Mr. Innis, Is there life after the 'American Empire'? .... During this period also, the first generation of Laval-trained social ..... Culture is still a prevalent issue in.
C A N A D I A N JOURNAL OF COMMUNICATION,
SPECIAL ISSUE
T H E 1987 SOUTHAM LECTURE: Mr. I n n i s , I s t h e r e l i f e a f t e r t h e 'American Empire'? Roger d e la Garde Laval U n i v e r s i t y
Tradition dictates that Southam
lecturer
Jacques Godbout,
experience,
was
to
an
communication
T h e choice o f t h e f i r s t
the a r t of
media
Last year, Dallas Smythe was chosen i n o r d e r t o p a y
outstanding
studies.
Why
teacher this
and
year's
founding lecturer
father
was
of
chosen
dumbfounded, a feeling t h a t is n o d o u b t shared b y most o f you. reason,
lecturer,
T h e following
a media professional a n d social c r i t i c o f considerable
i n v i t e d t o a d d r e s s t h e p r e s e n t state o f
p r o d u c t i o n a n d practices. homage
reason.
opened a window o n European social t h i n k i n g .
A n t h o n y Smith, year,
t h e o r g a n i z e r s o f o u r annual conference choose t h e
f o r a specific
I d a r e d n o t wait f o r
Canadian leaves
me
Whatever t h e
t h e o r g a n i z e r s t o e x p l a i n t h e i r decision a n d
immediately u n d e r t o o k t o g i v e t h i s l e c t u r e a p a r t i c u l a r t w i s t . F o r reasons I w i l l e x p l a i n p r e s e n t l y ,
I would l i k e t o submit t o y o u m y
personal appraisal o f t h e s c i e n t i f i c research i n communication t h a t has been c a r r i e d o u t i n Quebec a n d Canada o v e r t h e p a s t 20 o d d years. t h i s t o p i c i s n e i t h e r t h a t o f a n e n d o r s e r n o r o f a censor.
M y outlook o n
My understanding
does n o t stem from systematic e n q u i r y n o r f r o m t h e collection o f empirical data. It i s based r a t h e r o n t h e w r i t t e n accounts of,
h o l d in h i g h variations
esteem.
in t h e
They
colours
meteorological fluctuations.
of
as
individuals
the
o r conversations w i t h people I are
scientific
more
landscape
sensitive than
to
to
seasonal
short-term
T h e y p r e f e r t o assess time r a t h e r t h a n t o measure
it. A s a consequence,
I w i l l q u o t e a small number o f o b s e r v e r s a n d will n o t
r e s o r t t o a r e f e r e n d u m o f opinions.
Since I d o n o t i n t e n d t o b e judgmental b u t
instead t o g i v e y o u m y personal opinion,
I i n v i t e those whose c o n t r i b u t i o n s I
i g n o r e n o t t o b e o f f e n d e d since those I am a b o u t t o q u o t e w i l l c e r t a i n l y b e distressed. A n n i v e r s a r i e s ( 1 986-90) L e t u s b e g i n b y n o t i n g a p a r t i a l l i s t o f p a s t a n d f u t u r e communication r e l a t e d a n n i v e r s a r i e s i n Quebec w h i c h w i l l b e celebrated a n d f o r g o t t e n :
-
T h e 25th a n n i v e r s a r y o f t h e f i r s t p r i v a t e l y owned communication research f i r m i n Quebec: le C e n t r e d e r e c h e r c h e s u r i'opinion p u b l i q u e : CROP (1965);
-
t h e 20th a n n i v e r s a r y o f t h e Concordia U n i v e r s i t y (1 968) ;
Department
of
Communication
Studies
at
T h e 1987 Southam LecturelRoger d e la Garde t h e 20th a n n i v e r s a r y o f t h e D.O.C. i n Ottawa (1968) a n d o f t h e ministere des communications i n Quebec (1969); t h e 20th a n n i v e r s a r y o f t h e f i r s t courses offered i n communication studies (1968) a t t h e universities o f Montreal a n d Laval; t h e 15th a n n i v e r s a r y (1973-74) o f t h e Department o f Communication Studies a t t h e U n i v e r s i t k d u Quebec A MontrCal; t h e 15th a n n i v e r s a r y (1974) o f t h e f i r s t post-graduate programme in Quebec a t McCill; t h e 10th a n n i v e r s a r y (1976) o f t h e f i r s t Phd. programme at McGill; t h e 15th a n n i v e r s a r y (1974) o f t h e l n s t i t u t International d e Communication i n Montreal; t h e 10th a n n i v e r s a r y (1980) o f t h e creation recherches en communication d u Quebec (ARCQ) ; t h e 10th a n n i v e r s a r y (1978) Communication e t Information;
of the
of
the
publication on a
Association
de
r e g u l a r basis o f
t h e 10th a n n i v e r s a r y (19771 o f t h e f i r s t French-language bibliographical data bank: BlBLlOCOM a n d BADICOM; a n d t h e f i r s t of a long series o f anniversaries o f t h e j o i n t PhD. programme i n communication studies i n Quebec (1987). With so many causes t o celebrate, i t i s o n l y fitting t h a t we open o u r family albums a n d
recall t h e good 01'
pioneer
days.
To
trace
t h e evolution
of
communication teaching a n d research i n Canada w i t h p a r t i c u l a r emphasis on Quebec, I w i l l r e l y heavily o n t h e w o r k o f t h r e e colleagues: Simon Fraser,
Jean-Guy
Liora Salter from
Lacroix a n d Benoit Levesque from t h e U n i v e r s i t 6 d u
Quebec a t Montreal. T h e birth of communication studies in Quebec (1957-1967) T h e development o f communication studies i n Quebec has passed t h r o u g h two phases which can r o u g h l y b e described as t h e b i r t h of
t h e discipline
[ 1957- 1967) followed b y i t s institutionalization [ 1968 t o the present).
The first
p e r i o d was marked and propelled b y a host of social transformations a r i s i n g from t h e Quiet Revolution, whereas t h e second was influenced b y t w o specific social demands.
Between 1968 a n d 1974 t h e institutionalization o f t h e discipline
was moulded b y t h e need for contrast,
there
research a t t h e state level.
has been a t r e n d
toward
Since 1975,
t h e commercialization of
in
cultural
p r o d u c t i o n a n d increasing demand f o r social control b o t h o f which have had an important impact on research a n d teaching.
(Lacroix and Levesque, 1985a: 7).
