Carbon isotope characterization of powder river basin ...

COGEL-02216; No of Pages 14 International Journal of Coal Geology xxx (2013) xxx–xxx

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Carbon isotope characterization of powder river basin coal bed waters: Key to minimizing unnecessary water production and implications for exploration and production of biogenic gas☆ Scott A. Quillinan a,b,⁎, Carol D. Frost a a b

Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of Wyoming Dept. 3006, 1000 E. University Ave., Laramie, WY 82071, USA Carbon Management Institute, School of Energy Resources, University of Wyoming, 2020 Grand Avenue Suit 500, Laramie, WY 82071, USA

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history: Received 1 April 2013 Received in revised form 27 September 2013 Accepted 1 October 2013 Available online xxxx Keywords: Coalbed methane Carbon isotope Powder River Basin Biogenic gas Produced water Reservoir characterization

a b s t r a c t Compared to other natural waters, water associated with biogenic natural gas is enriched in 13-carbon. Shallow coal seams regularly contain abundant resources of biogenic gas; as such water associated with biogenic gas in these coal beds is isotopically distinct from other waters. The production of gas from coal beds requires the removal of large volumes of produced water. Thus a method of discerning coalbed reservoir water from other natural waters (surface and groundwater) is important to both the coalbed natural gas (CBNG) industry and associated environmental and regulatory agencies. Although isotopic tracers have been employed to identify coalbed natural gas produced waters, the isotopic variability within the reservoir has not been documented and explained. In this study, we present the isotopic compositions of dissolved inorganic carbon, oxygen and hydrogen for water produced from 197 CBNG wells in the Powder River Basin of Wyoming and Montana. This extensive database allows us to distinguish variations in isotopic compositions that may occur by multiple processes. These include variations that identify efficient dewatering of coal beds, variations characterizing incomplete hydraulic isolation of coal beds from adjacent strata and the subsequent mixing of groundwaters, variations related to well completion design, and variations associated with geochemical and biogenic processes that occur along groundwater flow paths. These data suggest that little change in δ13CDIC occurs within the reservoir as a result of water and gas production; thus, the carbon isotopic composition informs other processes within the reservoir unrelated to coalbed natural gas recovery. The δ13CDIC and δD of groundwater vary along flow-path across the basin, reflecting different methanogenic pathways that are associated with different isotopic fractionations, and the pathways that dominate in different areas within the basin. In areas where several producing coal seams are present, the δ13CDIC and δD of produced waters from each seam are distinct. Therefore on a local scale, the isotopic composition of produced water can identify the particular coal seam from which water and gas are withdrawn. The methods and results presented in this case study provide examples that illustrate how water quality and isotopic data can be used to determine the hydraulic connectivity between coal and non-coal strata, identify and quantify water from individual coal horizons, as well as predict and understand the isotopic variability of the reservoir. © 2013 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Strongly positive δ13CDIC (N10‰) have been documented in produced water from several biogenic gas-producing fields, including the Antrim Shale, New Albany Shale, Forest City Basin shales and coals, Atlantic Rim coals, and the Powder River Basin coals (Martini et al., 1998, ☆ This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. ⁎ Corresponding author at: Carbon Management Institute, School of Energy Resources, University of Wyoming, 2020 Grand Avenue Suit 500, Laramie, WY 82071, USA. Tel.: +1 307 766 6697. E-mail address: [email protected] (S.A. Quillinan).

2003; McIntosh et al., 2008; McLaughlin et al., 2011; Quillinan et al., 2012; Sharma and Frost, 2008). Studies have used this diagnostic characteristic of water associated with biogenic gas generation to trace produced water on the surface (Sharma and Frost, 2008) and in the subsurface (Martini et al., 1998; McLaughlin et al., 2011; Sharma and Frost, 2008). The basis for the tracer lies in the fact that most natural waters have negative δ13CDIC (−12 to −7‰; Mook and Tan, 1991) while waters associated with biogenic gas are positive (+ 10 to + 30‰; Grossman et al., 1989). Enriched δ13CDIC are recorded in reducing environments where the production of biogenic methane, either by acetate fermentation or by CO2 reduction, removes 12C, leaving 13C-enriched CO2 in the system, which accounts for the positive δ13CDIC in formation waters (Grossman et al., 1989). Intermediate

