Organization-Soho San Diego Web Sitesi: http://www.sohosandiego.org/images/rypkema.pdf Sawchuk, D. (2011, Mart 14). Riga Panorama. Kasım 23, 2015 tarihinde Darby Sawchuk Phototography: http://dsphotographic.com/2011/03/riga-panorama/ Shishavan, S. N., & Shishavan, M. N. (2013, Aralık). Comparative Investigating of Adaptive Reuse and Sustainable Architecture with Social Approach. Ekim 28, 2015 tarihinde ALAM CIPTA, International Journal of Sustainable Tropical Design Research and Practice Website: http://frsb.upm.edu.my/alamcipta/index.php/alamcipta/article/view/121/pdf Stas, N. (2007). The Economics of Adaptive Reuse of Old Buildings-A Financial Fesibility Study&Analysis. Waterloo, Ontario, Canada: University of Waterloo. Stubbs, J. H., & Makaš, E. G. (2011). Architectural Conservation in Europe and the Americas - National Experiences and Practices . New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. . Türkiye Barolar Birliği. (2014, Nisan). Uluslararası Çevre Koruma Sözleşmeleri. Mayıs 26, 2016 tarihinde TBB Resmi Sitesi: http://tbbyayinlari.barobirlik.org.tr/TBBBooks/472.pdf UNESCO. (2015). UN System Task Team on the POST-2015 UN Development Agenda-Culture:a driver and an enabler of sustainable development. Ekim 26, 2015 tarihinde UN Website: http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/pdf/Think%20Pieces/2_culture.pdf Yaldız, E. (2010, Haziran 30). Reuse of Monumental Buildings As a Sustainability Component. Ekim 26, 2015 tarihinde Central Europe towards Sustainable Building (CESB) 2010 Prague Web Sitesi: http://cesb.cz/cesb10/papers/5_assessment/137.pdf

MZAB ALGERIAN VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE: A CONNECTION BETWEEN THE ARCHITECTURE AND THE ENVIRONMENT NAGME EBRU AYDENIZ, NADJLA FELLAHI Nagme Ebru Aydeniz, Assist.Prof. Dr. Yasar University Nadjla Fellahi, Master Student, Yasar University.

ABSTRACT Algeria as a big country has three different climate zones: Mediterranean, semi-arid and arid; in three different regions: Northern, Central and Southern. Each region developed its typical vernacular tradition; one that responded to climate, topography and life style. Following modernization, westernization of the country since hundreds of years, traditional building practices started to be abandoned; leading to a radical transformation of the built environment. The current situation of the built environment depends only on reinforced concrete construction that does not respond to country's regional variety and as it disregards nature, climate and lifestyle of many. This paper explores the vernacular building types from one geographical region of the country; Mzab (arid region of Algeria), to understand its architectural design methods; its climate responses; its fit with the people's lifestyle. The aim is to be able to evaluate the degree of sustainable practices achieved in that kind of traditional building. This will be concluded first by knowing the architectural design principles which should be in a building to call it a sustainable one by using previous studies which explored this issue which is about the main methods should be used in a building to be a sustainable one. After giving information about the Algerian Arid climate, analyzing the different sustainable housing features of Mzab house have been explored. This study helps us to understand more about the Architectural heritage of Algeria, and gives us a clear knowledge on traditional houses design principles in the arid region according to the climate, lifestyle, and local available materials, and how those architectural methods belong and valuable to sustainable issues. This might be useful for designers and architects to use those sustainable strategies in there building projects, and change the design approach to a better one which is more sustainable. Keywords: Vernacular architecture, Sustainable Architecture, Algeria, Climate. Materials, Lifestyle, Design Strategies, Arid, Mzab. INTRODUCTION Sustainability has become an important issue which needs to be taken into consideration in many subjects, including architecture. This is true mainly because of the following two reasons: First is the increasing demand for energy consumption in today’s building sectors, and second pertains to the increasing world population coincided with the pressing need to provide more housing buildings. The role of architects and designers should come into play here in order to find suggestions and long-term solutions to solve this problem in a way that does not jeopardize the human environment but rather contribute to its protection over time. The need to understand and benefit from both vernacular and sustainable architecture is unequivocal today. This premise forms the backbone of this study which primarily investigates the linkage between sustainable architecture and vernacular architecture in Algeria, which may in turn provide architects with insights about the possible plausible strategies out there in the building sectors. The French colonization, started in 1830, brought about a wave of modernization and westernization of architecture in Algeria, at least when it comes to the gradual shift away from the traditional building practices. This has led to a radical transformation of the built environment in the country. The vernacular architecture has since started to vanish, although its cultural impact remains and its economic benefits are still valid today (Karim, 1993 p.65). Sustainable architecture is understudied in many developing countries like Algeria. This lack of knowledge may hinder any form of progress in facing the challenges to meet increasing needs of the populations while protecting the environment. Hence, using sustainable methods in architecture has become a must. Vernacular architecture around the world is impressively rich with ingenious techniques early dwellers used to protect themselves from the diverse weather conditions they were subject to, great example of well-thought vernacular architecture is located in the South Desert region of Algeria where a hot and arid climate zone prevails, called 'Mzab' (Meriama, 2007 p.12). This climate condition is probably

a good example of extreme weather conditions and studying the architectural techniques that allows the creation of independent microclimates in these regions is worth exploring. Developing design guides and approaches based on lessons from the traditional architecture is important to ensure sustained livelihoods of the inhabitants in these areas. Vernacular Approach The term 'Vernacular' derived from the Latin expression 'verna' or 'vernaculus' which has three different meanings according to Aurelio Dictionary: 1. Particular from the region in which it exists. 2. Pure language without foreignness. 3. The idiom of a country. So the original of the term 'Vernacular' is always related to the native language of a specific country or region. So many writers have defined the term 'Vernacular' differently, according to the design historian Darron Dean, the term 'Vernacular' was first applied to design by George Gilbert Scott in Domestic and Secular Architecture, published in London 1857, he observes that the first study on Vernacular Design were in the field of architecture. He says that the term of 'popular' or 'classic' can be used to describe what we call 'Vernacular'. Cardoso emphasize that what we call 'Vernacular Design' is related to the production of the popular culture. Lupton said that the word 'Vernacular' shouldn't be identified as something small, marginal or non-professional, but a vast territory with infinity of visual languages resulting in different groups of different idioms. Dones defines the term 'Vernacular' as the existence of local visual languages and idioms that refer to different cultures (Hilal, 2012 p.40). The term 'Vernacular' varies from culture to culture, or from country to country. Today, there are so many objectives which characterize the word 'Vernacular': informal, spontaneous, ingenious, authentic, genuine, popular, rustic, artisanal, non-academic, non-official, anonymous, and local, among others (Fatima et al., 2012 p.485). The meaning of 'Vernacular' term varies according to the context of its use, it has been used by architects, historians, archaeologists, folklorists and others, but it has one meaning 'Native'. Bernard Rudofsky is the first person who used the term 'Vernacular' in an architectural context. Since this emergence of the term, 'Vernacular' considerations have played an increasing part in the architectural design. Vernacular buildings are human constructs that are the results of relationships among ecological, economic, material, and social'. Vernacular Architecture combines the local climate conditions, available local materials, simple construction techniques and strategies, the living style, the traditions, the socioeconomic conditions of a specific region (Maria, 2014 p.24). Vernacular buildings and site planning depend on substantially experience, surrounding conditions, and local materials such as adobe, stone and timber. It's a way man used to survive in the natural environment , people created this architecture to according to the climate conditions, the sun, the wind and the nature, and this varies according to the area's features, society's culture and social and economic data. a sufficiency architecture because of the use of the maximum available facilities and local materials which nature has provided it which need less processing and shipping and environmentally and economically cost low. 'Vernacular architecture records subtly but insistently the history of a people. The shift from communal to individualistic enterprise, from self-sufficiency to dependence; the gain in control over nature, accompanied by a loss of personal involvement in creation; the gain of convenience, accompanied by the loss of pleasure in work; the gain in bodily comfort, accompanied by a loss of confidence in the social order ... Vernacular architecture is a great resource for the scholar who wishes to write a more scientific and democratic history, and thus provide his readers with a means for understanding their present estate. At the same time, the study of vernacular architecture holds practical implications for the future' (Henry, 1990 p.11). The vernacular architecture built for specific needs such accommodations values, economies, ways of life of different cultures, it shows the own initiative conditions and the history of each period in any area. According to the concept of sustainable development which is for the integration of the cultural heritage aspect into a social and economic strategy; the vernacular architecture which uses of traditional local materials and available resources, taking consideration of the bioclimatic features in the design give them a sustainable identity (Javier, 2004 p.10). It's gives simple solutions for sustainable issues because it has important positive impact on the environment such as low energy techniques for human comfort, strategies which are integral to the form, the orientation, and the materials which are obtained from local resources. the use of local materials is possible in so many different areas because the materials don't need to be prepared or shipped to the location which means a minimum economical and environmental harms, also, the use of natural resources, trees, cane, etc are restorable and renewable, sand and gravel are highly accessible. The use of natural materials minimize the manufacturing contamination of the carbon- dioxide which effect on the human beings health, there are some natural materials which help to accelerate the air exchange like thatch walls or wooden structures. The vernacular architecture has different methods related to the climate factors: interaction with nature, designing with less need to energy resources, exploitation of renewable energy resources like wind and sun, low use of water and gathering precipitation.

Figure 1. Cloud of key words related to the term 'Vernacular Design' Sustainable Approach The sustainable architecture can be identified as all the activities for creating buildings that characterize by the usage of renewable energy resources, sensitive toward the environment, that use the energy, the water, the materials and the space they are in, which protect the inhabitants' health and comfort in any period or season, it's the architecture which consume less energy and utilize passive systems. The climate properties in sustainable architecture play the important rules in its design. It's interested in the constructional and the architectural strategies which have not a negative impact on the environment which the ecological, bioclimatic and environmental architecture have the same meaning. It's an architecture which respects the environment and reduces the pollution of the energy consumption, reusing the water, and using the ecological materials. the term ''Sustainability '' is where people can survive without the contributions of the larger natural environment or ecological systems, ''Sustainable Architecture'' for him expresses the architectural concept of the reduction of the consumption of the natural resources and fuels, it's a kind of an energy and ecologically conscious approach to the design of the built environment, it's a creation of an environment for human occupation, performance and the support of life to which sustenance or nourishment is continuously given (Bedriye, 2014 p.36). 'The built environment has a significant impact on the natural environment, human health, and economy. Sustainability in the field of architecture requires environmentally friendly approaches. Thus, sustainable building designing involves integrating environmental, social and economic objectives. Some important issues to consider include: Energy consumption during construction and use, energy efficiency measures, the use of renewable energy; environmental sustainability of building materials; indoor environmental quality; consumption of potable water, water efficiency and recycling measures; waste management and recycling facilities; access to public transport and cycling facilities; atmospheric emissions, waste water discharges and surface water run-off; land use, local ecology, visual impact, contextual fit and community relations ' (Gintaras, 2013 p.184). Using sustainable design has so many positive effects on the environment by its methods, starting from the building form, material selection, heating, cooling, ventilation, day-lighting and water conservation to have such benefits as energy, water and operational cost savings. Working with sustainable recycling materials programs which support cradle to cradle cycles, this approach will create products and systems that contribute to economic, social and environmental prosperity. Also, reducing consumption of potable water and protecting water quality are important to sustainability goals. With the clear growing of the world population and water demands, the aquifers are being depleted faster than they are being replenished. Weather changes also affect water availability in many parts of the world; water conservation programs help water systems to reduce expensive infrastructure projects, as developing new water source supplies, building new treatment plants to increased capacity, and expanding infrastructure. Sustainable Methods There so many different sustainable organizations methodologies which have different aspects like: LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design), BREEAM (Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Methodology), BCA Green Mark (Building Construction Authority), DGNAB (German Sustainable

Building Council), etc, despite they have different features but there is one important common one; they all are clearly focused on the environment, economic and human comfort, the following figure explains each system methodology with its focusing point percentage:

Figure 2. Comparative analysis of different sustainability methodologies From this figure we understand that each methodology has different focusing points to create a sustainable building, for example the LEED for homes focuses on the energy use and renewable energy more than the other strategies, the DGNB for offices focuses on the interior air quality, health and wellbeing more than the other points, the DGNB for offices focuses more on the management, maintenance and the economic efficiency in the building to be sustainable, the BREEAM for multi-apartment housing and eco-offices focuses equally on all the sustainable necessary points; Sustainable land plot - land use and ecology, Site mobility and transport, innovations - Design process - Green building properties, Management - maintenance - economic efficiency, User awareness - Training and Functionality, Energy use Renewable Energy, Materials and Resources - Waste and Recycling, Effective Water Use, Interior Air Quality Health and Wellbeing. Another study, stated that there are three principles of sustainability in architecture, the first one is Economy of Resources which concerned with the reduction, reuse and recycling the natural resources that are input in the building, the second one is the Life Cycle Design which contains the methodology of analyzing the building process and its impact on the environment, the third principal is Humane Design which focuses on the interactions between humans and the natural world (Jong & Brenda, 1998 p.5-9).

Figure 3. Conceptual framework for Sustainable Design and Pollution Prevention in Architecture

The three principles of sustainable design, economy of resources, life cycle design, and humane design provide a broad awareness of the environment issues associated with architecture. There are methods for applying sustainable architectural design which are intended to foster an understanding of how a building interacts with the internal, local and global environment. 1- Economy of Resources: To economize resources, the architects should reduce the use of nonrenewable resources in the operations of building constructions. There is a continuous flow of resources, it begins with the production of the building materials and continues throughout the building's life. The three parts for the economy of resources principle are energy conservation, water conservation, and material conservation. Each focuses on a particular resource which is necessary for building construction and operation. Conserving energy, water, and materials can also have some specific design methods that will improve the sustainability of architecture. 2- Life Cycle Design: LCD (Life Cycle Design) which based on the notion that a material transmigrates from one form of useful life to another, with no end to its usefulness. This principle can be categorized in three phases: pre-building, building, and post-building. The methods of this principles focus mainly on reducing the inputs of the building, means consume some few materials reduce the environmental impact of the manufacturing processes. This then reduces the output of the building ecosystem. 3- Human Design: This principle is concerned with the livability of all constituents of the global ecosystem, including plants and wildlife. Also, this principle is deeply rooted in the need to preserve the chain elements of the ecosystems that allow human survival. The methods on this phase focus primarily on improving the quality of life for humans and other species Mzab House The Sahara, arid desert (average rainfall of less than 100 mm/year), covers 87% of the territory and the land used for agricultural purposes is estimated at 100,000 ha. It is characterized by poor lands, extreme weather conditions and high thermal amplitudes. Areas temperature Rainfall Humidity Min

Max

Days

North Sahara

5°

30°

80

South Sahara

7°

47°

2-4

Quantity

Percentage

230 - 430

75%

05 - 15

25%

Table 01. Weather Conditions in Sahara part of Algeria

Figure 4. Situation of Ghardaia - Mzab Valley Mzab, with a length of 25 km located in the city of Ghardaia in the heart of the Algerian Sahara; 600 km south of the Mediterranean Sea. The people of Ghardaia belonged to Ibadit sect of Islam that appeared in the

tenth century under the Caliph Ali. It located in the M'zab region of Algeria, six hundred kilometers south of Algiers. The valley takes pyramid shape, where the mosque is in the center and on the top of it, on a rocky terrain with a slope of 12 to 15%. A limestone plateau broken by valleys and entangled ravines, the architecture of this region has a unique design features related with its environment, there is a clear ecological balance between the Saharans and the desert which enabled them to live with this environment. It maintained its own unified system of traditions and social and religious organizations for centuries. The town of Ghardaia is the highest up and most significant of the sites in the M'zab area. Its planning has induced UNESCO to consider it an important monument of mankind for conservation and to inscribe it as a World Heritage List in 1982. Guardaia's architecture thus emerged from function, available materials and building techniques, and a way of life dictated by the scarce resources of the desert. It struck a balance between heavy structure and sufficient stability that was able to endure for centuries. Town structure corresponded to social structure through a series of interconnected spaces with various functions: ksar for urban life, cemeteries for the dead, palm groves for agriculture. In this hierarchical system, every element fit into place and assumed a role depending on its appurtenance and integration. Its perfect adaptation to the environment and the simplicity of its forms, keeps an example and teaching for contemporary architecture and urbanism. Mzab houses followed a general Mediterranean scheme, but that they were adapted to the climatic conditions of the Sahara and to the strict religious and social convictions. The need to adapt to the harsh climate was particularly important, and this was evident in many other aspects of architectural and urban design in the town (Leila, 2013 p.30). Mzab Sustainable Methods 1.Economy of Resources: . Energy Conservation: . Energy - Conscious Urban Planning: MZab Valley has kept since the nineteenth century virtually the same settlement pattern and the same building techniques without changes until today (Marwa, 2011 p.13). (FIG. 5, 6). According to the Climate conditions of Mzab valley region, which is so hot in summer and cold in winter, the houses organisation are so close to each other to be protected from the sandstorms, and to provide shadow in the narrow streets where people can walk easily and get anywhere without any climate difficulties; as the strong sun in summer. The form of the town of Mzab valley is served as a complete expression of its inhabitants' deep-felt beliefs, Mzab houses are located and regrouped in a massive way, so close to each other; this is how this mass of houses protects itself from the sandstorms and to provide shadow during the summer, it were built one on top of another, creating long surfaces of wall exposed to the sun and enabling streets and alleys to be continuously in the shade, the orientation of Mzab houses was important, as a whole, the town was oriented to the southeast, and the blind facades of houses faced north to protect them from the sun's rays and from sandy winds (Houamel, 2012 p.57) (FIG. 5). . Energy - Conscious Site Planning: The situation of Mzab Houses in Ghardaia is directly dependent on the availability of water resource which is the valley near located in the limits of the Mzab houses region, provides and ensures the creation of palm groves around it, which operate such essential microclimates installation human(Nabil, 2006 p.33) (FIG. 7). the Mzab house, its morphology fits perfectly to the warm and dry desert climate of region is located away from the water source of life on rocky peaks overhanging the valley, where houses at the grove may enjoy a cool air when the city is "overheated", a height of each neighboring house facade is defined according to benefit the maximum of sunlight in winter. . Passive Heating and Cooling: The Mzab houses is lighted and ventilated by the door and the slot in the opening called the chebek; which is in the roof of wast eddar (the middle of the house), the uncovered portion of the upper floor allowed light and air to come directly into the ikomar (Khelfellah, 2003 p.98) (FIG. 10). In this space that all household activities were transferred during hot periods, openings were reduced as far as possible to allow sufficient light but avoid the intense heat of the sun, there was a skylight grate in the ceiling here, called a chebbek, to ensure that air and light would reach the ground floor, in summer the interior of the house was cool and dark, and a pleasant breeze would blow between the chebbek (the central grate), the open entrance door, and the small openings in the walls, the chbbek may be covered by a wooden board in case it rains, or there will is a sandstorm or another undesirable conditions. Roof terraces were used in the summer for sleeping, and were often partitioned to form separate open-air bedrooms. They were surrounded by walls to provide privacy, tizefti and ikomar opened southeastward to protect them against the hot sun in summer, but to provide warmth in winter, the aperture also called 'ayn eddar' 'the eye of the house', its shape is square and its size is determined by two main constraints: day lighting in the ground floor, and the shape of the open space located on the first floor, the

quantity of light available in the courtyard is greater in the morning than in the afternoon because of the Southeast orientation of the house. This quantity of light is more than enough for whatever activities are performed in this space as a result of the horizontal position if the opening in the ceiling, among the inhabitants of Mzab houses, the entrance door should be opened all day to gain the sunlight, they think that if it lets open it brings prosperity. A closed door means infertility; preventing the sun out, it bars the entrance of happiness and fertility to the house. . Insulation: For the interior comfortable thermal environment; the stones which used in Mzab houses, characterized by a high heat capacity, is generally the material of building the most used, it However, the advantage of capturing solar energy and accumulate to restore it later easily be evacuated at night by natural ventilation effect. It is therefore a potential asset for the bioclimatic building, since the homes were built with thick stone walls; they were also cool during the day and warm at night (Myriam, 2008 p.15). This thermal phenomenon was enhanced by the use of light-colored plasters in raw or dyed lime, which reflected light and heat, the use of heavy construction materials adapted to the climate. Stone, generally the most used passively provides thermal comfort, cover terrace; on the stone vaults, is ensured by timchent, then a clay layer 5 to 8 cm thick is spread to provide isolation thermal, the light colour of the gypsum of exterior walls is to reflect the strong sunlight. . Day lighting: To have natural light, the chebbek; the opening in roof provides and distributes sunlight during the whole day to all different interior spaces of the house, the entrance door should always be opened during the day; it's another way to gain the sun light for the surrounding interior spaces as well (Nora, 2013 p.41). . Choose Materials with Low Embodied Energy: The wood of dead palms is used for to make house roofs; live trees are not killed as they are considered living beings that sustain the inhabitants, building materials used are those available locally (Stone, gypsum, palm), which requires no stage of their production, transportation and even implementation of spending excessive energy that generates pollution harmful to health and the environment, for siding, lime mortar and sand dunes are used, which are spread over the surface of the walls with a bunch of dates for shading and avoiding a overheating of the wall (Hamouda, 2013 p.30). Generally, the housing is tub with a structure bearing walls, thick enough, the beams are made of palm trunks (khashba) and ceilings consist of a wattle fins (jrid), the terrace is made of earth mortar that combines clay and palm leaves tree trunks constitute the beams; the choice of building materials was another factor that created the distinctive appearance of the M'zab settlements (Moncef, 2012 p.33). Materials, such as limestone blocks, tchiment (traditional gypsum), and palm wood, were all locally obtained, and so fit perfectly with the natural environment, structures consisted of thick walls formed of large, irregularly sized stones bound with mortar, pillars, consisting of agglomerated stones, served as supports for palm wood beams and arches, arches were built with small stone blocks, their ribs formed out of bundles of palm branches. The size of the arches varied on account of the irregularity of the materials used. But the whole was generally plastered with mortar and covered by one or more layers of lime milk. The result was a series of simple, yet fascinating forms. The materials used are natural; toub (it's a clay brick, manufactured very easily on the construction site, dry under the sun; it has an excellent quality isothermal), Timchent; it's a kind of plaster which can be obtained after a few hours of local gypsum baking it on fire, it serves to make the joints between bricks and stones are, it has also a good isothermal characteristic, The palm tree, with its wood, doors and windows were made. With its dry dates are used for the plaster of interior and exterior walls. . Water Conservation: There are irrigation systems in the Mzab valley to pick up rain, drain and divide the limited local water supply; dikes, combs, hoppers and watersheds were put into place to exploit the rare and irregular spates. And over time the palm groves became luxuriant gardens (Sriti & Tabet, 2004 p.29). The valley which is near from the Mzab houses is the main source of water for the inhabitants, provided by underground canalizations to insure the well being for the Mzab people. . Material Conservation: .Use Materials That Can Be Recycled: Some of the different materials used in Mzab houses are easily can be recycled, like stones, wood, toub; it can be used for new structures (Nora, 2013 p.55). .Size Building and Systems Properly: The Mzab house was square or rectangular and consisted of two living floors, and roof terraces, the entrance door opened onto an inner wall that separated the house from its central space, from the entrance hall one might pass into a wide space, wast eddar (center of the house), this is the central space of the house, its core, and its size ensured its multipurpose character and continual animation, rooms, storehouses, kitchen areas, and

the stairway leading to the second floor all faced onto the wast eddar, Each house contained a women's reception hall, called a tizefti (Mustapha, 2013 p.42). Wast eddar always faced southeast to exploit the midday sun, the house contained no kitchen as such, but a cooking area was arranged in a corner of the central space, traditionally on the opposite side from the tizefti. This area was very simple in design, consisting of a hearth on which to place pots and niches and shelves to house utensils, other rooms facing onto the amessent eddar did not have fixed purposes. They could be used as cloakrooms, storerooms or bedrooms. However, those used for bedrooms were always located in a sacred position to the right of the tizefti, a sign of intimacy. By contrast, as a sign of impurity, the water closet was situated in a corner of the central space to the left of the tizefti. It did not exceed a square meter, and an opening in its floor drained to a cesspool. The houdjrate; a reception room for men, which also served as their restroom when there were women strangers in the home. This was a small room to the back of the central space. In order to preserve female intimacy, the houdjrate (room)featured a separate entrance and was completely independent from the other rooms in the house, access to the second floor of houses in Mzab was gained by a stairway with steps that varied according to the levels and rooms to be served, the stairway led to a covered space, the ikomar (loggia), which faced through arcades onto a southeast-facing open-air terrace/courtyard, the upper floor of the house comprised rooms built and distributed as need be, in total disregard of symmetry. These were used in various ways: as bedrooms, storerooms for dates, and cloakrooms. In the ground floor of each house, we find the entrance called 'Chicane', designed as a close area, where a guest can wait there without going inside or see what happening in the middle of the house is, and then we find the 'tizefrit' (space of women) it's a place where the women seat and talk and receive the other women guests, in the middle there wast eddar; which is the place designed for just cooking and eating, there is an opening in its roof which provides and distributes sunlight, there is one room for just men, where they seat and discuss. In the first floor, there is 'tirrarghet' which doesn't have a roof, it's a place where to rest and sleep during the summer night time, there also another room called 'ikomar'; a room without a door reserved for only women to sleep during the summer to benefit from the fresh air at night. In the terrace level we find a 1.50m wall of height to protect the inhabitants of the house from the prying eyes (Houamel, 2012 p.17). The houses Mazab houses are constructed in way to give a sign to show the tradition. It was designed around the west eddar which opens on tizafri (placeholder for the invited women) (Figure 3). It obeys the rules and Social norms: discretion, reception, and housekeeping. In addition, it is articulated to the semi-public space (the street) by an inlet deflector (Skiffa), its role is to preserve the intimacy of the central patio foreign looks, where the place for family gatherings. 2. Life Cycle Design: . Pre-Building Phase: .Use Materials Made From Renewable Resources: Stones and toub for walls, palm trunks for columns and beam structures, palm leaves as a beams covers, sand dunes for the gypsum, lime mortar for siding, are all materials from renewable resources which can be affordable without consumption any energy. .Use Materials Harvested or Extracted without Causing Ecological Damage: All the materials used in Mzab houses are local and obtained from the site itself, it didn't need any energy to get it or harvested it; this helped the environment to have less ecological damage (Nora, 2013 p.52). .Use Materials with Long Life and Low Maintenance: Mzab houses are built since thousands of years, and the same people still use the same materials until today, it's a proof that all materials are durable and last for long time, like the stone, toub, the palm wood. . Building Phase: .Minimize Site Impact: Mzab Valley houses were built on a rocky hill, in a way to don't damage the original site, where the valley is surrounded with the different palm groves around it (Nawel, 2012 p.66). . Post-Building Phase: .Recycle Materials: The materials of construction used in the Mzab Valley houses might be easily get separated from each other; the stone from wood, the toub from the wood. And also it might be recycled to new use, the stones might be recycled to aggregate, the wood beams can be recycled or reused again. . Human Design: . Preservation Natural Conditions: .Respect Topographical Contour:

The houses location of the Mzab valley was designed in a way to don't disturb the palm groves and the valley lines; it respected the contour of each, because it's a part of a building site which makes it more enjoyable space for human habitation (Khelfellah, 2003 p.99). . Urban Design and Site Planning: .Promote Mixed Use Development: In the heart of the city there is the Mosque which is the most prestigious building in the district which units all the families together; Mzab's mosque is the key ordering and structuring element of the town - its nucleus. It is at once a place of worship, the seat of religious government, a meeting place, a school, and a fortress. Around the mosque, dwellings are laid out in a close-set, orderly manner, and the existence of hierarchical alleys creates an urban form in the shape of a series of screens (Sriti & Tabet, 2004 p.28). The ring of houses surrounding the mosque forms a real fortress, a place of religious intimacy. The souk provides Mzab's trade center and meeting place. 3. Design for Human Comfort: .Provide Visual Comfort: The outer walls, mostly blind to preserve the secrecy of family life, sometimes wear narrow windows masked by wooden balconies, houses also contained virtually no outside windows, and what rare openings did exist was reduced in size so they were reminiscent of embrasures, Skifa designed to preserve inside strange looks of the foreigner guests, the entire town faced southeast, the direction of the machriq (rising), symbol of light and life, and the sacred direction of Mecca. Islam accompanied the Ibadites in all their activities, ruling their lives and guiding their gestures. Following the holy texts of the Quran, they developed a philosophy and a social, political and religious order that became the metaphorical foundation of their towns, As for aesthetics, building owners were forbidden from adopting a style or any other building element that was different from other houses, all Mzab buildings, including places of worship, were unadorned both inside and out, and every architectural element was rationally and precisely measured (Leila, 2013 p.54). The application of these strict rules, to all dwellings gave Mzab a simple, functional form that expressed the origins and principles of its residents, volumes and heights were regulated in detail to preserve the safety and intimacy of dwellings; this also led buildings to be sized to human proportions. .Provide Visual Connection to Exterior: There is a palm grove which is located in the limits of the valley, it provide a beautiful green views for the inhabitants, in the Mzab houses environment we find Social, economic and environmental gathered in a form of sustainability for a healthy and sustainable life in the valley which has is suitable with basic human needs, the local materials, climate, and build without ornaments (Nabil, 2006 p.41). .Accommodate Persons with Different Physical Abilities: Each dwelling, mirroring the organization of the town, featured an internal organization that both met the need for intimacy and allowed for sun and climate control. Since the outer part of the town was dominated and attended by men, house interiors expressed intimacy and were designed to protect the integrity of women. Despite the fact that they were indisputably the heads of families, men were largely left out of this interior world. For them, the house was principally a place to join their wives and eat the food prepared by women; the terrace is reserved for women and men of the house, and used at night to sleep. It consists of heavy and flat slab, enabling the reduction of heat transfer by conduction to the interior of the house, each dwelling, mirroring the organization of the town, featured an internal organization that both met the need for intimacy and allowed for sun and climate control (Myriam, 2008 p.23). Since the outer part of the town was dominated and attended by men, house interiors expressed intimacy and were designed to protect the integrity of women. Despite the fact that they were indisputably the heads of families, men were largely left out of this interior world. For them, the house was principally a place to join their wives and eat the food prepared by women.

Figure 5. The Plan of Mzab Town

Figure 6. Unified Image of Mzab Town

Implantation scheme of Mzab Mosque

Houses

Palm Grove

Figure 7. Implantation diagram of Mzab region

Valley

Figure 8. Chebek in the terrace of an Mzab House

Street

Street

A: Entrance B: Patio C: Stay room D: Room E: Kitchen F: staircase G: Animal Shed

A: Entrance B: Room C: Stay room D: Patio E: Kitchen F: Storage G: Staircase H: Animal Shed

Street

scale

Figure 9. Ground and First Floor Plan Example of an Mzab Houses

Figure 10. Day lighting system from Chebek

Figure 11. A View on (Chebek)

Figure 12. View on the Entrance Door

Figure 13. The Palm Sheathes in a Slab

Evaluation of Mzab House

Water Energy Conservation Conservation Material Conservation Pre-building Phase

Energy-Conscious Urban Planning

10

Energy-Conscious Site Planning

10

Passive Heating and Cooling

10

Insulation

10

Day Lighting

5

Choose Materials with Low Embodied Energy

10

Reduce Consumption

10

Use Materials that can be Recycled

10

Size Building and Systems Properly

5

Use Materials Made From Renewable Resources

10

Use Materials Harvested or Extracted Without Causing Ecological Damage Use Materials with Long Life and Low Maintenance

10 10

Minimize Site Impact

10

of Design For Human Urban Design Preservation Comfort Site Planning Natural Conditions

Human Design

10; Strong 5; Moderate 1; weak

/10

10

Building Phase

Economy of Resources

Sustainable Methods

Life Cycle Design

The Table following table shows 2. The Evaluation the evaluation Mzab house, of Mzab Houses according to the sustainable methods and principles of the economy of resources, life cycle design and human design of the study of Jong & Brenda (1998); the economy of resources, life cycle design and human design which analyzed before, it shows which part is strong or weak depending on the sustainable methods exist in each.