D u r i n g t h e f i r s t development phase, i n t h e t e n year p e r i o d from 1957-1967, there was n o u n i v e r s i t y research o r teaching c e n t r e f e a t u r i n g communication studies.
T h e r e were however a number o f
catholique national,
Radio-Canada's
''echo
chambers":
the C e n t r e
research division, t h e l n s t i t u t canadien de
C A N A D I A N JOURNAL O F COMMUNICATION,
Ih&-jucation
SPECIAL ISSUE
des adultes ( I C E A ) , t h e aforementioned CROP a n d journals s u c h as
Cite Libre,
Liberte,
P a r t i Pris a n d Socialisme.
T h e b i r t h o f communication
research i n Quebec was accomplished w i t h t h e h e l p o f these "echo chambers" w h i c h themselves
were embedded
i n t h e Quiet
Revolution w h i c h transformed
Quebec society. 19601s research i n t h e so-called f i e l d o f "social c o m m ~ n i c a t i o n 'was ~ carried o u t amidst s u c h major e v e n t s as t h e invasion o f television, j o u r n a l i s t s 1 s t r i k e s a t Radio-Canada a n d a t La Presse, media monopolies a n d McLuhanism ( L a c r o i x and
Levesque,
"modernized Department
1985a: 7-8).
its of
state
During
apparatus,"
Cultural
Affairs,
the
applied
decade,
Quebec
democratic
intervened
in
revamped
principles,
cultural
and
and
created
a
communication
matters a n d launched what intellectuals l i k e F e r n a n d Dumont a n d G u y Rocher call a f u l l - f l e d g e d witnessed
the
"cultural revolution"
privatization
of
the
(Simard,
1984:151).
b r o a d c a s t media
T h a t p e r i o d also
when
Telemetropole was
g r a n t e d t h e f i r s t p r i v a t e b r o a d c a s t i n g license i n 1961 ( L a c r o i x a n d Levesque, 1985a:8). During scientists
this
period
also,
the
first
generation
became Quebec p u b l i c s e r v a n t s .
sought inspiration
in
model
the
as
well
as
Lerner and
of
Laval-trained
To transform
their
Pyels communicationally
Scandinavian
idea o f social
social
society t h e y
based development
co-management.
A
good
i l l u s t r a t i o n o f t h e t h i n k i n g o f t h e time is t o b e f o u n d i n t h e epic programs planned b y t h e B u r e a u d1Am6nagement d e IIEst d u QuCbec. meaning
the
mass
media
-
were
considered
one o f
the
Communications driving
forces
of
modernization a n d t h u s a p r e r e q u i s i t e f o r national a n d regional development. Today o f course such a d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e Promethian role o f communications i n national development i s k n o w n t o b e misleading a n d c o n s t i t u t e s a n exercise i n nostalgia, a q u e s t f o r t h e dCj5 v u .
It m u s t b e remembered t h o u g h t h a t d u r i n g
t h e p e r i o d i n question t h e d r i v i n g f o r c e b e h i n d t h i s collective t u r m o i l was t h e w i l l o f a g r e a t many people t o change t h e social o r d e r i n many p a r t s o f t h e world.
I n t e n s e v e r b a l a n d p h y s i c a l manifestations were a t w o r k as much i n
societies o n t h e t h r e s h o l d o f p o s t - i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n - meaning those e n t e r i n g t h e information
society
decolonization.
-
as
in
those
societies
engaged
T h e i r discourse became a constant
in
the
process
of
source o f i n s p i r a t i o n f o r
those who planned t h e development o f Quebec society, i n c l u d i n g t h e p l a n n i n g o f cultural affairs. T h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f communication s t u d i e s (1968 t o p r e s e n t ) I n Quebec, as elsewhere, t h e p o w e r f u l socio-political impulses o f t h e 1960's revamped a n d s t r e n g t h e n e d t h e processes o f i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n w h i c h were led b y a n e w l y developing state apparatus.
A r e s u l t o f t h i s process,
founded o n
10
T h e 1987 Southam LecturelRoger d e la Garde
t h e r u l e s o f t h e market economy a n d g u i d e d b y policies o f state interventionism, was
to
llnaturalizell
"communications." with
economics
industries."
i.e.,
to
render
common
or
trite
the
concept
of
Media a n d t h e i r social role became more a n d more identified and
industry,
turning
them
imperceptibly
into
llcultural
O n l y a f t e r t h i s institutionalization process was accomplished d i d a n
- i n terms o f i t s social practices -
a l t e r n a t i v e definition o f flcommunication'l
begin t o circulate, i n a c o v e r t fashion, among academics.
And in spite o f this
seminal equation between communications a n d social practices, t h e universities' role as instruments o f institutionalization a n d "naturalization1' o f t h e f i e l d o f communication studies,
were g r e a t e r than t h e i r role as leaders in t h e p u b l i c
debate o n t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i v e impact o f communications.
The only true public
debate o n these matters was held b y a Quebec Parliamentary Commission on media ownership non-report.
in
1972-73
whose
painstaking
O n t h e o t h e r hand, t h e r e p o r t t h a t
verbal
did
trashing
produced
a
p l a y a decisive role in t h e
elaboration o f a studies a n d research programme i n social communication was n o t t h e r e s u l t o f a p u b l i c debate b u t o f a poll undertaken by a p r i v a t e f i r m (SORECOM, 1973). All
i n all,
communication studies i n Quebec emerged d u r i n g t h e g r e a t
p u b l i c debates of
the 50's a n d 60's r e v o l v i n g a r o u n d political a n d economic
nationalism a n d t h e ensuing i d e n t i t y crisis.
These debates a n d crises were n o t
solely caused b y Quebec.
T h e y were i n s p i r e d as much b y decolonization e f f o r t s
elsewhere.
in
by
counter-culture
the
war
manifestations
Vietnam
as
by
the
May
epitomized
at
Woodstock.
'68
events Only
and
after
the state
institutionalization a n d i n t e r v e n t i o n h a d o c c u r r e d d i d communications processes suddenly become important m e r i t i n g planning,
studies a n d research,
because
t h e i r control potentials were recognized. Such a contextualization favoured a d e f i n i t i o n o f llcomrnunicationsll "object o f scientific enquiry,"
as a llproblematic.ll
as a n
It encouraged an academic
framework where communications were defined i n mechanistic terms a n d seen as a
"professional
practice."