0166-5162/$ – see front matter © 2013 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2013.10.006

Please cite this article as: Quillinan, S.A., Frost, C.D., Carbon isotope characterization of powder river basin coal bed waters: Key to minimizing unnecessary water production and implications for exploration..., Int. J. Coal Geol. (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2013.10.006

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S.A. Quillinan, C.D. Frost / International Journal of Coal Geology xxx (2013) xxx–xxx

values may reflect mixing of these two types of natural waters (Martini et al., 1998; McLaughlin et al., 2011; Quillinan et al., 2012; Sharma and Frost, 2008). This study seeks to understand both the natural isotopic variations of water within a biogenic natural gas reservoir along with any that are induced as a result of gas production. We have selected the Powder River Basin (PRB) of Montana and Wyoming for our study, a mature and well-studied biogenic coalbed natural gas (CBNG) field, which contain thousands of producing CBNG wells (Fig. 1). The PRB in northeastern Wyoming and southeastern Montana is an asymmetric syncline formed during the Laramide orogeny in Late Cretaceous to Early Eocene times. The coals in the PRB are found within the Tongue River member of the Paleocene Fort Union Formation and the overlying Eocene Wasatch Formation (Love and Christiansen, 1985). The Tongue River Member of the Fort Union Formation hosts the thick, laterally continuous coal beds that are mined on the eastern side of the basin and contain CBNG across the basin (WOGCC, 1987– 2010). Jones (2008) has identified 10 distinct coal zones that contain 26 mappable coal beds within the Tongue River Member and in the Wasatch Formation (Fig. 2). The natural gas resource from these coal beds is estimated to hold more than 30 trillion cubic feet (TCF, 850 billionm3) of recoverable methane (Wyoming State Geological Survey, 2010) of which b5 TCF (141 billion m3) has been recovered (WOGCC, 1987–2010).

2. Background PRB coals are primarily subbituminous. Because of their low rank, PRB coals have not generated large quantities of thermogenic gas (Montgomery, 1999). CBNG from the Fort Union Formation has C1 / C2 + C3 ratios from 1000 to 4000 with a few lower values in the deepest part of the basin (Flores et al., 2008), indicating that it is almost exclusively of biogenic origin. Biogenic gas is commonly associated with shallow (less than 600 m), organic-rich rocks that are thermally immature (Shurr and Ridgley, 2002). Two metabolic pathways have been identified to produce biogenic gas: acetate fermentation and CO2 reduction (Jenden and Kaplan, 1986; Schoell, 1980; Whiticar et al., 1986; Woltemate et al, 1984). Gasses originating from the fermentation pathway are generally more enriched with respect to carbon-13 and more depleted in deuterium than gas generated via CO2 reduction. In CO2 reduction the carbon isotope ratio of the methane is controlled by the initial carbon isotope composition of the CO2 (Shurr and Ridgley, 2002). CH3 COOH→CH4 þ CO2 ðAcetate fermentationÞ

ð1Þ

CO2 þ 4H2 →CH4 þ 2H2 OðCO2 reductionÞ

ð2Þ

CO2 is readily available in most coal beds as a result of carbonate dissolution and bacterial processes (Freeze and Cherry, 1979). Most bacteria generate methane through CO2 reduction (Rice, 1993), although several species utilize the fermentation pathway most commonly acting on an acetate substrate. The metabolic pathway also varies with time: biogenic gas that is generated early in the coal bed burial history likely results from the carbonate reduction pathway (Rice, 1992 and Rice and Claypool, 1981). Biogenic gas formed long after deposition can be a result of either acetate fermentation or by carbonate reduction (Barker and Fritz, 1981; Carothers and Kharaka, 1980; Coleman et al., 1988; Grossman et al., 1989; and Rice and Threlkheld, 1982) and is found in coal beds of all ranks (Rice, 1993). Montgomery (1999) noted that Fort Union coal beds contain significant quantities of biogenic gas. On the basis of this observation Shurr and Ridgley (2002) suggest that the PRB coals have remained at depths suitable for biogenic gas production for extensive periods, allowing for both ancient and recent biogenic gas generation. Recent