Respect Topographical Conditions

10 Promote Mixed use Development

Provide Thermal, Visual, and Acoustic Comfort

10

Provide Visual Connection to Exterior

1

Provide Operable Windows

10

Provide Fresh Clean Air

5

Accommodate Persons with Different Physical Abilities

5

According to the climatic analysis, Mzab houses are developed in different criterias. In energy-conscious urban and site planning, due to the houses organization and the protection offered to the Mzab people because of this well urban organization. In passive heating and cooling, it is powerful due to the only one central opening in the centre of the house for lighting, ventilation and for the thermal comfort of the inhabitants. Also, Mzab houses are strong in the insulation strategies, where thick stones, toub, are used for the walls of houses which characterize them by a high thermal comfort and this creates a good and well thermal environment. Mzab houses are powerful in choosing materials with low embodied energy. Stones, gypsum, sand, palms, toub, all are available locally and require no energy in production or transportation. All materials used in Mzab buildings can be recycled. Those materials are made from renewable resources and can be harvested and extracted without causing ecological damage; stones, toub, palm wood, brick, are also durable and require low maintenance. Mzab is sturdy in promoting mixed use development where different equipments surround the houses units; educational, religious, commercial (souk), which Mzab people need in their daily life. And developed in providing an operable window, where the chebek has the main role in the house in providing light, ventilation and thermal comfort. Mzab houses are moderate in providing clean air and in day lighting because there are only two sources of getting natural light from the Chebek and from the entrance door, not all the inside spaces can get enough light and fresh air. The houses of Mzab region are weak in building size and system. This is because all houses have the same size for different kinds of families. This effect on their daily life comfort environment and activities. The same in providing visual connection to the exterior, especially for women. It is too much closed for them, they have no contact with outside views, because of the strict rules they have in Mzab region, and because there is maximum one small window which gives to the street. So they can only go to the terrace to have a contact to the outside. CONCLUSION Modern buildings use energy very intensively because they rely too much on mechanical and electrical systems for heating, cooling, and lighting. Traditional, (vernacular, or indigenous) buildings, on the other hand, used little energy for heating, cooling, and lighting, and whatever energy they use is natural and renewable. Because modern buildings use about 50% of all energy, they are a major cause of energy depletion, pollution, and global warming. Producing efficient mechanical and electrical systems is not the primary way of reducing energy consumption of buildings. Rather, it is the design of the building itself that will have the greatest impact on reducing energy requirements of buildings. For example, modern buildings rarely use shading, natural ventilation and heating devices, while traditional buildings always do so. As such the case of the the Chebek area of Mzab house indicate good solutions. Vernacular architecture around the world is impressively rich with ingenious techniques early dwellers used to protect themselves from diverse weather conditions they were subject to. The concept of sutainable design has come to the forefront in the last twenty years. Regardless of what it's called (sustainable design, sustainable development, design with nature, environmentally sensitive design) 'sustainability' is the capability of natural and cultural systems which have continued over time. Sustainable design must use the alternative approach of traditional design and thour presente new design approaches must recognize the impacts of every design choice on the natural and cultural resources of the local, regional, and global environments. Mzab houses teach us diffrent sustainable methods. Firstly, the economy of resources. Where energy conservation is assured by using different techniques (in passive heating and cooling, in insulation systems, in day lighting, and the use of materials) consumption is low embodied energy. Water conservation is well in building techniques in the houses of Mzab reagion, especially in reducing its consumption. In the conservation of materials that can be recycled and used, and the size of buildings and systems properly took that into consideration as well. Secondly, we conclude from the evaluation of Mzab houses that valuable techniques are used, especially in the pre-building phase (where materials used are from renewable resources) and harvested or extracted without causing ecological damage. Most materials have a long life and low maintenance. Thirdly, in human design. Mzab preserved natural conditions by respecting the topography of the site, and in urban design. Promoting mixed use development was taken into consideration. Finally, in terms of design for human comfort, Mzab region has its own techniques in providing thermal, visual, connections to the exterior, providing operable windows, providing fresh and clean air and in accommodating persons with different physical abilities. Based on the findings and the conclusions of this study, we propose the following implications are proposed for architects and designers, as well as for everyone in the field of architecture and urban design:

- First of all, the use of sustainable building methods should be taken into consideration in each building design process (starting from the pre-building phase until the post-building phase) using the sustainability principles explored in this study. - Vernacular architecture is a heritage of any country. It shouldn't be forgotten, that its valuable architecture employs sustainable methods and approaches which can be used again in the future buildings. - The use of local materials of each region is significant in reducing accesive to much energy consumption and any kind of environment damage. - Climate conditions of each region has to be studied and used in design if buildings are to use the sunlight and the wind at maximum level in order to reduce energy consumption in heating and cooling systems. REFERENCES Karim H. (1993). Vernacular Housing Forms in Algeria. TDSR, 65-74 Meriama CHB. (2007). Micro-urbanization and city oasis; an alternative to the balance of arid Saharan Africa for sustainable city in Lower Sahara. Phd Thesis, Constantine. Hilal F. (2012). Analysis of Vernacular Architecture in Terms of Sustainable Considerations: The Case of Sirince Village in Western Turkey. International Journal of Sustainable Tropical Design Research and Practice, Vol 5, No 2, 39-54 Fatima F, Solonge C, Cavalcanti, Virginia P, (2012). Vernacular design: a discussion on its concept.Conference of the International Committee for Design History & Design Studies. p. 483-487. Maria P. (2014). Continuities and Discontinuities in the Vernacular Architecture. Athens Journal of Architecture. Vol 1, No1, 20-30. Henry G. (1990). Architects, Vernacular Traditions, and Society. Traditional Dwellings and Settlements Review. Vol. 1, No. 2, 9-21. Javier PV. (2004). Toward a contemporary vernacular architecture: the coast region of Ecuador. Master of science thesis, Graduate Faculty of Texas Tech University. Bedriye, A. (2014). Evaluation of a Sustainable Ayvalik Housing Architecture and its Ecologic Approach: Architectural Typology and Building Physics. World Applied Sciences Journal. 32. 10. Gintaras S. (2013). Green Architecture Paradigm: From Urban Utopia to Modern Methods of Quality Assessment. Science: Future of Lithuania. Vol. 5 Issue 3, p181-188. Predrag M. (2004). The Concept and Principles of Sustainable Architectural Design for National Parks in Serbia. Journal Applied Engineering Science. Volume. 11Issue 1, 91-105. Jong J K, Brenda R. (1998). Sustainable Architecture Module: Introduction to Sustainable Design. National Pollution Prevention Center for Higher Education. New York. Leila S. (2013). Domestic architecture in the making. forms, uses and representations. PhD Thesis, University of Biskra. Marwa D. (2011). A future for the past of desert vernacular architecture. Sweden, Media-tryck. Houamel AC. (2012). The contribution of the cedar forest dieback study in the Batna region (where the National Park Belezma). Master Thesis. Department of Agricultural and Forest Sciences, Tlemcen. Nabil Ch. (2006). Hydrogeology transition areas between the Saharan Atlas and the Saharan platform to the east of Algeria. Phd Thesis, Constantine. Khelfallah B. (2003). Algerian city and the search for identity. Courrier du Savoir, pp. 95-101. Mustapha AD. (2013). The ksourienne architecture (Algeria) between signs and signifiers. Tome 36-37. Myriam M. (2008). The architecture of Pouillon in Algeria. Insaniyat N° 42, pp. 13-26. Nora G. (2013). Vernacular architecture. Master thesis, University of Paris. Hamouda, A. (2013). Approach of syntactic analysis of rural housing case of El kantra. Courrier du savoir. N°16, pp.27-36. Moncef B. (2012). Revitalization of cities: old Aurasian. Phd Thesis. University of Batna. Nawel D. (2012). Morphological study of Aurasian vernacular agglomerations. Master Thesis, University of Batna. Sriti L, Tabet K. (2004). Evolution of housing and models appropriation of space , the case of Ziban architecture. Courrier du savoir, N°05, pp. 23-30.

SHAPE GRAMMAR AND ARCHETYPES: “I. NATIONAL ARCHITECTURE PERIOD” AND ITS LEGACY AYSE YUCEL ABSTRACT Despite the fact that, this period is “Ottoman Revivalism”, definition of “National” has been shared by architects and historians; as architecture between the period of 1908 and the beginning of 1930s was influenced by “Turkish Nationalism”, which was initially originated in sociology, philosophy and literature. The period reflects characteristics of a critical era; after losses of Ottoman Empire mainly due to the effects of “nationalism” on other nations under its rule; and therefore covers rather complex, unstable years from the Second Monarchic Era to the First World War and to the constitution of Turkish Republic. In a relatively short period after the declaration of the republic, the movement was ended, as it was actually oriented towards reviving “Ottoman”, then architectural scene of Turkey was changed in order to enhance “Modern” values of the new republic. The presentation covers the results of a “typology” analysis, which clarifies the archetypal elements of this stylistic approach in a systematic manner. Several buildings among the movement’s examples, which are located in Istanbul, were chosen and analyzed typologically. Explaining that the period buildings have rather distinctive front facades, and mainly through these facades that they are classified as “national”, such an analysis, reveals the components of these front facades. Following this phase, end-results of this typology analysis are taken one step further to define basic archetypal elements of the period, above any individual building level. The archetypal elements, and therefore rules of the shape grammar based on such archetypes, were possible to be transferred into a virtual set of rules. Despite distinct changes in the profession of architecture itself and technical developments of the period, the stylistic approach was very clear. The period had its visual language with a definable set of items, with meanings possessed. In conclusion, extension of reading as “revival of a revival”, very similar but more recent architectural choices will be presented mainly among civic and institutional buildings, since the 1980s, with supposedly similar visual vocabulary but not necessarily the same grammatical system

THE IDENTITY OF URBAN SPACE NEW APPROACHES FOR HISTORICAL AND MONUMENTAL PLACES IN THE CITY DOMENICO CHIZZONITI, LETIZIA CATTANI, MONICA MOSCATELLI, LUCA PREIS ABC Department, AUIC School, Politecnico di Milano, Piazza Leonardo Da Vinci 32, 20133 Milan, Italy

ABSTRACT The subject of this research is the identification of some singular characteristic of historical and monumental cities, able to disclose strategic interventions for the regeneration of urban structure. Starting from a macro-urban planning, this structural approach allows us to study on the one hand the subject matter of the research by considering problems both from infrastructural and identity point of view, and, on the other hand, it is possible to recognise the role of great architectural as resources for the architectural design. The presence of ancient axis, along which the historical urban structure sets up its identity, is one of the paradigms we can recognize the essence of urban framework, but that nowadays is weakened from a multiplicity uncontrolled connections and from the inception of indeterminate functions. This presence plays a key role to urban regeneration, studied as a restoration and consolidation of the city, and as an important aspect of urban identity. Using precise interpretative approaches, this research tries to understand which architectural characters can control and define a new urban form without betray its original structure. The case study analysed by this research, belonging to the path of the Via Francigena (historical route from Canterbury to Rome), is the historical axis of Via Emilia between two cities, Piacenza and Parma. Along this local axis, some centres represent important examples for this study because recently they achieved the semblance of an indistinguishable metropolis, ever evolving. İn this case it is necessary to totally rethink the role of the axis that, during the past, had created a close relationship between city and country-side, and other architectural structures into the city itself, such as great religious buildings and civic structures: ancient town halls and cathedrals, convents and so on. Firstly this research tries to study and interpret these historical architectures. Able to offer many opportunities since their natural correlation to infrastructural axis, they allow us to identify the special relationship between historical buildings and street, city and country-side. Then, these structures are potentially considered reserve of resilience that can safeguard the meaning and the identity of places. Finally, this research experiments a methodology that employs a strategy of revitalization by considering the whole urban structure and not only a single building. This approach works around a larger scale with an inclusive strategy, considering the economical and social aspects of the city. In other words this study tries to realize procedures of integrated regeneration, that is the predisposition of a transformation system in different scales: building restoration, the enhancement of cultural and landscape heritage, the improvement of infrastructure system and the renovation of public and collective facilities. Keywords: urban spaces, historical city center, building restoration, urban identity. INTRODUCTION The case study analysed by this research, belonging to the path of the Via Francigena (historical route from Canterbury to Rome), is the historical axis of Via Emilia between two cities, Piacenza and Parma. The theme of this article draws attention on the results of a research about a specific case study, represented by the city of Fidenza and its territory included in the basin of the Po valley, along the Via Emilia, with the purpose of showing a possible different approach to the theme of urban regeneration (Figure 1).

Figure 1. The historical route of Via Francigena. Source: ADL Laboratory. The approach adopted moves from an historical analysis of the territory and considerations about an urban program of interventions which, opposed to the increasingly delocalisation and uncontrolled consumption of land, it needs to review a coherent urban strategy through the development of spaces and existing buildings in the central areas, with the aim of regeneration and redevelopment of the city and its urban, architectural and social fabric. For this purpose, the context analysis, carried out on different directions and materials, for example those of historical research at a territorial, urban and architectural level, becomes essential because it allows us to set a critical approach, able to connect the work on the project to the historical features of a territory. In this evolving framework, which is the basis for all other economic activity in the surrounding territory, as part of a Food-Valley articulated around the axis of the Via Emilia, Fidenza has the right size to become a catalyst for issues related to the food industry, as a producer of knowledge and diffuser of communication. In the same way, the ancient relationship with the inner centre of Salsomaggiore and its thermal system, could represent a starting point to think in a different way about the theme of hospitality, services and activities related to body care and well-being, in order to consolidate the construction of a City of Health, based on territorial relations. DECOMMISSIONED MICRO URBAN STRUCTURES PHENOMENOLOGY The results coming from the O.E.C.D. Regional Outlook 2011 Building Resilient Regions for Stronger Economies clearly show the need to devise an economic strategy that concerns the smaller towns, as a possible driving force for economic recovery. Compared to the prevailing model of metropolitan capitalism, which implies a substantial use of resources on limited points of application and which uses the spatial concentration to produce the same effects on the capital, ongoing experiences, in different European contexts, propose a different way for the urban renewal. This means a greater attention to the quality of the transformations, in a smaller context and closer to the European model of territorial distribution in small and medium urban centers, able to propose innovative strategies, policies and intervention tools, and to become experimental laboratories of a new model for the city government. These experiences also represent a possible alternative to the model of the third Italy, which served to effectively counter the recessive crisis of heavy industry, however, causing effects of land consumption and urban sprawl that are no longer sustainable. For this reason, it is necessary to consider the suitability of the intervention policies and instruments conceived originally for large disposals and leave the trend to consider the micro-decommissions phenomenon as a secondary event, not very important, to be delivered only to the local administration. Even if, unlike the disposals of large settlements, the crisis of smaller areas is not particularly worrying, it appears, really, a significant and alarming phenomenon, because it involves the whole urban fabric. Stopping this new development phase allows us, then, to open a primary reflection on the city as a living organism, through a renewed smart specialisation, which combines a specific productive innovation with a new

production of social relations. In this way, first it is necessary to build a regional system that returns to the local institutions, municipalities in Italy, a chance to operate at the urban scale and, through the use of new planning instruments, it allows us pilot projects with synthetic and unitary proceedings, to overcome procedural delays and missed connections and to act with a new scale economy given by recovering disused public buildings. Triggered by the construction of new urban functional systems, a fragmentation into small structures can be a resource and an opportunity for urban renewal that could also involve the private operators. The phenomenon of the micro-decommissioned structure regeneration concerns not only a large number of small and medium Italian centers, but covers the whole European territory. In this broader context, we are witnessing a number of approaches, as a result of the different local proceedings and legislative settings, and also as a result of the different directions of urban studies concerning urban regeneration. As a premise, we can talk about the example of Canton Ticino, Switzerland, in which for small towns like Bellinzona, the capital city Lugano and Mendrisio, the plurality of micro-disposals was an important opportunity for an organic urban approach, in a region with a strong identity. The British approach, instead, was directed towards the integration of land parcels of small towns through the redevelopment of central areas, especially the high streets, around which small towns were formed, by converting them into pedestrian areas and the redevelopment of the market space, in order to trigger a process of gentrification. In France, for example, the continental structure of a big capital city and the longdistance centers of large and medium-sized, sees an increasingly widespread dissemination of urban studies, sociological analysis or specific contributions on the relationship with the landscape, and their subsequent application in the processes of urban regeneration. In addition to recovery interventions concerning the preservation of historic urban environments, as a result of further cultural policy, the spread of integrated cultural centers, the media libraries, which support the new micro-decommissioned space destinations is occurring. Germany finally has seen a transfer and a declination of the IBA program, originally designed for the central metropolitan area redevelopment through mainly residential projects (Berlin 1987, Hamburg 2013), towards the wide-Emscher Region / Nördliches Ruhrgebiet area (1999), in which small decommissioned structure of different cities, medium and small ones, have been the subject of urban renewal programs coordinated into a large-scale plan. So we can say that the issue of micro-decommissioned structure is strategic for the future of small and mediumsized European cities, because these structures represent substantial resources into arrangement of strategies for locating new centrality. In other words, related areas and facilities are, a reserve of resilience able to preserve the character of settlement and the identity values of the sites. Referring to them, therefore, there is the need to experience a regeneration strategy that works not only on the individual building, but also on a larger scale with a more inclusive economic and social aspects and not only on the architectural capital. In other words, it is required to take action to integrated regeneration, that is the establishment of a transformation system which encourages the convergence of different actions at different scales: building restoration, enhancement of cultural and landscape heritage, economic revitalization, improvement of infrastructures and the strengthening of the services of public and collective interest. RESEARCH CONTEXT The physical setting of the research was an area included in the basin of the Po valley: an area along the Via Emilia, where small and medium industrial units were concentrated in the last decades. This area still shows problems of industrial reorganization, rendered more complex by the widespread crisis prevailing in traditional activities. In this broader context, our research focused on in-depth analysis of a possible case study, represented by the city of Fidenza. The strategy adopted by the research work moved by some general considerations, that identifies the urban plan of Fidenza as an area fragmented into anonymous accidental conurbations, moving gradually away from the city centre to the countryside. This anomaly, which is common in many centres for small and medium, who aspire to an independent growth without a large scale approach, in Fidenza is particularly emblematic near the entrances of the city on the Via Emilia. Although on the western side, the river Stirone has formed a natural barrier to the spread of an undifferentiated urban fabric, on the eastern one, conversely, the potential settlement seems to have given up on building new landscape. Then, in this urban fabric, it is necessary to rethink, the role of the infrastructure network connection, which historically helped to create direct relationships between town and countryside and between urban facts within the city itself, which are still dismissed. The research was carried out with the aim to develop a general strategy focused at the regeneration and redevelopment of the city in contrast to a dynamic that tends to the establishment and construction of new structures detached from their context.

METHOD OF WORK The planned scientific activities was organized into different phases divided by specific tasks as follows. A first phase of the work involved the collection and study of information on some important architectural resources of the context. This step was supported by a number of research and analysis of cartographic, iconographic and bibliographic materials, which allowed us to explore aspects concerning the urban history, the structure of the settlements, the particular context of application and its physical characteristics. This survey was followed by the arrangement of thematic maps at the scale 1: 25,000 with a survey, for significant historical sections, on the transformations of urban and territorial settlement, and the most important architectural resources of the landscape. A second phase of the work has involved an investigation in order to detect existing conditions (physical context, zoning, the main facilities and public buildings, accessibility), which was followed by an analysis of the potential project areas that could be reused (if still operating or disused), and the collection of assumptions about possible new employments. This second step was intended to produce a functional layout for projects to develop and to focus on the instruments and intervention criteria, for example, the engagement of the new structure on the existing one, replacing a part of it or the whole structure with the present activities. A later step of the research has considered the relationship between the new programs of activities and their resulting spatial arrangement together with the collection of references regarding possible new forms of social life, such as social centre, idea store, art factory, etc. THE CONTEXT OF PROJECT: A HISTORICAL-ANALYTICAL APPROACH The Roman origins of the city. The city's origins date back to around the year 82 B.C., but previously the roman interest to this part of the territory was visible. The foundation of cities like Piacenza and Cremona (208 B.C.) ensured the control and the crossing of the Po to the administration of Rome. During the Second century B.C., Rome founded new colonies, including Modena and Parma in 183 B.C., creating a series of military units along the Via Emilia near bridges and fords. Fidenza was borned as checkpoint of the bridge over Stirone, between courses of Taro and Nure. During the first century A.D. the territory was extended to lap the ager of Parma, Velleia and Fornovo towards mountains and the Po plain. Its privileged location as a hub of the cardus leading towards Cremona and Fornovo, and the decumanus lying on the Via Emilia towards Parma and Piacenza, in fact constituted the fortune of the city centre. With the economic decline, starting from the second century A.D.the city lots its autonomous municipality. At the end of the third century, the urban history of Fidenza is linked to the story of Christian martyr S.Donnino, because, near the river Stirone, at the intersection with Via Claudia (early medieval name of Via Emilia), was built the church dedicated to him. Since that time, the history of this town will be developed around the figure of this martyr, so much that the ancient Roman settlement inherit his name. Yet the name of Fidenza appeared in other ancient documents, described as a place of accomodation for pilgrims along the routes to the places of worship. It is not entirely clear the roman city structure, although in some studies the existing via Berenini and Gramsci have been recognized as the anciet cardus and the decumanus, while the main square, Piazza Garibaldi, identified as the ancient forum. Observing a map prior to 1928, have identified two different settlements that developed different ways: the core Eastern extending around the axis Via Emilia, and a western part with a typically monocentric aspect. The medieval settlement stopped every linearity to develop arounds a series of path converging on the main sqaure. The Medieval village. During the Middle Age it was reported the existence of a religious community in Fidenza collected around the cult of the Saint Donnino. Despite the lack of information about the urban structure, it was clear the presence of a settlement around the church. Towards the end of the tenth century, the area around the village of S.Donnino, including Parma, Piacenza and Cremona, was an important center of administrative control, and a political and economic strategic place, because it was crossed by an important road network coming from the Po Valley and prosecuting towards Florence and Rome. In particular, the exploitation of the salt mines of Salsomaggiore represented a longed resource: the products derived from mines passed through the village, continued to Parma and Piacenza and reached more distant markets. At the beginning of the twelfth century, the urban core built appeared as a fortified center of a larger military system along the Via Emilia, placed to safeguard the political and administrative center. During the twelfth century it could be identified two different urban centers, as follows: the first one, on the west side, with its typical medieval urban design, was structured around the Duomo and played a religious and political role; the second one, extended along the Via Emilia, in continuity with the pre-existing Roman, represented the mercantile core and was excluded from the structure of the first fortified. This diversification between administrative villages lasted until the construction of a single system of defensive walls around 1268 including both the Castrum Burgi that Borgonovo (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Medieval urban setlements of Castrum Vetus (A) and Burgo Novo (B). Source: ADL Laboratory. The Visconti and Sforza Age. The Visconti Age in Fidenza was characterized by the construction of new defensive walls that will determine the shape of the city until the nineteenth century. The fortification works were developed around the middle of XIV century. These interventions are described in a series of maps that identifies the geometry of the defensive wall system and the new urban design of the city. The western boundary was organized around the Porta Nova to replace the ancient one near the Duomo, while the eastern boundary was represented by the Porta S. Michele with the Salvaterra Tower. The Farnese Age. With the arrival of the Farnese family, urban policy changes in relation to the autonomy transferred to the village: in 1601 Fidenza becomes the seat of the diocese and acquires the title of city. The ancient medieval village is now considered a center strategic management policy of the Duchy. Great works directly involved Borgo S.Donnino where, around 1575, began the construction of a new fortified wall system. The Bourbons Age and the Napoleonic government. The first Bourbon dates back to 1748, when the Duchy of Parma and Piacenza were assigned to the new government, until the Napoleonic occupation of 1796. With the expulsion of the Jesuit order and the end of the privileges of religious orders in general, there was a reorganization of the management of charities, with the reform of the buildings for education. From the Unification of Italy to the post-war period. In 1813, thanks to a private initiative, began the construction of a theater on the area of suppressed Convent of St. Francis. The urban situation, however, remains unchanged, even if new civil functions of public and private sector take over in most of the convent buildings of religious orders suppressed. At the end of the nineteenth century, Borgo San Donnino has an urban physiognomy of its own. At the western edge is still visible the Tower Porta that preserves the original function of the western entrance of the village, while the outskirts of the town, there are three districts, called Oriola, St. Michael and San Pietro, which surround it on all sides and bordering with terragli, the boundary of the embankment overlooking open countryside. These terragli are characterized by a strip of old and small houses, built on the ruins of the oldest city walls and inhabited mostly by small artisans and laborers (Figure 3).

Figure 3. Fidenza general plan (1843). Source: ADL Laboratory. Throughout the nineteenth century the urban structure of Borgo San Donnino, was not be upset by poor attendance industrial, and in the surrounding landscape still prevails an agricultural environment from the soil fertile and cultivated with wheat, lawns, vegetables and vineyards. A first sign of the industrial age, one can see, after 1880, through the infrastructure of the area, characterized by the mesh of road and rail links, very well developed for its time, that relates Fidenza with the surrounding region, anticipating the future development of a modern manufacturing. Thanks to the railroad Bologna-Piacenza, Borgo San Donnino is in direct communication with Parma, Piacenza, Veneto and Mantua; the railway between Piacenza and Parma was drawn in 1853. Among the first industries to settle in the village, there is the so-called glass factory created by the family of Luigi Bormioli who had moved to Borgo San Donnino in the year 1825. The factories factory found a place in the ancient Monastery of the Sisters of St. Bernard, next to the Via Emilia. At the beginning of the twentieth century, the territory around Fidenza suffered an intensive exploitation of agricultural soils. Especially food factories increased dramatically. The takeoff of industrial production linked to the food chain, has involved the decline of traditional manufacturing, while the appearance of the new manufacturing system is concentrated, more and more around a centre of industrialization with new factories attested along the axis of Via Emilia and the railway line Milan-Bologna. This articulation, on the one side developed a relationship with a country where rational farming and industrial crops are rapidly changing systems of farming, while on the other side is connected to a lively network of handicraft that revolves around the processes of food transformation. A plan dated 1916 shows the first fundamental topographic changes: the city is bordered to the north by the railroad Milan-Bologna and in the southern part appears the first residential expansion. According to urban growth, the centre expands: in fact, the Citizen Park was realized closing to the main square, fronted by Casermone, the first public housing built in Borgo San Donnino. In 1927 the city changed its name in Fidenza and in 1938 its expansion process reveals not only most massive features, but also, and especially, chaotic dissemination, in which there is a clear loss of the relationship of identity with the surrounding countryside. The new outlying settlements surrounding the town of Borgo San Donnino warning of the arrival of a territorial reality whole different, defined rural-urban. In 1946 was developed a reconstruction plan whose main objective was the prompt return of the city to normal living conditions with minimal dispersion media. (Figure 4)

Figure 4. Fidenza general plan (1938). Source: ADL Laboratory. This reconstruction plan is mainly concerned with the area in which the bombing destroyed the old building structure such as, for example, the area between the western side of the Via Emilia (Via Zani and Via Corsica) and close to the Duomo, and Via Cavour, showing, however, a first and primary problem: it was abandoned each radical reforms of the areas close to the monumental building, while the project involved the almost complete conservation of the Piazza del Duomo and the first part of Via Cavour. On the north side of the square, the medieval tower is maintained and used as a boundary and transition between the neighbours of new construction and the old monumental place. Central element of the plan is the axis of Via Zani - Via Corsica, while on the south side of the street was opened a garden square which could be useful for some public use, and it was a real access to the area of the Cathedral, having as background the medieval tower. Another aspect of the problem about the reconstruction plan was the establishment of districts for new constructions; in this case, did not meant to prepare a plan of extension, but simply organize new areas for a prompt use building. The choice fell on the free areas, relatively close to the centre and easily connected to it; the sectors that seemed particularly suited to the prevailing situation were on the south-east of the city; on the north-west between the Via Emilia and the curve of the railway of Salsomaggiore and one between Via Romagnosi and Via IV Novembre. Transit traffic of the Via Emilia was also deflected from the heart of the city along the main device formed by Via Gramizzi, Via IV Novembre and Via XXIV Maggio. Throughout the first half of the twentieth century there was another decisive urban process, which changed shape, meaning and building organization of the city: the realignment of the Via Romea which was followed by various transformations of the residential fabric along that axis. In 1916 the Via Romea lapped the Cathedral, continuing through the Roman bridge. With the 1946 reconstruction Plan, Via Corsica became the adjustment of urban route of the Via Romea, while, in the 50s, the transformation of the structure of the village was completed radically. After the big mess of buildings, following the post-war reconstruction, in 1960 the City of Fidenza drew his first Master Plan. The main points of the plan were the problems related to the rehabilitation of buildings and urban expansion. This, in particular, was prevented in a total way to the north from the Milan-Bologna railway, and to the west by the railroad Fidenza - Salsomaggiore. In previous decades, urban expansion had developed mainly longitudinally along the East-West axis that departed from Via Zani and continued along Viale Martiri della Libertà, while the new Master Plan did not foresee a further development along the same road. The building development was planned to the south, as an alternative to the axis of the Via Emilia.

On these issues the new Master Plan replied with an increase and a rationalization of the urban expansion towards the south-west and a rejection hypothesis of urban and building redesign of the old blocks; this Plan was intentionally respectful of the old city centre. In 1972 he was drafted a new Master Plan for the city of Fidenza. The urban system outlined in the plan was characterized basically for the main choice of the negation of the concept of urban monocentric, for which the city was the dominant element, and the territory under its control had negligible role. The basic structure of Fidenza was, however, defined primarily at the local level and its main axis was identified by the interregional connection, which started from the bridge over the Po, down to Soragna, crossed Fidenza and then came in Salsomaggiore. At this axis was linked the production sites, the large urban facilities, the urban systems and the structure of the road network, which guaranteed accessibility to agricultural areas in their various specializations. In this type of structure, the city was not defined as the most dominant fact, but as a functional element of the territory closely interdependent with other parts. The aim of the designers of the plan was to "give back" the territory and the city to a “social” use, lost in previous years: in this sense, the public space became the defining element of the urban structure, the connective tissue in which organized the city and its relationship with the territory THE FOOD VALLEY AND THE CITY OF HEALTH: IDENTIFICATION OF AN URBAN STRATEGY This historical analysis also showed how, over the centuries, the human presence in the territory around Fidenza has built a system of social and economic relations that led to the development of the territory itself. Especially, this system of relations was characterized by the presence of important historical structural permanences, such as the network of deans of fortification along the pilgrimage routes to places of worship, or the extensive railway network infrastructure developed in the course of '800 during the first industrial age, until modern times, first with the construction of the highway and then with the High Speed railway. At the same time, however, this area appears as a local production system that has its distinctive element in the kind of good for which its business activities is mainly engaged. Finally, the history of the development of this area is based, since the early '900, on the political and economic supremacy of rural society on the whole civil community, which left deep marks even in the modern industrial society, and its agricultural and food economy is based on the production and protection of some products with a strong image and a great uniqueness, both nationally and internationally (like, for example, Parmesan or Parma ham). This local production system has been named Food Valley: it is a well-defined geographic area, including the south of the Po Valley, between the provinces of Parma and Piacenza, where cities and territory are characterized by the main feature of the food in its different stages and forms of production and consumption. The denomination involves two terms: the first, Food, refers not only to food in its most common use, but also in all cultural, social, economic aspects revolving around the theme of food as an element able to create sociality. Instead, the second term, Valley, refers to a physical space, within which are created the ideal conditions for the production of quality food products. So this is a system where the food and the place culture becomes one. The Italian Food Valley is a system inside which Fidenza can find its own functional specific location. A function that can fit in the offer of the food chain for which is an opportunity for the development of the local community. An attractive development opportunity for the city itself due, generally, to the knowledge production linked to the typical and traditional products, the technologies, the warranty and the protection of the industrial processes and the different communication activities that produce this knowledge. We are talking about not only commercial activities (sale of local products, market activity) but also of a training (workshops, cooking workshops, postgraduate schools) and popular (fairs, conferences, seminars). Without forgetting the congressional tourism linked to this kind of seminars and conferences chain, and, therefore, the possible effects of this on the new functions related to reception and hospitality that can settle into the city (Figure 5). Among the various considerations, it seems really important to analyse the city of Fidenza in connection with the center of Salsomaggiore. Fidenza is the main entrance of Salsomaggiore on the Via Emilia. Thus, the articulation of the functions could set a program for either city.

Figure 5. The italian Food Valley near Fidenza. Source: ADL Laboratory. Fidenza and Salsomaggiore are connected by a network of economic and cultural references related to health and wellness training, to research and, more generally, to a system of reception, assistance and activities close to the body care, which find its natural relationship with the thermal tradition that Salsomaggiore developed across the centuries. It is a link on a route that brings together on the one hand the heart of the Food-Valley and on the other hand the City of Health. In this context, the program of activities could be a determining factor in the development of the territorial system and, inside it, in an attempt to revitalize the role of Fidenza, that at this point, requires facilities and technologies highly qualified and innovative. RESULTS This analysis work has been able to verify the susceptibility, both historical and contemporary landscape, they can offer to the project and to the figurative research in order to understand the potential characters of the context. Starting from the questions caused by the context, the urban strategy adopted passed, therefore, through the identification of two axes historically defined. The first one is the North-South, which starts from Parco Guernica, behind Palazzo Porcellini, now the seat of some offices, along Piazza Garibaldi, Piazza Verdi and Piazza Pontida and, across Bacchini street, reaches Piazza Gioberti and S. Peter Convent, along Berzieri street, now occupied by sports facilities, including the building of the old sports hall; this axis represents the historical connection between the two urban centers of Fidenza and Salsomaggiore, along the route that guaranteed through the Porta Salsedriana, the passing and trade of goods coming from the exploitation of salt mines (Figure 6). Along this line we find a sequence of dismissed areas: that of the former Communal Oven next to the building of the old Classical High School, between Piazza Verdi and Piazza Pontida; that of the former Cinema Crystal, along Bacchini Street and that behind the St. Peter Convent, with the old sports hall, along Berzieri Street. These areas form a system that can be consolidated with the redevelopment of public spaces and the inclusion of urban functions corresponding to the food industry of the area. Here could be established new commercial activities (sale of local products, market activity), but also concerning training (workshops, cooking workshops, graduate schools) and popular (fairs, conferences, seminars), which may also involve other existing activities in the city centre, by stimulating the components of hospitality and welcome.

Figure 6. Syntesis of the project strategy. 1: the North-South axis with the Town hall (3), the Communal Oven (4), the old Cinema (5) and the St.Peter Convent (6) 2: the East-West axis with the Cathedral (7), the Forum Boario and Solari Agricultural Institute (8), the Capucines Monastery (9) and Ursulines Monastery (10). Source: analysis by F. Novati, C. Turchi. Along this line we find a sequence of dismissed areas: that of the former Communal Oven next to the building of the old Classical High School, between Piazza Verdi and Piazza Pontida; that of the former Cinema Crystal, along Bacchini Street and that behind the St. Peter Convent, with the old sports hall, along Berzieri Street. These areas form a system that can be consolidated with the redevelopment of public spaces and the inclusion of urban functions corresponding to the food industry of the area. Here could be established new commercial activities (sale of local products, market activity), but also concerning training (workshops, cooking workshops, graduate schools) and popular (fairs, conferences, seminars), which may also involve other existing activities in the city centre, by stimulating the components of hospitality and welcome. The second axis that we have considered, is the East-West, starting from the Jesuit College, set at the eastern edge of the historic city, along the ancient route of the Via Emilia, now Berenini Street and Cavour Street, arriving at the western limit, represented today by Piazza Grandi, near the Dome. For this axis, the theme of the project could be the settlement of new research and teaching facilities (classrooms, laboratories, student residence and administrative offices), linked to a training program of postgraduate level, but also, secondary, higher or professional education, in an exchange relationship with the Parma University Faculty of Medicine, for those courses related to body-care and well-being, directly connected to Salsomaggiore thermal settlement and its activities. Along this axis, particularly interesting may be the potential offered by the Forum Boario, now partially occupied by the Solari Agricultural Institute and the nearby buildings of the Capucines and Ursulines Monastery; these could be organized in a functional unit circuit, served directly by two territorial infrastructures: the railway and the Via Emilia. So the research work carried out, said that the strong identity of Fidenza can and should play a dynamic role in the process of urban and economic regeneration, according to a careful and unconventional design approach, which involved, in an overall design, the potential of the small central dismissed areas, bringing their different issues to converge into a unified design of urban consolidation and reintegration, according to a possible concrete

prospects for this and other local centers of small and medium size in the Po Valley. In the current situation, this kind of proposal can become an example of a strategic vision that overcomes the conventional aspects of planning and, optimizing the resources represented by the existing context, brings us back to the discussion about the design of the architecture and the life in the city. CONCLUSIONS This design approach has involved, in an overall plan, the potential of the small central disused areas, bringing their different issues to converge into a unified design of urban consolidation and reintegration, according to a possible concrete prospects for this and other local centers of small and medium scale of the Po Valley. These cities are arranged according to a polycentric structure supported by a network of roads and railways, whose efficiency could provide a key to the economic and cultural development; each of these cities, with their personal character and their importance, however have rich historical urban landscapes. In the current situation, the aim of this paper is therefore to identify a type of proposal that might be a strategic vision to the problem of micro-scale urban regeneration. Our planning strategy is to establish some guidelines that could be adopted in other identical cases, whenever a comparison between alternative solutions could contribute to forward-thinking urban policies. This could be achieved by offering some elements for evaluation and comparison, within the technical and planning, in order to draw up those acts of government (from the program agreements to the project financing) in which the general purposes are to find some alternative solutions of feasibility. We believe that the innovative aspect of this approach to the problem of the existing buildings and sites regeneration, requires, first of all, to understand their reason for being, together with an idea about their future role in the urban context. In other words, to re-interpret their types, style and all the architectural system, by exploiting, at the same time, the synergies with existing resources in terms of urban landscape, public space and accessibility. In this context, re-thinking the concept of urban regeneration means to go beyond the conventional aspects of the planning and a delay of interventions over time, and to bring the issue of discussion on the project of architecture and life of the city by optimizing the existing resources of the context. REFERENCES AA.VV., 1982. L’edificio pubblico per la città. Venezia: Marsilio. AA.VV., 1982. Per un’idea di città. Venezia: Cluva. AA.VV., 1990. La Chiesa di S. Pietro apostolo in Fidenza. Piacenza: Lama. Aimi, A., 1973. Pagine fidentine. Parma. Aimi, A., Copelli, A., 1982. Storia di Fidenza. Parma. Barbera, S., 1977. Biblioteche e Mediateche (di Francia). Progetti negli ultimi vent’anni su beni librari e media. Roma: Gangemi. Bartlett, R., 2014. The Chanching Face of The UK High Streets: Renewall or Obsolescence. Kindle Edition. Carpenter, J., and Turró, M., 2008. Urban Regeneration and Partnerships: Approaches from the EU, 2008/01. Oxford Institute for Sustainable Development. Carta, M., 2013. Periferie in trasformazione. Riflessi dai «margini» delle città. Firenze: Alinea. Chiapponi, V., Ponzi, E., 1980. Burag dü. Borgo S. Donnino tra cronaca e costume. Parma. Chiapponi, V., Corradi, T., 1987. Ciao Borgo: Borgo San Donnino. Castelsangiovanni: Tipolitografia emiliana. Chizzoniti, G.D., 2002. Fidenza. Note di storia urbana. Dispensa della Facoltà di Architettura dell’Università degli studi di Parma. Parma. Ciocchetti, A., Spaziante, A., 2006. La riconversione delle aree dismesse: la valutazione, i risultati. Milano: F. Angeli. CLG, 2008. Transforming Places; Changing Lives: A Framework for Regeneration. London: Communities and Local Government. Colantonio, A., Dixon, T., 2009. Measuring Socially Sustainable Urban Regeneration in Europe: Final Report. Oxford Institute for Sustainable Development (OISD). Oxford: Oxford Brookes University. Corradi, T., 1979. 4 passi per Fidenza. Fidenza. Corradi, V., Tacchi, E.M. 2013. Nuove società urbane: trasformazioni della città tra Europa e Asia. Milano:F. Angeli. De Franciscis, G., 1997. Rigenerazione urbana - Il recupero delle aree dismesse in Europa: strategie, gestione, strumenti operativi. Castellammare di Stabia: Eidos s.a.s. Denti, N., 1952. Fidenza nella sua storia medievale. Aurea Parma, 36, 171-181. Denti, N,. 1959. Guida di Fidenza : storia, arte, attualità. Fidenza: Tip. La commerciale.