In
other
words,
communications
issues
were
conceived as some s o r t o f social mechanism t h a t o u g h t t o b e improved o r repaired from time t o time. Hence t h e necessity t o t r a i n communication I1engineers" and llmechanics.ll I n so doing,
it cannot b e denied t h a t t h i n k i n g a n d research in t h e field o f
communications became limited i n scope and i n orientation.
It is p r o b a b l y f a i r
t o say t h a t certain research paths were less easy t o follow in t h i s social climate t h a n others.
...t h e
I n Lacroix and Levesquels words:
r a p i d expansion o f a g r e a t many i n t e r l i n k e d communication networks - a n expansion made possible b y t h e development o f a wide range o f techniques f o r transmitting and stockpiling visual images b r o u g h t t o m i n d t h e idea t h a t social communication implies a series o f
CANADIAN JOURNAL O F COMMUNICATION, SPECIAL ISSUE media, techniques a n d practices, a l l o f w h i c h a r e l i n k e d i n a global information-communication n e t w o r k t h a t spreads t h r o u g h o u t society ( L a r c r o i x a n d Levesque, l985a:g).
In an e r a c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y assertions o f a l l k i n d s ,
individual,
national,
c u l t u r a l a n d political - a n d b y t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g offshoot o f collective a n d s e l f i d e n t i t y - a k i n d o f d i v i s i o n o f labour was devised between t h e welfare state a n d t h e mass media: w h e r e b y it behooved t h e e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l welfare state t o e n s u r e t h a t people " f a r e d well"
as a l a b o u r force,
c l e a r l y i d e n t i f i a b l e social b o d y .
T o achieve these ends a r a p i d l y developing
mass media
sector was
channelling
required.
as consumers a n d as a
T o p a r a p h r a s e P h i l i p Schlesinger
(19871,
a l l these new energies i n t o a c o n t r o l l e d e f f o r t o f economic a n d
c u l t u r a l development is possible o n l y if people a r e adequately pre-formed a n d informed.
Hence t h e i m p o r t a n t r o l e o f medial technologies i n journalism, c u l t u r e
a n d education.
T h e mass media's effectiveness were f u r t h e r increased w i t h t h e
a i d o f telecommunications technologies. A c c o r d i n g t o L a c r o i x a n d Levesque.
...
i n t h e process o f i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n w h i c h was launched i n '68-'69 t h e state p l a y e d a c r u c i a l r o l e i n t w o instances: i n t h e f i r s t , b y d e v i s i n g mechanisms o f s t a t e c o n t r o l i n t h e f i e l d o f communications a n d i n t h e second, b y l e g i s l a t i n g i n a manner t h a t made t h e d i f f e r e n t levels o f research [ a n d I would a d d o f t e a c h i n g ] i n communication dependent u p o n commercial necessities ( L a c r o i x a n d Levesque, 1985a:g). P r i v a t e l y owned f i r m s i n Quebec, s u c h as CROP, SORECOM a n d Multi-Reso,
as
well as academic departments o f communication s t u d i e s a n d research were t h e main agents 1985a:g).
in
this
process o f
institutionalization
B u t t h e y w e r e n ' t t h e o n l y ones.
(Lacroix
and
Levesque.
L a c r o i x a n d Levesque p o i n t o u t t h e
i m p o r t a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f t h e C e n t r e catholique national d u c i n h a , d e la r a d i o e t de la t6levision
(now called
L ' o f f i c e des communications
sociales),
o f the
research d i v i s i o n s o f Radio-Canada a n d Radio-Quebec, o f t h e Regie des services publiques,
of
the
CRTC,
and
of
the
federal
and
Quebec
Communication w i t h t h e i r r e s e a r c h a n d development branches.
Department
of
A d d e d t o these
t h e r e were what t h e a u t h o r s call " a l t e r n a t i v e research c e n t r e s i n c o m m ~ n i c a t i o n ' ~ s u c h as t h e l n s t i t u t canadian d'education des adultes ( I C E A ) , t h e labour u n i o n s a n d professional associations whose impact i s more d i f f i c u l t to assess.
As a
r e s u l t , t h e p r e v a i l i n g research approaches as well as teaching commitments i n communications analysis
stemmed
methodologies
from and
the
the
social
study
sciences. of
the
They
favoured
"psychological,
content
cultural
economic e f f e c t s o f t h e media" ( L a c r o i x a n d Levesque, 1985a:18).
and
Many state
requested s t u d i e s focused o n new technologies a n d a few adopted a c r i t i c a l stance.
I n t h e shadow o f t h i s mainstream theoretical model o n l y a few isolated
individuals
or
ad
hoc
groups
are
working
in
areas
such
as
media
and
development, social discourse, a n d t h e p o l i t i c a l economy o f t h e mass media a n d t h e social implications o f telecommunications technologies.
T h e 1987 Southam L e c t u r e l R o g e r d e l a G a r d e
T h e proposed creation o f a j o i n t PhD. programme i n Montreal f o l l o w i n g t h e state's 1983 elaboration o f a s c i e n t i f i c p o l i c y on communications a n d t h e b i r t h o f various
joint
industry-university
institutes
specializing
in
communication
research ( s u c h a L 1 i n s t i t u t national d ' o p t i q u e a n d l e C e n t r e d e recherche e n b u r e a u t i q u e d e langue franqaise) m a r k t h e end, so t o speak, o f t h e process of i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f communication research breeding ground
for
in
Quebec.
"The
in communication in Quebec"
research
institutional
was
henceforth
accomplished, a n d t h i s b r e e d i n g g r o u n d is r e s e r v e d f o r state a n d i n d u s t r y j o i n t ventures
that
respect
"commercial
imperatives1'
(Lacroix
and
Levesque,
l985a:23). Thus,
and
notwithstanding
the very
real contribution
of
"alternative"
jn some academic i n s t i t u t i o n s ,
r e s e a r c h models a n d experiments
t h e global
i n s t i t u t i o n a l s i t u a t i o n i n Quebec today f a v o u r s research emphasizing t h e social c o n t r o l dimensions o f communications government. i.e.
to
guarantee
organizations
practices as r e q u i r e d b y commerce a n d
T h e economics o f t h e media a r e c o n t r o l l e d " f o r t h e i r own good, their
(Caplan
profitability"
Sauvageau,
by
state
1986:42).