bacterial gas generation has been documented on the basin margins, whereas early-stage (older) gas generation is theorized to have occurred across the basin (Flores et al., 2008; Shurr and Ridgley, 2002). Similar to the San Juan (U.S.), Surat (Aus.), and Sydney (Aus.) basins, recent biogenic gas on the margins of the PRB has been found to form by the acetate fermentation and CO2 reduction pathways (Faiz et al., 2003; Flores et al., 2008; Gorody, 1999; Moore, 2012; Rice, 1993 and Whiticar et al., 1986). The shallow nature of PRB coals also leads to low sorbed gas content. Gas content from these coals ranges from 22 to 74 cubic feet per ton (0.6 to 2 m3/t). The chemical composition of the gas in Fort Union coal beds of the Powder River Basin is, on average, 86% methane, 6% carbon dioxide, and 4% nitrogen (Flores et al., 2008). The methane produced from the Powder River Basin has a δ13CCH4 of − 83.4‰ to − 53.4‰ and a δD CH4 of − 333‰ to − 283.4‰ (Flores et al., 2008; Gorody, 1999; Rice, 1993). Flores et al. (2008) observed depleted CH4 with respect to carbon on the basin margins and enriched gas in the center of the basin. They suggested that this is a result of methanogenesis by mixed acetate fermentation and CO2 reduction pathways on the basin margins and dominantly by CO2 reduction in the center of the basin. Isotopes of hydrogen of the formation water also are fractionated during methanogenesis, creating isotopically light methane. During acetate fermentation, 25% of the hydrogen is supplied from the formation water as compared to 100% for CO2 reduction (Whiticar et al., 1986). The δD of formation water may be enriched by methanogenesis (Clark and Fritz, 1997; Quillinan, 2011; Siegel et al., 1990) to a greater degree by CO2 reduction than by acetate fermentation. However δD is not considered a reliable indicator of methanogenic pathways (Waldron et al., 1999). The δD and δ18O of precipitation lie along the global meteoric water line (δD = 8δ18O + 10‰; from Craig, 1961). Produced water that originates as meteoric water should also lie approximately along this line. The exact position is a function of temperature (Craig, 1961). Meteoric recharge for Fort Union coal beds in the PRB takes place on the basin margins (Bartos and Ogle, 2002 and references therein; Quillinan and Frost, 2012). These models suggest that residence times of water in coal bed aquifers increase with increasing depth and distance from the outcrop. On the basis of limited tritium data and simple ground water flow models, Pearson (2002) suggested that the residence time for water to flow from eastern recharge to the central part of the basin was between 7000 and 70,000 years. 14 C dating by Frost and Brinck (2005) further refined this estimate to less than 20,000 years. Water derived from coal beds in the Powder River Basin have δ18O that ranges from − 21.5‰ to − 16.15‰ and δD ranging from − 158.4‰ to − 121.3‰ (Bartos and Ogle, 2002; Flores et al., 2008; Gorody, 1999). The δ13CDIC of waters measured from the Upper and Lower Wyodak coal zone range from 12‰ to 22‰ (Sharma and Frost, 2008). These waters are strongly sodium bicarbonate-type, with total dissolved solid (TDS) concentrations that range from 500 to 5600 mg/L (Bartos and Ogle, 2002; Campbell et al., 2008; Frost et al., 2002; Pearson, 2002; Quillinan, 2011; Rice et al., 2000). The TDS of these waters is found to increase along approximate groundwater flow paths from the southern and eastern margins toward the basin center. This geospatial trend is observed in all coal zones (Quillinan and Frost, 2012). 3. Methods Samples were collected from the major exploited coal zones for CBNG development (Quillinan and Frost, 2012): the Wyodak Rider, Upper Wyodak, Lower Wyodak, Cook and Wall coal zones (Fig. 2). We analyzed 181 produced water samples from wells in Wyoming and 16 from wells in Montana for stable isotopic compositions of



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Fig. 1. Sample location map of the Powder River Basin study area. Color of the dots marking the sample locations identify the coal zone in which the well is completed. Some well pads contain more than one well; symbols for these wells are enclosed by boxes.