Denti, N., 1979. Fidenza dalle origini ai nostri giorni. Fidenza. Drakakis-Smith. D., 1995, Third World Cities: Sustainable Urban Development, 1. Urban Studies, Vol. (32): 4-5, 659 – 677 Ferrari, F., 1981. Centro storico e centro-città : studio sulla città di Fidenza. Parma: Artegrafica Silva. Freeman, L., 2001. The effects of sprawl on neighbourhood social ties, in Journal of the American Planning Association, No. 67. Gervasoni, A., 1994. Il duomo di Fidenza: una perla del Romanico. Fidenza: Il risveglio. Hackett, P., 2009. Regeneration in Downturn: What Needs to Change?. London: The Smith Institute. IPF., 2009. Urban Regeneration: Opportunities for Private Investment. IPF: London Lori, M., 1984. Fidenza nel Settecento: classi sociali ed ordinamenti politico-amministrativi. Fidenza: Assessorato alla cultura. Marini Calvani, M., 1977. Fidentia, Parma. Masiero, R., 1999. Architettura in Ticino. Milano: Skira. Mc Cann, P., 2013. Transforming European Regional Policy: A Results-Driven Agenda and Smart Specialisation. Oxford Review of Economic Policy, 29.2, 405-431. Mutti, C., 1986. L'Antelami e il mito dell'impero. Parma: All'insegna del Veltro. OECD Regional Outlook, 2011. Building Resilient Regions for Stronger Economies. Paris: OECD. Pastori, E., 1958. L'Ospedale Civile di Fidenza. Fidenza: Amministrazione degli ospizi civili. Pratt, A.C., 2009, Urban Regeneration: From the Arts Feel Good Factor to the Cultural Economy: A Case Study of Hoxton. London: Urban Studies, vol. 46: pp. 1041 –1061 Quintelli, C., 1999. Cittaemilia. Sperimentazioni architettoniche per un’idea di città. Milano: Abitare Segesta. Roberts, P., 2000. The evolution, definition and purpose of urban regeneration, in Urban Regeneration. London: Sage. Tassi, R., 1973. Il Duomo di Fidenza. Parma: Cassa di Risparmio di Parma.

UNFOLDING ARCHITECTURAL LANDMARKS: WHAT MAKES THEM SO DISTINGUISHED? HADEEL MILYANI, SARA MOFARHI Hadeel Milyani, Miss, Effat University, Sara Mofarhi, Miss, Effat University. Supervised by Wael ElSayed, Prof, Effat University.

ABSTRACT In any region of the world, there is usually that one unique element that portrays the culture and identity of the region. Most of the time, architecture is the tool used to create this form of representation. Landmarks are buildings or elements that can be easily recognized through their unique features and strong expression of cultural momentum. So, what makes an outstanding building. Craftsmanship, Beauty and Grace all play an important role. Nevertheless, the world's greatest buildings ultimately are the ones that distinguish themselves from their surroundings. The objective of this research is to identify the correlation between an architectural landmark and what makes people recognize it. The research will examine these factors through different approaches of social and cultural aspects. The critical questions investigated are: what makes a building a landmark. As well as, understanding how a landmark affects the economy of a region. Which will be followed by exploring what are the functions that help this landmark become a tourist attraction. In the research, an examination of new and old case studies of architectural landmarks was done to fully understand the topic. The two case studies chosen are; The Eiffel Tower in Paris and Burj Khalifa in Dubai. A survey was also conducted to further analyze the topic according to the Saudi Arabian community. Literature Review Buildings are the background of everyday life, people don't usually raise their eyes and examine buildings when walking or driving around the city. Good architecture however, grabs your attention. It makes you more aware of your surroundings. But how does good architecture start. Consider context and situation as an example, it's about integrating familiar elements that strongly provoke your inner thoughts and memories. Thus, resulting in giving buildings an identity, which is relatable to its context. Contrastingly, some buildings entice people's imagination through the sheer simplicity of their outstanding difference. Regardless of which road any building takes, there are a few key features that, when grouped together result in creating a manifestation of iconic architecture that creates a long standing presence in the mind of the viewer. Thus, cementing itself as a prominent element to be pointed out, a landmark. In order to understand what these key features are, along with their impacts on their surroundings, thorough studies were done on two principal landmarks, Burj Khalifa in Dubai and The Eiffel Tower in France. Whenever someone mentions Dubai the first thing that comes to mind is the world's tallest freestanding structure, Burj Khalifa. Which represents our first case study. When the construction of the tower was done in 2010 it instantly became a strong tourist attraction that everyone wanted to see and visit. People wanted to experience and explore the world from the highest point possible on earth. By breaking the world’s tallest building record as well as many more, it quickly became a wonder. In the course of a year it started to represent a city that is over 180 years old. There are a few reasons that explain how a new building such as this can quickly become the image of a city. The most obvious reason is the amazing construction technology implemented in the tower. But also functions like, the world’s highest observation deck and the sky restaurant, which made it more, appealing to the tourists. On the other hand, the local citizens showcase the tower with a strong sense of pride and joy that their country has achieved what was once known to be impossible. It became a source of inspiration that showcases the possible achievement of all their dreams. Burj Khalifa holds a strategic location in the heart of Dubai next to world’s largest shopping mall and overviewing the world’s largest dancing fountain. It is the sole destination of up to 1.8 million people a year. “A vision, an object, a symbol, the Tower is anything that Man wants it to be, and this is infinite. A sight that is looked at and which looks back, a structure that is useless and yet irreplaceable, a familiar world and a heroic symbol, the witness to a century passing by and a monument that is always new, an inimitable and yet incessantly imitated object…” (Translation of Roland Barthes, La tour Eiffel, Ed. Delpirre 1964). The Eiffel Tower is a strong embodiment of power, creativity and uniqueness. It has stood as the tallest manmade building in the world for forty-one consecutive years until it was dethroned by the Chrysler Building years

ago. Regardless, it still stands today as the most known building in the world where even its silhouette is internationally recognized by anyone, anywhere. Many have pondered about the reasons that make The Tower so famous. There have been countless debates regarding its beauty, shape and aesthetic being too ugly or plain and distorted. It has caused a riot amongst the famous artists and engineers of that time, accusing it of disrespecting the structural standards and limitations as well as cultural separation. Yet, it still poses as the most significant standpoint of not only Paris, but the whole country of France as well. To answer this ancient old question of why The Eiffel tower is so famous, we need to look at a few features that distinguish it from other buildings and structures. To begin with, we need to understand the reasons behind its construction. Inspired by the Latting Observatory, it was built as a celebration for the Exposition Universelle, which is known to be a World's Fair to mark the celebration of the Italian Revolution being inaugurated. Similarly, The Tower was meant to only be a temporary feature for the celebration. Initially it was surrounded by several artistic elements. However, they were all demolished and only the Eiffel Tower remained. This was due to it gaining the popularity of the people from its new and unprecedented design and structure. Furthermore, this monument was and still is a strong representation of the Industrial Revolution. Especially considering the time period it was built in where metal construction was newly discovered and all the focus was shifted on the industrial boom. Freestanding at the height of 324m with its antenna, the structure is well designed to resist wind and thermal expansion to such a degree that it represents a wide technological advancement during that time frame. Finally, the most obvious reason for its popularity is its daring design, since it was constructed to be temporary it was built without following standards and requirements. This allowed the designers to have something unorthodox, which sparked conversations and debates enticing the minds of the people. In conclusion, architectural buildings represent strongly the country it is located in. Not only does it become a strong focal point and definition of the region, but it also becomes a strong cultural icon effortlessly marketing itself to the world. The more outrageous the design is and the more structurally challenging it is, the more famous it will be. Similarly, the more controversial it is and the more incorporation of technology it withholds, the more eminence it will exhibit. Architectural landmarks do not transpire through what is already here, but eventuate through challenging the norms and distorting the reality that people thought was once impossible. Methodology Data Collection Procedures: In order to further delve into the scope of what determines the generation of an architectural monument through the eyes of the public, a survey was conducted. This analysis targeted a random open selection of the students and faculty of the Architecture Department in Effat University. A total of 109 volunteers filled out this survey. The questions were sent out through the university e-mail system and answered online. The participants filled out the samples voluntarily after obtaining their consent. In order to protect their identity, all the surveys were filled anonymously. The Survey: The survey is included in the annexure at the end of this research. A total of nine questions were asked to keep the survey short and less time consuming. The survey was constructed using simple and conscious language to ensure clarity to the reader. The participants were asked questions about what they consider to be a local landmark and explain reasons as to why they believe so or not. Whether the landmark has to be a tower or in specific location. And finally what function should be added to make an iconic building. Results In order to fully understand the synthesis of a landmark, an investigation was done. A survey was made available to the students and faculty of Effat University, KSA. Based on their responses the outcomes are displayed below.

Figure 1. Local landmarks in Saudi Arabia

Figure 2. Some mentioned Local Landmarks The first component examined the existing background knowledge of the participants regarding the local buildings that they considered to be landmarks in Saudi Arabia. A total of 25% selected the Kingdom Tower, followed by 23.39% who collectively wrote different buildings. The next building selected was the Religious buildings category which includes; The Holy Mosque in Makkah and Al- Haram Al Nabawi in Madinah respectively. This came in at 14.52%. However, the remaining participants selected different buildings located throughout the Kingdom with a minority recognizing, Masmak Fort, Naseef House and Al- Wadaa at 1.61% to 3.23%. The Clock Tower, King Road Tower and Al-Balad received an equal amount of votes, which equals to 5.65%. Under the Other category, the buildings that were mentioned are: IDB Building, Mall Of Arabia, Al Rajhi Bank, Bank Towers, Abraj Albadriya, Al-Farsi Towers, Emaar Towers, Madaen Saleh, Jeddah Water Tank, Tujjar Jeddah, Anani Mosque, Damac Tower, Anqawi House, Le Mall, Hilton Hotel, Farsi Towers, Al-Shatee, Al-Sreya, King Abdullah Tower, KAEC, Aisha Mosque and Abraj al Beit.

Figure 3. Factors in choosing Landmarks The second component followed the previous question by the inquisition the knowledge of the participants about what components they considered when choosing the buildings mentioned above. Seventy respondents believe that the height of the building is the most feature they consider to be a representation of a landmark. While a range of 57 to 61 respondents closely selected between the aesthetics, location and history as important features of landmarks.

Figure 4. Functions in landmarks An important feature that is usually found corresponding with successful designs is the integration of new, unique or public highly favored functions. The elements mentioned include the following: An Observation Deck, A Sky Restaurant, A Shopping Center, A Dancing Fountain and An Entertainment Space. They were also given the option to select Other and define what they usually resonate with a focal design. The answers include the following statements which have been shortened or rephrased for clarity: Surrounding Open Spaces, Touristic Center, Urban Spaces and Centers, Historical Areas, Offices, Advertisement Centers, None of the Options and finally one participant believes that there doesn’t need to be a specific function to highlight a building from any other. When answering this, the survey gave the participants the freedom to select more than one option. The results are displayed above.

Figure

5.

Landmarks Timeline Statistics Successively, to fully understand the time frame of when the public believes a landmark turns into a cultural icon, the following questions have been asked. The first was selected to directly determine when it the building starts to become a landmark. They were given three factors to select from. The majority of the participants agreed that buildings became more famous after they have been constructed. While, on the other hand, 20% of the respondents said that it happens before construction and finally only 10 % selected during construction.

Figure 6. Landmarks In-depth Timeline Statistics Subsequently, this was asked to follow up with the question presented before it. This focuses on the period after its construction compared to its predecessor, which targeted the general time frame. From the results it is clear that there is a small difference between all of the choices. The highest percentage at 37.9% for 1-2 years. While, on the contrary, the lowest percentage was of 5 or more years at 15%.

Figure 7. Landmarks economic value As the pie chart clearly displays at the top, the dominant answer is, Yes, which was selected by 98.7% of the participants. This indicates that most of the respondents agreed that landmarks add a significant amount of economic value with the exception of two volunteers.

Figure 8. Landmarks and surroundings To fully comprehend how the participants felt about the presence of such an important feature in their region. They were asked about whether or not they believed a building such as this had any consequence on the place it was erected in. A total of 84% think that there is a form of consequence to the surrounding environment. Contradicting, out of the 109 responses, 15% think otherwise.

Figure 9. Landmarks and culture The following components requested specific points to further explore the subject. Namely, on whether or not the applicants conceive any existing relationship between landmarks and the culture of the country in which they were built in. The participants were asked if landmarks represent the culture of the country. The majority with 72% believes that the statement is true. However, a gross of 27% do not agree with the idea that their culture is being appropriated through any of the existing architectural monuments.

Figure 10. Landmarks relating to Famous Architects Finally, with the objective of pursuing more information in relation to the topic. The applicants were questioned regarding the importance of the influence of a famous architect on the design and construction of the building. This was asked in such a way to enable us to interpret if these types of buildings do always result in the creation of a landmark simply due to its affiliation with a brand name. The results garnered an insignificant difference

between one another. With a sum of 56.1% agreeing with the aforementioned statement and 43.9% diverging the allegation. Contradicting Results: When ruling out the people who answered no to whether or not Landmark affect their surroundings we found out that only 20% of the participants did say no. The answers were contradicting to the majority of the participants (refer to figure 10) for example in the first question where we asked about when do building start to become a landlord unlike mentioned above they believe that it happens before Construction. Those participants also believe that if a building became a landmark after construction it either happens right away or it take a longer time for it to become an important building. Finally they also think that landmarks don’t necessarily represent the culture of they place they’re built in.

Figure 11. Results of a special group (selecting that landmarks did not affect surroundings) In conclusion, the results displayed showcase a diverse opinion regarding the topic. It is a reflection of the mindset of Effat University students and faculty, limited to the Architecture department. However, it is very rich in background since the participants range from having different nationalities, environments and cultures. Thus, enabling us to receive varied feedback. Discussion The primary purpose of this research is to first understand the reasons behind what features constitute a landmark. To explore the correlation between the infamousy of the building and the reasons behind people's recognition to it. Finally, to discuss the different functions that garners it as a touristic attraction. From the results we can deduce the following. Based on the first questions’ results the research found that some of the mentioned buildings contradicted what was expected to be answered. Al Balad along with The Clock Tower and King Road Tower were expected to rank higher than just 5.65% respectively. This is due to the fact that Al Balad has been long known for its traditional and unique architecture that is constantly mentioned by everyone. Specifically, Naseef House, a traditional Hejaz designed building, and Anqawi House, traditional mashrabyya style, were only mentioned by 4 to nil respondents. Similarly, Al- Rajhi Bank was expected to be one of the average yielding results due to it’s history of being the first building of it’s kind in the region that broke the traditional design of having square structures and set the trends for the buildings that came after it. Religious buildings which include Al Haram Al Makki and Al Masjid Al Nabwe garnered less attention than what was expected to be received by the participants. Due to the religious importance of the two mosques, it was expected that this would get the highest score over all the other options. Another widely popular mosque, Masjid Al- Rahma that is situated at a strategic location that is constantly being visited by people was not mentioned once by any of the participants. From this we can conclude, that buildings that follow traditional and religious themes are not largely considered as landmarks by the public. This is perhaps due to it’s forgotten importance, or very orthodox approach that everyone is used to witnessing.

Other buildings that are considered as landmarks in the region such as Al Wada’a, Jeddah Water Tank and Masmak Fort received nil to low results which in turn relays to us the possibility that people do not always tend to lean towards buildings with odd or uncharacteristic shapes which is the common integer between all three. The Clock Tower, which was advertised greatly, received a lower score than what was expected, with 7 votes out of the 109 that were answered. This again may be perhaps due to its affiliation with a religious building and the exemption of designing the tower in a new and modern way, thus confirming the deduced statement mentioned above. Finally, the highest scored landmark in the region is, The Kingdom Tower, or as it may also be known as, The Jeddah Tower, with a total of 25% of the votes. Relating this to the other answers received from the other questions, this may be due to the following factors. The first being the height, which was the most, voted for factor that distinguishes a normal building from a landmark. The Kingdom Tower is targeted to be the tallest building in the world after its completion. The second factor is its location, being constructed in the most touristic city in the country. Furthermore, located at the hub of social life, the Corniche, or seaside. The third point being, the function this tower provides is the highest sky deck or observatory in the world. This function has collected the second highest, 59.6% of the voting. After thorough examination from the case studies done in the literature review, the research deduced four main factors that help define landmarks. These factors are: highlighting height, aesthetics, location and history. Through the analysis of the results, the most important factor is the element of height. This value was anticipated due to the fact that countries from all around the world are competing for the construction of the tallest recordbreaking tower to garner as much attention they possibly could. People are usually fascinated by the technique of construction behind those buildings due to its innovation, which also assists in making them very famous. It is also clear that the remaining three factors are as equally as important. Since it was believed that the highest scoring category would be history. This is due to the fact that historic buildings often represent the culture and identity of the country. Moreover, in the following question, the functions that are typically offered in famous buildings are: An Observation Deck, A Sky Restaurant, A Shopping Center, A Dancing Fountain and An Entertainment Space. This was done based on the case studies that were examined. From the results we can presume that, landmarks tend to have entertainment centers and observation decks. There are three main periods in which a building gets recognized as a landmark; before construction, during and after Construction. It mainly depends on the purpose of the building for example in the case of Burj Khalifa, everyone anticipated long before it was constructed that is was going to become a landmark for Dubai. This was due to the aim of having it built to become the world's tallest structure. On the other hand, the Eiffel Tower was not even meant to stay but after some time, it became meaningful and got recognized as a landmark. We believe that most of the time buildings don't become landmarks until after they are constructed which according to the results we received; participants seemed to agree with as well. Additionally, they were asked the length they believe it took for a building to be recognized as a landmark but only after construction. The results were distributed almost equally between the four options. Most landmarks around the world end up becoming a tourist attraction in the city they are built. People tend to travel around the world to visit these landmarks, That's why we believe that landmarks add a huge economic value to their surroundings. This is clearly supported by the examples of Burj Khalifa and the Eiffel Tower; people all around the world want to go and visit these two Landmarks take pictures with them and explore the areas around them. From the survey we could tell that people believe that landmarks affect the surroundings. Referring back to the literature review where the Eiffel Tower represented the culture of France while Burj Khalifa is more of an international landmark. We wanted to investigate if the participants believed all landmarks should represent culture. As expected the majority of the people believe that it does represent the culture of the country. However, some might say it takes time for a building to become part of the culture and be a representative of the country it is built in. This can be seen in the case of the Eiffel Tower, which was shunned at first, but later grew to become the exact image of France. When investing the different architectural landmarks around the world we found out that they were mostly designed by famous architect, which lead to us questioning if that is an important factor for a monument. Although, based on research, what was expected to be answered would be majorly a yes. The actual results lead to a tie. From this it can be easily concluded that most people do not look into the designer of the building but they focus on the other factors mentioned above. CONCLUSION Landmarks are iconic elements in countries. They display strength, power and radiate a sense of affirmation. It is clear that there are specific features that are required to be there for this monument to rise above everything else. Height, Modernity, Innovation, Location and Function. Landmarks are buildings that break the norms and

display at ease what once was not attainable. They must tower over their surroundings to showcase their precise design and approach. Landmarks must provide an insight to its users regarding the view it reaches. Admittedly, people tend to deviate away from traditional approaches, which clarifies why some buildings become harmonized with its surroundings and others cut through them and become known. Further research can be done to further analyze the reasons behind people’s choices. As well as, tackling the idea behind the existence of a relationship between famous architects and their creations. REFERENCES Ducouret, F. (2016). Why is the Eiffel Tower so well known? What is it famous for? - Quora. [online] Quora.com. Available at: https://www.quora.com/Why-is-the-Eiffel-Tower-so-well-known-What-is-it-famous-for [Accessed 15 Apr. 2016]. Goldberger, P. (2016). ARCHITECTURE VIEW; What Does It Take To Make a Landmark?. [online] Nytimes.com. Available at: http://www.nytimes.com/1988/10/02/arts/architecture-view-what-does-it-take-to-make-alandmark.html?pagewanted=all [Accessed 23 Apr. 2016]. Gvshp.org. (2016). Historic Preservation 101: What is a Landmark?. [online] Available at: http://gvshp.org/blog/2011/07/11/historic-preservation-101-what-is-a-landmark/ [Accessed 8 Mar. 2016]. Irving, M. and StJohn, P. (2007). 1001 buildings you must see before you die. New York: Universe. knoll. (2016). modernism at risk: modern solutions for saving modern landmarks. [online] Available at: http://www.ncmodernist.org/ModernismatRisk.pdf [Accessed 11 Mar. 2016]. Parisparisfrance.blogspot.ae. (2011). paris blog: paris accommodation and things to do: why is the eiffel tower so special?. [online] Available at: http://parisparisfrance.blogspot.ae/2011/05/why-is-eiffel-tower-sospecial.html [Accessed 11 Apr. 2016]. Toureiffel.paris. (2016). The Eiffel Tower as a World Monument – Discover the monument – Toureiffel.paris. [online] Available at: http://www.toureiffel.paris/en/everything-about-the-tower/the-eiffel-tower-in-theworld.html [Accessed 8 Mar. 2016]. Wikipedia. (2016). Eiffel Tower. [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eiffel_Tower#Origin [Accessed 28 Mar. 2016]. keholder analysis. 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

CO-DESIGNING THE DRIVER’S SEAT: A CALL FOR AN ‘OPEN’ APPROACH TO DRAWING PRODUCTION IN SPATIAL DESIGN PRACTICE JHONO BENNETT THE UNIVERSITY OF JOHANNESBURG

ABSTRACT “The question of what the architect is actually doing … raises questions about authorship. Is the architect a creative author with the will to produce a specific work, or do the conditions imposed on him inevitably result in something interchangeable, something that could as easily have been produced by someone one else?” (Reidijk, 2010, p20) This inherent contravention of authorship, summarised in the prologue of Reidijk’s collection of writings in Architecture as Craft, brings to light a crucial aspect of the built environment’s process of production; rarely is a building or a space solely brought together through an individual’s vision and efforts. As a rule, the built spaces occupied by society are the result of multiple forms of agency and ownership working together at different levels. While this co-productive nature of built space is well established through Open Building discourse, the nature of the design communication artefacts to which are trusted to carry the idea to be understood through remain largely ‘closed’ within the disciplinary boundaries of the designer and select group of building professionals. Nowhere is this closure more evidently seen than in technical output produced and commoditised by large scale design practices, such as urban and city design in South Africa. The author firmly stands by the belief that in order to allow for the true co-production of the South Africa built environment to take place equitably and efficiently, spatial design practitioners need to develop more ‘open’ approaches to the practice in the built environment – in particular to allow the design communication artefacts of their discipline to be co-owned and co-produced in the face of a rapidly urbanising world. In 2015 the author of this paper assisted in the running of UJ_UNIT2; a design-led architectural research unit housed in the master’s programme at the University Of Johannesburg (UJ). The research unit embarked on an exploration of new forms of design and building exposing the nature of agency through the levels that make up the South African built environment. This experience, combined with the author’s personal work in providing socio-technical support to the grass-roots international organisation Slum/Shack Dwellers International, provide the experiential reference to support the above stated belief. This paper will examine two projects conducted through the author’s own teaching and design practice that attempted to change the manner in which designer’s see and control design communication artefacts. A summary of these experiences will then be outlined through a call for design practitioners to develop their own means of sharing control not only in the spatial drawing artefact, but in the design itself. This is done with the hope of supporting a growing national movement that seeks to responsibly relinquish power through design in the aim of achieving social and spatial justice in South Africa. Keywords: co-design, co-production, Open Building, participatory design practice, visual literacy, design teaching, user centred design A call for co-productive praxis According to macro-economists Thomas Malone, the world is experiencing a global market economy shift towards a networked economic system (Malone, 2014, [O]); a point in history that the author believes global professionals should proactively be taking on the challenge of co-production in as a means of practice. Recognising the need for co-production in city building practice is crucial as the current patterns of space-making are increasingly taking place outside the professional realm – an inevitability the author believes spatial design practitioners need not fight, but embrace.

This sentiment, supported by Nabeel Hamdi, suggests that spatial design practitioners should engage with the “creative and adaptive mess of informality“ rather work within the existing systems in order to support resilient and sustainable change. (Hamdi, 2010, p.78) Co-production in its true form goes beyond simplistic ideas of participation or capacitation and recognises the complex values held by stakeholders in not just producing spatial change, but taking ownership and transforming the built environment from within. Described by Boyle and Harris as “delivering public services in an equal and reciprocal relationship between professionals, people using services, their families and their neighbours. Where activities are co-produced in this way, both services and neighbourhoods become far more effective agents of change.”

Figure 33: 2015 student protests in South Africa (http://14831-presscdn-0-78.pagely.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/students-protest-southAfrica.jpg, 2016) This call for co-production in spatial design practice has a critical position in South Africa in light of the most recent student protest where the call for power distribution requested by the student protest leaders echoes an ongoing call from a majority of South African’s who do not feel the injustices of the past have been equitably addressed in the post-1994 society. The challenge of power-distribution remains the critical aspect of South Africa in the fledgling post-apartheid democracy. The power of the design communication artefact Globally only 10% of structures are built by professionals (Smith, 2011, p.24). Within the South African context this figure sits even lower where a large majority of structures produced have no professional involvement, let alone control from any local authorities. Professionals work largely through established technical drawing practices governed by construction industry standards such as the American Institute for Architecture (AIA) and the International Standardisation Organisation (ISO). These bodies set governed standards and protocols and are regulated by the industry related entities of the built environment professional spectrum. When forced to engage with the various publics they intend to ultimately serve, the need to communicate effectively is not considered as it is proposed that a ’professional’ must interpret these standards and thus protect the profession. “Architecture’s engagement with visual documentation has always been in close proximity with the developments in technology and arts, and in turn it has been problematic but productive as well. Problematic in terms of appropriating different means of expression and yet to stay with a notational structure that can be communicated among the professionals of the discipline and the practice.” (Reidijk [Alkan], 2010, p129) The regulatory bodies who govern this control as well as the built environment’s professional disciplines have done very little to transform their constituency towards this reality and even less effort has been made to adjust the nature of professional design practice to find ways to support the emerging South African society. (O’Toole, 2014, [O]) Rather these entities have focussed their efforts on policing the boundaries of the discipline in relation to the other professions, securing their stake in the capital available to ‘build’. In particular, this is seen when the

formal systems of building are outpaced by ‘informal’ forms of delivery. The reaction forces the regulatory bodies hold tighter to their position through the control of these drawing artefacts and ultimately distance themselves from being accessible to the majority who use and produce public space. This protection of these boundaries manifests acutely around the control in authorship of their discipline specific design communication artefacts that have become legal documents in the building industry and the allocation of responsibility through this means. These legal documents have become the measure of the one’s professional discourse in relation to other professionals and within tertiary education institutes still stand as the core means of evaluation. Awan et al make strong mention of this in the seminal text, Spatial Agency: Other Ways of Doing Architecture: “The specialist knowledge of the architectural discipline is guarded as if it preserves a form of objectivity, on which professional credibility might be founded. Architectural language is the gatekeeper to that knowledge is extremely codified, from the technical vocabulary of the profession, through to the jargon of academia and trade magazines.” (Awan et al, 2011, p.60) With such a weight attached to these elements of the discipline these design communication artefacts, their articulation and the importance of their means of their production and dissemination remain largely undefined. This is particularly true for schools of architecture, where the academic institutions are constantly undergoing a critical self-reflection (Awan et al, 2011, p. 63) of what constitutes architecture and how this is represented this fluid understanding through student work. The ambiguity around the objectively measurable values of the design communication artefacts is not necessarily negative, as it allows for the space to include the teaching of crucial ‘soft skills’ and methods of co-production within the academy. This perpetual self-criticality allowed for in architectural practice and training places spatial design practitioners in an optimal position to constantly adapt their methods of practice. A flexibility that according to Harold Jarche is essential for the journey towards embracing the network economy, “ …we have to be prepared for perpetual Beta. What worked yesterday may not work today. No one has the definitive answer any more but we can use the intelligence of our networks to make sense together….” (Jarche, 2016, [O]) The limits of product versus process in architectural practice and teaching “The teacher delivers architectural knowledge that remains in a safe and defined realm, so the students, kept within the boundaries, emerge…as absolute and non-negotiable experts in a certain formation of architecture” (Awan et al, 2011, p. 60) In South African architectural design education lectures arrange hypothetical scenarios for student’s to test and develop their skills and experiences through a synthesised series of observations, thoughts and ideas which are evaluated through a series of drawings, models and artefacts which should reflect a student’s level of work ethic, design skill and insight into the topics outlined by the course convenors within a larger curriculum as outlined by the institution. The system is meant to prepare students for the working world where they will often be given a very simple brief instruction and will have to employ their own position and perspective to determine a means of action towards a built output. Both of these processes focus on a series of outputs at determined points which are either evaluated or remunerated for by the client or the lecturer. While this system is very effective in preparing and managing the remuneration for design professionals it places the value of the process solely on the artefacts produced and through evaluation or payment put places ownership of this artefact on those who wield educational or capital power while not recognising or allowing the importance of process to be embodied in this artefact. This process in its structure only allows for one author to control and receive validation for this process and makes shared ownership and shared user ship limited due to the nature of the output focus. It places the designer as a key person in this process, without allowing said designer to recognise this position of power or distribute it. In doing so it re-enforces its power by only speaking other professional or an ‘educated’ viewer. Within regards to large scale spatial design projects, particularly at the urban design scale the lead time towards implementation takes place over a much longer time period that often seeing different forms of ownership and governance involved. (Awan et al, 2011, p. 62) These larger scale projects also include a much larger user group of more often than not contrasting social, cultural and educational backgrounds. The spatial and technical design communication artefacts employed in these projects rarely consider the importance of being understood and rein force power structures largely through their production and consultation. Even participation processes (often offered at face value) mandated by governance structures only require the presentation of these artefacts at a form of public meeting, and not really an integration of what these spaces and the implications of them to communicated effectively.

Figure 34: 1:1 students attempting public 'consultation'' ( Author, 2010) “How does the architect act in his studio? How are designs produced, and what instruments are used for this? What are the respective roles of the model and the drawing? Now that the computer enables the architect to manage all the design data within a single integrated drawing system, do models and drawings still serve any purpose? “(Reidijk, 2010, p19) Opening up the artefact The premise of Open Building recognises this dynamism of the built environment and places the designer in a position of facilitating many options for users over a long period of time through various levels of control in an intervention. (Habraken, 2008, p. 78) This approach offers a manner in which to understand and engage with the built environment. While this understanding of the built environment allows for practitioners to engage more effectively with it, the approach still employs traditional means of design communication that keeps much of the control of the ‘open’ system in the hands of the professional.