The
and
industry-approved
m a r k e t i n g of
mass media
p r o d u c t s i s c a r r i e d o u t b y p r i v a t e l y owned f i r m s which s u p p l y p r o d u c e r s w i t h data o n "social demand,"
on "consumer t r e n d s , "
o n t h e l'subconscious desires"
o f i n d i v i d u a l s , all conceptualized i n terms o f commercial s t r a t e g i e s f o r specific B o t h t h e p r i v a t e l y owned a n d t h e
p r o d u c t s aimed a t i d e n t i f i a b l e t a r g e t g r o u p s .
p u b l i c media assess t h e i r impact i n terms o f o b s e r v e d b e h a v i o u r a n d a t t i t u d e "changes"
i n t h e i r consumer audiences,
specializing
in
broadcast
t h a n k s t o services r e n d e r e d b y f i r m s
measurement
a d v e r t i s i n g agencies u t i l i s e t h e
and
opinion
same c o n t e n t analyses,
polling.
Media
and
communication p o l i c y
analyses, technological development forecasts because t h e y a r e p a r t o f t h e same system i n w h i c h audiences a r e sold t o i n d u s t r y . Mass media p r o d u c e r s t a k e advantage o f advice a n d "positive"
critiques
g i v e n b y in-house e x p e r t s [ j o u r n a l i s t s a n d programme h o s t s ) , b y psychologists, sociologists, economists,
lawyers
-
a l l o f whom boast some f o r m o f e x p e r t i s e i n
communications, r a n g i n g from t h e fiscal t o t h e symbolic implications o f a g i v e n communication practice.
Most o f these e x p e r t s a r e f o u n d i n p u b l i c l y f u n d e d
u n i v e r s i t i e s a n d a r e r e l a t i v e l y well aware o f t h e importance of p r o m o t i n g t h e Canadian
"cultural
industries"
both
nationally a n d provincially.
They
also
agree t h a t these i n d u s t r i e s need p r o t e c t i o n f r o m p u b l i c i n d i f f e r e n c e a n d t h e voracious a p p e t i t e o f t h e academic
and
professional
CEGEP t o t h e Ph.D. i n journalism, work.
U.S. n e i g h b o u r . training
Finally,
programmes
t h e media c a n c o u n t o n
i n communications,
from t h e
level, w h i c h t u r n o u t a n a b u n d a n t l a b o u r f o r c e t o fill jobs
advertising,
p u b l i c relations,
research a n d r e l a t e d community
T h e l i f e l i n e f o r these programmes a r e t h e u n i v e r s i t y faculties w h i c h g i v e
C A N A D I A N JOURNAL OF COMMUNICATION, SPECIAL ISSUE several h u n d r e d courses a n d seminars annually,
s u p e r v i s e several dozen theses
a n d p r o d u c e well o v e r a h u n d r e d a r t i c l e s , r e p o r t s a n d lectures. students
are
Considering
enrolled
that
(Radio-Canada)
in
full-time
in 1968,
Quebec
or
part-time
was
13
endowed
Thousands of
communications with
one
studies.
research
, one p r i v a t e l y owned o p i n i o n p o l l f i r m (CROP),
communication s t u d i e s d e p a r t m e n t ( C o r c o r d i a ) ,
centre
its
first
i t s f i r s t CEGEP ( J o n q u i e r e ) a n d
u n i v e r s i t y ( L a v a l ) programmes i n journalism,
a n e w l y - b o r n CRTC a n d a b r a n d
new Canadian b r o a d c a s t i n g policy, one m u s t a d m i t t h a t t h e g r o w t h achieved i n t h e p a s t t w e n t y y e a r s has been impressive. I n a l l likelihood t h e same i n v e n t o r y c o u l d be made f o r t h e r e s t o f Canada. O n l y t h e scale would d i f f e r . political,
professional
and
T h e same i n s t i t u t i o n a l i n t e g r a t i o n o f economic, academic
agents
surely
took
place.
The
same
ideological purposes were n o d o u b t e q u a l l y i n v o l v e d : t o consolidate a n d c o n t r o l as adequately as
possible a n area of
activity
which
is
b o t h economic
and
c u l t u r a l i n n a t u r e , a n d to d o so u n d e r t h e banner o f commodification a n d i n p u r s u i t o f Canada's national i d e n t i t y . T h e contemporary socio-political c o n t e x t f o r communication s t u d i e s i n Quebec It is n o t my i n t e n t i o n t o c r i t i c i z e t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f t h e f i e l d o f communications consequences lleffects," am
nor of
i t s purposes.
this
I d o want t o i n s i s t o n one o f t h e
But
I
institutionalization.
say
consequence^^^
referring
to and
the
communication s t u d i e s
1 want
object
i n Quebec
and
to
consider,
Canada.
not
namely t h e
are
of
o f all i t s o r i g i n a l i t y , it also eliminated
r o b b e d t h e concept o f llcommunicationll which
basis
Institutionalization not only
t h e fundamental p u r p o s e o f academic p u r s u i t s i n t h i s f i e l d : questions
and
f o r I do n o t believe t h a t t h e r e i s a causal l i n k between t h e process I
historically grounded
as
opposed
to
that of raising universal.
The
p a r t i c u l a r i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n processes d e s c r i b e d also p r e c l u d e d an analysis of the
power
s t r u g g l e which
has
been
waged
over
who
determines
people's
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f t h e i r d a i l y experience. Intellectuals a n d researchers,
whether
they
f u r t h e r m o r e been hampered b y i n s t i t u t i o n a l Budget cuts, encourage investigated
b e academics o r
not,
have
policies w h i c h devalue research.
h e a v y teaching loads especially a t t h e u n d e r g r a d u a t e level, etc.
"problem-solving" are
often
research
pre-selected
by
in the
which
the
granting
"problems" organization.
to
be
"Issue
related" research i n s u c h an environment i s p u t o f f t o a later date, o r t o t h e n e x t annual conference o f CCA).
the
t w o communications associations
(ARCQ
and
T h e 1987 Southam LecturelRoger d e la Garde
14
"So,
what else is new?" you may say.
We've heard t h i s o l d r e f r a i n o v e r
and o v e r again from those who will n o t admit t h a t "times t h e y a r e a' changing," t h a t intellectual endeavours have entered a n e r a o f specialization, t h a t what we need today a r e fewer words a n d more deeds, t h a t t h e r e is l i t t l e t o b e done and
It i s obvious t h a t times
excellent work being produced i n spite o f e v e r y t h i n g . have changed, prepared
and
t h a t excellent more
pseudo-scientific discourse. context,
competent
buzz-talk
T h e question what
is
work
is being done,
generation
is
t h a t a younger, taking
over,
better
and
that
should n e v e r b e mistaken f o r a t r u l y intellectual I want
t o raise i s t h e following:
i n t h e present
the original and particular contribution o f o u r
community t o t h e development o f knowledge? scientific community teaching us,
More specifically,
scientific
what is t h i s
as individuals a n d as members o f a society,
t h a t o t h e r sciences, a r t s o r conventional wisdom have n o t y e t t a u g h t u s ?