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were used to calculate the δ18O and δ2H composition of each water sample. Measurement precision was assessed by replicate analysis of samples and internal UWSIF lab standards and was better than ±0.4‰ for δ18O and ±0.6‰ δ2H. The δ18O and δ2H values are reported in per mil (‰) relative to V-SMOW (Fig. 4). Cation concentrations were determined using ICP MS, anions by ion chromatography, and the alkalinity by potentiometric titration. Geochemical data are reported in Quillinan (2011). 4. Results 4.1. General characteristics of PRB CBNG produced waters

Fig. 2. Powder River Basin coal stratigraphy. From Jones (2008; per. comm., 2010).

carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen. Major ion compositions for these water samples are presented in Quillinan (2011). The water samples were taken from the valve at the wellhead, and all wells were pumping at the time of sampling, obviating the need to remove several casing volumes of water from the wells prior to sample collection. Water samples were collected into 250 mL acid washed bottles. From this sample, 4 aliquots were prepared all of which were filtered using a Cameo 0.045 μm nylon pre-filter that was attached to the tip of a syringe. All the samples were filled to the point of overspill to eliminate headspace. One 30 mL sample was prepared for carbon isotopic analysis as follows: water was drawn into a 60 cc pre-rinsed Luer-lock syringe and dispensed into a 30 mL Wheaton vial. Two to three drops of benzalkonium chloride was added to halt microbial activity. The Wheaton vial was capped with Teflon® septa and sealed with an aluminum cap using a crimper. One 10mL sample was captured in a glass vial for deuterium and oxygen isotope analysis. Two samples were prepared for water chemistry analysis into 30 mL acid washed plastic bottles, one of which was acidified using 0.5 mL of HNO3 for cation analysis. Carbon isotope ratios of dissolved inorganic carbon were analyzed on a GasBench-II device coupled to a Finnigan DELTA plus mass spectrometer in the Stable Isotope Facility at the University of Wyoming (UWSIF). The accuracy was monitored by replicate analysis of the samples and internal lab standards, and was found to be accurate to ±0.1‰. The δ13C values are reported in per mil relative to V-PDB standard (Fig. 3). The oxygen and hydrogen isotope analysis of the water samples were analyzed on a Liquid Water Isotope Analyzer (LWIA) developed by Los Gatos Research (model DLT-100) installed at UWSIF. The system uses off-axis integrated-cavity output spectroscopy (off-axis ICOS), which measures isotope ratios based on laser absorption. Ten replicate injections of ~1μL

The δ18O of produced water from PRB coal beds ranges from −26.3‰ to −16.9‰. In general, the δ18O and δD are depleted with respect to PRB surface waters measured by Carter (2008). This suggests that CBNG waters were likely recharged during a colder climate than the present day (Fig. 4). On average the most depleted δ18O are found in waters produced from the stratigraphically-lowest coal beds (Wall coal zone) in the northeast of the study area, while the most enriched values are found in water produced from coals near the southeast margin closest to outcrop. The most depleted δD values, like the most depleted δ18O values, are found in waters from the stratigraphically lowest coals in the northeast portion of the study. The large range measured in the northeast of the study area indicates that these coals are recharged under differing meteoric conditions. The fact that these samples are found within close proximity of each other (Fig. 1) may indicate the coal beds are compartmentalized in that area. The samples with the most enriched δD (− 131.0‰) are measured in the northern edge of the Big George coal bed (Wyodak Rider coal zone) near the center of the basin. Samples from this location do not have the most enriched δ18O. The δ13CDIC of CBNG produced water is positive (typically + 10 to + 25‰) where collected from single-completion wells irrespective of coal zone (Fig. 3). In deeper coal beds positive δ13CDIC values decrease along groundwater flow paths. Variable, including negative, δ13CDIC are measured in wells that are shallow (generally b180 m), are completed in multiple coal beds, or have open-hole completions that extend beyond a single coal bed (Fig. 3; Table 1). Coals from two geographic areas with relatively shallow wells appear to be characterized by depleted δ13CDIC and δD: coals from an area of Montana producing from the Dietz 1, 2 and 3, and coals in an area in the southern PRB where one shallow well is completed in the Anderson-Canyon (Fig. 3). It is possible that these samples have been affected by methane oxidation, which creates a positive shift in δD and δ13C of methane and leaves DIC depleted in the heavy isotope of carbon (Clark and Fritz, 1997). Isotopic analysis of methane would be required to further evaluate this hypothesis; since only 6 of 197 samples appear to be affected, we do not consider this process further in this paper. The salinity of CBNG water is mainly contributed by dissolved sodium and bicarbonate ions. Calcium and magnesium concentrations increase in the shallow wells at low alkalinity until they reach saturation. Sulfate contents are typically very low and in only a few of the shallow wells are sulfate contents above detection limits. 4.2. General characteristics of surface water and waters from non-coal PRB aquifers Three samples were measured that were not associated with coal beds, these were used to confirm that water not associated with methanogenesis is characterized by negative δ13CDIC. These included one surface water sample from Crazy Woman Creek to supplement the 30-sample δ13CDIC water data set from the Powder River collected by Carter (2008), and two water samples from wells completed in the Cretaceous Fox Hills and Fox Hills/Lyons Formations. The δ13CDIC of these samples ranged from −7.8 to −9.1 (Fig. 4). The surface water