Figure 35: 1:1 students exploring alternative artefacts for design communication (UP Students, 2012) Somehow South African designers need to find a way to allow the energy and recognition for the co-production of these artefacts to be built into the nature of their valuation and their communication. The training of those who produce this work has to find a way to encompass this into the methodological means of communication and production. Potentially new forms of artefacts need to be considered to allow this to take place, perhaps in new digital media, BIM and open source platforms of information sharing. Perhaps through considering how these artefacts can be shared, considered as the design process as well as be communicated. Designers can consider how this can start allow multiple people to own such information and thus distribute the power associated to such artefacts in the built environment and public spaces. UJ_Unit 2: an investigation into design led praxis “Unit 2 is based on the understanding that the Built Environment comes into existence and transforms as a social/physical ecosystem in which neighbourhoods and buildings are never finished, but rather transform part by part.” (www.uj-unit2.co.za, 2016, [O]) UJ_Unit 2 was part of the first iteration of the University of Johannesburg’s new Graduate Programme in Architecture (GPA) within Institute’s Faculty of Art, Design and Architecture (FADA). The unit was set up under

a design-led research structure, which allowed the unit leader’s to determine a two year-long programme of design projects and selective academic and experiential inputs that would curate a very specialist approach to the themes and topics of the unit within the GPA. Unit 2 was one of three units in the first iteration of the school’s development of the Unit System Africa, which through the GPA seeks to develop unit style design-research led teaching in Africa. The premise of UJ Unit 2 recognises the fluid nature of South Africa’s shared built space, and embraces this notion through the principles of Open Building as outlined by Dr. Amira Osman “ Open Building’ as a concept resonates strongly with present-day South African concerns in the post-Apartheid era. The principles contained in Open Building thinking can be linked to some of the principles contained in the National Development Plan, Vision 2030, the newly launched (and perhaps wrongly termed) Master Spatial Plan, as well as a number of city level visions, such as the “corridors of freedom” in Johannesburg. Issues of participation, social integration, mixed use, mixed income, accessibility, choice and affordability are all principles that can be better facilitated and achieved through the use of an “open” approach to design and delivery in the built environment” (Toffa & Osman; 2015)

Figure 36: UJ_Unit 2 students working in the field (Author, 2015) The unit set out to embrace the complexity of spatial agency in urban Johannesburg and explore the nature of what is deemed ‘architecture’ to be in relation to the city, its people and its infrastructure. The unit leadership encouraged the students to develop their own unique ways of designing through critically including finance, implementation, management and maintenance through design thinking. Essentially UJ_Unit 2 regarded the social capital in the built environment as fundamental, and sought to capitalise on the systemic relationship society holds with the built environment. As Toffa, a Unit 2 co-leader, stated, “The unit allowed the built environment to functions as a ‘mediator’ and ‘interface’ between individual and collective needs.” (Toffa & Osman, 2015) The proposed curriculum sought to immerse the students into complex urban conditions through the multiple lenses of agency in architectural design and equip them with tools and lessons in order to determine a systemic, open and architectural set of responses to the conditions they observed. The projects set out by the unit leadership exposed both the student’s and the staff to the shortcomings of architectural discourse and representation is currently accepted it in South Africa. The simultaneous challenge of introducing a new school of thought and practice to students and staff, building a new staff student body and the inherent difficulty in masters level architectural education proved to more daunting than the unit leadership expected. Of the projects conducted through the year the most insightful in within regard to the unit’s aims proved to be a multi-disciplinary project conducted between the Industrial Design, Multi-Media and Graphic Design departments of FADA.

Figure 5: UJ_Unit 2 students exploring their context through design research (Author, 2015) (Simon Ngubeni, 2015) This project put the UJ_Unit 2 students into mixed groups with undergraduate students of the other disciplines and split them across two sites of social development being conducted by the University of Johannesburg’s community development department. The students were tasked with identifying a particular social issue and using their various design skills proposes a strategy to address it. Staff provided some key inputs, and guided groups through the 6 week project with very mixed results. As a whole the students could only engage in a limited fashion to the depth of issues faced by the stakeholders, and moved quickly to their disciplinary tools to ’fix’ the issues seen without engaging systematically with the problems. Although what the architecture student’s brought to the group’s, due to their postgraduate status and training, was a more holistic view on how to combine different skills and perspective, the multi-media students were more equipped to translate complex ideas into simpler ones and communicate this to the stakeholder groups.

Figure 6: Joint FADA Community project (Author, 2015) This exercise revealed how the students, when working with other design disciplines, held a deep spatial understanding the non-professional disciplines were freer to communicate effectively to the beneficiaries of the project. The architectural communication tools were not sufficient to capture the complexity of urban Johannesburg, and re-enforced the disjuncture between professional and ‘non-professional’ in grass roots projects conducted during the year. The unit leaders recognised that in order to engage with the complexity of understanding and proposing spatial interventions in fluid urban environments, a design communication language needs to be first developed that allows students to clearly articulate the nature of the complexity they are engaged with as well as the strategy they propose. Simultaneously, these artefacts need to recognise agency, and communicate this effectively to the very stakeholder it represents as well as a peer group.

Figure 7: The challenge faced by students in representing complexity and allowing for co-production (Author, 2016) Only once this was done effectively could students then articulate an effective design response to this system, and again the nature of this representation should engage with the manner in which the observations were documented and articled. But when the measure lies in the softer social and systemic elements that do not translate easily nor is there any form of spatial standard as to how to depict that in the current form of training. This proved to be a very difficult task for the students to grasp as well as the staff to facilitate.

Figure 8: UJ_Unit 2 student work who worked well with multi-discipline work (Sibusiso Lwandle & Simon Ngubeni, 2015) Attempts were made to include other staff from parallel disciplines as well as in put of key readings and precedents from similar schools or spatial practitioners, but students seemed to begin developing their own unique version for this near the end of the year with surprising results. One of which emerged strongly was the idea using narrative became a strong tool to tie together the systemic complexity faced by the students. The Blue File: A design communication artefact in praxis The author began working with the South African Shack Dweller’s International Alliance (SASDI) in 2012 as technical support to the organisation’s Community Based Organisation’s (CBO); the Informal Settlement Network (ISN) and the Federation of the Urban Poor (FEDUP). The SASDI is the local alliance affiliated to Shack/Slum Dweller’s international (SDI) who are a global alliance of grassroots organisations who share rituals and values around community mobilisation to lobby for the right’s and needs of the what they term the global poor. (www.sdinet.org, 2016, [O])

Figure 9: SDI Organogram (Author, 2012) The author’s role at the SASDI’s office was to support the various CBO’s technically in their regional efforts to attain development in the form of access to city services and ultimately housing through the national entities of South Africa. This job had the author working with a local informal settlement residential groups and understands the specific technical needs that each group required; often identified tactically by residents and the CBO to garner a stronger position in advocating for development from larger government bodies. While the author was originally tasked to assist residents in designing their homes and possibly some shared facilities, the job quickly led to project management and information co-ordination than anything else. Basic data sets were not available, or lost, that would allow for more tactical development choices at a larger scale. This lack of information often led to the duplication of research or analysis work or weakened the perceived position of the residents in their negations with government. More so the mis-cordination of information wasted resources that could have been used to address more pressing needs at both the local and large scale of the CBO’s.

Figure 10: Blue File in Action (Author, 2013) The experience exposed the need for technical support included a deeper understanding of social and systemic aspects and these the collective termed a socio-technical design began to emerge. Once a larger project structure was established for the organisation, the collective began collecting and arranging the information available for each project into four broad categories. This was done to create an information set that was robust and easy to categorise for non-professionals and allowed for an easy communication to local government entities who were often the gate keepers for access to higher level support from the government.

Figure 11: Example of Blue File in physical form (Author, 2013) The approach to arranging information stemmed from a technique developed by the author as a student after forming the student entity of 1:1 with his peers - this entity was later formed into a fully-fledged non-profit entity; 1to1 – Agency of Engagement, currently run by the author. The system was termed The Blue File, and its purpose was to create an information system that quickly, clearly and powerfully explained what each settlement required in the short, medium and long term while allowing residents to add and edit information as it grew. This device had both a physical life as well as a digital presence and proved to be one of the more powerful devices in assisting the alliance in its aims. This was a crude tool, and after the national alliance began its own programme of data collection they have now refined it into a much more advanced system used today. The system ideally should have allowed users to add, remove and edit as they saw fit and strengthen their position. The collective still use this system for their various practices, and have evolved it into what they now term the ‘cheat sheet’: a method of drawing production and packaging that allows a presentation to also be a tool for co-production and critical feedback.

Figure 12: Cheat Sheet Example (Author with Counterspace, 2015) An ‘Open’ approach for design communication artefacts Teaching at the University of Johannesburg has allowed for the author and colleagues to proposition this approach and co-develop ideas and positions on how to approach this challenge. While the work conducted in the development sector has shown a dire need for such design communication artefacts to support a rapidly urbanising and re-developing South Africa. Of the options available to us today, none are more powerful than human behavioural systems that are far more resilient and robust than any of the technical systems: “Currently, we make cities into closed systems. To make them better, we should make them into open systems. We need to applying ideas about open systems currently animating the sciences to animate our understanding of the city. More, in an open city, whatever virtues of efficiency, safety, or sociability people achieve, they achieve by virtue of their own agency. (Sennett, R, 2013, [O]) As an architect, the author recognises that architecture as a discipline is limited in its own agency to effect large scale spatial change, but it remains one of the few disciplines that cross such a variety of levels of agency and complexity in its practice and training that it reliably produces highly skilled spatial design practitioners able to embrace the challenge of facilitating co-production of the built environment. (Awan et al, 20111,p.70).

This does not mean that architects will lead this challenge, but as a profession are placed in an optimum position to affect meaningful change in the challenging of developing co-productive spatial design practice. Of these challenges, a critical aspect still lies developing an appropriate means or manner of design communication that will bridge the gaps between ‘beneficiary’, designer and ‘decision maker’.

Figure 13: Alternative forms of design communication exercised by Author (Author, 2010 & 2013) The practice should speak at multiple levels in both its process and product to convey basic technical and spatial information while being able to be understood by non-spatial disciplines. This approach should actively seek to distribute the power held by capital and design in attempting to control all aspects of the production of the built environment. It may require designers need to abandon drawing as the sole legal means of design communication and engage developing digital interfaces that allow for multiple authors and owners. Conversely this abandonment of could lead us to low tech strategies that employ model and diorama as the means of spatial communication. It is important is that these artefacts of communication need to tactically share and distribute the power held by the designer to those that will benefit. While this may not be a singular device, this should be underpinned by an ethical and systemic approach to social development that recognises the danger in an individual holding too much power and actively seeks to distribute this power. REFERENCES Bason, C. 2014. Discovering co-production by design. [online] Available at http://mind-lab.dk/wpcontent/uploads/2014/09/Discovering_co-production_by_design.pdf . [Accessed: 29 May 2017] Boyle, D; Slay, J & L. Stephens, L. 2010. Public services inside out: Putting co-production into practice, London, NESTA O’Toole, S. 2014. Architecture: A scarce skill monopolised by whites. Mail & Guardian. [online] Available at http://mg.co.za/article/2014-08-05-architecture-a-scarce-skill-monopolised-by-whites. [Accessed: 27 May

2016] Hamdi, N. 2010. The Placemaker’s Guide to Building Community, 1 edition. ed. Routledge, London ; Washington, DC. Habraken, J. 2008. The Structure of the Ordinary. Cambridge & London: MIT Press Jarche, H. 2016. Complexity & Social Learning.[online]Available at http://jarche.com/2016/04/complexity-andsocial-learning/ [Accessed: 5 May 2007] Malone, T. 2014 - The Future of Work: How the New Order of Business Will Shape Your Organization. Harvard Business School. United States of America. Reidijik, M. et al. Architecture as Craft. 2010. Sun Publishers. Netherlands Schneider, T; Till, J & Awan, N. Spatial Agency. 2011. Routledge, London ; Washington, DC. Sennett, R. The Open City. 2013. Public Presentation. [online] Available at https://www.richardsennett.com/site/senn/UploadedResources/The%20Open%20City.pdf [Accessed: April 12,2016] Smit, C. 2011: Design with the Other 90%. Smithsonian Cooper-Hewitt, National Design Museum, n.d. Toffa, T & Osman, A. 2015. Architecture and agency: ethics and accountability in teaching through the application of Open Building principles. Design Education Conference 2015: Ethics and accountability in Design: Do they matter? Conference Proceedings. South Africa SDI International. 2015. SDI’s practices for change. [online] Available at: http://sdinet.org/about-us/sdispractices-for-change/. [Accessed: 27 May 2007] UJ_Unit 2 Website. 2015. About. [online] Avaliable at: www.uj-unit2.co.za. [Accessed: May 15 2016]

EXPLORATION AND MANIPULATION IN CHILDREN’S PLAY SPACES SARA EL HUSSEINY, LOBNA SHERIF, MARWA KHALIL Sara El Husseiny, Teaching assistant, Lobna Sherif, Professor, Marwa Khalil, Assistant professor. Arab Academy for Science, Technology and Maritime Transport-Cairo.

ABSTRACT Children’s everyday life takes place in physical spaces, which are usually based on adults’ vision of childhood needs. Previous studies of children’s everyday life focused on designed play spaces while free play occur in every possible spot; most of which are incidental spaces. Understanding how and where children actually play and what parts of the surrounding environments they use and why, would be useful for designers interested in fulfilling children’s priorities and needs. This paper aims to investigate children’s experience of their surrounding physical environments through free play in the Cairene context and to extract themes that create engaging settings. The study works directly with young children in order to give them the opportunity to identify their preferred spaces and places for play and to understand the way they use, interact with and experience their surrounding built environment. This paper focuses on children aged 7- 9 years as part of a wider research that looked at a larger group of children aged 7-12 years. The children are from two different socio-cultural segments of the society; this helped in understanding children’s play in variety of outdoor settings. The study was carried out in February 2015 and lasted for four months in the children’s neighborhood and schoolyard. It is an ethnographic study that combines multiple data gathering techniques to allow for an effective engagement with children and empower them to express their experience of places. The study involved participant observation and informal interviews together with four main data gathering techniques: drawing, photography, child-led walks and focus group interviews. The data was analyzed to identify children’s play place preferences, patterns of play, features and qualities of play spaces. This leads to the extraction of a set of themes and sub-themes related to the children’s play space experiences. This paper will focus on the analysis of ‘Exploration & Manipulation’ as a core theme in children’s play environments. INTRODUCTION Children’s play environments have changed in our modern societies compared with previous generations (Blinkert, 2004). Children’s everyday lives are restricted to structured spaces that are usually controlled and supervised by adults. According to Kim Rasmussen (2004), those places are considered “places for children” and not “children’s places”. Rasmussen drew attention to the relation between places adults create for children play and places that are significant and meaningful to the child and stimulate his/her play experiences. Matthews (1995, p.457) warns that, “restricting children’s play to schoolyards and playgrounds may lead to childhood ghettoization”. Robin Moore and Gary Moore suggest that play spaces that are placed away of sight are like ‘kiddie ghettos’ or separate islands. They call for a shift to thought of children’s play places as a new focus of community life not settings were children are locked inside. Children are the main and primary users of their play environments. Accordingly, their vision in perceiving their play spaces has to be respected. Children have unique and direct way of interacting with their environment, as they use all their senses in experiencing their places. They experience places in their own way and they view them differently from adults (Day, 2007). They see places as full of meanings that influence their responses (Titman, 1994; Tovey, 2007). A place for children derives it’s significance through experiences and use (Moore, 1986; Christensen, 2003). Proshansky et al (1983) argue that the experience of a place is what matters with children more than how this space looks like. Since 1977, Tuan stated that children’s place experience is related to the function of the place and that the child’s place preference is connected to the activity done in the space. In addition, one of the most valuable concepts in studying children’s space relationship is the concept of affordances introduced by Gibson. This concept emphasized that children experience their environments not as a configured setting, but as places that afford diversity of experiences and different kinds of opportunities (Heft, 1987). Furthermore, children see their places not as a whole but they classify them into elements in which they could constantly appropriate to fit with their different play experiences (Titman, 1994).

Children experience their physical environments through free play. Free play is a tool for experiencing and exploring spaces. It’s the child’s way of coping with his/her geographical environment and through play the child differentiates the attributes and meanings afforded by his/her environment (Hart, 1979). Children experience of their everyday play settings is the focus of this study. The paper aims to investigate how children react, respond and feel within a particular setting through their free play and accordingly understand the reasons behind children’s space preferences. METHODOLOGY The present study adopts a methodology that helps children to express their experiences of a place in a way that is possible for adults to understand, and easy for children to communicate and express their views. The research paradigm adopted is an ethnographic qualitative approach. To provide insights into children lived experiences. The research combines different data gathering techniques such as, drawing, photography, child-led walks and focus group interviews to reveal the variety of children’s experiences. This also helps in attracting as many children as possible from different ages, backgrounds and abilities to allow the researcher to capture a broader range of experiences, and to create a full image of the studied phenomena (Barker & Weller, 2003; Punch, 2002; Darbyshire, 2005). Multiple data gathering techniques is also a valuable approach to prevent boredom. It helps the children to be actively engaged, as some children prefer to draw, some to talk, some to write these techniques enable different voices to be heard (Hart, 1997). In addition, different techniques will triangulate and cross check data; due to reliability issues as children have rich imaginations, and sometimes they cannot distinguish between reality and fantasy (Punch, 2002; Einarsdottir, 2007). Children also feel more powerful when using those techniques as the data gathering is in their hands and this helps in solving the problem of experiencing unequal power relations between children and adults (Hart, 1997; Barker & Weller, 2003; Punch, 2002). Fieldwork A total number of twenty-two children were engaged in the study and they were classified into two groups. Group-A involves fourteen children aged 7-8 years, seven girls and seven boys. Those children were approached through a private national school in Cairo. While group-B involves eight children aged 7-9 years, seven girls and one boy. Were approached through a NGO in Cairo. The work with children was carried out in February 2015 in parallel with both groups, and lasted for four months. The aim of approaching two diverse groups of children is to investigate children’s play experiences in a variety of outdoor settings with different scales, such as schoolyard, social clubs, open spaces in front of residential units and their neighborhood. Research design: The fieldwork was conducted in four phases on several site visits. Initially, children were asked to participate in a drawing activity. Drawing as a method is a rich visual illustration that gives the children freedom in expressing their thoughts. It is a nonverbal way for expressing themselves. Drawing is a creative process and can encourage children to be more actively involved in the study (Hart, 1979; Cele, 2006). It is a direct method for showing how children view their existing and imaginary world of play (Simkins and Thwaites, 2008). Drawings were followed up by informal interviews for discussing further details of the drawings and for knowing some basic information about the participants and their play settings. Then, child- led walks took place, this study adopted Moore’s (1986) approach by allowing the children to guide the walk without any restrictions and show the researcher their secret and preferred spaces. Through walks, you can connect different places in the child environment: an interactive process that gives the researcher the opportunity to observe the children while interacting with their everyday environment (Cele, 2006, Hart, 1979). It allows children to be physically interactive, so it suits children who don’t prefer to express themselves verbally or those who are not talented in drawing (Cele, 2006). Photography was used with walks as it is an easy and fun way for children to express themselves and does not depend on the child’s ability or talent. As well it is a fun way that doesn’t take time or effort so children don’t lose their interest (Rasmussen, 2004; Burke, 2005). Finally, focus group interviews were held with group-A only, as it was difficult to take the children for walks in their daily play spaces due to parental restrictions. Stea and Blaut since 1973 found that understanding spatial representation such as aerial photographs and satellite maps is a natural ability in young children. Thus, satellite maps and photos for children’s daily play spaces were used to help children represent their views and experiences of their daily play spaces, without accompanied walks (Punch, 2002). First phase: Drawing The study with group-A was conducted in the school setting. The drawing is used in an exploratory way to investigate children’s special places in the schoolyard and their imaginative worlds. Children were asked during

their art sessions to create two drawings on an A3 paper using pencils and crayons. In the first drawing, they were asked to mark out their special play places in their schoolyard. In the second drawing, the children were asked to draw a picture that describe the world in which they would like to play, trying to imagine their best space to play in and would never leave. The drawing sessions lasted for one and a half hour and were held on one day. I passed by them while they were drawing and got engaged in a conversation that lasted for 3 minutes per child to write down their explanation of their drawings. Children in group-B refused to participate in drawing in the first two visits but after the third visit, they agreed to participate. The drawing session was held in their neighborhood and lasted for an hour. During drawing, they mentioned that their drawings look bad. Two of them even refused to submit their drawings. They also complained about feeling uninspired and that it is difficult to imagine a place that does not exist or that they did not interact with before. The drawings provided a range of data, which was complemented by the interviews. The drawings of group-A were highly detailed. Most of the drawings consisted of various places, characters and elements which are meaningful to the child. Others drew themselves with faces representing their mood. In addition, it was common that the drawings contained natural features like mountains, trees, flowers, sea and hills. The drawings of groupB presented the existing physical spaces and objects that they daily interact with or the settings that they visited like pyramids, amusement parks and rural areas where the rest of their family members live. Second phase: Informal interviews Three informal interviews were held with group-A during art sessions and break time with all the children who participated in the drawing stage. Children were grouped into 4 to 6 children. These interviews were held on two days in the art room, one of their preferred places in the school. The group discussion lasted for around 30 to 40 minutes. The drawings made it easier for me to connect with the children and it was a starting point for the conversation. I noted down the interviews, no tape recording was used. First, I asked every child to describe his/her drawing and what the drawing meant to him/ her. Other questions that emerged during the interviews were about the positive and negative aspects in the schoolyard, the other places that they daily play in apart from their schoolyard and their favorite areas in those other play settings. Then I asked about each child’s free mobility and if they play in front of their home or in the building entrance. It was a relaxed conversation and children were willingly answering the questions. When they were asked where they prefer to play, most of them mentioned all the categories of spaces: indoor private space (their home), outdoor private spaces as some children have private garden or backyards. They also like to play in their schoolyards, amusement parks and social clubs. They provided numerous examples but I was concerned with their daily outdoor play spaces. They mentioned that they visit social clubs regularly. Most of them go there for 3 times a week for sports. Most of the children were keen to share in the conversation. Some children were shy and asked to describe his/her drawing individually which we did after the group conversation. Interviews were also held with group-B. First, they described their drawings then we started our conversation mainly about their play spaces in the neighborhood and the reasons behind playing specifically in those places. Moreover, we discussed if there are any restrictions or parental concerns regarding their free mobility. Interviews were efficient in knowing basic facts and information about the participating children and discussing the meanings of their drawings. Third phase: Walks & photography Ten children from group-A participated in the walks. They were divided into two groups, each group five children. The walks were held during break time, on two different days and each walk lasted for 45 minutes. Children started the walks by identifying their special and secret places in the schoolyard. Conversations during walks were very useful. In addition, children’s facial expressions and their body language during talking helped me understand their feelings in certain places. The walks allowed children to remember the details of the space and to highlight their preferred and secret places. In addition, it allowed me to experience the space with them and explore how they use the space and interact with it. Boys territorialize most of the schoolyard for playing soccer while girls occupy walled and seated areas. Girls talked about seeking privacy and shelter away from the noise of the boys. Boys and girls have quite different play repertoires. During walks children were jumping, climbing, balancing, laughing, and exploring every corner while guiding me. It was a rich experience observing their use and appropriation of all elements in the space. For example, children declared that the steps in the schoolyard make them imagine as if they are in a theatre. Some are audience sitting on the steps and others are acting. In addition, I observed that they use it for taking big steps, jumping, and just sitting to eat popcorn and chat. During the walks, the children were given a digital camera and were asked to document their preferred and/or secret

places in the schoolyard and to take photos of things that are important to them. I used this visual method with the ten children whom I conducted the walks with. Walks with group-B were quite different as it was in the neighborhood. The participants were divided into two groups, each group four children. The walk lasted for 3 hours. Each group took a different route and showed me various play settings. During the walks, we visited about 15 different locations. Each setting provides the children with different play experiences. They expressed that they play and wander between different places with different characteristics. Each place affords certain quality, which enrich their experience and attract them to play in. They led me through the walks to different sized places, places that afford enclosure and others that are elevated and give them new perspectives of their surroundings. Places to see from and not to be seen, others to hide and try to fit in. Places to play football, places to relax and places to observe people activities in the street. Children also identified places that scared them, places that inspired their imagination and places that were simply fun. In addition, I observed that they interact with various elements that stimulate their play such as lampposts, fences, kiosks, windows of different shapes, different types of trees and loose parts in the streets. They picked up things they found in the streets during the walk, searching for any object to include in their play. Objects like screws, wood bars, rubber tires, sticks, pens, dates from palm trees, and any loose parts were immediately taken by the children to play with later. They took me in a route to pass by their home, then their school. They said that those places have great importance in their everyday life and most of their play is beside them. I observed that an object in the environment would be used in many different ways not only according to what it is designed for. They use low walls, steps and fences for climbing, balancing, hiding and jumping. During the walks, they sometimes try to see how they fit in certain places and hide in sunken entrances to observe people from below. All this is done naturally during the walk. They explore every corner and show it to me. All children showed great awareness of both the physical and social context surrounding them. They know who lives where and which areas to avoid because of strange people. However, both factors are closely connected. They might express negative views about a place due to social factors for example they stated: “we hate this place, because there is a stranger there”. In the literature, physical and social aspects are integrated not separated (Hart, 1979; Simkins & Thwaites, 2008). Also, feelings were revealed during the walks and were connected to certain places. This was clear through their words, “I feel happy here”, “when I feel upset I prefer to sit up on the hill”, “we feel safe here”, “I feel I am on top of things here” and “we never feel bored, there is a lot of things to do”. The neighborhood offers children a wide range of play settings, the context was rich so there were many things to discuss while walking. I used a digital camera and took notes of what they said to document the walks. Fourth phase: Focus groups Focus group interviews were only used with group-A, as it was difficult to take this group out for walks in their daily play spaces away from the school. During their previous interviews, children mentioned where they play: the different social clubs, gardens in the residential compounds and few of them play in front of their residential units. Photos for the clubs and residential compounds that the children mentioned and the satellite maps of those areas were printed for the interviews. Two Focus group interviews were held to discuss the photos and the maps. Each group consists of three children. Not all the children participated in this method due to limitations in time and the availability of the children. First, I introduced the photos then started an open discussion. To make it more interactive, I gave them transparencies to highlight on the maps where they play in his/her social club. I recorded the information with colored pens on the satellite maps for some of the children and others marked it for themselves. This method was done in Hart study (1979) for revealing the places that we cannot explore through walks due to some limitations and constrains in the study. The children read the maps easily and were excited to show me where they exactly play. Maps enabled children to trace for the researcher exactly where are the places that they prefer within their environment. This method brought the details of children’s everyday play spaces to discuss in the classroom. This phase took one day and then another day for individual interviews with the students who play in front of their residential units. Five students participated in this part. I gave them an A4 paper to draw the layout of the area, where they play in and it’s relation with the residential unit that they are living in. After drawing, they were asked how they use the space, what do they play there and whether they play under the supervision of their parents or not. They stated that their parents limit a territorial range by allowing the child to move only a certain distance from home. Children do not go further than the garden in front of their residential units and they are not allowed to cross the street alone. An older sister or brother always accompanies them, or their mothers keep an eye on them from the terrace. They are not allowed to play out of this garden: it is an open grassy area with shrubs and trees, so it is a well-defined place with specific boundaries. In contrast to group-B they didn’t have the permission to move freely around in their neighborhood.

Thematic Analysis Exploration and Manipulation of the Environment Most of the children showed preference to diversity in their play places. They stressed the importance of diversity in scales of spaces, diversity in levels, diversity in perspectives and views and diversity in space boundaries. All those aspects stimulate their play and offer the children more opportunities to use the space differently and create diverse play experiences. This leads to a space open to a wide range of interpretations; a space that can be used in a various ways. According to the fieldwork, diversity and variation in the surrounding environment give the child the opportunity to manipulate his/her environment, and enhance children’s chance for exploration of their environments. Diversity in scales of spaces No single type of play setting seems to provide for all of children’s play activities and play preferences. It was observed that children need spaces for spending energy for example to jump, climb, and balance. Other times, they prefer quiet time to think, observe, relax, talk, hide, gather and sometimes they prefer spaces for different emotional response. There were variations in place preferences among children. Some of the children stated that they like wide-open areas that are clear. Most of the boys pointed out the football field in their social clubs as one of their preferred places. They said that, “..there you can shout, run, jump and kick the ball strongly”. Also ‘J’ and ‘Y’ declared that one of their best places to play in is the garden in front of their residential unit. ‘J’ and ‘Y’ stated that, “you can do anything and everything in this open-wide green area; there you can run, jump, climb, race, roll on the grass, sing, shout and pretend” (Figure 37). Group-B value wastelands and under construction sites as they are, large and open (Figure 38). Additionally, most of the children said that, “they feel free in large open spaces because of clarity and continuity”. Although most children of both genders seemed to appreciate large open places, some of the girls prefer to occupy enclosed or walled places. “A place where no one can see you, you can relax, read a story and get away from boys noise” declared by ‘A’ and ‘N’ in group-A. According to this study, wide-open spaces are related to flexibility in using the space to accommodate different patterns of play and are appreciated for the feeling of freedom they provide. At other times, some of the girls like enclosed places for its sense of privacy and enclosure. These findings were consistent with Cohen et al., “A play space should incorporate a variety of different spaces for different types of play” (1999, p.23) and other qualitative studies such as Burke (2005) and Thwaites & Simkins (2008).

Figure 37 A prototype of the gardens between residential Figure 38 One of the preferred wastelands in the units, as one of the daily play spaces of children in group- neighborhood that has rich opportunity for play. A. Furthermore, children were seeking places that suit their scale. Many children through their wish pictures stressed on intimate scale as an important physical quality. This was clear in ‘H’s’ drawing, she stated, “this is Smurf’s city, where everything is small” (Figure 39). Also ‘J’ a 7-year-old girl declared, “this is still our best place. It is closed from three sides and has an overhead plane and all the playing equipment’s in it are small, we feel secure here” (Figure 40). Also, they favor small-scale elements such as benches, kiosks, low walls and short fences. Christensen (2003) found in one of her studies that children prefer to fit and hide in spaces no adult can fit in it. Colin Ward (1978) indicated that young children are always concerned with steps, slopes, difference in paving textures and floor patterns, as their eye level is closer to the ground.

Figure 39 A wish picture representing Smurf’s city, drawn by ‘H’ a 7-year-old girl.

Figure 40 The kindergarten playground, representing intimate scale. Photographed by ‘J’ a 7-year-old girl.

Diversity in Levels Children appreciate multiple levels as it allows them to create diverse play experiences. It was observed that they like steps and consider it a multi-functional element. “We like to sit here ‘as if’ we are in a theatre, also we race by taking big steps and run to the wall there”, said ‘Y’ (Figure 41). Also they appreciate playing on various heights and varying surfaces, as ‘S’ and ‘A’ stated: “this place has different levels so we can jump, race and sit up to observe people activities in the street from above”. (Figure 42 )

Figure 41 Multi-Functional use of steps, observed during walks.

Figure 42 A preferred place for children in-group B, represents various heights on varying surfaces.

Furthermore, children’s scale means that their perspectives are different from that of adults. Children enjoy observing from above. Different levels of heights provide them with diversity in perspectives and views. Accordingly, they choose locations like roofs, terraces, elevated spaces that offer them a new perspective of their surrounding environment. Most of the children who participated in the focus groups prefer to sit in a high terrace in their club. “The terrace overlooks the whole club. From up you will see the club and another entertainment area in front of the club”, ‘H’ a 7 years old girl (Figure 43). ‘M’ a 7 years old girl in-group B said, “this is one of our favorite places in the neighborhood, from here you can see the whole world” explaining the neighborhood landmarks from above (Figure 44). The same concept was emphasized through the children’s drawings: a 7-yearold girl ‘S’said, “I love tree houses very much; I want to live in a very high house and birds surrounding it, and I see everything from above” (Figure 45). Marc Armitage (2011) and Cohen et.al (1999) discussed that children

like to climb and reach heights where they can gain a new perspective of their surroundings. For them, being able to physically look down is a different experience that they would like to try.

Figure 43 One of group-A favorite places as it overlooks the whole club from above. Photo chosen by ‘H’ in the focus groups.

Figure 45 A Wish picture representing heights to explore the world from above, drawn by ‘S’ a 7 year old girl.

Figure 44 One of the preferred places for group-B, as it overlooks most of their neighborhood.

Diversity in Space Boundaries: Children play is stimulated by variation with in space physical boundaries. For example, children perceive elements such as recesses, low walls and fences as multi-functional elements that they use differently in every new situation. Such elements are the focus of children’s play in the space as they stimulate the children’s imagination to create their own play. Recesses in walls are used as multi-functional elements: they use it as a challenging space to climb or as a hiding place to observe without being observed and as an intimate small-scale space where they try to fit (Figure 46). Children in group-B appropriate the use of recesses to serve their play. ‘S’ and ‘M’ said that, “This alley is one of the best places for playing football, there are two recessed building entrances exactly in front of each other, which serves as goals for the match” (Figure 47). They also use the existing features in their neighborhood in different ways. They climb on fences, sit and pretend to be on a train, stand on and curiously want to understand why there is a boundary here and what is behind this physical boundary (Figure 48). Trees are attractive elements in children’s play environment that were highlighted in children’s drawings, walks, interviews, and through participant observations. A tree can engage a child for long time, as described by group-B, “we climb it, hide behind it”, “swing and sit on it and sit under its shadow” (Figure 49). To sum up, children experience their play places in their particular way even if the place is produced for adults they still try to manipulate it to satisfy their own needs. The variation in the design of space boundaries promotes dynamic action, stimulates children’s imagination and enhances their curiosity and sense of exploration. Appropriation and re-purposing the spaces in their neighborhood area into places for play is an important aspect in their play. The findings are consistent with Moore (1986), Cohen et al. (1999), Korthals (2013) and Cele (2005) who concluded that ‘diversity and variety’ in space offer the chance to create new affordances over time and gain diverse play experiences. Children need designs, which are “more abstract, without a ‘defined meaning’ so as not to bound children’s imagination” (Korthals, 2013, p.29).

Figure 46 The use of space boundaries as a multi-functional element, as observed during walks.

Figure 47 The best alley for playing football, as pointed out by ‘S’ and ‘M’ during the walks.

Figure 48 The multiple uses of fences as observed during walks with the children in group-B.

Figure 49 Appropriation of the environment to fit children needs, group-B neighborhood.

Diversity in other features: Children in group-B move around independently in their neighborhood and have the freedom to explore the rich affordances in their environment. They highly prefer elements that are flexible in form and uses. A grid shaped window is one of the attractive elements in the neighborhood. Its form encourages them to physically interact with it, specifically climbing it. It also enriches their imagination as mentioned by ‘M’, “I am dancing behind the bars of the jail” while playing with the window’s shadow (Figure 50). Children perceive such elements as flexible elements, not with a one fixed purpose and it is changeable according to the child own ideas and imagination. These elements with different design ideas stimulate children play and attract the child to interact with it physically.