Let
u s rephrase t h i s question in t h e words used b y Liora Salter i n t h e conclusion t o h e r article:
...
i s there another approach t o communication studies, a n approach which would encompass, as well as t h e objects already associated w i t h t h e field, the global s t u d y o f society as i t can b e observed from a communication angle? A n d if such i s t h e case, how can t h i s wider perspective b e made compatible w i t h more conventional research [ A n d , I would a d d w i t h t h e theorytheories? (Salter, 1 9 8 3 : 5 8 ) . b u i l d i n g e f f o r t s o f contemporary research. ] T o ask whether t h e scope o f communication studies encompasses the s t u d y o f communicative practices i n society is to raise the question whether t h e r e i s a discipline, o r a science o f communication based on a recognizable paradigm a n d o n a b o d y o f issues t h a t polarize researchers answer t o these questions i s "yes.t1
i n t h i s field.
Liora Salter's
She does however p o i n t o u t t h a t t h e r e i s a
f a u l t o f sorts in t h e proclamation t h a t t h e r e is a communication "discipline." This
fault
can
be
traced
communication studies. environment,
As
on informatics,
to
the
with etc.,
very
studies
circumstances on
the
communication
that
gave
status o f women, studies,
rise
to
on the
i n Canada a n d i n
Quebec, a r e characterized b y "an orientation t h a t ties scientific w o r k w i t h social and
governmental
policies,"
and
shows
"an
obvious
relationship
between
knowledge a n d i t s applications t o the social a n d economic contextt1 a n d t h a t b i n d s "academic 1983:39).
research a n d i n d u s t r i a l applications o f knowledgea1 (Salter,
Hence t h e normative b e n t o f t h e field.
With t h e a d v e n t o f t h e '80%
a n d i t s widespread policy o f b u d g e t cuts, p r e s s u r e is being applied t o abandon "philosophical a n d social issues a n d t o p a y more attention t o t h e new information systems a n d t h e i r applications" (Salter, 1983:40). T h i s is what Liora Salter calls t h e "normalization" academic anointment,
as i t were.
A c c o r d i n g t o her,
o f t h e discipline,
the
normalization is essential
f o r t h e s u r v i v a l o f a discipline b u t it also threatens t h e value o f scientific w o r k
CANADIAN JOURNAL O F COMMUNICATION, by
making
research
more
subservient
warning was relevant i n 1983,
to
SPECIAL ISSUE
non-academic
15
imperatives.
This
it should b e heeded even more in 1987 when
b u d g e t c u t s a n d external pressures a r e on t h e upswing.
T h u s we must ask
ourselves if communication studies - as a f i e l d where scientific work, a n d social policies a r e closely linked,
politics
a n d as a n intellectual discipline whose
s t u d y of society is based on a recognizable paradigm a n d on i t s accompanying b o d y of
-
issues t h a t polarize t h e attention o f researchers
have n o t been
deflected from t h e i r raison dlCtre b y t h e p r e s e n t p o p u l a r i t y o f t h e i r academic offerings
a n d b y t h e successful application o f communications
theory to the
solution o f social a n d economic problems. Let
us
suppose,
for
the
purposes o f discussion,
that
our
scientific
community i s f o r g i n g ahead in s p i t e o f b u d g e t c u t s a n d e x t e r n a l pressures a n d t h a t it i s p u r s u i n g t h e objective o f establishing a recognizable paradigm.
There
s t i l l remains t h e question o f how we w i l l recognize such a paradigm i.e., we w i l l know t h a t we have, indeed, produced such a paradigm. answer i s twofold.
how
Liora Salter's
F i r s t , she identifies the specific characteristics o f Canadian
research in communication studies a n d in so doing d r a w s t h e line, o n t h e one hand,
between
communication
studies
disciplines and, on t h e other hand, and i n t h e United States a n d Europe.
and
other
more
traditional
scientific
between communication studies in Canada Canadian a n d Quebecois researchers in
communication studies:
-
-
seem t o combine a s t r o n g l y theoretical orientation pragmatic goals o f t e n t i e d t o concrete policy issues;
with
surprisingly
emphasize organic ties between t h e p r i v a t e a n d p u b l i c sectors;
-
are more interested in t h e media as a system t h a n i t s p a r t i c u l a r contents, more interested i n t h e r e g u l a t o r y apparatus t h a n t h e p a r t i c u l a r effects o f t h e media;
-
a r e more interested i n specific events o r in c u l t u r a l issues a n d a r e more inclined t o take historical a n d c u l t u r a l characteristics i n t o account; whereby t h e real - although implicit - object o f communication studies is none o t h e r than Canada a n d l o r Quebec. I n Liora Salter's view,
n e i t h e r "questions o f consciousness11 ( t y p i c a l of
European studies) n o r factors which influence t h e dissemination o f information (typical o f American
studies)
i n t e r e s t Canadian researchers.
Rather,
it is
questions raised b y l n n i s a n d t h e ensuing analysis o f " t h e relationship between technology and political systems,' between t h e social experiment a n d i t s economic and
technological
(Salter, 1983:48).
framework"
which
typify
Canadian
communication
studies
1 will suggest f u r t h e r t h a t a c e r t a i n s h i f t - a t least as far
as Quebec research is concerned - has o c c u r r e d which privileges questions of consciousness l i n k e d w i t h problems related t o national i d e n t i t y .
T h e 1987 Southam L e c t u r e l R o g e r d e l a Garde Liora Salter's second answer t o t h e question o f t h e "recognizability" o f t h e pardigm
is
to
point
out
the
methodological approaches. orientation"
specificity
of
the
communication it's
More t h a n a methodology,
which characterizes
discipline's
a "methodological
i t a n d which can b e seen a t w o r k
in the
discourse analyses which u n d e r l i e even t h e most marginal o f researches.
But a
ttmethodological orientation,"
even widely shared, does n o t c o n s t i t u t e a paradigm
which can serve as t h e basis f o r a n intellectual discipline.
T h e t i e between
d i f f e r e n t endeavours must b e something o t h e r t h a n methodology, it must b e o f the
order
of
a
problematic.