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Fig. 3. δ13CDIC are shown by coal bed and coal zone. Non-coal bed waters include a surface water sample and two samples from the Cretaceous Fox hills and Lyons formations. Note the consistent enrichment in all coal zones and the comparably low values in the multi-zone of the Wyodak split and Dietz 1, 2, and 3.

sample is Ca–SO4 type. The Fox Hills and Lyons samples are Na–HCO3type. 5. Discussion The goals of this study include understanding both the natural stable isotopic variations within produced waters from coal beds along with those that are induced as a result of gas production. In order to evaluate

whether stable isotope compositions, particularly carbon isotopic ratios, can fingerprint specific coal beds, or to identify the extent to which the carbon isotopic composition of produced waters varies spatially, we first must determine whether there is any time-dependence of carbon isotopic compositions. Accordingly, we first evaluate whether there is any correlation between the length of time that a well has been producing water and gas and the δ13CDIC of the produced water. 5.1. Relationship of δ13C to years of gas production

Fig. 4. δD as a function of δ18O PRB produced waters are depleted with respect to PRB surface waters from Carter (2008). This indicates that coal bed aquifers were recharged during cooler climatic conditions than present day.

Prior to this study, the number of δ13CDIC analyses of coal bed produced water were too limited to evaluate the possibility that the carbon isotopic composition of water produced from a given well might change over time. However, there are processes by which a change might occur. For example, it might be the case that as water is withdrawn from a coal seam and the seam is depressurized, water from adjacent strata is drawn into the coal. If the non-coal strata above or below the coal have distinct δ13CDIC, then the water withdrawn from the coalbed well may change with time. Non-coal aquifers typically have water with negative δ13CDIC, so we might predict a decrease in δ13CDIC of produced water with time. Two variables are considered to investigate temporal changes in δ13CDIC, the first consideration is the length of time the well has been producing water and the second is the volume of water that has been produced from the well. The samples analyzed in this study were collected from wells that were completed between 1994 and 2008. We plot the δ13CDIC of produced water from 147 wells with single completions as a function of the year that the well was completed by coal seam (Fig. 5 a, b, and c). The δ13CDIC of produced water from the Wyodak coal zone varies from 13.2 to 20.1‰, with no time-dependent variation as a function of age of the well (Fig. 5a). This is despite a very large difference in the total


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Table 1 Statistical summary of isotopic compositions measured in groundwater of Powder River Basin coal beds. Coal zone

Wyodak Rider Upper Wyodak

Lower Wyodak

Cook Wall a

Coal bed sample subset

Big George Big George—Lower Smith Anderson Wyodak Anderson-Canyona Deitz 1 Deitz 1, 2, and 3a Big George-Canyona Lower Canyon Lower Canyon-Wall Cook (Werner) Wall

No. of samples

112 3 5 15 15 13 3 1 1 2 5 13

Total depth range (ft)

Spud date (yr)

Isotopic ratios

1000–2620 1256–1313 685–900 620–1222 408–652 191–552 346–508 1166 782 10,341,085 965–1845 960–2290