Figure 50 An attractive grid-shaped window that stimulates children’s imagination and encourages physical interaction. Exploration and manipulation of the environment is a core theme that is found mostly in diverse rich environments rather than encapsulated play settings such as playgrounds and schoolyards. Blinkert (2004) focused on the fact that excess of order in modern cities threatens children imaginative and creative play, nothing left for children to manipulate, invent, explore or reshape. While non- designed places, construction sites, wastelands attract children for a longer time as they are functionally unspecific and so forces children to manipulate and invent (Johnson, 2004; Blinkert 2004). Observed that, “children like to be where the action is, they like these more than those places tucked away out of sight” (Cohen et al., 1999, p.146). CONCLUSION Walks and participant observations reveal the unique way of children in appropriating spaces to serve their free play. Both techniques assist in giving a clear understanding of how children use each element as a multifunctional element. Children’s use of elements and appropriation of places were done naturally through walks and play. Children take such issues for granted and did not consider mentioning it in the informal interviews. Walks include a higher level of details of the environment as it is hard for the child to recall an experience. In addition, most of the feelings that children declared were stated and discussed through walks and focus groups as their feelings were stimulated in a specific place or through photos and maps. Walks were the most suitable method as it connects different places in the child’s environment especially that their environment was too rich to be explored through a drawing and an interview. Other data gathering techniques helped the children to communicate the different aspects of their experience of play places. They complemented one another giving a clear image and a thorough understanding of children’s play experiences in a variety of outdoor settings. Moreover, the article investigated variation within place preferences and needs between the two groups due to the difference in children’s free mobility. Some children played in particular protected spaces. Those spaces are usually supervised by adults and are devoid of things to explore, invent and manipulate. Children’s restricted mobility means they are locked in their play settings. Without the freedom to move freely, children will not access new places to explore. In addition, their spaces lack complexity and that the activities are already predetermined by the playground and schoolyard design. Those children show a drastic need for diversity and variation in their play settings, which will in turn encourage and stimulate their imagination. Children that have freedom in interacting with large-scale environments, create new affordances and multiple perspectives of the space. Each place affords certain qualities, which enrich their experience and attract them to play and fulfill their needs. The environment affords endless varieties of play opportunities thus hold the child attention for longer time. This diversity and variation in the environment stimulates children’s curiosity and allows them for exploring new places and manipulating their surroundings. Environmental exploration and manipulation make children feel in control over their physical environments. Free mobility and independence gives children an opportunity to develop a great awareness of the surrounding physical and social environment that widens the children’s

environmental capabilities. To sum up, the richer the environment and the freedom to move and access this environment a various play experiences will be gained. REFERENCES Armitage, M., 2011. Risky Play Is Not a Category--It’s What Children Do. ChildLinks. Children’s Risky Play, 3, pp.11–14. Barker, J. & Weller, S., 2003. “Is It Fun?” Developing Children Centred Research Methods. International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy, 23(1/2), pp.33–58. Blinkert, B., 2004. Quality of the City for Children: Chaos and Order. Children Youth and Environments, 14(2), pp.99–112. Burke, C., 2005. “Play in Focus”: Children Researching Their Own Spaces and Places for Play. Children Youth and Environments, 15(1), pp.27–53. Available at: http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7721/chilyoutenvi.15.1.0027. Cele, S., 2005. On Foot in the City of Children. , pp.85–98. Cele, S., 2006. Communicating Place: Methods for Understanding Children’s Experience of Place. Christensen, P., 2003. ‘Place, Space and Knowledge’. In P. Christensen and M. O’Brien (eds), Children in the City, Home, Neighbourhood and Community, New York: Routledge. Cohen, U., Hill, A.B., Lane, C.G., McGinty T., Moore, G.T., 1999. Recommendations for Child Play Areas.Milwaukee: Wisconsin University. Darbyshire, P., MacDougall, C. & Schiller, W., 2005. Multiple Methods in Qualitative Research with Children: More Insight or Just More? Qualitative research, 5(4), pp.417–436. Day, C., 2007, “Environment and children: Passive lessons from the Everyday Environment”. Oxford: Elsevier Ltd. Einarsdóttir, J., 2007. Research with Children: Methodological and Ethical Challenges. European early childhood education research journal, 15(2), pp.197–211. Hart, R., 1979. Children’s experience of Place. (New York: Irvington). Hart, R.A., 1997. Children’s Participation: From Tokenism to Citizenship. Innocenti Essays No. 4., ERIC. Johnson, L.M., 2004. American Playgrounds and Schoolyards--A Time for Change. School of Landscape Architecture, University of Arizona, pp.1–12. Korthals, R., 2013. “Design for Play? Creating Landscapes to Play”. In V. Capresi and B. Pampe (eds), Learn Move Play Ground: How to Improve Playgrounds Through Participation, Jovis. Matthews, M.H. & Vujakovic, P., 1995. Private Worlds and Public Places: Mapping the Environmental Values of Wheelchair Users. Environment and Planning A, 27(7), pp.1069–1083. Moore, R., 1986, Childhood’s Domain: Play and Place in Child Development., London: Croom Helm. Proshansky, H.M., Fabian, A.K. & Kaminoff, R., 1983. Place-identity: Physical World Socialization of the Self. Journal of environmental psychology, 3(1), pp.57–83. Punch, S., 2002. RESEARCH WITH CHILDREN The Same or Different From Research With Adults? Childhood, 9(3), pp.321–341. Rasmussen, K., 2004. Places for Children – Children’s Places. Childhood, 11(2), pp.155–173. Simkins, I. & Thwaites, K., 2008. Revealing the Hidden Spatial Dimensions of Place Experience in Primary Schoolage Children. Landscape Research, 33(5), pp.531–546. Stea, D. & Blaut, J.M., 1973. Some Preliminary Observations on Spatial learning in School Children, na. Titman, W., 1994. Special Places; Special People: The Hidden Curriculum of School Grounds., ERIC. Tovey, H., 2007. Playing outdoors: Spaces and places, risk and challenge, McGraw-Hill Education (UK). Tuan, Y.-F., 1977. Space and place: The perspective of experience, U of Minnesota Press. Ward, C., 1978, The Child in the City., London: Architectural Press. Wohlwill, J.F. & Heft, H., 1987. The physical environment and the development of the child. Handbook of environmental psychology, 1, pp.281–328.

THE DESIGN OF ARCHITECTURAL SPACE THROUGH SYSTEMS OF NATURE. LILIANA ENEIDA SÁNCHEZ PLATAS, JESÚS SÁNCHEZ LUQUEÑO Design Institute, Technological University of the Mixteca, Oaxaca, Mexico.

ABSTRACT Nature is an inexhaustible source of solutions to formal, functional, structural and constructive among many other problems, is the result of a long evolutionary process and adaptation. The design of architectural space has managed to reproduce some aspects of nature looking for the comfort of human beings; however in the field of use of natural resources we have exceeded, causing an imbalance that was reversed in the transformation in the way of living, demanding a change in the design of architectural space. Climate change impacts rural and urban communities, threatening the world with affectations unprecedented, despite multiple warnings, there are still marked contrast in how communities relate to the environment, concern for the environment has grown, it evolves over time but still not enough. Various fields of architecture have posed problems and solutions in the field of teaching environmental concern led us to generate new knowledge in the architectural design process, demanding to consider the impact of climate change as a condition for the pursuit of livability. The design of architectural space is no longer focused on the aesthetic or stylistic value of architecture is conditioned by a flexible methodological process that requires feedback between the environment and the building. The methodology focused on the analogy of natural systems can show how the form, function and structure are some aspects that efficiently integrate design of architectural space applied in various projects of our authorship allowing generate and build comfortable and friendly spaces the environment. The designer of spaces is the executor, climate change is adversity, nature is your tool solution, but nothing works individually if they are not linked in a methodology guide who will serve for generation of Architectural Design. It is important to assess the process of generating architecture, encouraging academic participation through tools that allow the study of theory and generating efficient architectural projects. INTRODUCTION The human being seeks to solve your needs looking around him, no doubt, nature has offered a large number of resources in terms of materials, forms and structures that takes up and play, until now only been explored a minimum percentage for use, is latent a lot of knowledge to analyze, it is time to study the organ systems of nature, avoiding overuse of materials to their advantage. What has not been explored much of nature?, the answer is obvious, there is much knowledge that human beings would not finish analyzing it and turn it into something useful for your comfort and benefit, organic structures have an extraordinary, perfect and functional design , stressing that its existence is no accident, have all its elements neatly organized so that can not fail, failures are a result of having its term, or that something or someone has intervened for-the modification time, age, etc, climate change is one of the main factors that has influenced the modification of the product nature of human activities, including natural organic structures tend to be modified by external elements or phenomena that make the operation is changed to the degree of exterminating them, but none of the organic manifestations disappears by itself, but someone or something intervened to end its cycle. When an architectural project is designed, it is intended to fulfill a purpose, every space is designed so that all organized each have a smooth operation. Nature shows the function for which it was created, works together and is organized according to their capabilities, although there are some natural events that seem to have flaws, the fact is that they have a specific function, found organic forms as rare that appear to be the result of chance, nonlinear those who do not obey any geometric pattern, but beyond their appearance perfectly fulfill its function. Undoubtedly the study of nature can generate controversy and discussion, but this article aims to disseminate the greatest number of resources, forms, structures, organizations and patterns that are useful in creating architectural spaces that help give guidelines solution to the tangible needs that human beings in their live, all in search of comfort in the built environment, the objective of this research is to find and implement the organic

manifestations that provide theoretical design resources, from the geometric to the mechanic, how to support the generation of knowledge to the study of the theory and efficient generation of Architectural Projects. Design Methodology The expression 'Design Methodology', as the design itself, covers a large area, a set of disciplines in which the key is the design and development for predicting how they will be things and devise appropriate tools to the objectives preset. It is one of the fundamental steps for generating projects, which part of a theoretical background leading to the selection of methods and techniques to achieve specific objectives and ultimately the overall objective, an appropriate product design or space. Consequently, the design methodology integrates sets of indicators and prescriptions for solving the problems arising from design, it determines the most appropriate sequence of actions, content and specific procedures. There is no single methodology that can be adapted to the needs of any architectural project, there are several methodologies that can come into symbiotic relationship. The methods and techniques involve technical knowledge to be adapted to the circumstances and purposes. The methods and techniques always refer to features and provide partial solutions making it more appropriate to refer to the design methodology as the study of the structure of the design process The validity given to the use of either method or technique in the structure of the design process is given by the scientific paradigm in which it is located. The methodological framework can characterize the scientific practice of architectural design, consisting of a systematic search for integration of theories, methods, techniques, tools, and in general formulas of scientific action of various sub-disciplines, from an interdimensional conception of discipline addressed and recognition of the relative character of scientific approaches separately. (Vilchis, 2002) The methodology focused on the analogy of natural systems can show how the form, function and structure are some aspects that efficiently integrate design of architectural space applied in various projects of our authorship allowing generate and build comfortable and friendly spaces the environment. Climate Change And Design Process In Architecture As a result of climate change is necessary to steer the process Proyectual Architecture (methodology for the design of architectural space), through the study of natural systems to be an instrument that substantiates the design that allows creating comfortable and friendly spaces with the environment. Consideration of environmental conditions and ecosystems of the environment in which they are designed, built and used architectural spaces for maximum performance with the least impact, is an exchange of information of the Physical Environment Natural (Schjetnan 1997), and architectural space, with the analogy of natural systems base elements: You may resume all elements of the natural system and lead them in the design of architectural space. Retake one (s) of the elements of the natural system to take advantage of some natural phenomenon, inducing promptly in the design of architectural space -Search Confort-. Retake one (s) of the elements of the natural system to reduce the impact of some natural phenomenon, inducing promptly in the design of architectural space -Search Confort-. Another area inspired by natural systems is the use of sources of 'renewable' energy (solar radiation, rain water, wind, etc.), through the design of passive systems inspired by nature for heating, rainwater harvesting, cooling, lighting and other equipment, thereby reducing the use of nonrenewable energy sources. Consideration of environmental conditions and efficient use of renewable energy affects the cost of buildings, affecting minimizing the overall energy balance of the building, covering not only its use phase, also its design phase, construction and end of its life. All this part of the quest to foster increased quality of life for building occupants. Complying with the requirements of hygrothermal comfort, health, lighting and occupancy of buildings. (Garrido, 2012) These lines allow the architectural design studio from its theoretical bases, foster environmental education in the designer and the user set a standard evolve in the teaching-learning process and promote sustainable design. some projects of our authorship empelando the analogy of natural systems will be described below.

Development Analogy of Natural Systems. Analysis of organic and inorganic natural physical environment to be considered in the life cycle of architectural space, making the most with the least impact. Medusa Compass – Sea University. Campus Library Puerto Escondido

Fig. No. 1 Medusa ‘Compass Jellyfish – Mediterranean Sea.

Fig. No. 2 Sketches Library Project Sea University.

Chysaora hysoscella is one of the most beautiful Mediterranean Sea jellyfish, commonly known as as "Compass jellyfish". This species of jellyfish usually avoid being around other jellyfish, and has the distinction of being able to change sex. The aerodynamic shape allows you to swim smoothly, and travels to the deep sea, enduring great pressure. The first idea was generated retaking aerodynamic characteristics of the fluids, shape allows you to collapse the body, which is driven and causes easy movement. Under these characteristics the shape of the jellyfish was redesigned to design an architectural space for the Library of the Universidad del Mar. Campus hidden Puerto, exposure to hurricane winds of the proposed site caused that buildings were affected, therefore it is looking for a form of durable and non-orthogonal building, to avoid the shock of the winds.

Fig. No. 3 Architectural plant.

Fig. No. 4 Whole plant.

The hemispherical undulating movement of the jellyfish forms a kind of funnel which is driven, and that element was mimicked to conceptualize the central form of the project as a ventilation system and lighting of architectural space of the reading room and lobby.

Fig. No. 5 Library Building. Sea University. Puerto Escondido, Oaxaca, Mexico. Caracol – Design Workshop The snail is an invertebrate animal which is divided into two parts: a foot and a shell that uses home. The shell or the land snail is spiral-shaped and grows to the same extent as the animal grows

http://www.recetasdecaracoles.com/que-es-un-caracol.html Fig. No. 6 Snail Shell on. With the foot can move around any surface, for it must alternate contractions and stretching. It is believed to move 10 cm per minute Based on the organic form of snail, a workshop that had enough space so that the user could work in different activities such as carpentry, painting, sculpture, pottery etc. designed

Fig. No. 7 Snail Shell top view (7a) and lower (7b). The space consists of a system based on snail shape to generate a constant ventilation that starts at the main entrance and ends on the last part of the space and the top helicoid. On the top it seems to have no way out, but the bottom may notice a hole, possibly functions as vent, in the case of the project take this feature to generate passive ventilation from the floor and traveling airflow all space and exit through an opening to be built on top of the structure. Snails hibernate when (during the cold months or in summer when the weather is too dry), seal the opening with a dry layer of mucus (linesina). By analogy with the architectural design the main access will be controlled as thermal insulation. The workshop Project is associated with the interior spiral staircase, this helps your structure more stable.

Fig. No. 8 Architectural plan based On helical land snail stroke..

Fig. No. 10 Cross section based on the helical line land snail.

Fig. No. 9 Overview 1 architectural space.

Fig. No. 11 Overview 2 architectural space.

Edge Land Snail – House Room The analogy of natural systems can be total or partial. The House Room below illustrates that induce allowed based on the edge of land snail, giving continuity and rhythm at the top access.

Fig. No. 12 Ferrocement construction system..

Fig. No. 14 Architectural plant. Shrimp - Auditorium and exhibition hall.

Fig. No. 13 Organic forms and emphasis of access on the edge of the land snail.

Fig. No. 15 Main facade.

Exhibition Hall auditorium for 350 people - 420m2, resort to withstand the impact of hurricane winds, seismic activity and expand the sound without the need of using audio equipment. The source of inspiration was the shrimp, was selected to study the species filled with design, motor skills, structure and improved performance by millions of years of evolution marine world.

Fig. No. 16 Cavite shrimp.

Fig. No. 17 Locomotion shrimp.

The shrimp has an organic form of double curvature which gives you the tools to move on the seabed conditions, sudden movement and helps her escape winding in certain situations, the semi-conical shaped its lower end helps move the rest of your body inversely to the direction of his head guarding the rear, the lower end is composed of segments arranged so modulated and arced downward in the cavity articulated by a membrane that is retractable to the effect of locomotion.

Fig. No. 18 Body modules.

Fig. No. 19 Ribs rigidify cavity.

Organic design based on the study of the structure of the exoskeleton of shrimp resumed, the modules of its roof and its double curvature make it resistant protecting it from predators, turn the aerodynamic shape helps you in your travel, this feature of locomotion it is an inspiring element to the project to provide aerodynamic shape that prevents winds cause damage to the building. The construction system used was the ferrocement, which being thin and absorbs strong earthquakes that occur in the proposed site. The segments in decreasing sense of crustacean modulation offer space for the spectator area, the requirement is to rid the area covered without resorting to supporting elements, the ribbed arches of the inner cavity work on the structure used self.

Fig. No. 20 Whole plant.

Fig. No. 22 Right side front.

Fig. No. 21 Perpectival point of the project.

In Fig. 22 segmentation can be seen from the stepped modulation shrimp body was studied and analyzed the topography to generate staggering, visual forum to the spectator area and integrate acoustic solution with form conical area viewers. (Sánchez – Sánchez, 2013) RESULTS Sea University. Puerto Escondido, Oaxaca.

Fig. No. 23 Right side front. UMAR.

Fig. No. 25 Interior view of the bleachers. UMAR

Fig. No. 24 Main facade.. UMAR.

Fig. No. 26 Showroom. UMAR.

Analogy of Natural Systems. Passive systems design inspired by nature for the use of sources of 'renewable' energy. Elegant leaf – Slab funnel. By analyzing and studying the natural characteristics of the leaves (Example elegant leaf - xanthosoma), which have the ability to capture, lead and harness the rainwater, it could design a Slab funnel (Sánchez—Sánchez 2016)

Fig. No. 27 Xanthosoma (elegant leaf)

Through a flexible membrane ferrocement it is possible to construct organic forms, by referring to the natural characteristics of a slab elegant leaf which allows to collect rainwater for transport to storage containers and subsequent distribution was designed. (Sánchez y Sánchez, 2014)

Fig. No. 28 Detail of the slab funnel.

Fig. No. 29 Overview multipurpose area.

Alcatraz – Slab funnel.

Fig. No. 30 Alcatraz

Fig. No. 31 Aerial view of the house room.

A single slab funnel can cover the entire architectural space, obtaining benefits such as reducing exposure to solar radiation by the use of organic forms, formal stability through the self-supporting structure and its high landscape aesthetic value; However, they can be induced in different parts of the funnel smaller slabs architectural complex, allowing block solar radiation on specific areas, make more rainfall to capture it in different areas of the complex at the same time and integrated as an aesthetic and landscape features. CONCLUSIONS Natural systems are inspiring elements of architectural design, beyond the formal aspect of nature has perfected its biotic and abiotic elements to such a degree that they are perfectly integrated systems. In -based organic design in nature- reinforcements distributed throughout the structure drawing forms and biostructural integration, this approach reduces larger sections to deliver clear older. Using this type of analogies in architectural design weight of a building both its superstructure and its foundation are distributed uniformly reducing the use of elements of support-structures autoportantes-. The architectural design is more than the functionality of the interior space, it must be supported by a deep shape analysis, function, context and environment, generation and teaching architectural composition as part of the architecture must evolve the degree of adaptation to climate change. Teaching architectural design should not refer to the fulfillment of a design process or methodology of spatial design step by step, it should be a guide that allows the designer to enrich, modify, adjust and improve the benefit of an architectural project that optimizes multiple aspects the quality of life of the user.

PROJECT REFERENCES Arq. Jesús Sánchez Luqueño Collaboration: Dra. Liliana E. Sánchez Platas Library Sea University. Campus Puerto Escondido, Oaxaca, México. Design concept: Medusa Status: built. Design Workshop. Arq. Jesús Sánchez Luqueño Design concept: Caracol Status: conceptual phase. Home room. Design concept: Snail access Status: built Multipurpose Room Esc. Sec. Tec. No. 189 Huajuapan de León, Oaxaca, México. Design concept: hoja elegante Status: built

Auditorium and Exhibition Hall. Sea University. Campus Puerto Escondido, Oaxaca, México. Cañada University. Teotitlán de Flores Magón, Oaxaca, México. Sierra Juárez University. Ixtlán de Juárez, Oaxaca, México. Sierra Sur University. Miahuatlán de Porfirio Díaz, Oaxaca, México. Design concept: Shrimp Status: all built.

Home room. Design concept: Alcatraz Status: conceptual phase

REFERENCIAS & BIBLIOGRAFIA Garrido L., 2012. Un nuevo paradigma en la Arquitectura, Barcelona, Ed. Monsa. Edwards B. (2001) Guía básica de la sostenibilidad, Barcelona, Gustavo Gili. Olvera, A., 1994. El ferrocemento y sus aplicaciones. Edit. Alfaomega. Instituto Politécnico Nacional. Schjetnan M., Calvillo J. Peniche., 1997. Principios de Diseño Urbano/Ambiental, Edi. Árbol 2ª edición. México, D.F. Sánchez, L. E., Sánchez, J. 2016. El diseño arquitectónico asociado con la sustentabilidad. Filosofía arte y diseño. Diálogo en las fronteras. 1ª Edición. Universidad de Guanajuato. Sánchez, L. E., Sánchez, J. 2014. Arquitectura orgánica y elementos estructurales de refuerzo de ferrocemento.EN: 5o Encuentro Nacional de Investigadores para la convivencia y divulgación de la investigación, 27 de septiembre de 2014, Centro de Evaluación e Innovación Educativa (CEVIE) de la UABJO, Oaxaca de Juárez, Oax. Sánchez P. L, Sánchez L. J., 2013. Analogía morfológica en el diseño arquitectónico. 1er Congreso de Investigación y vinculación para el desarrollo. Universidad de la Sierra Sur. 28-29 nov 2013. Vilchis, L.C. 2002. Metodología del Diseño. Fundamentos Teóricos. México Investigación Sociológica en Arte Latinoamericano, A.C. Edit. Centro Juan Acha 3ª. Edición. Disponible en: https://books.google.es/books?hl=es&lr=&id=NoqZqGu3mf4C&oi=fnd&pg=PA9&dq=metodolog%C3%ADa+del +dise%C3%B1o+arquitect%C3%B3nico&ots=VcvzocWDiA&sig=1V53DrQ0XEZAUrKiLUehgUgfwF8#v=onepage&q =metodolog%C3%ADa%20del%20dise%C3%B1o%20arquitect%C3%B3nico&f=false (marzo-2015)

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DESIGN THINKING IN ARCHITECTURE: ISSUES, LIMITATIONS AND SUGGESTIONS MOHAMMED GHONIM Associate Professor, Department of Architectural Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Cairo University. [email protected]

ABSTRACT Design process in architecture deals with complex, contradicting and problematic issues. It requires and employs a wide range of information, adopts the techniques of critical as well as creative thinking, generates multiple and alternate ideas, and identifies the appropriate idea to the design problem. Design thinking refers broadly to all the cognitive activities that designers employ for operating the design process in order to generate ideas, solve problems, and take decisions. this study aims at addressing a number of issues related to design thinking in architecture education by investigating the limitations to its application, and providing suggestions to overcome these limitations, with special reference to Egypt. In order to fulfil this, aim the study applied analytical and deductive methodologies, it adopted a qualitative research approach supported by a number of semi-structured interviews with a sample of expert academic Egyptian architects. The research is divided into four parts. The first part investigates the issue of stimulating design thinking. The second part discusses the mentor-student relationship that promotes design thinking. The third part investigates the limitations of adopting collaborative design thinking. The fourth part handles the issue of developing design thinking in architecture curricula. Finally, the study concluded a number of design problems characteristics that stimulate creative thinking, identified the mentor-student relationship in design studios, proposed an approach to adopt collaborative design thinking in architecture education, and showed the need for revising the area of design skills courses in architecture curricula. KEYWORDS Design Thinking, Architecture Education, Design Skills, Creativity, Collaborative Desi gn. INTRODUCTION Design is a creative activity that is motivated by the need to create new products. It activates the humans’ mental, personal and productive skills. Design process in architecture deals with complex, contradicting and problematic issues. It requires and employs a wide range of information, adopts critical thinking as well as creative thinking techniques, generates multiple and alternate ideas, and identifies the appropriate idea to the design problem. Design thinking refers broadly to all the cognitive activities that designers employ for operating the design process in order to generate ideas, solve problems, and take decisions. It is a composite cognitive competence that integrates component cognitive skills such as analysis, synthesis, a nd evaluation. Theoretically, there is no agreement on the best practices of teaching and learning design thinking, therefore, there is a need to explore design educational methodologies that stimulate the students’ creative thinking, and qualifies them to think properly, independently, and originally without relying on their mentors and/or mimicking precedents. The purpose of this study is to promote the education of architectural design, it aims at addressing a number of issues related to design thinking in architecture education, investigating their related limitations, and providing suggestions to overcome them, with special reference to Egypt. In order to fulfil this aim the study applied analytical and deductive methodologies, it adopted a qualitative research approach supported by a number of semi-structured interviews with a sample of expert academic Egyptian architects. The research is divided into four parts. The first part investigates the issue of stimulating design thinking. The second part discusses the mentor-student relationship that promotes design thinking. The third part investigates the limitations of adopting collaborative design thinking. The fourth part handles the issue of developing design thinking in architecture curricula. Ten semi-structured interviews were conducted. A set of eleven open -ended questions were used for a thorough exploration of the investigated issues and the validation of the proposed suggestions. The sample included ten academicians from five Egyptian universities: Cairo University, Alexandria University, Al-Azhar University, Assiut University, and Tanta University. Their academic experience ranged from 20 years up to 45 years. In addition, they have wide expertise in teaching different levels of design studios, an d have 553

experiences in teaching design in a number of universities in Saudi Arabia and Lebanon. The saturation achieved within these ten interviews was considered sufficient for the purpose of this study. 1. STIMULATING DESIGN THINKING Design thinking is not a type of knowledge that can be taught theoretically, but it is a skill that should be practiced and learnt through solving real life problems (Lawson, 2005; Kimbell, 2011). Design education aims at producing mentalities that are capable of thinking originally and independently. It also aims at preparing qualified designers who can adopt their thinking strategies to meet the situations they encounter during the design process (Razzouk, & Shute, 2012). The purpose of this part is to investigate the impact of design problems on stimulating creativity, and to identify the characteristics of design problems that enhance positively design-thinking skills in order to achieve creative products. A number of researchers explored the nature of problems that can stimulate creativity. Nagasundaram, (1997) confirmed that there is a strong relationship between the stimulation of creativity and the nature of the problem. This relationship has its impact on the creative process as well as its product. In their experiments to understand the characteristics of creative problems, Reiter-Palmon et al. (2009) indicated that creativity depends on the nature of the solved problems and the measure of creativity used to evaluate the solution. Paul and Elder (2008) reported that engaging the mind with genuine problems worthy of analysis and solving is the keystone to motivate creative and critical thinking. Dorst (2003) described design problems as being partly determined by the designer’s own perspective of the design problem. Beaudouin-Lafon and Mackay (2003) believe that design constraints do not have a certain negative impact on design creativity because, in general, all designers work under constraints, however, the problem arises when constraints are excessive, not essential, or result from poor framing of the design problem. Getzels (1982) stated that “at the core of an effective solution is a productive problem”. Moreover, he argued that creativity is motivated by the need to explore creative problems. He pointed to the practice of creativity during the exploration process provided that the formulation of creative problems is regarded as important as the formation of solutions (Getzels, 1982). The design pedagogies that are currently applied are based on the theory of reflection-in-action that is developed by Schon (Schön, 1983) within the context of problem-based learning. Therefore, the formulation of the design problem, that is the focus of the learning activity, becomes vital for the success of the learning process. Design education aims at developing creative thinking, consequently, it is essential to investigate the characteristics of design problems that stimulate creativity. In the present study, the issue of stimulating design thinking and creativity in architecture education was investigated through the conducted interviews. The interviewees were asked to determine the relative importance of the design problem as an influential factor on design creativity, in comparison to other factors that include designers’ skills, design methodologies, and evaluation methods. The majority of the interviewees (n=7) agreed that formulating design problems that stimulate the students’ creative thinking is the vital part in developing creativity in architecture education, one opinion reported that it is the foundation for achieving creativity in design. A fewer number (n=3) reported that it is a vital part, one opinion pointed out that its importance increases in the senior levels of education. The characteristics of the design problems that stimulate creativity in architecture education were explored and categorized. About half of the participants (n=6) claimed that design problems should deal with new situations and tackle unique issues. However, a minority (n=3) rejected this claim on the ground that architectural problems are usually repetitive. One participant stated that creativity can still be achieved through adopting new approaches to common problems. About half of the participants (n=6) argued that design problems must have a degree of ambiguity and should not be totally clarified by the instructor at the beginning of the design project in order to simulate realistic design problems. However, one participant completely rejected this idea. A minority (n=3) showed partial agreement, two of them commented that this situation depends to some extent on the level of the students. There was a consensus among the participants (n=9) that design problems should not be completely specified by the instructor in order to allow the students to participate in formulating its final setting. One participant partially agreed to this opinion and commented that this situation requires a high level of guidance from the instructor. About half of the participants (n=6) claimed that design problems must have a balanced amount of constraints and variables, and allow more space for alternate solutions. While the minority (n=3) showed relative agreement to this claim, and one of them mentioned that the highly creative students can deal with a large amount of constraints. However, one participant indicated an opposite opinion because he believes that more constraints might provide more challenges and foster creativity. A question about how the complexity of design problems impact creativity with respect to t he students’ level received variable degrees of agreement. On one hand, one third of the participants (n=3) believed 554

that complexity hinders creativity. On the other hand, one third (n=3) had opposing opinions. While, about one third (n=4) indicated that design problems should incorporate a balanced level of complexity to foster creativity. The following comments were recorded: adopting complexity depends on the available time, although adopting complexity is required, large size projects do not always intr oduce complex design problems, adopting project size complexities may be valid for the upper levels of design education, and creativity is not a quantitative issue, therefore, it should not be measured by quantitative values. The characteristics of the design problems and their impact on creativity are structured and represented in the chart shown in (figure 1).

Figure 1. The characteristics of the design problems and their impact on creativity. The discussions in the interviews also showed that a number of these characteristics require a higher level of balance when formulating the design problem in order to positively stimulate creativity otherwise stimulation may be negatively affected. For example, the amount of constrains in the design problem is a critical issue; therefore, while adding constraints fosters creativity, excessive amount of constraints hinders it. Hypothetically, there seems to be a bell curve relationship between the amount of design constraints and their impact on stimulating creativity as shown in (figure 2); if the design constrains were excessive or few the creativity broke down, the balanced amount of constraints seems to stimulate creativity more effectively.

Figure 2. A representation for the relation between the amount of design constraints and their impact on creativity. During the interviews, most opinions showed that adopting design problems that stimulate creativity requires ideal situations of architecture education. It was concluded that in order to promote creative thinking in design education certain limitations should be avoided such as the variation in the qualifications of architecture students, the imbalanced ratio of the students to the design instructors, and the difficulties in establishing mentorships in design studios.

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2. SUSTAINING MENTORSHIP IN THE DESIGN STUDIOS Teaching and learning design thinking depend on the harmonious relationship between the mentors and the students in the design studio. The stages towards achieving this harmony include defin ing the nature of this relationship and understanding the roles of both the students and the mentors. Acting within these roles results in better design teaching practices that lead to better learning outcomes through design curricula. In fact, the responsibilities in design thinking activities are distributed between the mentor and the students and require interactive participation in the thinking activities during the design process. In addition, the difference in the expertise of the students and that of the mentors should be taken into account. This expertise defines the role of the mentor as the regulator of the whole design process. The model in (figure 3) speculates on the roles of the students and the mentors during the stages of the design process. In the stage of problem finding and understanding, the mentors and the students have equivalent responsibilities in exploring the design problem as both of them seek to identify it, taking into consideration balancing the information that the students actually have and information they use. According to Cross (2004) the students in this stage should not get deeply involved in gathering data about the design problem seeking to fully understand it before starting to solve it, this is because design problems are gradually understood through design solutions (Cross, 2004).

Figure 3. The Mentor’s and students roles in design studios. During the stage of idea generation, the students are solely responsible for providing design ideas while the mentors act as facilitators who foster the students’ creativity and stimulate their thinking skills. The mentors’ proficiency at this stage lies on their ability to encourage the students to think originally and to avoid imitating precedents. Failure to do these roles results in having shared ideas among the students, which can be realized during juries. While during the evaluation stage, the mentors are the key responsible but they should allow the students to participate in the evaluation activities in order to enhance their critical thinking as well as communication and persuasion skills. 3. ENCOURAGING COLLABORATIVE DESIGN THINKING Creativity is defined as the process of producing something novel and useful (Amabile, 2012). In the middle of the twentieth century, Guilford emphasized the concept of creative personality. Consequently, subsequent research on creativity had a tendency towards focusing intensively on the personal attributes of the individuals (Glaveanu, 2010). In 1961, Rhodes changed this perspective after he introduced the results of his analysis for creativity. These results emphasized the effect of the social factor on creativity and called it the ‘Creative Press’. According to this social perspective of creativity, the role of the society was limited to support creativity by motivating the creative individuals, stimulating the creative process, and appreciating the creative product (Rhodes, 1961). In the last three decades, a new perspective to creativity evolved with the emergence of new concepts such as group and collaborative creativity. This perspective proposes that at least two individuals think together to produce one creative work. Consequently, a number of researchers oriented towards investigating this new pattern of human creativity aiming at revealing its impact and methodologies. Collaborative creativity is usually a synonym for teamwork creativity. In teamwork, the team has shared leadership roles and produces a unified 556

product, whereas in group work there is one clearly focused leader, and the product is the accumulated work of a number of individuals (Tucker & Abbasi, 2012). This perspective to creativity highlighted the importance of communication and interaction skills in promoting collaborative creativity (Csikszentmihalyi & Sawyer, 1995). Human creativity became seen as resulting from the interaction of an individual’s thoughts through activities that take place in social contexts (Engestrom, 2001; Fischer et al., 2005). It is reported that most creative products are the outcome of cooperative thinking, enthusiastic conversations and shared concerns amongst a group of people (Fischer et al., 2005). Collaborative creativity facilitates the elaboration of ideas as individuals build on each other’s' ideas (Hargadon & Bechky, 2006). Collaborative creativity should be seen as complementary to individual creativity not as a replacement (Fischer et al., 2005). Accordingly, the idea of a purely individual creativity in architecture may be considered a myth. Practicing architecture is a collaborative process that involves interaction among many stakeholders, namely: architects, clients, users, as well as engineers. This interaction usually increases in complicated and large-scale projects where the collaboration of experts in different disciplines becomes essential. A survey performed by ‘National Architectural Accrediting Board’ (NAAB) showed that almost all the participants (96%) believed that architects work in environments that require collaborative teamwork with professionals from other disciplines (Norbut, Galarza & Glaser, 2012). However, Nicol and Pilling (2000) warned against the inability of architectural schools to prepare well-qualified graduates with the skills required for collaborative architectural practice. This inability is attributed to the fact that design studios are directed towards developing individual architects as unique and gifted designers, rather than towards preparing them to collaborate. Tucker and Abbasi (2012) indicated that to overcome the limitations to adopt collaborative design in education assessment methodologies that are capable of evaluating both individual and team assignments must be implemented. In the present study, the issue of collaborative design thinking in architecture education was investigated through the conducted interviews. The participants were asked to identify their opinions about the idea of adopting collaborative design thinking in architectural practice. Half of the participants (n=5) doubted its validity, and four of them commented that design is a creative individual work. However, a minority (n=3) accepted the idea, two of them explained that collaboration in design is not usually the results of a teamwork but it is rather the results of a group work guided by a leader. A minority (n=2) supported the idea of collaborative design emphasizing that architectural practice involves collaboration among architects, engineers, clients and users. The participants were asked to express their views about applying collaborative design in architecture education. The majority (n=8) denied the validity of the idea. Only one partially agreed and another endorsed the use of collaborative design in architecture education on the ground that it allows for more elaboration on design ideas and supports design decisions. In general, the participants’ views indicated that their experiences with applying collaborative design in architecture education were negative and unsuccessful. The limitations to adopt collaborative design in education were discussed during the interviews, and a number of these limitations were reported. First, the system of evaluation in education is based on evaluating the student’s individual performance; therefore, it becomes difficult to evaluate the performance within a team. Second, there is a number of personal factors that hinder the homogeneity and harmony amongst the team members. Third, the current situation of some design studios -especially in senior levels- does not allow for the application of collaborative design activities in addition to mentorship, as they become limited to be places for the students to meet the instructors and to take notes on their projects, while the design jobs are almost done outside the studio. Fourth, the process of collaborative design is built on thinking-by-communication whereby effective communication between the design team members enhances thinking, allows for elaboration of ideas and increases the validity and the value of these ideas. It is possible for graduation courses to apply collaborative design activities effectively in order to provide a simulation for the real-life architectural practice. The present study suggests redesigning the graduation courses in order to allow for a smooth school-to-work transition, and to provide richer learning activities that trigger reflective thinking. Offering interdisciplinary courses can further engage the students in cooperative learning activities. Interdisciplinarity enables engineering, design, and architecture students to participate in sponsored projects supervised by an interdisciplinary team of academicians and experts. The learning outcomes (LOs) required for each particular specialization must be considered and well incorporated when designing these courses. An emphasis should be given to enhancing collaboration, communication and self-learning skills. A representation of the framework for the interdisciplinary graduation courses is shown in (figure 4). Within this framework, the abilities of architecture students to engage in, and solve real life problems can be effectively developed and the individual role of each student can be clearly observed and, consequently, easily evaluated.