What
then
is
the
problematic
of
Canadian
communication studies, understood in terms o f a specific intellectual discipline?
If, as suggested b y Liora Salter, "most disciplines a r e defined b y t h e emphasis t h e y place o n a p a r t i c u l a r aspect o f c u l t u r e o r b y t h e p a r t i c u l a r orientation
.I
t h e y choose r e g a r d i n g t h e s t u d y o f c u l t u r e I..
[...I
type o f cultural study
Communications, as a specific
t h e s t u d y of t h e d i f f e r e n t ways information i s made
meaningful f o r those who produce it, d i s t r i b u t e it o r u s e it, b y focusing on t h e processes
of
meaning
and
interpreting
information becomes a message,
[.
..I
and
of
the
ways
in
which
b o t h from t h e p o i n t o f view o f i t s transmission
a n d t h a t o f t h e impact o f technological a n d contextual factors on t h e content o f its
message
understood,
..]
i.e.
[.
and
the
the social
relationship context"
between
what
(Salter,
is
experienced,
In
1983: 55-571.
sum,
"communication r e f e r s t o a process o f construction a n d reconstruction o f reality, of
culture,
of
the
social
discourses
and
their
underlying
logics
[...I
communications studies i n Canada could b e defined as c u l t u r a l studies" (Salter, 1983:55-58). B u t Liora Salter's a r t i c l e published in 1983 a n d t h e Caplan Sauvageau r e p o r t published in 1986 a r e worlds apart.
C u l t u r e i s s t i l l a prevalent issue in
t h e r e p o r t but compared w i t h t h e Salter a r t i c l e it takes on a t o t a l l y d i f f e r e n t meaning.
If one reads t h e r e p o r t a n d t h e annexed papers (a notable exception:
economist Abraham Rotstein's s t u d y ] one i s s t r u c k b y t h e degree t o which t h e "normalization" o f t h e relationship between i n d u s t r y and knowledge has taken place t o t h e detriment o f disinterested scientific work. come
to
set
a
new
T h e time has perhaps
balance a n d t o t a k e u p once again
t h e quest
for
a
problematic common t o all Canadian communications researchers a n d scholars. T h e task a t h a n d i s not,
perhaps,
t o question Liora Salter's postulate t h a t
Canadian communication studies i s t h e s t u d y o f culture,
b u t t o ask ourselves
w h y t h e present context has rendered such a postulate non-operative: t h e sense t h a t c u l t u r e i s n o longer a p e r t i n e n t issue b u t ,
rather,
not i n
why the
s t u d y o f communications as " c u l t u r e " i s p r e s e n t l y perceived as suspicious a n d obsolete.
Even such
topics as t h e "cultural
industries"
-
the very
"indecency" o f t h e concept makes it a n intellectual challenge in i t s e l f - a r e n o longer a n object o f debate a n d even less o f theoretical research.
CANADIAN JOURNAL OF COMMUNICATION,
SPECIAL ISSUE
T h e p o i n t I wish t o make i s if Liora Salter's contention t h a t t h e u n i t y of a lies in i t s problematic and if such a problematic i n Canadian and
discipline
Quebecois studies has been,
could have been o r should b e a n "aspect
culture"
i s well-founded,
i n this
area.
actively
engaged i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f differences"
As
of
it i s p u z z l i n g t o note t h e r e l a t i v e s c a r c i t y o f l i t e r a t u r e
Jean-Pierre
Desaulniers
reminds us,
c u l t u r e i s "a
(1987: 152).
logic
Canada a n d
Quebec e x i s t o n l y t h r o u g h t h e efforts b o t h have made over more t h a n a c e n t u r y t o i d e n t i f y t h e i r differences a n d especially those differences t h a t might e x i s t between each a n d t h e i r common American neighbour.
A g r e a t number of papers
a n d r e p o r t s are w r i t t e n on t h e p r o d u c t i o n a n d m a r k e t i n g o f Canadian and Quebecois c u l t u r a l marketing.
A
purchase o f
"goods"
and
on
the
benefits
of
such
production
and
g r e a t deal has also been said on t h e import a n d extensive
foreign
llcultural" deficit.
i.e.
American,
products and the
dangers
of
such a
Too often however, " c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s " a r e synonymous w i t h
"Made i n Canada" o r i n "French Quebec." i n consuming "foreign"
i.e.,
A n d too often, t h e hazards involved
American-made
c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s are set o u t i n
terms o f acculturation, i .e. Americanization. What must remain t h e central issue f o r researchers a r e t h e concepts o f I1culture" a n d " i d e n t i t y " a n d t h e relationship between these concepts and actual practices b o t h i n i n d u s t r i e s which a r e e f f e c t i v e l y engaged in t h e production o f differences
and b y o r d i n a r y
people who
"dis-engage"
from
industrial
according t o t h e dictates o f a d i f f e r e n t logic anchored i n t h e i r d a i l y lives. o t h e r words, we a r e p r o n e t o take f o r g r a n t e d t h a t c u l t u r e
exists,
logic In
t h a t it must
b e protected and t h a t i n o r d e r t o p r o t e c t it we must b e n d o v e r backwards t o make t h i n g s as easy as possible f o r i n d u s t r i a l champions o f c u l t u r a l defence, namely t h e media a n d a d v e r t i s i n g agencies.
A t t h e same time we f o r g e t t h a t
those i n d u s t r i e s are f i r s t and foremost commercial enterprises which benefit from equating
our c u l t u r a l
interests w i t h
their entrepreneurial
interests.
I n sum, taxpayers a r e asked i n t h e name o f c u l t u r a l differences t o r a l l y around t h e flag o f a Canadian-Quebecois c u l t u r e .
T h e y a r e asked t o make t h e i r
c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e war e f f o r t o f politicians and entrepreneurs,
against t h e
enemies o f o u r c u l t u r a l state a n d f o r t h e sole b e n e f i t o f looking a t themselves in t h e m i r r o r o f t h e mass media, so as n o t t o f o r g e t who t h e y are.
Furthermore,
whenever a p u b l i c o r p r i v a t e organization o r even a few researchers take it u p o n themselves t o ask:
"what is culture"
m y s t e r y o f o u r national i d e n t i t y ,
they
i n t h e hope o f elucidating t h e
immediately proceed t o analyzing t h e
s t r u c t u r e o f t h e m i r r o r , a n d i t s content, w i t h o u t e v e r casting a glance a t t h e people i n f r o n t o f t h e m i r r o r . national c u l t u r e ,
It is too r e a d i l y assumed t h a t c u l t u r e , especially
can b e reduced t o t h e equation between a n onlooker - o r
v o y e u r - and h i s o r h e r reflection.