2000–2008 2004–2005 2002–2003 1994,1997–2002 2005–2006 – – 2003 2001 2003 2002, 2005–2006 2001–2005

δ13C‰

δ18O‰

δD‰

Min

Mean

Max

Min

Mean

Max

Min

Mean

Max

−8.7 13.2 12.9 13.2 −24.7 −23.4 −24.1 – – 21.3 13.2 10.5

13.5 13.2 21.0 17.4 0.7 5.2 −15.2 22.2 21.8 21.3 16.8 16.8

24.5 13.6 24.1 21.0 8.4 14.5 −8.7 – – 21.3 20.9 22.3

−152.5 −134.1 −145.5 −147.8 −144.3 −164.1 −169.5 – – −186.9 −145.4 −208.5

−137.8 −135.8 −142.2 −143.3 −137.1 −142.5 −169.5 −150.7 −151.0 −186.8 −140.7 −162.1

−131.0 −137.0 −134.2 −140.7 −134.6 −134.2 −162.8 −150.7 −151.0 −186.7 −136.4 −141.7

−20.9 −18.4 −19.2 −19.1 −18.7 −20.4 −21.8 – – −23.2 −19.7 −26.3

−18.2 −18.1 −18.8 −18.5 −17.7 −18.1 −20.0 −19.0 −18.5 −23.2 −19.0 −20.7

−16.9 −17.6 −17.9 −17.4 −17.3 −17.0 −20.4 – – −23.1 −18.2 −17.3

Identifies wells with multiple horizon production.

amount of water withdrawn from the oldest wells compared to the younger ones: The oldest well, drilled in 1994, has produced nearly 800,000 barrels (1.2 × 108 L) of water compared to the wells drilled in 2002 that have produced on average 275,000 barrels (4.3 × 107 L) of water per well (Fig. 5b). We note that the 1994-Wyodak well has not produced gas since 2002 (WOGCC, 1987–2010). The fact that the δ13CDIC of the produced water is still comparable to that of water from other Wyodak wells suggests that even though the gas from the seam

has been exhausted, the water is still originating from the coal aquifer. This suggests that the Wyodak coal bed is hydraulically isolated from other strata. Although the produced water samples from the Big George exhibit a larger variation in δ13CDIC (13.0 to 24.5‰) than do the samples from the Wyodak coal zone, they likewise exhibit no temporal variation in carbon isotopic composition (Fig. 5b). The oldest wells, completed in 2000 and which have produced an average of nearly 2.3 million gal (3.6 × 107 L) of

Fig. 5. The δ13CDIC for the Big George, Wyodak and Wall coal beds sorted by the first year of reported production. Even wells that have been producing for several years have comparable δ13CDIC to new wells.