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Figure 4. A framework for the interdisciplinary graduation project courses.

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4. RESTRUCTURING THE DEVELOPMENT OF DESIGN THINKING In this part, discussion focuses on exploring the ways architecture curricula can develop the skills of design thinking in a methodical manner. Developing thinking skills begins in the early stages of school education. According to the cognitive domain of Bloom’s taxonomy, the thinking skills gradually evolve from the lower cognitive skills of memorization, comprehension and application to the higher cognitive skills of analysis, evaluation and creativity (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). Design thinking involves a number of component abilities such as the ability of thinking creatively, the ability of engaging imagination and three-dimensional thinking in the exploration of design ideas, the ability of defining problems, gathering information, and applying analyses and judgments (UIA, 2014). Hence, architecture education is expected to develop and enhance these skills for the end result of having professionally skilled architects. According to the International Union of Architects (UIA), architecture education should involve the acquisition of the following three major capabilities: design, skills, and knowledge, which reflects that developing the students’ skills incorporates a distinct component in architecture curricula integrating with design and knowledge (UIA, 2014). This analysis calls for revising the components of the architecture curricula to check the adequacy of skills courses in comparison to design and knowledge courses. According to this perspective, (figure 5) demonstrates the structure of architecture curricula and shows the area of skills courses that needs revision and calibration.

Figure 5. The area of skills courses that needs revision and calibration. A preliminary investigation of a number of architecture programs revealed that the majority did not include courses that are dedicated to develop the skills of design thinking in a separate manner, some of these programs offered these courses as electives, while a minority offered compulsory courses. This indicates that these programs may only develop design-thinking skills through the design studios, and that architecture education depends widely on skills that the student have already developed in the pre-university years. Although design studios have an important role in developing design thinking skills, this role occurs occasionally and spontaneously, and as relevant to the nature of the design project. This study suggests incorporating separate courses on the component abilities of the design thinking into architecture curricula; each course should focus on enhancing a specific design skill by adopting scientific methods, and these courses should be integrated with the traditional courses of project-based studios. This is a common educational practice that is adopted by other disciplines such as physical education. Football academies, for example, do not only depend on involving the students in football matches to develop their skills, but they also aim at developing their component skills of receiving, dribbling, passing and shooting in a systematic manner. This enables for enhancing each skill separately, providing precise analysis of the students’ weaknesses and strengths, and facilitating more accurate assessment of their performance (Simpkin, 1998: Special Olympics, 2004).

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CONCLUSION This study aimed at investigating a number of issues related to design thinking in architecture education. It investigated the limitations to developing this skill, and it provided suggestions to overcome these limitations. A number of semi-structured interviews with a sample of expert academic Egyptian architects was conducted in order to reach a more comprehensive understanding of these limitations. The impact of design problems on stimulating design thinking and achieving a creative product has been investigated. The results of this investigation confirmed that the formulation of design problems is a vital factor in stimulating creative thinking. In order to stimulate creative thinking effectively, it is recommended that design problems should deal with new situations and tackle unique issues, they should allow for the students’ participation in formulating its final setting, and they have to involve a balanced level of complexity relevant to the students’ level. In the problem formulation stage, it is crucial to achieve a level of balance among the characteristics of the design problems because certain characteristics can positively stimulate creativity to a certain extent. This study contributed to identify the interactive roles of the mentors and the students within the design studio and to describing the nature of their relationship. It indicated that mentors and students have equal responsibilities in exploring the design problems. During the idea generation stage, the mentors act as facilitators who foster the students’ creativity and stimulate their thinking skills while the students become solely responsible for providing design ideas. Finally, the mentors are mainly responsible for the evaluation activities while allowing for and encouraging the students to participate. The issue of incorporating collaborative design thinking in architecture education was also investigated. The majority of the interviewees denied the validity of applying collaborative design thinking, which calls for further research on ways to promote this type of thinking in architecture education. A number of the obstacles towards stimulating it were discussed and reported that include the difficulty to evaluate the individual performance of a student working within a group, and lack of homogeneity and harmony amongst team members. Since, more attention for teamwork in design studios is needed; the study suggested redesigning the graduation project courses in a way that motivates collaboration and Interdisciplinarity through the participation of students from other engineering and design specializations in order to form a realistic architectural team. In addition, this study conducted a preliminary investigation for a number of architectural programs, and showed that they need to include separate courses to develop the component skills of design thinking in a methodical manner. In the end, it is worth mentioning that promoting design thinking in architecture education requires ideal educational situations where architecture students are wisely selected, have equal initial qualifications and competencies, and where effective mentorship is activated. This paper initiated a broad perspective on some issues related to design thinking in architecture education, while inviting further discussions and research on the same subject.

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REFERENCES Amabile, T., 2012. Componential Theory of Creativity. Working Paper. Harvard Business School. Available at [Accessed 21 March 2016]. Anderson, L. & Krathwohl, D., 2001. A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching and Assessing: A Revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy. New York. Longman Publishing. Beaudouin-Lafon, M., & Mackay, W., 2003. Prototyping tools and techniques. In J. Jacko & A. Sears, eds., The Human-Computer Interaction Handbook, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates publishers, 1006-1031. Cross, N., 2004. Expertise in Design: An Overview. Design Studies. Elsevier. 25(5), 427–441. Csikszentmihalyi, M. & Sawyer, K., 1995. Creative Insight: The social Dimension of a Solitary Moment. In R. Steinberg and J. Davidson, eds. The Nature of Insight. Cambridge: MIT Press. 329-361. Dorst, K., 2003. The Problem of Design Problems. The Design Thinking Research Symposium. Available at [Accessed 12 March 2016]. Engestrom, Y., 2001. Expansive Learning at Work: Toward an Activity Theoretical Reconceptualization. Journal of Education and Work 14 (1), 133–156. Fischer, G., Giaccardi, E., Eden, H., Sugimoto, M., & Ye, Y., 2005. Beyond Binary Choices: Integrating Individual and Social Creativity. International Journal of Human–Computer Studies, 63, 482–512. Getzels, J., 1982. The Problem of the Problem. In R. Hogarth, ed., Question framing and response consistency. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 37-49. Glaveanu, V. 2010. Paradigms in the Study of Creativity: Introducing the perspective of cultural psychology. New Ideas in Psychology, 28(1), 79-93. Hargadon, A. & Bechky, B., 2006. When Collections of Creatives Become Creative Collectives: A Field Study of Problem Solving at Work. Organ. Sci. 17 484–500. International Union of Architects UIA, 2014, UIA Accord on Recommended International Standards of Professionalism in Architectural Practice. Available at < http://www.uia.archi/sites/default /files /AIAS075164.pdf > [Accessed 18 November 2015]. Kimbell, L., 2011. Rethinking Design Thinking: Part 1. Design and Culture. Berg Publishers. 3(3), 285-306. Lawson, B., 2005. How Designers Think, The Design Process Demystified. Great Britain: Architectural Press, Elsevier. Nagasundaram, M., 1997. Creativity, Group Support Systems, and Systems Development. In Wojtkowski et al., Plenum Press, 39–48. Nicol, D., & Pilling, S., 2000. Architectural education and the profession. In D. Nicol & S. Pilling, eds., Changing architectural education: Towards a new profession. London: E. & F. N. Spon. Norbut, M., Galarza, T., & Glaser, P., 2012. Study of Accredited Architectural Education: Electronic Survey Summary. NAAB. Available at < http://www.naab.org/documents> [Accessed 18 April 2016]. Paul, R. & Elder, L., 2008. The Nature and Functions of Critical & Creative Thinking. Foundation for Critical Thinking Press, 45. Razzouk, R. & Shute V., 2012. What is Design Thinking and Why is it Important? Review of Educational Research 82(3), 330–348. Rhodes, M., 1961. An Analysis of Creativity. The Phi Delta Kappan. USA, 42(7), 305-310. Reiter-Palmon, R., Illies, M., Kobe, L., Buboltz, C., & Nimps, T., 2009. Creativity and Domain Specificity: The effect of task type on multiple indexes of creative problem solving. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity & the Arts, 3, 73–80. Schön, D., 1983. The reflective practitioner: How professionals think in action. Basic Books. New York. Special Olympics, 2004. Football Coaching Guide: Teaching Football Skills. Available at < http://media.specialolympics.org/soi/files/sports/Football/e63t2llj/Teaching.pdf > [Accessed 18 January 2016]. Simpkin, A., 1998. A Handbook for Teaching Sports. Heinemann. London. UK. Tucker, R. & Abbasi, N., 2012. Conceptualizing Teamwork and Groupwork in Architecture and Related Design Disciplines, Proceedings of the 46th Annual Conference of the Architectural Science Association, (November 2012), Griffith University, Gold Coast, Queensland.

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ARCHITECTURE FOR THE CROWD BY THE CROWD: A NEW MODEL FOR DESIGN ACQUISITION IMDAT AS, TAKEHIKO NAGAKURA Imdat As, Assistant Professor, University of Hartford Takehiko Nagakura, Associate Professor, Massachusetts Institute of Technology ABSTRACT This paper discusses the use of crowdsourcing as a new approach for architectural design acquisition. We argue that crowdsourcing can have a vast impact on smaller scale design needs, e.g. home remodeling, or landscape and interior design projects, and can potentially carry these often neglected projects into the architectural design sphere. In the US alone, there are about 15 Million smaller-scale projects of which only 11% make it to the hands of a professional designer. The remainder of projects - accounting for a staggering $170B in construction expenditures- is implemented with a contractor or done by the clients themselves. What are the reasons behind this discrepancy in high “desire and need” for design and the few projects that have professional design? The causes are manifold, and can be termed as “the customer pain:” a. architectural offices are not easy to access; b. there is a perceived high cost associated with professional design work; and c. the high risk of a single solution that cannot meet the client’s expectations. In order to address some of these real or perceived discontinuities in the design/construction project flow, we developed Arcbazar, an online crowdsourcing platform for architectural design. The platform, born within the Venture Mentoring Service (VMS) Program at MIT (Cambridge, MA), has now successfully completed about a thousand projects worldwide; and collected hundreds of thousands of visuals, conversations, audio-video files, and related visual graphic material from designers and clients around the globe. Here, we will analyze the massive design data generated over the last five years of Arcbazar, discuss methods and techniques of crowdsourcing, and illustrate one case study with overall analytics of the platform. We will then evaluate the protocol and outcome of architectural crowdsourcing, convey professional and popular media responses, and argue for its potential to disrupt traditional architectural practice. INTRODUCTION Throughout architectural history, competitions were commonly run as a method to generate designs for major public buildings, such as temples, churches, mosques, town halls or other communal edifices and monuments. The earliest competition known to date was run for a war memorial in Athens, in 448BC. By the end of the competition, the council of Athens displayed the results for ten days at the Acropolis and asked citizens to cast their vote on the concept they wanted to see implemented. (Kaplan, 1988) Unmistakably, Greeks understood the power of public participation in decision-making processes for public projects. Engaging the community in the process not only evaded potential criticism, but also sourced valuable opinions to gather best ideas for a given spatial problem. In the Renaissance, competitions became a favored instrument to resolve wicked design challenges. In 1419, for instance, the winning concept for the Dome of Florence presented by Filippo Brunelleschi was a brilliant double domed design solution for a seemingly impossible design problem. How can this proven, age-old modus operando of competitions be leveraged in the digital age? Can we use technologies to improve upon the competition protocol and build a more participatory, transparent and democratic process? Can we generate a new model of design acquisition able to respond to all types of spatial design challenges - even at very small scales? To explore these and other questions, we founded Arcbazar- an online competition platform to evaluate in-realtime the impact of crowdsourced architecture on everyday design. Dwell Magazine has called Arcbazar “the worst thing that happened to architecture since the internet started,” (Dwell, 2011) with the argument that such platforms devalue architecture. Is crowdsourcing a race to the bottom – a misuse of power – or is it a fair and transparent process opening up equal opportunities to designers around the world? We content that online platforms are revolutionary and offer a level playing field that allows participants to test new ideas in low-risk environments. These platforms become great grounds for exploration and creativity, while offering project-

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owners a very diversified spectrum of unexpected options to meet different design preferences and expectations. 1. BARRIERS OF DESIGN ACQUISITION There are about 15 million smaller-scale design projects each year in the United States, and 89% of them never see the desk of a designer let alone a competition. (US Census Bureau, 2011) The reasons are manifold, and the problems are fundamentally different for project-owners compared to designers. From the project-owner’s point-of-view, the main problems are: a. the availability of architects is often limited locally and engaging them is intimidating; b. design commissions can become relatively expensive, especially for their domestic project that are often very small; and c. approaching a single designer is perceived as risky, since the outcome is not always clear and predictable. Moreover, from a legal perspective, smaller-scale projects often do not need the work of a licensed architect; for example, in Massachusetts, anyone can design their own home - if it is up to 44,000 cf. The majority of project-owners, therefore, skip the trip to the architect’s office altogether. From the designer’s point-of-view the main issues are: a. the problem of intellectual property; b. fairness of compensation; and c. fairness in evaluation protocols. 1.1 The question of intellectual property In the 16th century, Philip II, King of Spain, launched a competition for the monastery at Escorial in Madrid, and asked Italian architect Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola to evaluate the 22 entries that were submitted. Vignola, however, instead of deliberating on a winner, decided to put together his own scheme by collaging “bits and pieces” from all entries. King Philip was very happy with his design and commissioned him the job. (De Haan, 1988) This is a nightmare scenario for every designer. “Stitching” ideas in this way is certainly not legal or ethical nowadays. However, one could argue that decomposing projects and recombining them in a different way may lead to the most ideal solution for a given problem. Can there be practical and legal ways for designers to participate, share and collaborate towards a collective design outcome? What are the required intellectual protections in such cases? In traditional competitions, teams or individuals beat one another; this is the nature of the process. The challenge is based on prescribed rules and regulations. However, even in best-case scenarios, there is only one winner and the remaining designers are, by definition, on the losing end. In other words, all, but one winner, experience some sense of disappointment and disbelief. What would happen if there were multiple designers part of a winning scheme? 1.2 The question of compensation The chance of a designer getting his or her vision translated into built-form through a competition is very low. Therefore, people often get surprised by the fact that architects work on competitions at all. Louis Kahn claimed that competitions are an offering by architects to the larger community, because the majority of projects never get built and architects not paid. (Lipstadt, 1989, p.10) Nonetheless, the answer to this puzzle is more complex, and many of the reasons why architects work on competitions can be partially explained on historical, sociological, economical, and psychological grounds. For some designers, the motivation is perhaps to use competitions as a means of marketing, i.e. to connect with project-owners for potential commissions. For others, it may be to strengthen their portfolio and to put their name out in the world. For most designers, however, design is a passion, which can be explained by the concept of urges or drives in motivational psychology. Adolf Loos claimed that any creative act serves the sublimation of the creator’s urges, and therefore performs functions beyond its apparent value proposition. (Gleiter, 2008, p.76) Loos’s argument -originally made against ornamentmay also explain why designers participate in design challenges at all: competitions offer fierce battle grounds for “creative acts” to outperform others. However, good performance does not always equal “winning” a competition. Traditionally, there is always one winner, one runner-up, and a third place. Often organizers issue honorable mentions to few projects that were well done but did not make the final cut. Could awards be distributed in an even more equitable way? 1.3 The question of evaluations Evaluations of competitions are highly subjective and, therefore, traditional competitions turn often into launching pads for intrigue and controversy. Almost every competition goes through some extent of confrontation, and issues of conspiracy and quarrels can unfold. Customarily, projects are evaluated by a board of reviewers, called the jury, which may consist of architects, academics, politicians, and bureaucrats. Evaluating projects as part of a jury requires team play, but often opinions are very diverse and agreements cannot be reached. On the other hand, if all jury members think alike, there is no room for innovation. Many times, also, the tiniest non-issues can gain disproportionally on significance. For example, in the competition for the League of Nations in Geneva, in 1927, Le Corbusier’s entry was not chosen as the winner because one of the jury 563

members pointed out that the drawings were not drawn in ink, as outlined in the project brief. (Gold, 2013, p.58) And, other times juries can become more flexible, as in the Sydney Opera competition, Jorn Utzon’s winning design did not meet the program; and Zaha Hadid’s proposal for the Tokyo Olympic Park exceeded the site boundaries. The architectural direction of a competition is also often predetermined by the jury selection. In 1922, the Chicago Tribune Tower resulted in a neo-classical building, and all participants knew from the beginning that the style was the pre-set choice of the jury. Similarly conspicuous, the head of the competition jury for the Kocatepe Mosque in Ankara, Turkey, in 1967, asked participants blatantly to design in the classical Ottoman style: “Istanbul resembles a rose-garden in regard to mosques; the architects should make a bunch of it [for Ankara] that every visitor could admire.” (Yilanlioglu, 1987) Can evaluations become less biased, and the protocol more transparent, democratic and participatory? 2. DESIGN ACQUISITION THROUGH CROWDSOURCING Digital technologies can help respond to many of the question raised above. One of the solutions we put forth is the use of crowdsourcing platforms for architectural design projects. At Arcbazar, project-owners can quickly launch competitions through an easy onboarding procedure. They describe their projects, set their criteria, and decide on deliverables, award amount and duration. Designers choose whether they want to participate in that particular design challenge or not. At the deadline, the project-owner reviews all submissions and issues the awards. The anonymity of designers and clients are strictly enforced in order to keep the competition fair and the outcome merit-based. The methods and techniques developed at Arcbazar to grow the competition ecosystem are: 1. measuring designer performance; 2. facilitating collective designs; 3. enabling two-staged competitions; and 4. supporting evaluations of projects. 2.1 Measuring Designer Performance One of the most important aspects in developing strong online communities is to allow participants to build-up a record. Arbazar thus issues various points to designers for their actions on the platform, and ranks them by their performance on several charts. There are also sub-charts for particular fields, such as Top 50 of Landscape Designers, Top 50 of Interior Designers, etc. Points are given for winning a competition, becoming in second or third, or receiving an honorable mention. Points can also be collected for uploading projects, signing-up for competitions, voting on design projects; or, points can be subtracted, for signing-up to a competition but failing to submit. The point-system not only works as a strong retention tool for designers, but also incentivizes them to become prolific members for the larger community. Currently, the number #1 designer of the platform is Gordana Vujasevic, from the United States. The designer collected 83,065 points, and participated in 229 competitions, winning 46 1st Prizes, 38 2nd prizes, and 28 3rd prizes. 2.2 Collective Design 2.2.1 Designer exchange module An exchange module allows designers to share files related to a particular competition. Designers can share their work a. for free; b. sell it for a particular amount; or c. ask for future equity in the case the person using the file wins a monetary award. For example, if designer A produces a base drawing, and designer B uses the base drawing, and if Designer B wins the competition (and only if s/he does), Designer A gets also some monetary award based on the agreed upon equity. The work offered for exchange can range from drawings to environmental consulting, engineering input, partial design solutions, or any other project-related assistance. Designer A, in this way, could theoretically become part of multiple teams that agree on the terms put forth. Designers who do not have much time at their hands, or lack expertise in certain areas, can still add a “brick to the wall,” and potentially become part of a winning team. In this way ad-hoc teams can be construed from around the globe. 2.2.2 Forming online teams Arcbazar developed a feature which allows designers to form ad-hoc teams. These can be long-lasting, or just project-based teams. In this way, teams can be formed on equity. The shares do not have to be equal but can be distributed proportionally according to the projected input of each team member. 2.2.3 Derivative design ability Crowdsourcing also allows iterative models. The iterative process occurs through two-staged competitions. In the first phase, all designers submit their designs and the projects are evaluated and ranked. In the second phase, all designs are open for partial use by any other participants. The knowledge produced in the first stage is thus not lost but developed further. In other fields, such as science, multiple authors can contribute towards a single 564

paper, and the order of authors reveals the weight of each individual in the work. In a similar way, in this model, the project entries are “authored” by designers based on their contributions. When, and if, the entry wins a competition, the award is shared according to the predetermined set equity. If the design gets built, a team of designers gets credited as authors. The model aims to harvest the collective design intelligence of participants through a fair and equitable protocol. 2.3 Two-staged Competitions All projects on Arcbazar start as one-stage competitions. However, at the end of the process, the project-owner can decide to launch a second stage. S/he can then comment on submissions, and start the second phase either in a restricted mode (only open to the original rooster of participants, or select few of them); or, re-open it to the entire designer community. The second stage is often used by project-owners who want some major revisions, or more nuanced details for their projects. 2.4 Evaluation Modules The final decision on deliberating top projects is reserved to the project-owner. However, a non-binding voting feature was integrated within the competition model. Arcbazar introduced three different evaluation mechanisms, i. evaluations by project-owners; ii. evaluations by family and friends; and iii. evaluations by platform users, e.g. other designers or clientele. The i. and ii. evaluation types have a more detailed module which allows them to comment and evaluate projects on following criteria: 1. Idea – was the idea great? 2. Aesthetics – is the design beautiful? 3. Function – does it work well? 4. Buildability – is it buildable, within budget, etc.? 5. Graphics – is the quality of visual material great? 6. Criteria - did it met set criteria? Each item is judged on a 10-point system, with 1 being the lowest and 10 being the highest. For the iii type, the criteria are from point 1 to 5., and are done through a separate voting interface. Votes from each stakeholder, i, ii, and iii, are all weighted differently. A designer in the top 10 or top 100 charts has a higher voting score than a designer who just signed-up. Similarly, client votes count more than family and friend votes. The system averages all votes proportionally and ranks the submissions. 3. A CASE STUDY AT ARCBAZAR: CROWDSOURCING A COFFEE SHOP Ali K. of Saudi Arabia launched a competition for a coffee shop in Sakarya, Turkey. Ali expected to find remodeling solutions for an existing vacant building on a site he owned. He provided a base sketch with rough dimensions, and images of the site, and set the award to $1,000 for a four-week long competition (Figure 1). Ali’s competition received 27 submissions from designers across the world. (See more data in Figure 3). The team headed by Marijana Maslovaric and Ivana Markovic, of Serbia, won the 1st Prize (Figure 2).

Figure 1. Sketch and photo provided by client Ali K.

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Figure 2. Plan drawing and various renderings of the winning entry of the “Coffee Shop” competition. Design by Marijana Maslovaric and Ivana Markovic, Serbia.

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Figure 3. Analytics for the “Coffee Shop” competition. 4. RESULTS AND OVERALL METRICS In total, we ran about 1,000 competitions, and 114,349 digital files have been uploaded onto the system. The average submission rate was 9.71 projects per competition, and each submission contained on average a dozen sheets, ranging from orthographic drawings, perspective renderings, axonometric views, text, audio-video files, to raw data, e.g. CAD drawings, 3D models etc.

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4.1 Mapping Projects and Designers Figure 4 shows the distribution of competitions and designers across the globe. Each competition is connected to participating designers with a thin line. The map reveals that the majority of competitions are within the US, whereas the majority of designers reside outside the US. Figure 5 depicts the overall analytics of the platform, and visualizes additional data-sets through different graphs. Top 5 countries where competitions were initiated were the US, followed by Australia, Canada, Switzerland and Saudi Arabia. Countries with most registered designers were the US, India, Egypt, Canada and Romania; and the countries with most winning designers were the US, followed by Albania, Romania, France and Bulgaria. 45,020 votes have been cast on individual projects, and 2,786 comments/feedback given by project-owners.

Figure 4. Worldmap visualizing locations of projects and designers

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Figure 5. Various data points of Arcbazar in graphic form 4.2 Project Types and Awards Arcbazar has six different project categories: 1. home remodeling-, 2. interior design-, 3. landscape design-, 4. new residential-, 5. commercial-, and 6. public projects. As seen in Figure 5, the majority of projects executed were in the home remodeling category (48.2%), followed by interior design (17.4%), landscape design projects (13%), new residential projects (10.3%), commercial projects (9.4%), and lastly public projects (1.7%). The average of awards from all competitions categories was $750, being lower for interior projects ($530) and higher for institutional projects ($2,210). Most of the awards went to designers in America (47.1%), followed by Europe (42.4%), and Asia (6.4%). 4.3 User Profiles 12,001 designers and 7,493 project-owners have registered on Arcbazar. 33.9% of designers reside in America, 40.2% in Europe, 15.1% in Asia, 7.8% in Africa. From all registered designers, 41.2% are male and 23.2% are female (the remainder of users did not identify gender). 35.8% of designers hold master’s degrees, 33.4% 569

bachelor degrees, and 30.8% have identified as “other,” holding other types of degrees such as diplomas, doctorate degrees etc. 46.9% of 1st prize winners are men, and 48.1% hold master’s degrees. 4.4 Gender success ratio Even though the winning profile belongs to men (46.9%), the winning performance belongs to women (56.6%, compared to 43.4% for men). Gender performance is calculated based on the winning ratio of genders related to their number of male/female participants (Figure 4). 5. CONCLUSIONS Our research shows that there is an immense opportunity, and interest by project-owners to crowdsource their design challenges. We understand this fact through qualitative and quantitative data we collected from projects. 92.4% of project-owners turned out to be very happy, and 7.5% launched a second project, with 5% of them launching a third or more projects. However, the majority of crowdsourcing projects on Arcbazar are located in the US (82.8%). Some reason for this imbalance of project distribution might be due to the fact that the platform is relatively new and has yet to be discovered around the world. However, there might be also language and cultural barriers in non-English speaking countries. Also, some countries, like Germany, have stricter regulations which poses peculiar challenges. For example, UBER, the popular car-ride company has been banned due to stricter codes for taxi drivers in Germany. Or, countries like China, intentionally slow-down access to US websites to protect their local companies; and make it thus very hard for designers and project-owners from China to use Arcbazar. In future, the platform needs to overcome these barriers and resolve many complex cross-cultural challenges, in addition to mundane issues like payment processing problems, server access issues, or multi-language interfaces. In addition, the architectural profession also hesitated to embrace crowdsourcing right away. The Architects’ Journal criticized Arcbazar, in “Architects have slammed a ‘threatening’ new crowd-sourcing website in the US which promises to reduce clients’ costs.” (Fulcher, 2011) And, the AIA Report of 2014 portrayed Arcbazar as a disruptive model for the concurrent architectural practice. But despite such criticism and practical hurdles around the globe, competitions will always be part of the architectural profession. Competitiveness is part of our human fabric, and the hope for self-realization very often drives great achievements. Crowdsourcing opens up the fair competition protocol to everyday design challenges, taps into the potential of an increasingly better connected world, and makes design acquisition more efficient, collaborative and participatory.

REFERENCES Kaplan, S., “Competitions: Risk and Rivalry” Los Angeles Times, December 4, 1988, http://articles.latimes.com/1988-12-04/realestate/re-1120_1_international-design-competition Dwell, Twitter post, January 16, 2011, 10:30pm. https://twitter.com/dwell/status/26889122173947904. Us Census Bureau data p6 De Haan H., Architects in Competition: International Architectural Competitions of the Last 200 Years,” Thames and Hudson, 1988. Lipstadt, H., “Experimental Tradition: Essays on Competitions in Architecture,” Princeton Architectural Press, 1989. p.10 Gleiter, J.H., “Das Neue Ornament: Zur Genealogie des neuen Ornaments im Digitalen Zeitalter,” Arch plus, 189 (2008): 81 (76-83). Gold, J., “The Experience of Modernism: Modern Architects and the Future City, 1928-53,” Taylor and Francis, 2013. p.58 Yilanlioglu, H. I., Kocatepe Camii Nasil Yapildi? Ankara: Tekisik Matbaasi, 1987. Fulcher, M., “Architecture crowd-sourcing website criticized,” Architects’ Journal, accessed 29 September, 2011, http://www.architectsjournal.co.uk/news/daily-news/architecture-crowd-sourcing-websitecriticised/8620481.article

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MORPHOLOGICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL PERSPECTIVES FOR OPTIMIZING MULTIFRACTAL ARCHITECTURE IN THE HISTORICAL CITY OF ALEPPO BASHAR SWAID, HADYA SALKINI, LAURA GRECO, ROBERTA LUCENTE Bashar Swaid, MSc. Arch, Dipl-.Ing, University of Calabria, Hadya Salkini, Arch. Ing, University of Calabria Prof. Laura Greco, PhD, University of Calabria, Prof. Roberta Lucente, PhD, University of Calabria [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected] ABSTRACT Living organisms in complex adaptive systems such as historical centre of Aleppo, had shown comprehensive hierarchical coherence, in terms of their urban structure and urban network. This coherence has to be credited to the Multifractal characteristics that have been inherited from the architecture typologies and urban morphogenesis emergence mechanisms. Also this coherence stemmed from the balance and integration among the themes in the broad spectrum of environmental, social, economical and morphological needs. These nonlinear integrative form finding processes had demonstrated a high capability to sympathize the complex morphology co-evolving with the human bio-functional interrelation evolution. The research will utilize a new Morphogenetic Fractal Architecture (MoFA) tool (which has been developed recently), possessing a new language of form based on Multifractal design and complexity theory itself, to generate a new architecture which could fill and renovate empty/deconstructive gaps in the historical context of Aleppo and could permeate and adapt with the current phenotypes and genotypes (of the historical city of Aleppo), by self-organizing change. The focus of this research is on optimizing Multifractal architecture patterns that adaptively self-organized depending on the feedback, through a weighted fitness design function for evolutionary multi-criteria optimization. For this purpose, the research will adopt two crucial criteria for designing the fitness function: the first one correlated to the morphological perspective, and aimed to transcend the building complexity and urban connectivity thresholds; the second one correlated to the environmental perspective, and aimed to fulfil the requirements of the neighborhood energy design and sustainable building design. Investing the powerful advantages of computational process arising from the convergence between scientific complexity approach and artificial intelligence on one hand and with complexity approach of architecture and urban morphology on the other hand, provides the capacity to emerge intricate outputs (emulated and adapted with the current complex structure) relied on simple rules, and forms a tipping point as a base toward create a bottom-up integrative architecture and urban design process. INTRODUCTION An enormous architectural and urban design process has been applied for aesthetics, efficiency and optimum performance seeking. This process embodied vast broad spectrum of biological, social, economical, structural and lastly morphological perspectives. Most of which were predominantly controlled by top-down approach, where the vision of the designer/planner possesses the authority for determining the destiny of people and for many generations. This conventional top-down approach has been considered as an obstacle, confronting to the emerging creative processes of architectural and urban morphogenesis, because it could only study semi–liner urban structure, but it is unable to analyse the biological-like (Self-Organizing) development of organic urban forms (Swaid, et al., 2015). This deficit interprets the lack of finding harmonies configuration in most of the urban interventions in the complex adaptive systems such as historical ones (ALEXANDER, 2015). Due to the fact that cities are complex systems composed of non-linear and multiple scale iterations of spatial and physical heterogeneous components (Amorim, et al., 2009). Therefore, only techniques of scientific complexity such as chaos theory and other ‘new’ methods of analysis such as cellular automata, agent based modelling, spatial metrics, artificial intelligence, neural networks, non-linear simulation and fractal generation represent means to 571

study architecture and urban phenomena from the ‘bottom up’ (McAdams, 2009). Urban intervention processes in the historical cities demand high sensitive and thorough comprehension of the urban morphogenesis approaches in these complex structures. Historical urban structures took hundreds or even thousands of years to emerge and evolve till the current morphology co-evolving with the human bio-functional interrelations evolution. Thus a new epistemological framework for 3D modelling and urban morphology at localized level has been developed recently, based on both Multifractal analyses and evolutionary technique. The aim of this framework is to have a set of rules for building different genotypes of architecture and urban forms which, by exploiting sensitive adaptability of fractals; and using computational processes, develop as output 3D models of urban processes, more suitable with complex adaptive systems such as historical contexts (Swaid, et al., 2015). The historical context's growth is guided by needs in local distribution and in communication among its parts (Courtat, et al., 2011). These needs justify the complexity dimension investigations at localized level. According to Salingaros understanding the intricate connectivity and complexity of the living urban fabric it is necessary to undo the damage happened by erasing the fractal properties of the traditional city (Salingaros, 2005). Thus complexity dimension attributed to the embodiment of fractal characteristics in the urban context, which relates to the mechanisms involved in the bio-functional evolution process, and to the urban context’s morphological characterization using fractal and lacunarity analyses. It is worth to empathize the comprehensive hierarchical coherence that complex systems show, which are stemmed from the balance and integration among environmental, social, economical and morphological needs. This paper presents a case study of a large government and private residential and mixed use community, located exactly at the Northern-Western part of the historical city of Aleppo, in particular beside the historical gate Bab Al Faraj which represents a point of intersection of the main traffic arteries, and the link between the historical and modern commercial centres of Aleppo city. Bab Al Faraj area considers the commercial historical centre’s expansion in the western side, where the residential function has been replaced with new commercial functions, constituting a great attraction and pressure preventing the old city from growth in the preferable side (Salkini, et al., 2016). At the onset of the project, a multitude of simulations were undertaken to threshold urban connectivity and complexity dimension as key parameters to control the architecture and urban hierarchical coherence; climate and micro-climate analyses were also performed to assess urban and architecture radiation, with particular reference to shading and thermal control, to devise environmental design solutions in architectural and urban design. The research choose a pilot case of large government mixed use housing project, located in the historical city of Aleppo, where the integration between organic urban texture and biological courtyard houses provided an efficient cooling and heating throughout the year. The focus of this research is on optimizing Multifractal architecture patterns that adaptively self-organized depending on the feedback, through weighted fitness function design for evolutionary multi-criteria optimization. For this purpose, the research will adopt two crucial criteria for designing the fitness function:  The first one correlated to the morphological perspective, and aimed to transcend the building complexity and urban connectivity thresholds. Where a novel technology had been developed at the research First Phase for: A. Assessment both urban connectivity & complexity; B. Thresholding urban interactions and self-similarity structure dimensions’ by Local Connected Fractal (LCFD) and SlidingLacunarity (SLAC) Algorithms’ (Swaid, et al., 2015).  The second one correlated to the environmental perspective, and aimed to fulfil the requirements of the neighborhood energy design and sustainable building design. Whilst multiple parameters have been evaluated such as building orientation, massing, courtyard ratio and direction, which have large influence in the out/indoor environment, occupant well-being and the energy footprint of the building (Singh, et al., 2015). Also climate and micro-climate of the site were taken into consideration. METHODS The implemented methodology was applied to the case study Bab Al Faraj, and aims to fill the deconstructive gaps in Bab Al Faraj area by Multifractal architecture, based on morphological and environmental perspectives. The research will utilize a new Morphogenetic Fractal Architecture (MoFA) tool (this tool which has been developed recently constitutes form the incorporation between new Adaptive Dynamical Model ADM for parametric design with Hypervolume Estimation Algorithm HypE for Evolutionary Multi-Criteria Optimization EMO, based on weighted fitness function design), which possesses a new language of form based on Multifractal design and complexity theory itself, to generate a new architecture which could fill and renovate empty/deconstructive gaps in the historical context of Aleppo and could permeate and adapt with the current phenotypes and genotypes (of the historical city of Aleppo), by self-organizing change. The implemented methodology involved three phases: morphological composition, environmental analysis and optimization algorithms. 572