Such t h i n k i n g assumes:
T h e 1987 Southam LecturelRoger d e la Garde t h a t c u l t u r a l activities a r e acts o f intellectual recognition whereby t h e t r u e Canadian o r t r u e Quebecois recognizes h i s o r h e r c u l t u r e .
Canadians and
Quebocois d o n ' t know what t h e i r c u l t u r e i s b u t t h e y s u r e can recognize it. T h i s i s b e t t e r know as t h e "1111 know it when I see it" syndrome; that
culture,
somewhere,
by
definition,
is
static.
It
is
an
object
that
exists
has always existed since it belongs t o t r a d i t i o n a n d must n o t
b e l e f t o u t o f sight. T h a t i s t h e reason w h y we have specially designated people t o r e m i n d us o f such t h i n g s from time t o time a n d if we sometimes f a i l t o recognize o u r c u l t u r e u n d e r outdated trappings,
special c u l t u r e - p r e s e r v i n g agents w i l l dress
i t up according t o t h e latest fashion, o r , if need be, g i v e it a face lift.
Thus
f o r example, can b e seen i n r o c k music as well as in t h e
Quebecois culture,
Montreal Symphony Orchestra,
in o u r multi-billion
dollar "hold u p u i.e.,
H y d r o dams as well as in o u r b i l l i o n dollar "cover
upu1 i.e.,
the
the Montreal
Olympic Stadium. From t h e "distinct" broadcast r e p o r t b y Caplan-Sauvageau t o t h e " d i s t i n c t societyll o f t h e Meech Lake agreement It i s interesting,
t h e Caplan-Sauvageau
I would even say fascinating,
t o compare Chapter 3 of
Report, e n t i t l e d "French-speaking
w i t h t h e communique issued a t Meech Lake.
radio a n d television"
B o t h documents attempt more o r
less implicitly t o define Quebec, a n d b y inference, Canada.
T h e Report makes
reference t o a " p a r t i c u l a r " society a n d t h e communique, t o a " d i s t i n c t " society. B o t h p o i n t t o t h e F r e n c h language as a d i s t i n c t i v e trait. experts Quebec,
who spoke before French
confederation.
is
the
the
Commission o n
main d i s t i n c t i v e
Parliamentary
feature
A n d w h y t h e F r e n c h language?
According t o some
of
Quebec
Institutions i n society
within
No one suggests t h a t t h e whole
o f t h e Quebecois c u l t u r e i s reducible, o r equated, t o t h e French language.
But
many agree t h a t t h e French language represents a unique b r e e d i n g g r o u n d f o r t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f c u l t u r a l reference p o i n t s a n d differentiation in Quebec,
"a
logic which (can) actively engage in t h e production o f differences." Now this,
it seems t o me i s a n ideal topic f o r communication researchers;
t h e analysis o f p u b l i c documents whose d i f f e r e n t a u t h o r s suggest t h a t t h e d i s t i n c t i v e feature o f a g i v e n society i s n o t technological in n a t u r e b u t c u l t u r a l a n d who f u r t h e r m o r e contend t h a t t h e d i s t i n c t i v e feature o f a g i v e n technology, namely r a d i o technology, i s also o f a c u l t u r a l nature. radio technology,
b e it French-speaking
Quebec: i t ' s t h e o t h e r way around.
or
not,
In o t h e r words, it i s n o t w h i c h defines
culture
in
If t h i s i s t h e case, it i s time t o abandon
t h e p r e s e n t theoretical models which have encouraged u s t o believe t h a t c u l t u r e i s static a n d t h e media dynamic, a n d which have led u s t o measure a n d evaluate
CANADIAN JOURNAL OF COMMUNICATION, SPECIAL ISSUE
19
T h e time has come t o t u r n
t h e effects o f t h e dynamic i n terms o f t h e static.
t h a t perspective e n d o v e r e n d a n d t o realise t h a t mass media i n s t i t u t i o n s a r e static.
I n spite o f t h e i r advanced d i s t r i b u t i o n networks a n d technology,
media are slow a n d ponderous bureaucracies. seen as dynamic.
the
It is c u l t u r e which should b e
Such an about-face would focus o u r research e f f o r t s o n t h e
process o f de-construction
a n d re-construction o f t h e mass mediated processes
of communication, it would rediscover t h e user, t h e receiver, men a n d women as
We would t h u s b e compelled t o speak
subjects r a t h e r than as objects. user instead o f
about t h e
to
the
user, t o recognize h i s o r h e r logic which i s n e i t h e r
I f c u l t u r e belongs n e i t h e r t o t h e
t h e media's nor, let u s hope, t h e scientist's.
media n o r t o scientists, it belongs t o those who p r o d u c e it, t h a t is, t o o r d i n a r y T h e y should perhaps b e g i v e n t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o address the subject.
people.
I am
not
saying
we
should
open
the
doors
to
outrageous
forms
of
subjectivism which would reject careful analysis a n d d i s c a r d acquired scientific knowledge.
I n p a r t i c u l a r , we should n o t lose s i g h t o f t h e fact t h a t t h e r e a r e
hierarchies, t h a t power s t r u g g l e s a r e a t work, of
t h a t t h e r e a r e s t r u c t u r a l forms
domination a n d t h a t strategies o f resistance a r e a t play i n t h e logic o f A c u l t u r e i s d i s t i n c t n o t o n l y in comparison t o o t h e r c u l t u r e s b u t also
culture.
i n comparison t o itself.
Which means t h a t if Quebec c u l t u r e can b e recognized
b y i t s p a r t i c u l a r logic o f d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n a n d if t h a t logic i s actively a t w o r k in a g i v e n language, t h e n it m i g h t well b e t h a t i t s c u l t u r a l practices a r e formed in reaction t o other l i n g u i s t i c logics spoken outside as well as inside t h e Quebec landscape.
I f Quebecers share "ways o f t h i n k i n g ,
being" t h a t differentiate them from others,
doing things,
feeling o r
it can b e said t h a t such "ways1I
were devised, so t o speak, a n d continue t o b e devised, because Quebecers a r e showing resistance t o something. homogeneous,
the
Unless one considers Quebec as p e r f e c t l y ,
r e a l i t y o f several d i f f e r e n t c u l t u r a l
logics w i t h i n Quebec
society must b e recognized as well as t h e preponderance o f one o f them.