water are isotopically indistinguishable from the wells completed in 2008 from which only 8700 gal (3.2 x 104 L) were withdrawn before sampling (WOGCC, 1987–2010). The isotopic variations are most likely related to the large differences in well depth in the Big George sample set, and are discussed below. Alternatively, variable δ13CDIC could suggest local lack of confinement within the reservoir. Cumulative water production from the Wall coal zone wells analyzed in this study varies from 400,000 barrels (6.4 × 108 L) for the oldest wells to 44,000 (7.0 × 106 L) for the youngest ones. Wells completed between 2001 and 2004 yielded produced water samples that showed no trend in δ13CDIC with time; these ranged from 10.5‰ to 22.3‰. The youngest well, completed in 2005, has slightly more enriched δ13CDIC, with δ13CDIC of 22.3‰ (Fig. 5c). This could indicate a lesser degree of hydraulic isolation within the Wall coal zone. However this well is located at some distance from the others and its more enriched δ13CDIC could be a result of vertical or lateral variation. Ideally, the time-dependence of δ13CDIC of produced water would be evaluated by repeated sampling of a single well over a period of many years. Our approach of sampling multiple wells that were drilled over a period of years is a less ideal strategy, but nevertheless the data reveal no time-dependence of δ13CDIC of produced water. Therefore, we can address other factors that account for the observed variations in subsequent sections. 5.2. δ13CDIC as a unique identifier of coal beds Much time and effort has been invested to accurately correlate and map the subsurface extent of coals and coal zones in the Powder River Basin (e.g. Ayers and Kaiser, 1984; Flores, 1999; Flores and Bader, 1999; Flores et al., 1999; Goolsby and Finley, 2000; Jones, 2008, 2010; McClurg, 1988; Pocknall and Flores, 1987; Seeland, 1993; Sholes and Cole, 1981). Resource assessments for both CBNG and minable coal are based on these subsurface correlations. Although PRB coal zones are thick and laterally continuous, accurate correlations can be problematic because PRB coal beds within these zones can pinch-out, split and merge between wells (Flores, 1999). Campbell et al. (2008) identified regional coal bed-specific variations in strontium isotopes and Sharma and Frost (2008) suggest that δ13CDIC can be used to fingerprint individual coal beds. Our data set confirms that locally, individual coal beds have distinct δ13CDIC, which can be used to identify and correlate specific coal beds. 5.2.1. Vertically stacked coal beds The isotopic compositions of waters produced from different coal beds were investigated by sampling twin and triplet wells; that is, multiple wells that share the same well pad, but are producing from different coal bed intervals. Waters from these wells were measured to determine isotopic variations between coal beds from the same location. Data were obtained from three sample sites in the PRB. Fig. 6 shows the isotopic variation of the stacked coal beds from these three different locations. In each case, the δ13CDIC of waters from different coal beds from the same well pad are isotopically distinct. On log I, for produced water samples collected from coals at increasing depth, the δ13CDIC value of the Anderson coal is 22.2‰, the Werner is 20.9‰, and the Wall is 17.2‰. Log II and III also show similar trends of distinct δ13CDIC for each coal in a vertical section, and a decrease in δ13CDIC with increasing depth (Fig. 6). 5.2.2. Field scale δ13CDIC variability Basin wide, δ13CDIC of produced water from single coal beds varies by as much as 17‰ (Table 1). Table 2 gives the average δ13CDIC and calculated standard deviation within the Big George coal bed sorted by location, which makes it possible to look at δ13CDIC variations in the Big George from gas field to gas field. CBNG fields in the PRB generally are 40 to 100 km2 in size. Within a given field, the average δ13CDIC is

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relatively consistent: all of the standard deviations are less than 2.5, and generally are less than 1.5 (Table 2). Deviations from the characteristic isotopic compositions of a coal bed within a given field can be instructive. As an illustration, we consider five Anderson coal bed wells located in close proximity to each other. Four of the five wells have a δ13CDIC that are comparable, ranging only from 22.2 to 24.1‰. The fifth well has a lower δ13CDIC of 14.0‰. The well with the lower δ13CDIC also yields a TDS value that is approximately 600 mg/L. This is 30% lower than the TDS concentrations of the surrounding wells. The lower TDS and δ13CDIC both are consistent with the dilution of coal bed water with non-coal bed water, suggesting that the coal tapped by this well is not as well-confined as coals tapped by the four other wells. These results conform to the observations of McLaughlin et al. (2011), who showed in their study of the Atlantic Rim CBNG production area that lower δ13CDIC of produced water may identify an unconfined reservoir. McLaughlin et al. (2011) also showed that the degree of hydraulic confinement of a coal bed correlates with water to gas ratios produced from a well, where unconfined coal beds require greater production of water per unit of gas. Overall, these data show that stacked coals in the PRB are locally isotopically distinct, and that there is little isotopic variation amongst single coal beds on a field scale. Thus, δ13CDIC of a reservoir can be used locally to identify the coal bed(s) from which the produced water is withdrawn. Moreover, that δ13CDIC can be used to identify wells that may be unconfined. 5.3. δ13CDIC identification of water sources in wells with multiple-seam completions PRB CBNG wells often target more than one coal seam from a single well (so-called multiple-seam or commingled completions). To produce gas effectively, multi-seam wells must dewater multiple coal beds. In multi-seam wells, it is difficult to ascertain from which coal bed(s) the water is being withdrawn, and therefore whether all targeted coal beds are being dewatered. Since, as demonstrated above, different coal beds in a given location may produce water with distinctive δ13CDIC, binary mixing models can be used to identify the origin of the produced water in multi-seam completions. In the examples below, two types of multi-seam well completion techniques are considered; open-hole and perforated casing. Open-hole completions refer to a well bore that does not have cemented casing between producing horizons but instead a steel or PVC liner is slotted over the desired coal bed interval. This was the preferred method for the early and shallow wells in the Powder River Basin. As production moved basin-ward targeting deeper coals a more conventional method was used, in which the length of the well bore is lined with steel casing cemented and then perforated at the targeted coal bed intervals. 5.3.1. Open hole-completions In the southern portion of the PRB study area the Wyodak seam splits into two main benches; the Anderson and Canyon coals. Open-hole wells that are producing from the Anderson-Canyon have anomalously low and variable δ13CDIC, whereas single completion wells that are producing solely from the Wyodak down-dip of the split have uniformly enriched δ13CDIC. Open-hole commingled wells were correlated (Fig. 7). The lithology of strata immediately above, below and in the interburden between the coal seams is shown in cross-section B–B′ (Fig. 7). The western side of the cross-section has a higher percentage of sand and larger interburdens between producing horizons, whereas the east side has less sand and smaller interburden intervals. Lower δ13CDIC of produced water corresponds to wells that have sandy zones within the interburden of the two coals. The δ13CDIC is higher in wells that are associated with less sand and thinner interburden intervals. In the case of these PRB open-hole wells, we suggest that the absence