Morphological Composition: The research has developed a new Adaptive Dynamical Model ADM for parametric design (written in Python and combined with visual programming of Grasshopper as a plug-into “Rhinoceros 5” platform, which allow users and external application developers to integrate their applications). This model of computational architectural design and urban morphogenesis, combines algorithms (field effect, point attractor and power law scaling models) for morphological composition to produce an objective method for emerging Multifractal forms and then assessing the urban complexity and connectivity values, by a dimensional mapping constituted from two algorithms LCFD and SLAC, which was very successful for isolating areas with low dimension of high and medium ones. As well as this model helps to respond to the challenge for the contemporary city of how to superimpose competing connective networks in an optimal manner (Salingaros, 2004). Algorithm 1 was written by Python and Returns the number of box coverage of point list for boxes of size scale, in local connected dimension box counting algorithms the box for each scale deviation is centered on each point of interest and scaled into three frequency distributions (FQ), The N is the number of divisions made on each dimension. Then calculates the Local Connected Fractal Dimension (LCFD) of point list between box scales scale1, scale2 and scale3 via the box-counting algorithm. Algorithm 1: Local Connected Fractal Dimension Require: Point list, Box count Scale 1: Procedure Call the current Point list. 2: N = 1/ ε # Assign the Number of divisions made on each dimension 3: FQ1 = N / 4 # frequency distribution 1 4: FQ2 = N / 2 # frequency distribution 2 5: FQ3 = 3*N / 4 # frequency distribution 3 6: Find all the points in the scaled box to P within 4 scaled Boxes centered at P (this is the "local Connected set" S). 3: Count the number of points M (ε) of S in boxes of Decreasing side size ε (0.01 ≤ ε ≤ 0.03) Centered at P. 4: Return Calculate the local connected fractal dimension of S relative to P using equation 1 by Linear Regression of log (M (ε)) versus log (ε). 5: end Procedure Algorithm 2 was written by Python and Returns the number of box coverage of point list for boxes of size scale with interval N/4 with changing levels of magnification N is the number of divisions made on each dimension. Then calculates the lacunarity dimension of point list between box scales via the sliding box-counting algorithm, and average and standard deviation have solved by grasshopper components. Algorithm 2: Sliding-Lacunarity analysis Require: Point list, box count scale 1: Procedure Call the current point list. 2: N = [] 3: Scale1 = 3 / 4 4: Scale2 = 2 / 4 5: Scale3 = 1 / 4 6: Step1 = 8400 / 4 7: Step2 = 2 * scale1 /40 8: Step3 = 3 * scale1 /40 9: Find all the points in the sliding box to P within 3 scaled Boxes centered at P and overlapped by steps 1, 2 and 3. 10: Count the number of points M (ε), in sliding boxes of Side size ε (0.25 ≤ ε ≤ 0.75) centered at P. 11: For every box scale calculate the box variance by (((box counts[i] - mean) ** 2 ) ** 0.5) ** 2, then Calculate the average variance by divide total variance to number of scales. 12: Return calculate lacunarity dimension of point list P using equation 2 by (variance / (mean **2)) + 1 13: end Procedure This invaluable local dimension analysis (LCFD & SLAC) forms the core for estimating localized morphologic changes of different urban interactions levels and hierarchical structure, as a first chromosome of fitness function for optimization algorithms phase (Swaid, et al., 2015). The MoFA will adopt the LCDF and SLAC values as fitness values in combination with other multi-criteria fitness functions (stemmed from environmental analysis) to evaluate and optimize the building genotype and phenotype in 3D model. The building model established on this platform have multi-parameters including number and location of available connections (movement flow resources come from the old city of Aleppo and surrounding areas), number of attractors (which have the task to bring the system to a stable state since the whole simulation is a non-linear dynamic system) and user defined 573

parameters, see figure 2. Whilst the first parameter controls the geometry connectivity and interactivity (social) value; the second parameter controls geometry complexity and self-structure (morphological) value, as shown in figure 1.

Figure 51. Attractor points & shortest path algorithms (in blue) of Aleppo project, spatial connections (in green) The generated geometry showed interacting capacity with various connections, proportional to their distance from the central attractors, whose field effect influences, in turn, are proportional to each attractor proximity to the connection (movement flows resources), as shown in figure 3. According to this morphological objective, Multifractal forms have been generated by controlling the correlated spatial and functional relationship characterized by high sensitive adaptability, through capacity of responsiveness to different environment situations and changes by mutating their structure, behavior and function. The MoFA allows users to modify the values of the first and second parameters, and then generates different scenarios of Multifractal forms.

Figure 52. Attractor force algorithm of Aleppo project, spatial connections (in green)

Figure 53. Power law scaling algorithm of Aleppo project. This algorithm possesses a powerful capability of creating complex patterns (by scaling and self-similar configuration) lying in planes with different orientations in a multidimensional space and generated by the power law scaling model

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Environmental Analysis: The methodology for the environmental analysis of the proposed residential and mixed use community has two steps: neighborhood and building radiation analyses. These radiation analyses form the core for estimating localized environmental changes of different urban and architectural levels, as a second chromosome of fitness function. The MoFA will adopt the neighborhood and building radiation values as fitness values in combination with others multi-criteria fitness function (stemmed from morphological composition) to evaluate and optimize the building genotype and phenotype in 3D model. Whilst radiation is an important factor to consider in occupant thermal comfort and energy use of the buildings, also the amount of radiation received by a building has a direct relationship with the orientation. The research utilized integrated and open source climate design tools such as Ladybug plug-ins for Grasshopper and Rhino. This tool helps to realize integrated building performance solutions at an early stage (Singh, et al., 2015). Which makes the analysis highly interactive, and facilitates the process of environmental design analysis during different stages of the design by integrating weather data analysis and advanced simulation in a parametric environment (Sadeghipour Roudsari, et al., 2013). The standard Energy-Plus Weather files (.EPW) were imported by “Ladybug” Technology combined with visual programming of Grasshopper as a plug-in to “Rhinoceros 5” software. Which provides a variety of interactive graphics to support the decision-making process during the initial stages of design. It also simplifies the process of analysis, automates and expedites the calculations, and provides easy to understand graphical visualizations in the 3D modelling interface of Rhino/Grasshopper (Sadeghipour Roudsari, et al., 2013). For the neighborhood and building radiation analyses, various environmental parameters like generated geometry, generated cumulative sky matrix (uses Radiance's Gendaymtx function to calculate the amount of radiation for different sky patches of the Sky-dome and colours the sky patches based on the result), grid size (the average size of a grid cell for radiation analysis on the test surface) and distance from the base (represents the offset distance of the test point grid from the input test geometry) are evaluated, as shown in figure 4, 5.

Figure 54. Urban radiation analysis consists of four components: gencumulativeskymtx, selectskymtx, analysis period (from June to September) and radiation analysis (grid size = 6m, disfrombase = 1m)

Figure 55. Building radiation analysis consists of four components: gencumulativeskymtx, selectskymtx, analysis period (from June to September) and radiation analysis (grid size = 6m, disfrombase = 0.1m)

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Optimization Algorithms: Engineering design processes usually involve various individuals who make decisions that affect one another, and effective coordination between these decision-makers is critical (Hernandez, et al., 2002). Therefore nonlinear techniques like Multi-criteria Optimization (EMO) for addressing several objectives are needed (Swaid, et al., 2016). The optimization process is essentially seen as system improvement in order to identify, arrange the effective variables and facilitates success in achieving objectives while satisfying constraints. Problems related to one or more than one objective, originate in several disciplines; their solution has been a challenge for a long time (EnginSoft, 2015). The significant shift on Evolutionary EMO articulates from changing the notion of “Optimum” as the aim to find good compromises rather than a single solution. For addressing several objectives, the research has further investigated this problem using the algorithm of Hypervolume Estimation (HypE), which simply measures the volume of the space that is dominated by a solution set and bounded by a so-called reference point (Anon., 2016). Also, HypE enables the design of efficient search algorithms and, at the same time, opens up opportunities to express user preferences in the search by means of weight functions (Brockhoff, et al., 2013). The research adopted a quality indicator called Hypervolume indicator, in order to define the optimization goal for the multi-objective problem. This indicator assigns each Pareto set approximation a real value reflecting its quality and therefore can be used as objective function for the underlying set problem (Brockhoff, et al., 2013). The optimization algorithm was generated by Octopus (is a plug-in for grasshopper, which implements two multiobjective evolutionary algorithms: SPEA-2 in its original form and HypE from ETH Zürich (Vierlinger, 2013), combined with visual programming of grasshopper, and is responsible for applying evolutionary principles to parametric design and problem solving. Due to the octopus’s capacity to benefit from multiple CPUs running the study, therefore the study executed in an acceptable amount of time. Octopus introduces multiple fitness values to the optimization (In total 8 genes or design variables were manipulated by maximizing generated form’s LCFD value and minimizing both the SLAC value; and neighborhood and building radiation values during the cooling period from June till September, where the output is the total amount of radiation for each option, and a colored mesh of the result is produced so that the result can be referenced), see figure 6. The best trade-offs between those objectives are searched, producing a set of possible optimum solutions that ideally reach from one extreme trade-off to the other (vierlinger, 2016). The research has chosen the strategy of HypE reduction’ of how a Pareto non-dominated front should be truncated to fit the archive size when it is too big, also choose HypE mutation strategy. Table 1, showing the settings are used during the optimization for weighted fitness process. Population size: 50 Generations: 6 Maximum calculation time: 1s Elitism: 0.5 Mutation probability: 0.75 Crossover rate: 0.8 Mutation rate: 0.5 Table 1: Main setting for optimization process Figure 6. Weighted fitness function algorithm and octopus solver RESULTS The task was to optimize the morphological composition (represented by genes of local connected fractal dimension, lacunarity dimensions) and environmental analyses (represented by genes of neighborhood and building radiation analyses, which allow to study the relationship between the orientation of the building and the amount of incident solar radiation or sunlight hours) by HypE for the evolved geometries, through manipulating the genetic code (where the parameterization comprises the spatial location of the attractors; building orientation; massing; courtyard ratio and direction). The research has applied weighted fitness function model to optimize the evolved geometries that only transcend 1.5 as the building complexity and urban connectivity thresholds, which has been assigned for Aleppo case from previous study (Swaid, et al., 2015), see Figure 7, (left side shows the geometries after the weighted fitness function algorithm and right side shows the evolved geometries after genetic algorithms optimization reduced by HypE). The generalization of the Nonlinear Multifractal architecture problem to four objective dimensions requires a visualization of the solution space to be abstracted. Octopus facilitates visualization of the solution space by introducing a color-opacity from red to pink for the third dimension. Dominating solutions are shown semi-transparent, Non-dominated solutions are shown opaque (Vierlinger, 2013), as shown in figure 8.

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Figure 7. Natural selection (by calculation) of the six Pareto non-dominated front, based on optimization process, urban radiation analysis shows buildings with red colour for mixed use, and blue colour for residential use. DISCUSSIONS The presented tests show how the evolutionary solvers in Grasshopper perform in various optimization problems with the default set of settings. This section investigates the outcome of optimizing Multifractal architecture patterns. The figure 7 shows that different conclusions can be made for the same design from the six Pareto nondominated front; many of Pareto non-dominated front that receive equal direct sunlight between June and September are disparate in terms of radiation and daylight exposure. In other words morphological composition (which govern by LCFD and SLAC values) controls the urban and buildings radiation values, despite the omission the influences of integrating passive house technologies in this study. But it is still worth to emphasize on the crucial role of the courtyard elements in alleviating building radiation value over the course of year. 577

Figure 8, shows the convergence of the process with a screen capture of Octopus’ solution space after the first, the 2th, 3th, 4th, 5th and the 6th generation, with the screen captures taken after the process already reached generation 6 by moving the history slider beneath the viewport. It can be seen that first only a small set of solutions are found near the real Pareto front, with numeric ranges of the objective dimension from around 2 to 50. The algorithm then slowly converges towards a good approximation.

Figure 8. The solution space of the 4-dim. Multifractal architecture problem after 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 generations From the statistic data of weighted fitness function optimization, it can be seen that after six generations the final population of 50 individuals contains 44 dominated individuals and 6 non-dominated individuals. This, while having an archive size of 20, is one basic indicator of convergent behavior tendencies. CONCLUSIONS The paper describes a methodology for integrating neighborhood energy design and sustainable building design with morphological modelling for macro scale design project. This research show the efficiency of Evolutionary Multi-criteria optimization in engineering design, which opens the door toward achieving a holistic and integrative design approach by incorporating more objectives (functional, environmental, material behaviour and biological design). This is due to the advanced Multi-objective optimization capacity to facilitate generation of complex system. Which does not preclude that final decision can address non-quantifiable measures such as aesthetics, which is left to the designer. Whilst John Frazer considered that architecture is as a form of artificial life, subject, like the natural world, to principles of morphogenesis, genetic coding, replication and selection (Frazer, et al., 2002), Theodore Spyropoulos considered that: “ Architecture today can serve as an emergent framework that displays a new nature, combining the biological, social and computational in an adaptive and evolving organism” (Spyropoulos, 2013), reasserting Karl Friedrich Schinkel’s belief that architecture is the continuation of nature in her constructive activity. A case project Bab Al Faraj, is selected to prove the robustness of the proposed method. The result of the study shows that applying the proposed method increases the simulation efficiency for Multifractal architecture evolution from about 1.5 (current local connected fractal dimension threshold) to more than 2.2. In addition to the significant improvement in time and automation of the weighted fitness function design provides more timely feedback to the design team than when utilizing a conventional fitness function design approach. Finally, the research proved how self-organizing change forms a fundamental character of new language of form based on Multifractal design, chaos theory, nonlinear dynamics and complexity theory itself, and allows permeating and adapting with the phenotype and genotype successive mutations. Also proved how investing the powerful advantages of computational process arising from the convergence between scientific complexity approach and artificial intelligence on one hand, with complexity approach of architecture and urban morphology on the other hand, provides the capacity to emerge intricate outputs (emulate and adapt with the

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current complex structure) relied on simple rules, and forms a tipping point as a base toward create a bottomup integrative architecture and urban design process. REFERENCES ALEXANDER, C., 2015. Harmony-Seeking Computations: a Science of Non-Classical Dynamics based on the Progressive Evolution of the Larger Whole. [Online] Available at: http://www.livingneighborhoods.org/library/harmony-seeking-computations-v29.pdf Amorim, L., Filho, M. N. B. & Cruz, D., 2009. Urban Texture and Space Configuration Analysing Recife's Urban Fragments. Stockholm, s.n. Anon., 2016. W-HypE - A Weighted Hypervolume Indicator Based Algorithm for Directed Multiobjective Optimization. [Online] Available at: http://hypervolume.gforge.inria.fr/ Brockhoff, D., Bader, J., Thiele, L. & Zitzler, E., 2013. Directed Multiobjective Optimization Based on the Weighted Hypervolume Indicator. Journal of Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis 20(5-6), pp. 291-317. Courtat, T., Gloaguen, C. & Douady, S., 2011. Mathematics and Morphogenesis of the City, A Geometrical approach. PHYSICAL REVIEW E, pp. 75-89. EnginSoft, 2015. Multi-objective optimization and decision making process in engineering design. [Online] Available at: http://www.enginsoft.com/assets/img/tecnology/pido/MULTIOBJECTIVE_newsletter08-eng.pdf Frazer, J. et al., 2002. Generative and Evolutionary Techniques for Building Envelope Design. Generative Art , pp. 301-316. Hernandez, G. et al., 2002. A Method for Interactive Decision-Making in Collaborative, Distributed Engineering Design. International Journal of Agile Manufacturing Systems, pp. 47-65. McAdams, M. A., 2009. The application of fractal analysis and spatial technologies for urban analysis. JOURNAL OF APPLIED FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS, pp. VOL.4,NO.4,569-579. Sadeghipour Roudsari, M., Pak, M., Smith, A. & Gill, G., 2013. LADYBUG: A PARAMETRIC ENVIRONMENTAL PLUGIN FOR GRASSHOPPER TO HELP DESIGNERS CREATE AN ENVIRONMENTALLY-CONSCIOUS DESIGN. Chambèry, France, Proceedings of BS2013: 13th Conference of IPBSA. Salingaros, N., 2004. Connecting the Fractal City. PLANUM The European Journal of Planning, pp. 1-27. Salingaros, N., 2005. Principles of Urban Structure (Design/Science/Planning). Amsterdam: Tecne Press. Salkini, H., Swaid, B., Greco, L. & Lucente, R., 2016. Developing a Multi-scale Approach for Rehabilitating the Traditional Residential Buildings within the Old City of Aleppo (Syria). Naples, s.n. Singh, P., Devadutt, S. & Mantha, P., 2015. EARLY STAGE BUILDING ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS CASE STUDY OF A LARGE RESIDENTIAL COMMUNITY IN INDIA. Hyderabad, India, Proceedings of BS2015. Spyropoulos, T., 2013. Constructing Adaptive Ecologies: Towards a Behavioural Model in Architecture. SAJ (Serbian Architecture Journal) Volume 5, No. 2, pp. 160-169. Swaid, B., Bilotta, E., Pantano, P. & Lucente, R., 2015. Thresholding Urban Connectivity by Local Connected Fractal Dimensions and Lacunarity Analyses. York, England, s.n., pp. 15-16. Swaid, B., Lucente, R., Bilotta, E. & Pantano, P., 2015. Multifractal Geometry Role’s in Historic Urban Morphogenesis. Venice, Domus Argenia Publisher, ISBN 978-88-96610-31-2, pp. 135-147. Swaid, B., Lucente, R. & Gangler, A., 2016. Decision making processes and its role in filling built heritage gaps after conflict. In: Rebuilding Heritage: Aleppo old City Post-conflict, Challenges and Opportunities of reconstruction. Raleigh, USA: Lulu Press, ISBN: 978-1-326-53611-4. Vierlinger, R., 2013. Multi Objective Design Interface. Master Thesis, Vienna: University of Applied Arts Vienna. vierlinger, r., 2016. Food4Rhino. [Online] Available at: http://www.food4rhino.com/project/octopus?etx

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EFFECT OF SOCIAL NETWORKS ON SPACES GAMZE DEMİRCİ, BURCU KOSE KHIDIROV Mimar Sinan Fine Arts University, Faculty of Architecture Department of Interıor Architecture [email protected] [email protected]

ABSTRACT We could estimate the periodical variations of a concept by analysing the questions of research topics that were created and change of its answers. This variation creates a perception and reconstruction with varying new meanings. In variable concepts new trends, approaches and point of views in cultural axis and 1990’s emerging new questions and these question’s insistences are influenced. 90’s and after 90’s are periods of globalization through spreading use of many technologies, computer technology affects all branches of business, social life and private lives and which many concepts called as “impossible” became possible and came into our lives easily. These Technologies which developed dramatically rapidly and changes from 2000’s until today by becoming faster and faster. Factors such as easy information flow and communication, social media’s continuous change and development, and communication’s changing its level undoubtfully have affected people’s existence in public and also their private lives, and their use and consumption of things. Perspectives have been changed “space” concept has been influenced by both in today's new perspective and scenarios envisaged for the future. “Space” which is one of the changing concepts through globalization, has been gained new meanings and symbols. Various Dynamics of geographical units evolved with understanding questions and getting answers from social reality that we have been living in. This evolution directly affected the perception and organization forms from spatial field of action. It is a fact that interactive tools called social media supported a structural role which is also found in the “space” that a lot of concepts of internet serving globalization. Places divide people from geographical region which s/he lives in and provides them an area for their actions are affected deeply by social media. Its re--examination and reconstruction is inevitable. During last ten years there have been a dramatical rise in the number of social media users. According to an article published in Business Wire, in 2007, number of social media users were 373 million people and it has rised up to 600 million in 2009. In 2015 the number is estimated to reach 3 billion users due to Global Web Index. By Kalafatoğlu social media is described as an improvable and interactive thing through an aimed group of people’s contribution and online communication channels that ties different communities to each other. Social media is a virtual environment which consist of; Social Network Websites (Myspace, Facebook, Faceparty), Video, Music, and Picture Sharing Websites (Yputube, Flickr,Jamendo) Content Sharing Websites (Piczo), User and Company Sponsored Websites (The Unofficial Apple Weblog, Apple.com) , Business Network Websites (Linkedin) , Cooperation Websites (Vikipedia) , Virtual Worlds (Second Life), Commercial Communities (Ebay, Amazon, Istockphoto, Threadless.com) , Open Source Software Communities (Mozilla’s speradfirefox.com, Linux.org), etc. In this study new perspectives and necessities which have originated from the fact of re-questioning the space in the scope of social media and in the light of these, the changing understanding is examined through sample situations. Physical and virtual existence of space is analysed in terms of social media concept. Key Words: Social Media, Space, Perception, Relationship, Concept, Technology, Internet

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THE DESIGN FROM NATURE: TOWARDS THE ORDER OF THE POWER OF GLOBAL SERDAR ERİŞEN The Design From Nature: Towards The Order Of The Power Of Global, Middle East Technical University,

ABSTRACT The contemporary condition of architecture with its produced knowledge, besides the innovative tools and means of design as the part of the development of high-technology are depended on the actual social, economic and political domains of decision making processes. The signified procedures in architectural design, in that respect, show itself in the production relations with their reflection in the everyday life practices. The desire and demand of users are formed with the impulse focusing on the utility factor of design solutions under the effect of mass consumption. The contemporary condition of architecture, its knowledge and means, in that sense, are about to evoke us to question the legitimacy of the idea of the global in the emergence of certain methods of design and especially its means and tools. It is to get the picture of the global effect on the production of the discourse of contemporary architecture, blurring the boundaries between the investigation of objectivities and particular formal expressions. The term global provides us the exact process of restructuring of design relations with their means and especially the tools used in design processes, which have the only global sharing capacity in market relations reflecting the power of the global, influential in design procedures. It means that the emergence of the disciplined relations of consumption and production are based on the specialized tools of design under the control of the certain networked investment relations, and depended on the possible advancements and innovations of technology without concerning whether the formal expressions and utility factors are differed or not. The critical gaze towards the structural relations created by the reasons for utility and practical demand in design processes under the dominance of networked investors shows the emergence of the idea of the global, especially in marketing terms as the only unified concept to get the disciplined knowledge of architecture in the actual condition. The changing property relations, investigation on natural materials and formal expressions, influenced in the contemporary condition, are about to take the place of those of the modernist approach in architecture influenced by the secular investigations on nature, when it is questioned in depth. This compels us to compare the value of nature and the concept of the global as the two distinguished unified domains in the discourse of architectural design as the successor and predecessor. The subject itself, in that case, as the agent of the ultimate decision-maker also becomes significant to separate the value and meanings produced in the contemporary condition from those produced with regard to objective norms of nature. Looking towards nature in the dialectical way of existence of subject within and without gives us the clear distinction between the critical terms of the first and second nature. This led us to observe objectsubject relationship in the world of objects in two distinguished ways: one is understanding nature with deep meanings for subjectivity throughout human emancipation and self-realization; and the other is the practical and rational instrumentalisation of the idea throughout the implementation of modernist approach. In that sense, the production of space itself under the relations of order and power discussed as such led to criticize the dialectical conflict of nature and its knowledge in itself under the term, duration, to emphasize the spatiotemporal action of subject within and without. To grasp the distinguished production of ideas, the concept of spaces of duration establishes the ground to get the difference. With the subject, it is for the emancipation of senses with aesthetics; and without the subject, it proceeds by the rational science of nature and its instrumental means throughout common properties of nature but nevertheless with different interpretations of subjective reasoning and machined logic of time. The distinguished and dialectical relation between the focus on deep meanings on valuing nature; and the instrumental implementations of the idea throughout the formal approaches are two distinguished ways to be submitted as a critical approach on the domination of nature over humanity. These two distinguished interpretations of nature under the concept of duration and its experiential space help us to analyze the implemented creative destruction by the instrumentalisation and formalism of the modern discourse. Thus, the critical analysis towards rational approach in design inspired by natural explorations ranges from the way that the cities built to the design culture with disciplined methodologies. On the other side of the discussion it is to re-understand the constructed knowledge of subjectivity grounded on the condition of substances in the world of objects throughout the structural organization of bodies. Intention to understand the 581

deep meaning of nature by the spaces of duration refers to comprehend the struggle between culture and nature with concepts of domination and freedom. The shift is emphasized from the primary relation of the subject with nature, as the first nature; to the culture of design concerning built environment, with modernist methodologies signifying the second nature. This realizes the origins of the meaning and values of architectural design with its own dialectical interpretations which is significant to understand the shift towards the domination of the power of the global dynamics creating its paradoxical paradigms. In that sense, the spaces of duration are integrated not only with the constructed symbolic and imaginary meanings and values, but also shows the paradox of the spatial practices of networked financial markets and their shares on the global scale dominated by the technology companies, in depth analysis. The financial organization is reinforced with the rise of consumption and desire on the particularized preferences in design which becomes the structural kernel of the global discourse in the contemporary condition of architecture. In short, the essay proposes to study the influence of the global dynamics in architecture especially by the technological means. It is to testify the idea of the power of global as the successor of the rational thought which have been raised by the scientific natural explorations and identifications. In that sense, it is first to describe and enumerate the common methodologies and technological conventions in the modern condition of architectural design to check the rational dominance of global means on the processes and ends of design. To show the shift from the mainstream of formal, functional preferences and the way of ownership to the new structural conditions by disciplining the networked relations of different domains for architecture, the meaning of global is to be compared with the values produced in the discourse of rationality based on the investigation of pure nature. In the proceeding part hence the study proposes to analyze the possible alternative means of technology for design and experimentation for the emancipation of senses. Focusing on representational, symbolic, imaginary, practical and networked relations again especially in the spatial practices and in production relations, it is to develop the idea around the dialectical global. The idea enables us to check the alternative forms of global power for the possible revolutionary means. It lies in the search for the variations of formal and technological approaches in the contemporary condition to quest the equivalent values and meanings attributed by humanity on nature. The exploration of immediate spatial actions and possible experiences in these alternative means is to cover the power of global in the spatial productions. It produces the knowledge based on the discourse generating values from themselves rather than creating the domains of values outside of the spatial experiences. Spatial reflections of the generated knowledge are to be understood again in the spaces of duration, in that sense, identifying and defining the identity of the subject with its object-based actions. INTRODUCTION ‘The digital architecture’ in its own term compromises and ranges over quite significant studies in the new age by the rise of technological means throughout the global scale. Thus, in the usage of means, the technology, its initial pragmatic opportunities and goals are almost similar not only in the idea of progress of formal practices but also in the efficiency of the praxis of thought as in the condition of rise of modernity. Reading of the global power of the technological advance with its operability, in the advancement of manufacturing, material analysis and construction technologies, on the one hand, communicates with its past. On the other hand, the subjective will and desires of usage, functional needs, and beyond that, the question of compatible projections between practice and the thought maintains the consistent question on the matter of mind in itself as a part of theoretical discussion of duration (Bergson, 2002). Therefore, to question the emergent conditions and possible bets for creating paradigms of new age are important and necessary to get the experience of passing present, although not enough to reserve our ideas for the present condition of our architecture and its future projections. As said, however, to come up with locating the inputs of knowledge for architecture correctly, it is also to find out the acceptable criteria for the judgment of the present. Thus, it is not to write about or compile the theoretical and practical applications in the recent years by means of digital tools in architecture, but to find out the difference between the intention and its action-based distinctions to capture, identify and differentiate the immediate future of architecture with its own past and to guess the possible experiential contemplative planes and interfaces. The Power of Designing: Aureli’s ‘Project’ The idea of project itself, commonly used word in Aureli’s recent book (2013), beyond the end product of architectural practice not only carries possible escapes from the dominant procedures of making, but also cognitive and imaginary way of organizing, creating and ordering the things belong to the material world beforehand. In design culture, which ranges from building to the city, ‘project’ enables to imagine, draw, to give form and reproduce the shared collective knowledge before the realized state of practices on the world of objects. It 582

requires us to understand the progress of that power in the design culture from practice to knowledge and back again creating the idea of the project as a strategy to go beyond as a process of development from building to the city. Disciplined knowledge of architecture and its ordered project, as in the case of Vitruvius’s treatises called as Ten Books on Architecture, has differentiated it from being a mere practice, as a project. Thus, the project is not only the part of giving order to unconditioned material existences but also carries the subordination to the embodiment of power on architecture, as a discipline, and shows the order of authority on the organized bodies unifying necessary conditions of practical and intellectual production. Haussmann’s Paris as a Project The dialectical projects of modernity can be seen in Haussmann’s city project on Paris. It was developed around the market-driven urban development proposal at national scale with only practical tactics in spatial practices such as height of each floor, the section of the street and materials for façade although the idea of police as a project for public utility and safety for city was considered to reinforce the market-driven development (Aureli, 2013; Harvey, 1989). Public works such as parks, boulevards and other amenities become the means for rentable private development around. So, the grassroots of the city of Paris, as part of the modernity project of Haussmann provides us one of the most concretized conditions to understand the spaces of duration. Integrated with our discussion of architecture with projects of discipline and contradiction, the city of Paris itself can be regarded as the space for contemplation of projects belong to different periods with different ideological intentions and attitudes. Mentioning about the idea of ‘curve skeleton’ to emphasize the paradigmatic shifts from the modernized understanding of city space in the urban scale as a project after the Haussmann’s ruling period Shelden &Witt says: “The urban form of Paris is an example of the surprising uses of the curve skeleton. In post-Haussmann Paris, designers pack regularly shaped apartments into regularly shaped city blocks. This quasi-uniform packing – not unlike the packing of stones in a Gothic vault – must be reconciled with the irregular block shapes of the global urban plan. The solution is remarkable: the curve skeleton, this essential diagram of shape, appears not as a planned structure but as an emergent trace, an inevitable consequence of uniform packing within a non-uniform boundary (Shelden &Witt, 2011).” The idea of curve skeleton for the irregular urban block pattern hence can be read as a counter-resistant positioning of spatial practices against the emergent disciplined order of authority. The city space of Paris, in that sense, becomes a part of present action to be experienced within the distinguished intentions of formal approaches to the city space. It also enables us to understand the identity of the space between the produced environment of the past and the present, as an example to the spaces of duration. “Image-space” and The Spaces of Duration Speaking of the spaces of duration, it may make us to understand the relation between the term, ‘project’, and the knowledge that produced throughout the spaces of action. Essential in the creation of self-conscious design decision mechanisms, this is the key for understanding the idea of duration in spatial practices and its significance in the nature of design. It is activated as a project throughout the ‘image-space’ of Walter Benjamin (Spiteri, 2015), or saying it differently, the visual representation of elements/objects, depended on certain light source in space, reflected as certain durations perceived in mind (Shanken, 2012) within the imaginary procedures of design thinking as ‘project’. The spaces of duration not only contain the initial (lower-rank) cognitive processes but also grounds for the perception of successive experiences of these durations in the spaces of motion. It activates and also is activated by certain duration of elements and objects; for their judgment from present to the past with respect to certain characters and properties of them. Thus, the discursive production of knowledge, based on the analysis of projects of design thinking and procedures, also relies on the spaces of duration and their representational, symbolic and material characteristics between past and present for future. Having the idea of self-conscious discursive analysis in itself, then the essay can also be evaluated as part of the project based on the spaces of duration, in that regard. The evaluation of design process from the earlier period of modernity to the present condition of globalizing order defines, in that sense, a certain duration on the projects of architecture. Docile Bodies of Modern Architecture: Dom-ino House The modular formal aspect of modernity to create multiple and larger environments for living can be identified as a ‘project’ covering the field of larger scale effects. The most significant example regarding the relation between building and the city throughout the project of architecture is Le Corbusier’s Maison Dom-ino (1914). Thus, the simple housing model as a project shows the intention of Le Corbusier to develop projects for a city