If
"Quebec
is
"actively
culture"
corresponds
engaged
in
t o something real,
producing
differences"
-
it's one
because one logic culture
-
has
been
institutionalized t o g i v e it a dominant status a n d t o create t h e institutions t o legitimize i t s dominance.
If c u l t u r e i s dynamic,
it is because several logics a r e interacting w i t h i n
a n y historical time a n d space. culture-producing
institutions:
T h i s i s especially t r u e w i t h i n t h e t w o major t h e mass media a n d t h e educational system.
It
i s here t h a t communication scholars need t o search f o r a u n i f y i n g problematic. A n inconclusive conclusion Before ending t h i s lecture, Innis,
it
there
life after
the
I must explain t h e meaning o f i t s title: American
Empire?
The
reference
to
"Mr. Denys
T h e 1987 Southam L e c t u r e I R o g e r d e l a C a r d e
20 Arcand's
latest f i l m
American
Empire)
I1Le d e c l i n d e I1empire am6ricain"
r e f l e c t e d g l o r y f r o m t h e success o f t h i s film. o f t h i s title.
( T h e Decline o f
I n fact,
the
I sought
i s obvious a n d some w i l l n o d o u b t believe t h a t
there are two readings
F i r s t , it may r e f e r t o o u r witnessing t h e "decline" o f t h e empire
p r o f e s s o r l n n i s d e s c r i b e d i n t h e closing p a r a g r a p h s o f h i s i n a u g u r a l p r e s i d e n t i a l address t o t h e Royal Society o f Canada i n 1947: T h e I n d u s t r i a l Revolution a n d mechanized knowledge have a l l b u t d e s t r o y e d t h e scholar's influence. Force i s n o l o n g e r concerned w i t h h i s p r o t e c t i o n a n d i s a c t i v e l y engaged i n schemes f o r h i s d e s t r u c t i o n . Enormous improvements in communication h a v e made u n d e r s t a n d i n g more d i f f i c u l t . E v e n science, mathematics, a n d music as t h e last r e f u g e o f t h e Western m i n d h a v e come u n d e r t h e spell o f t h e mechanized v e r n a c u l a r . Commercialism has r e q u i r e d t h e c r e a t i o n o f new monopolies i n language a n d new d i f f i c u l t i e s i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g . Even t h e class s t r u g g l e , t h e s t r u g g l e between language g r o u p s , has been made a monopoly o f language ( I n n i s , 1951 :3O-31). The
quotation
might
corroborate
Innis'
pessimistic
-
outlook
to
wit:
"These h u r r i e d a n d u n c e r t a i n f l i g h t s ( f r o m Constantinople) h a v e l e f t ( M i n e r v a ' s owl)
l i t t l e e n e r g y a n d h a v e l e f t it open t o a t t a c k
(lnnis:30).
from numerous enemies"
B u t o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t o u s e I n n i s 1 own words,
could t h e title
n o t also b e c o n s t r u e d as a "plea f o r consideration o f t h e o r a l t r a d i t i o n as a basis
for
(lnnis:32)?
a
revival
of
effective
I n o t h e r words,
vital
discussion"
and
effective
democracy
i s n ' t l n n i s a s k i n g u s t o escape t h e spell o f t h e
"mechanized v e r n a c u l a r " r e p r e s e n t e d b y t h e s t u d y a n d t h e p o l i t i c s o f t h e mass media i n d u s t r i e s , i n f a v o u r o f s t u d y i n g t h e logics i n v o l v e d i n o r d i n a r y people's p r o d u c t i o n a n d communication o f c u l t u r e ? T h e l e c t u r e t i t l e can b e r e a d i n a second way t r e a d o n dangerous g r o u n d ) .
( a n d h e r e I am a b o u t t o
It may r e f e r t o t h e decline o f t h e intellectual
empire w h i c h I n n i s 1 disciples h a v e b u i l t w i t h i n Canadian communication studies. Empires r i s e a n d f a l l a n d t h e s c i e n t i f i c community i s n o t immune t o t h e " c u l t u r a l d i s t u r b a n c e s " t h a t pave t h e way f o r new empires.
Have we embarked o n a sea
o f intellectual calm following t h e r i s e o f t h e l n n i s empire w i t h i n t h e s c i e n t i f i c community a n d a r e we f a l l i n g p r e y t o t h e "commodification o f knowledge"
with
i t s monopolistic discourse o r a r e we o n t h e e v e o f r e n e w i n g o u r problematic, even
if it means
living
through
a
period o f
"disturbances,"
of
vigorous
debates. . a n d o f democracy? References
*
T r a n s l a t i o n b y Michel d e Repentigy, Laval U n i v e r s i t y .
Canada (1986). R a p p o r t d u G r o u p e d e t r a v a i l s u r la p o l i t i q u e d e la radiodiffusion, Ottawa, m i n i s t r e des Approvisionnements e t Services Canada, 755 p p . + annexes.
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SPECIAL ISSUE
21
Desaulniers, Jean-Pierre (1985). W h a t does Canada want? o r L1histoire sans IeCon," Media, C u l t u r e & Society, Vol. 9, No. 2, pp. 148-57. Desaulniers, Jean-Pierre (1985). " L ~ s emp0rtement.S sociographiques, Vol. XXVI, No. 3, pp. 457-66.
culturels,"
Innis, Harold A. (1951). T h e Bias of Communication, T o r o n t o Press, 214 pp. + index.
Toronto,
Recherches University o f
Lacroix, Jean-Guy et Benoit Levesque (1985a). "L16mergence et ~ I i n s t i t u t i o n n a l i s a t i o n d e la recherche e n communication a u Q ~ B b e c , ~ ~ Communication e t Information, Vol. 7, No. 2, pp. 7-31. Lacroix Jean-Guy e t Benoit Ldvesque (1985b3, "Principaux themes e t courants thboriques dans la l i t t e r a t u r e scientifique en communication a u Qu6bec,ll Communication e t Information, Vol. 7, No. 3, pp. 153-211. Salter, Liora (1983). llL1ktude de la communication: evolution dlune discipline a u Canada," Communication Information, Vol. 5, Nos. 213, pp. 37-62. Schlesinger, Philip (19871, "On national i d e n t i t y : some conceptions a n d misconceptions criticized," Social Science Information_, Vol. 26, No. 2, pp. 219-264. Simard, Carole (1984). "La c u l t u r e institutionnalis6e. Questions d e culture, Vol. 7, pp. 149-63.
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