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from the scale of domestic living unit (Aureli, 2013). It becomes a part of the spatial restructuring process of Europe after the World War I. The disciplined body of Domino House hence shows us the desire for the creation of machine for living throughout the simple structural skeleton having flexible reservations for functional needs, inspired from the open-plan logic of early factories. Thus, the house can be interpreted as a project with conflicts. It is the example of industrial architecture in domestic space showing the emancipation of architecture from traditional restrictions throughout the extension of technology into the domain of self-help construction. It can be evaluated, nevertheless, also as the theoretical and technical legitimization of authoritarian order and the dominance over spatial practices throughout the mass-production. In ‘Docile Bodies’, in the book Discipline and Punish, Foucault points out the related discussion as: “In organizing ‘cells’, ‘places’ and ‘ranks’, the disciplines create complex spaces that are at once architectural, functional and hierarchical. It is spaces that provide fixed positions and permit circulation; they carve out individual segments and establish operational links; they mark places and indicate values; they guarantee the obedience of individuals, but also a better economy of time and gesture (Foucault, 1977, p.148).” The built environment of architecture as the bodies of disciplined order shows the desire for the distribution of bodies into space, control of activities, fixed individuals in time and space and the composition of forces into a massive functional body without even continuous existence of the authority, as in the idea of ‘project’. Production of knowledge based on the regular and repetitive training of the body is regulated by the social body that composed throughout the process of strategy, the ultimate technique of the combination of the order of abstract thinking of the dominant, by tables, distribution of movements, exercises, and tactics, creating the methods of the project (Foucault, 1977). Mass-production in the spatial practices is also directly engaged with the creation of order of labor and workforce as a united docile body. Taking the bourgeoisie capitalism as a case, it produces the individual workforce by dividing them into ordered, partitioned cellular spaces with utility worries of the capital holders but at the same time a larger organized body of labor structure composed of individuals. Theoretically, it refers to description of Hegelian machine by the division of labor and regulated norms of nature by the rationalization reflected into units. The genealogy of the ideology of the bourgeoisie can be read with the emergence and the advance of that rational thought. The necessary production of that disciplined knowledge again requires the trained bodies of discipline, exposed to the symbolic and representative meanings to legitimize the symptomatic ideology of the dominant. That turns the labor into the object of mechanization of functional desires. The condition describes the excluded manifold of nature belong to the self-properties of labor. Thus, the particular labor becomes alien to itself, which can only be overcame again by another symptomatic operations of training, exercise, tactics, and schematic abstract thoughts external to its own nature of the individual labor under the spatial practices of the dominant. Domino House, hence, reveals the intentions to create order of standardized spatial production behind the practical procedures. Dialectical Projects of Le Corbusier Focusing on the transformed everyday life of the urban inhabitants of the modern age, Le Corbusier sees the Industrial revolution with its four aspects of industry, enterprise, construction and architecture with their changed ways (Le Corbusier, 2007). The changed aspects have brought new property and production relations, new roles and agents in the social life. As a part of the documentation of past, then, the passing present of modern age during the period of writing process of Le Corbusier’s book, has also already clarifies the observations of the author’s self-criticism and judgments based on his memory about impressions of emerged modern daily life. Writing on architecture as a project, as in the case of Le Corbusier’s “Towards a New Architecture”, not only gives us the impressions of the spirit of the age but also the intentions of the architect inevitably as localized, focused, concentrated at certain points by dealing with the architecture as discipline with its ‘internal’ dynamics and inescapable ‘external’ forces. The person is Le Corbusier himself, who already were being subjected to make his own choice about the uncanny relationship between the architecture and revolution, since he sees them externally forced to the attributions of architectural values. Observed in Le Corbusier’s discourse, architecture inevitably is a part of certain functional demands; and speculative regulations of production and consumption relations in society as a whole. Hence he projects his ideas towards the modular, practical solutions to overcome and to see futuristic applications standardized and eased for the discipline itself on the behalf of the user. Modernity with its material advancements and technological innovations has proved us the power and potential of the enunciation of rational thought in the sense of practical applications creating its consistent solutions. Le Corbusier, seeing the world of objects conditioned under the principles of the order of rationality, develops certain methods as a project for modernity, in built environment. But this can be seen as the demarcation point in the creation of epistemological relations of modernity under the concepts of architecture; which is Le 584

Corbusier’s own error to find out the process of present for future in the past, in the project of regulating lines over the orders of Ancient Greece, as a dreamer, by completely dissolving the affect for the emancipation of senses focused on the planes of consistencies. Hence the writings on architecture, which always requires ordered memories of past, mostly consume present for the anecdotes and knowledge for past, although it has the potentials to construct the immediate future ‘intellectually’. Can the revolution be a thing to be avoided? Le Corbusier, as a dreamer, fails to understand architecture as a revolution mostly turning to the past or submitting architecture to the order of present while he finds the exact connections between the politics, economics, society and space under the order called as architecture. In that sense, Le Corbusier’s findings on revolution cannot be assumed as further than that of the discourse on industrial revolutions and its forthcoming changes in everyday life throughout the reflections of rational division of labor in the advancement of technologies, managements, and services. Thus, it is the error of Le Corbusier’s conflicting choice with his words depicting the drifting false consciousness of the discipline of architecture and for its symptomatic labor, ‘architect’, as a defined class label for him/her: “Society has a passionate desire for something that it will obtain or that it will not obtain. Everything is there; everything will depend on the effort made and on the attention paid to these alarming symptoms. Architecture or revolution. Revolution can be avoided (Le Corbusier, 2007)” The similar conflict can be observed in one of the most contemporary examples of writing on architecture as a treatise, in Patrik Schumacher’s The Autopoiesis of Architecture (2012). He is already aware of the depended relations, obstacles or not, for the progress of architecture, and proposes the power of architecture in his theoretically developed practical projections on architecture as discipline. We are talking about ‘parametricism’, as alien to nature itself, and its error to structuring the means-based enunciation on the process of thought in design as a discursive product, which in short remind the transformation and structuration of means to an end (Horkheimer, 1947). The symptomatic relation hence not lies in the advancement of technology and use of it, but lies in the self-conscious judgments based on the experienced externalities written as theoretical background in the books/treatises of architecture, and projects of practical applications beyond the ‘internal derivations’ from the subject. With the domains defined outside of it, architectural paradigm has become depended to the rules of heuristics. In that sense, Schumacher also falls into the style dispute, like Le Corbusier, in his end of the book, not due to his lack of intellectual capacity to propose new theoretical endeavor but his practical reservations on market-driven depended relations. In this case, it is not to propose something as alien to usage itself but to criticize the step backs and setbacks as limits of architecture after the powerful and audacious paces. Depended to the power of external totality, Patrik Schumacher has blocked the further investigation on critical approaches opposing especially to the cost, economic and political symptoms although he criticizes the relation of architecture with politics as ‘oxymoron’ (Schumacher, 2012, v.2). Dialectical modernity; Dialectical projects: Towards the order of the power of the global As most of architects do, Le Corbusier was also aware of the concern of cost, practicality, easier construction techniques to develop the material-based practice while creating the gap between the intellectual purity that we already discussed. Contour as a project, for Le Corbusier, for example, is an axis for organization, to find out the proportional relations and the predicate modulation of creation of pure mind in his own words. But one of the obsessive insistences of Le Corbusier is the dominance of axis as a fixed part of the organization. In that sense, it cannot be interpreted beyond the strict order of a military rule, or the order of body, as architecture disciplined under dis-versatile principles. What makes Le Corbusier a dreamer is his ideas lying in the association of creation of pure mind with the ancient/past order of Greece and Rome, while the intention of the writing process was ‘towards a new architecture’, which may not contribute new perceptual and cognitive values in that sense. Thus, how can we derive the creative ideas with or without action and/or production with the intentions of cost and workforce savings/surpluses, practical applications – is the essential question that must be asked. The axis in the order of linear geometries can be found but it may not applicable to all range of conditions especially the organic and irrational existences. Thus, some tactical studies can be found in itself purely in the rational formalization of thought, but the whole unity may not be easily handled out without a collective manifold of territorial contingencies, and without the rise of the increase in the number and emancipation of sensorial experiences and action. Le Corbusier puts the idea of art which can be discussed in the idea of the emancipation of senses, as a pure creation of mind and finds out the ultimate difference between architecture as utility. Can the difference of utility 585

between art and architecture, however, is enough to accept all stasis as such, or the design as an action can also make the difference. Considering Frank Gehry’s unique project of Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao, in its design process throughout the action of Gehry’s folding papers in the creation of facades of the building with an innovative skeleton, sets a precedent for an object of design not evaluated in the diachronic relations of its historicity but for art itself besides its functional supplies. At the turn of the new paradigm, “digital materiality”, the power of global can be seen as fallen into the equivalent discussion of the emergence of modernity with its proceeding formal attempts. Oxman defines it as the advancement of fabrication and robotics technologies is producing a new logic of material tectonics in design (Oxman & Oxman 2014). Informed tectonics is proposed as a term that describes the informed linkage between form, structure and material within the design production logic of fabrication technologies. The advancement in material usage and the production, in other words, the aspects of ease with manufacturing grounds for the contemporary discourse on the changes in the final outcome of architectural products shifted from the standardized forms and details. Thus, one aspect of the design focusing on the mode of production is always evolved in pace with the technological advancements, which further lead us to discuss the possible integrity of designed form, structure and material with the fabrication logic of the product (Oxman & Oxman, 2014). Therefore, the time gap, duration, between the process of design thinking and the production of objects seems to be lessened. In the creation of paradigms of architecture, however, the further interested arguments are also based on the relation between theoretical elaborations for continuum of design thinking and making. For example, Oxman concisely mentions about the recent ideas developed on morphogenesis as the ‘body of knowledge’ related to evolution of structure of an organism (Oxman & Oxman, 2014); or folding (Carpo, 2004) beyond the material existence, giving geometrically unique mode of beings in space. But, referring to the “mass-customization” with the counter-argument of digital chain for non-standardized production, the re-submission of mode of production and its identity of design again to the practical way of production and process is the threat to the new paradigm behind the door. Some other discourses trying to structure the gap between the creative design action and its imaginary processes with the other domains of logical production by digital tools, such as ‘parametricism’ (Schumacher, 2012, v.2; 2009) explains the symptomatic findings of the digital logic for the organic world of objects. It strives for poetical formal relations almost as a regress to back by dreaming for the analysis of already set disciplinary order of architecture. The simple heuristic rules and becoming conventional drafting tools, almost more reducing the idea to formal approaches only approximates the discussion to the desired consumption activity throughout architectural products and design. Thus, it reveals itself as a new way of restructuring architecture disciplined under the domination of order and logic masked by paternal form and discourse on the quasi-autonomy of architecture. Rather than trying to save architecture completely from its old roots as a back-propagation for the legitimacy of its own practice; writing on architecture in treatises format as repeated in Schumacher’s book (2012, v.1; v.2), having the same logic with its predecessors of Vitrivius’s, Alberti’s. Almost all of the discussions initially depends architecture with the inevitable demands of users accompanied by social and economic relations. Then, trying to find a way for quasiautonomy of it to maintain the false consciousness of the architect in a discipline with divided form of processes and production, it is to find an order or a discourse for the emphasis of its own autonomous culture of design which does not save it from its present condition but also strengthens the dependency of its own culture, to its past with the discussion of style and order. Although it can be expected to have an avant-garde goal to find out the missing relations in between the immediate action of architecture with design culture, the treatises of architecture symbolically shows the status of the author himself and legitimizes himself having the discourse of evolutionary mode of architectural knowledge or the ordered discipline in that definitions. It also hides in itself the ways to find out more simple, economic and standardized form of architecture having become ordered for the dominant externalities. The troubleshooting of architecture, in that sense, may be found rather in its responsive character or in the further explorations on the pure nature from itself such as biomimetic morphogenesis. Nevertheless, since the designer is already depended in his/her sensation to the nature itself and turns the sensed into perceived in the aspects of representation, it becomes be turned into rather complicated analysis of the constructed knowledge of object-subject relation. This shows us that even in the rise of the power of globalized means of design it is not easy to find out the directly related forms of production instead of detecting equivalent symptomatic domains outside themselves in design procedures. To repeat the significance of responsive or rather the interactive character of architecture, as a new paradigm under the development of technology assists architecture for progress. To find out the relation between materialistic responses and practices to the will of human, as a challenge, closes the gap between the perceived and the imagined, the present and the past. It signifies a proactive design procedure, and product; not only 586

responding to the movements of the user but also interacts with the identified wish of the user to find out a new condition from itself, by changing constantly. To propose/discuss interactive architecture, one of the inspiring examples can be identified in the ideas of ‘Digital Muscle’ of ONL architects (Oosterhuis, 2011) to be evaluated in its emergence process. Although there can be found any explicit information about the details of its operative principles to establish the two active parties interacting, the inspiring ground may be founded on detecting and mathematically codifying the set of information as the principles for interaction throughout the motor reactions of human and its muscle activities. Thus, the idea of interactive architecture opens new gates to the experiential expansion of architectural spaces in the memories of our design culture. But as already said, even the action-based design proposals are not new and discussing them as a final outcome as our ultimate goal may only make us to depend on our static past memories. Additionally, the increase in the digital infrastructure controllable environments provides the possible opportunities to the interested capital holders to maximize their profit by minimizing the specialized actions for production is today a possibility that dangerous than ever for the idea of freedom. To expand the discussion a little bit, the ordered muscles and its designed controlled and codified nature cannot be counted as different from the desire of docile bodies, on the other hand. The threat at the back of the door hence can possibly be the militarized form of digital architecture not only interacting but also dictating the desired activities and possible/ almost simulated experiences to its user. Thus, the discussion must warn us against the desire of power and control for the domination of space as ever appeared in almost every condition after the architectural advancements accompanied with technological innovations. To be used for maximizing profits by starting to sacrifice the progressive research and operation processes on respectively high-cost studies, the idea of standardizing the methods, even the digital tools focused in certain number are themselves as static means are in fact signifies the inevitable submission to the standardized methods, and manufacturing processes, or at least trying to lessen the complexity in each case, which is the highest harm to architecture as a pioneering revolution. Thus, the idea of inevitable submission of architectural ends to its means must confine us to rethink about the identity of the technological means and the user-designer relationships themselves under the set of interacting and dynamic relations. It is to revise the idea of humanized technologies (Fromm, 1968) in the age of global power, with its apparatuses, to find out time-independent identified actions and attitudes not directly certain/static but as set of operating relations under certain modalities, not only varying and permutable but also with discrete and combined relations. Before to draw conclusions, to concretize our judgment about the present situation of emergent paradigm and novelties under the idea of digital architecture, the idea of connecting practical aspects and will-defined ideas and processes of design can be relevant to analyze the earlier architectural movements also to understand the difference between the similar conditions in modernity itself; and similar driving forces of technology and innovation between the emergence of modernity and the present condition. It is not accidental hence that emphasizing the idea of movement in the evolutionary character for architecture, since the movements are suggested as a driving force to emancipate from the existing economic, social and political status quo with the creation of collective power of groups of people gathering around certain goals as a revolutionary force (Fromm, 1968). The idea of movement for the evolutionary process of design thinking and extraordinary practices mostly was embodied as avant-garde aesthetic movements as in the case of Russian Constructivism. Thus, analyzing Russian Constructivism with its Western counterparts in Europe in the same period, not only shows us the common grounds between them about the use of production and advancement of technology but also the cutting edge of ideology and its produced knowledge. It enables to differentiate the intentions behind the ideas as projects and mode of production as in the cases of bounding relations of Constructivism and/or the European modernity, specifically analyzed in the case of Le Corbusier. If we take the case of ‘workers club’ in Russian avantgarde architecture, for example, with its aspects of constructions techniques; and the functional and ideological idea behind that when compared with Domino House with similar parameters the construction techniques and the technological means behind might not be distinguished. The creation of series of workers clubs as the collective unity with spatial practices for the proletariat class, however, is completely opposed with the Domino House as a project enabling capital holders to define their new property relations (Aureli, 2013) throughout the ease with design and construction processes. It is also possible to capture the continuum of the projects for the innovative searches on design procedures and design thinking concerning the materialist practice by trying to understand the logical and wish-driven effect of design in the studies of Ginzburg when compared with Le Corbusier’s project on the idea of five points of architecture (Cooke, 1995) or the contour modulations and axis as the outcome of the pure mind according to Le Corbusier under the same variables (Cooke, 1995). Thus, the practical concern of Le Corbusier reveal itself in these projects although the in depth analysis of Ginzburg’s studies on the creation of diagrams in the design thinking and processes clarifies what the avant-garde movement means. 587

To find out then the relation of rhythms, for example, from the movements of planetary systems, or of a working person, in short, the nature itself was the source of mimetic knowledge in Ginzburg’s studies (Cooke, 1995), which can be appreciated even today. This eases to justify the emergent ‘parametricism’ based on abstraction of certain geometries in design to compare with the significance of already discovered relation in Constructivism one hundred years before and their restructuring relations in ‘parametricism’. To distinguish the designer’s working method from the logic of machine, Ginzburg has contributed to the theory of modernity beyond its age, as different from Le Corbusier’s interest on examining the logic of machinery in design production. Le Corbusier based the ideas on the basic geometries and the spirituality although Ginzburg was departed from the principles of creativity throughout the design processes between architecture and engineering. The methods of studies of Ginzburg were to form a unified organic logic of natural development; by not imitating forms of technology but to learn the method of engineering designer for a creative understanding itself as a ‘self-conscious design process’ (Cooke, 1995). Thus, it shows us an almost equal advancement in the creative ideas on projects of Constructivism compared with the recent approaches in interactive environments. Since the judgment of present situation depends on almost one hundred year-ago of identification process, it requires us to understand the significance of ideas in groups of people as avant-garde movements. The characteristic and produced knowledge of their pioneering projects quest the possible alternatives for the present condition. Order and the rationale as in the design of simple domestic living unit or the city of Paris show us the power of the project, which can be implemented at international scales. Thus, the dialectical project of modernity not only recreates the anticipation of spatial practice and the emancipation of the discipline from itself, but also redefines the subscription to the logical and rational project legitimizing the repressive force of the authority over the individual, and the distribution of them in space under the redefined order of the discipline. Since the dialectical conditions of projects create their oppositions in themselves, it becomes necessary to understand the present condition under the light of the dialectical propositions of the spaces of duration as a project. Thus, the order of the global makes us to regress to the past to get the origins of opposing contradictions in present. Departing from the influence of art, specifically avant-gardes, in the advancement of original technological (Shanken, 2012) and methodological means of design, it is to conclude that how the contradiction as a term in itself can be re-interpreted for the progressive evolution of design towards future without the opposition between contradiction and negation. The spaces of duration: From (con)tradi(c)tion to contradi(stin)ction For the concluding remarks, it is to set the spaces of duration also as an epistemological model, as a project, for architecture with its opposing paradigms throughout the history. Mentioned earlier, considering avant-gardes as the inspiring novelties in means and production besides the theoretical projects; and the mainstream with practical concerns as major oppositions in architecture, to propose an ever-evolving revolutionary form of architectural discipline can be a proposition for the spaces of duration within these contradiction. Thus, just at this point, the identity of space and the object-based actions in the defined identity of that space becomes significant variable to distinguish the different mode of contradictions in itself. ‘Contradistincton’ in that sense differentiates itself from the (con)tradi(c)tion. Contradistinction proposes progress of evolution of architecture by contradiction and also by negation although (con)tradi(c)tion resists on the regular opposition between two distinguished paradigms on certain set of values. Thus, the key to understand the difference of contradistinction is not in the ever-sustaining mere opposition between two static value systems but in the creation of new contradictions on different variables based on the action-based experiences in the space. Contradistinction does not refuse the mediation of oppositions by negation but proposes a new set of values different from earlier contradictions after mediation. Propositionally, it is based on both negation and contradiction defining the idea of dialectical global as a possibility only where negation is legitimate in its own terms since the proceeding contradiction would not arise from the same problem that already solved. It proposes certain duration of self-consciousness during mediation; and active restructuring of processes throughout the contradictions defined in the action-based identity of spaces, the spaces of duration. As in the case of quantum field theory beyond relativity and Newtonian physics that idea of contradistinction is a way to overcome the dichotomy between nature and culture, evaluating the idea of dialectical global beyond that dichotomy. Hence, the present condition of spaces of duration throughout contradistinction enables us to explore the intellectual information at the origins of the ultimate creation of both nature and subjectivity throughout the reflection of formations. That requires us to understand the creation of subject-object throughout the action of the subject with its character-based identity to grasp the relations of self-conscious design procedures in nature, and their function throughout the production of objects in that multiple existences, in the spaces of duration. The space, here, is the plane of present action of the subject, in the creation of

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immanent self-consciousness, and is identified with a certain duration of accumulation of operated functions between subject and nature throughout time. This means that, to say it concisely, ‘Architecture is revolutionary but provided the fact that never look at back. Architecture is revolution with its own past’. In fact, it means that architecture, when influenced from the spirit of ages at past turns into the matter of style as Le Corbusier finishes his book with the words that already written and the intention to clarify the readers mind. Thus, it is the meta-question that can we find a way to awaken architecture from its deep dream, which is the reason of the futuristic projections. Architecture itself in that sense is a matter of duration with its past, present and future under the idea of revolution of production. The spaces of duration define architecture’s action-based experiences and created knowledge throughout. In that sense, the idea of ‘contradistinction’ through the idea of dialectical global provides a certain method of creation of both the produced thing and produced knowledge in the spaces of duration, at the same time, beyond culturenature dichotomy. REFERENCES Aureli, Pier Vittorio. (2013). The City as a Project. Berlin: Ruby Press. Bergson, Henri. (1998). Creative Evolutions. Dover Publications: Mineola & New York. Bergson, Henri. (2002). Key Writings edited by Keith Ansell Pearson & John Mullarkey. New York: Continuum. Cooke, Catherine. (1995). Russian Avant-Garde. Theories of Art, Architecture and the City. London: Academy Editions. Foucault, Michel. (1977). “Docile Bodies” in Discipline and Punish. The Birth of the Prison. New York: Vintage Books, pp.: 135-170. Fromm, Erich. (1968). The Revolution of Hope. Toward a Humanized Technology. Toronto & New York & London: Bantam Books. Harvey, David. (1989). The Condition of Postmodernity. Cambridge: Basil Blackwell. Oxman, Rivka & Oxman, Robert. (2014). Theories of the Digital in Architecture. London & New York: Routledge. ______Carpo, Mario. (2004). “Ten Years of Folding”. Originally published in Folding in Architecture, revised edition 2004. John Wiley and Sons. ______Oosterhuis, Kas. (2011). “Move That Body: Building Components Are Actors In A Complex Adaptive System”. Originally published in Towards a New kind of Building: a Designer’s Guide for Non-Standard Architecture. NAi Publishers. ______Schumacher, Patrik. (2009). “Parametric Patterns”. Originally published in Patterns of Architecture. John Wiley and Sons. ______Shelden, Dennis R. & Witt, Andrew J. (2011). “Continuity and Rupture”. Originally published in Mathematics of Space. John Wiley and Sons. Aesthetic Revolutions and the Twentieth-Century Avant-Garde Movements, ed. Ales Erjavec, Durham and London: Duke University Press, 2015. _______Spiteri, Raymond. “Convulsive Beauty. Surrealism as Aesthetic Revolution”, pp. 80-112. Horkheimer, Max. 1947. Eclipse of Reason. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Le Corbusier. (2007). Toward an architecture. Los Angeles, California: Getty Research Institute. Schumacher, Patrik. (2012). The Aupotoiesis of Architecture. A New Agenda for Architecture, v.1., West Sussex: John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Schumacher, Patrik. (2012). The Aupotoiesis of Architecture. A New Agenda for Architecture, v.2., West Sussex: John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Shanken, Edward Andrew. (2012). Sanat ve Elektronik Medya. Translated by Osman Akınhay. İstanbul: Akbank.

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THE ROLE OF ORDER IN PERSIAN GARDEN HAMIDEH RIMAZ Department of Art and Architecture, Azad University, Tehran PO Box 4435-11365, Iran.

ABSTRACT Trying to find a way to alleviate negative aspects of urban life has become a challenge in today’s architecture. Finding a sense of relief in modern day is one of the critical issues amongst architects and designers. This has led to applying elements and methods which help creating atmospheres and structures with a sense of tranquility. Persian garden, one of the earliest known gardens in the world, can be considered as a descent paradigm. It responds to ecological conditions, structures, and human satisfaction, creating a connecting pattern alongside nature. In addition, the garden provides several principles that can be considered as a style in design. This paper attempts to analyze the dominant factors which specify the garden in landscape design. It also compares several Persian gardens to clarify the influential elements in creating a pleasant atmosphere. The factor that bonds these elements together in Persian garden is order. It is a crucial part of Persian gardens which is common in all Persian gardens in Iran. Order can be defined as a set of rules in design so as to sequentially connect elements to one another. In other words, order acts as a unifying link between the elements that function as a whole. Correlating order and nature helps achieving a unique pattern in dynamic design. We demonstrate how parametric pattern emerges from this main principle of Persian garden. We also study the parameters that can be altered in each element so as to create an ordered system. Altogether, we will look into Persian garden as a unique pattern and how it is portrayed through geometrical features and combination of elements. Keywords: Persian Garden, Nature, and Order 1. INTRODUCTION Persian garden as an architectural style decorated with different elements such as plant, water, and building, has a substantial influence in creating an interaction between humans and nature and also generating a sense of connection between them. A sense of feeling that wind is a breeze, soil is a cultivated entity, fir is a flame, and water is an element of comfort and lively environment [1]. Thus, it has both poetic and geometric features. One of the key features of gardens which inspires humans’ mind is order. The notion of order is multifaceted. It may be varied in different fields of study including science, economics, and art. However, defining order in the field of architecture contains aspects of geometrical features into it. The geometrical order is represented by ideal mathematical forms. For instance, in two dimensions, there are lines, circles, quarters, and in three dimensions, there are planes, spheres, cubes which have ideal properties such as perpendicularly, parallelism, symmetry, rhythm, and regularity [2]. In this study, we try to give a better understanding about some features of order which play a crucial role in the architectural characteristic of Persian gardens. Order is not only a mechanism in design which allows different elements to affect one another, but also a unifying feature that connects different parts together. The main structure of a Persian garden is based on intersection of two axes that the whole system into four square-shaped pieces [3]. This formation of the garden creates a system in itself with a strong center that the unity of the garden originates from this formation (see Figure 1).

Figure 1: Formation diagram of Persian gardens

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Furthermore, order in Persian gardens can illustrate different layers of elements such as plants, water, surrounding, and a general pattern. In the diagrams shown in Figure 2, all colored layers correspond to different shapes and aspects in designing the garden. The pattern contains different elements in itself, namely: garden, path, and pool. It may be altered by different features of order with different intensities. The intensity of each feature may be varied from one Persian gardens to the other depending on the arrangement of elements.

1. Color 2. Sound/Sense 3. Geometry 1. Blue 2. Green 3. Yellow-Gray 1. Water 2. Human 3. Tree 4. Surrounding 1. Yard 2. Garden 3. Surrounding 4. Pattern 1*Arrangement of environmental color 2*Surrounding = city or desert place 3*Yard = Building + Walkway Figure 2: Schematic diagrams of order in Persian garden 2. FEATURES OF ORDER IN PERSIAN GARDEN 2.1 CENTER One of the main features in determining the order in Persian garden is strong center alongside the arrangement of the natural and artificial elements adding to its surrounding. The strong center which is often located in the heart of the garden connected all elements in the garden including path, building, water, and plant. The way of arrangement of elements forms a system with a boundary that strengthen each center in the system with the centers beyond it. The location of the strong center can be in different part of the system with respect to the parameters and pattern distribution. The intensity of each center can be specified by its boundary [4]. In other words, in each given space region, some sub region possesses greater intensity of centers than other sub-regions. Clusters of the centers together with their intensity form one structure – a whole. Centers are understood as physical set, a distinctive physical system, occupying certain space volume and having particularly specified correlation [7].

Figure 3: Schematic diagram of order

2.2 DIFFRENT SCALES Defines the way that a strong center is made stronger partly by smaller strong centers contained in it and partly by its larger strong centers that surround it [7]. It also can be characterized by the ratio of the various size of the elements in the garden. The system of the garden contains different scaled center in each region that is the 591

strong center are not understood as one large center, but same as with the levels of scale, as the presence of the centers of various intensities. A whole represents a stronger center, and each scaled element is a sub-center [7].

Figure 4: Schematic diagram of order 2.3 REPETITION Repetition is a way that each center empowers the intensity of other scaled centers. In other words, different scaled centers expand through repetition. Rhythm originating by repetition creates an effect of the field which is not just a simple repetition but a field formed in relation to external effects and results in a pattern with slight deformations [7]. The result of the repetition with slight changes is a pleasant environment in the system as a whole.

Figure 5: Schematic diagram of order

2.4 SYMMETRY Basic symmetry is called bilateral symmetry and represents copying in respect to the axis. Beside this symmetry there are also many other types of symmetry which give rise to creation of self-similar building created by rotation or reflection like cylindrical symmetry [8]. Having two main axes as a measurement of symmetrical shape shows identical intensities of the elements in each region of the garden. It also appears through repetition and scaled centers in an organic pattern.

Figure 6: Schematic diagram of order 3. ANALYSIS OF ORDER IN PERSIAN GARDEN The Persian garden presents different scales in which one size of element transforms to other sizes like ditch to pool or path to stand point. As well, the strong center creates a new functionality in the garden by the overlapping 592

elements. Symmetrical shape of the garden causing the main axes is the main paths. By the repetition the pattern of the garden finally forms and a system emerges.

GOLSHAN GARDEN – TABAS

JAHANNAMA GARDEN – SHIRAZ

ILGOLI GARDEN – TABRIZ

NARENJESTAN – SHIRAZ

Figure 7: Schematic diagram of order CONCLUSION We have found that the Persian garden is constructed based upon parametric and geometric ideas originated from abstract mathematical notions of symmetry and rhythm. We also discussed how parametric design shapes complex geometries and how it governs the relationship between each element. By analyzing a Persian garden, we found that each parameter and pattern in the garden such as plants, water, and structures should follow the rules given by the order. As we have discussed, some features of the order alter from one element to another depending on the environment so as to create a unified system. We argue that these set of rules can be considered as a way of design in modern day architecture. Simplicity and tranquilizing environment is not only created by geometric forms, but also by introducing new arrangements of elements and removing unnecessary ones. REFERENCES [1] Pashaei Kamali. F. Iranian Garden, The First Congress of Civil Engineering, Islamic Azad University of Shabister, Iran, 2010. [2] Rubinowicz, Pawel. Chaos and Geometric Order in Architecture and Design. s.l. : Journal for Geometry and Graphics, 2000, Vol 4, 2. [3] Azadeh, Sh. Paradigms of Paradise. Jahad Daneshgahi, Tehran, 2010. [4] Alexander, Christopher. The Nature of Order, The Phenomenon of Life, The Center of Environmental Structure, 2000. [5] Donis, Donis A. A Primer of Visual Litracy. The MIT press, Massachuesetts, 1983. [6] Seamon, David. Christopher Alexander and A Phenomenology of Wholeness. s.I. Annual Meeting of The Environmental Design Research Association, Sacramento, CA, 2007. 593

[7] Petrusevski, Ivana. Fifteen Rules of Christopher Alexander and The Methods of Generative Design as The Practical Application of The "The Nature of Order" in Architectur. s.I : Journal UDK BROJEVI, 2012. [8] Williams, Kim. Architecture and Mathematics: Symmetry in Architecture. NEXUS Network Journal, 2009, Vol 11, 3.

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THE INCREASING USE OF THE INTERNET AND ITS POTENTIAL IMPACT ON THE FUTURE OF THE CITY – WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO CAIRO, EGYPT RANA SWELAM, YASSER MOUSTAFA, AYMAN WANAS Rana Swelam, Teaching Assitant, Yasser Moustafa, Assistant Professor, Ayman Wanas, Associate Professor, Arab Academy for Science and Technology and Maritime Trasnsport

ABSTRACT Rapid advances in Information and Communication Technology (ICT), the increased accessibility and use of the Internet have fueled academic debates about the future of urban design and city planning. These debates have discussed such issues as the future of relations and distinctions between residential, work, shopping, the future of urban public spaces, and the importance of distance or proximity in the future. However these debates have tended to remain speculative lacking sufficient empirical backgrounds. This study investigates the potential impact of the increased accessibility and use of the Internet on the future of the city in general and more particularly in the context of Cairo, Egypt. Based on a model that considers the city dweller, rather than the city itself, as the unit of analysis, the study attempts to identify changes in individual daily activity patterns that can aggregate to affect the way we will need to rethink urban design and city planning. The study relies on a survey questionnaire administrated in November and December 2015 to samples of professionals (n=81) and university students (n=65) all residing in Cairo. The questionnaire was designed to inquire about patterns of access and use of the Internet. Also, the questionnaire asked the participants about patterns of daily activities and patterns of social interaction, and how those are being affected by the use of information and communication technology. Implications for urban design and city planning are discussed. Introduction The aim of this exploratory study is to investigate the potential impact of the increased accessibility and use of the Internet on the city and the future of urban planning and urban design in general but more particularly in the specific context of Cairo. The advent and increased use of the Internet have led to much debate about the potential impacts of this technology on the lives of people and consequently on the future of the city. Futurist and speculative arguments in popular media as well as in academic circles have suggested that by compressing space-time, Internet technology will eliminate the need for face-to-face contact, provide universal accessibility allowing anything to happen anywhere, blur the distinction between home and workplace, between public and private, and may lead to the “death of distance” (Hall, 1998; Castells, 2005). Some have even predicted that the "death of distance" will inevitably lead to the "death of the city" (Toffler, 1980; Naisbitt, 1995; Negroponte, 1995; Knoke, 1996). A growing but still limited number of research studies has begun to empirically investigate the questions raised by these futurist and speculative arguments, often exposing the too shallow and simplistic assumptions on which they were based (Graham and Marvin, 1996; 2004; Townsend, 2000).Some of the research studies that have investigated the potential impact of the Internet on the city have focused on the impact of the technology on the economy and the impact of the new economy on city form (see for example Audirac, 2005). However most have tended to investigate the impact of the Internet on patterns of social interaction and consequences for the role and importance of neighbourhoods (see for example Hampton & Wellman, 2003; Hampton, 2007) or of urban public spaces (see for example, Hampton & Gupta, 2008; Park, 2010). These studies have tended to be conducted in Western countries and to date very limited research has been conducted in Cairo or other Third-World cities. The study presented here focuses more particularly on the impact of the Internet on the activity patterns of city residents and the potential impact of changes in activity patterns on how we will need to rethink urban design and city planning. It relies on a model that considers the city dweller, rather than the city itself, as the unit of

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analysis, and attempts to identify changes in individual daily activity patterns that can aggregate to affect the city. Method A survey questionnaire was administrated in November and December 2015 to 147 male and female participants all residing in the Greater Cairo area. Participants were intentionally selected to be well-educated due to the specific nature of the topic of investigation. They were selected from two main groups: university students and professionals. The 66 students were undergraduate students at the College of Engineering of the Arab Academy for Science and Technology and Maritime Transport, Cairo. They ranged from 17 to 24 years in age. The 81 professionals were professionals enrolled in the MBA program of the College of Business Administration of the same university. They ranged in age from less than 25 to more than 45 years. The inclusion of university students in the sample was deemed important because, as suggested by Jones (2002) and Park (2010), they are often pioneers in the use of the latest technologies and could help envision future trends in the use of the Internet. Respondents included both urban residents residing in the more established, more central districts of Cairo and suburban residents residing in the recently developed suburban districts in the periphery of the city (see Table 1). The survey questionnaire was composed primarily of close-ended, multiple choice questions. It was designed in five main sections. The first section included questions about the respondents’ basic demographic information as well as relevant background information such as characteristics of the residential environment and home to work commuting time. The second section inquired about patterns of Internet use (frequency of Internet access, daily hours of use, locations of access, different purposes of use, etc…). The third section inquired about the impact of Internet use on the amount of time spent at home. The fourth section included questions to explore the impact of the Internet on patterns of social interaction with close friends and family. Finally, the last section investigated the offline to online migration of activities focusing on work or study related activities, shopping, and watching movies as an example of leisure activities. Groups

A

B

C

Male

80

Students

66

Urban

Female

67

Professionals

81

Suburban

Total

121 26 147

Table 1: Distribution of Participants among the Sample Main Sub-Groups RESULTS Use of the Internet In the response to questions asking about frequencies of Internet access, a large majority of respondents indicated accessing the Internet every day (87 % of all respondents). However, for those respondents accessing the Internet every day, there was a significant difference in frequency of daily access between students and professionals with students reporting much more frequent access (2(2, 147) = 9.001, p