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Fig. 6. Sampled results of the twin and triplet wells. Note the depleted δ13CDIC relative to the stratigraphically higher coal beds for the same geographical area.

of cement in open-hole wells allows water from isotopically depleted non-coal bed strata to infiltrate the well bore. Most likely this water is mixed with water from the adjacent sands within the interburden, effectively producing the lower δ13CDIC recorded in open-hole commingled wells. Binary mixing models are applied to examine relative percentages of water from different aquifers (Faure, 1991). If in fact the open-hole commingled wells allow non-coal bed water to infiltrate the well bore, then a binary mixing model can be used to develop a first order mixing

approximation of the of proportions of water from the coal and non-coal strata. We apply the following equation: 13 13 13 δ C ¼ δ C f A þ δ C ð f A −1Þ; M

A

B

ð3Þ

where A and B represent the δ13CDIC of the two end member components and M represents the measured δ13CDIC of the measured well. For these analyses we use estimated end members of δ13CDIC =


S.A. Quillinan, C.D. Frost / International Journal of Coal Geology xxx (2013) xxx–xxx Table 2 Average δ13CDIC and standard deviations within wells completed in the Big George coal bed sorted by natural gas fields. Big George Field

No. of samples

Average δ13CDIC

Standard deviation

Bear Draw Big Cat Big George Big Mike Coal Gulch Falxa Highland Kinney Divide Powder Valley River Savageton Tear Drop Welles Whiskey Draw Williams Draw

7 15 14 13 2 3 2 5 16 6 2 3 3 8 5

12.6 11.9 13.4 13.1 12.3 12.8 12.4 14.9 13.9 13.9 22.1 13.2 13.4 12.5 17.2

1 2.1 1.4 1.6 1.6 2.4 0.8 0.9 1.1 0.6 0.9 0.3 0.5 2 0.7

9

with δ13CDIC that fall between the two end members (A and B), we conclude that all include contributions of water from non-coal bed aquifers. The proportion of coal bed water in the mixtures varies from 26 to 71%. Mixing models show that W-07 and W-13 are producing the largest percentages of non-coal bed water, while W-11, W-16 and W-19 are producing the largest percentage of coal bed water (Fig. 8)

5.3.2. Perforated casing In perforated casing-type completions, cemented casing secures the well bore from water infiltration over non-coal bearing intervals. Using δ13CDIC of produced water from single-completion wells in the Lower Canyon (21.8‰) and Wall (16.8‰) coal zones as end member compositions, we can calculate the proportion of water contributed by each seam in a multi-seam completion. Carbon isotopic values of the comingled well (21.3‰), fall between the values of the water from single completion wells in the two seams, suggesting that the water is a combination of the two horizons. However, it is strongly weighted towards the isotopic value of the stratigraphically higher coal bed, the Lower Canyon. Thus, it appears that most of the water being produced from these commingled wells is sourced from the Lower Canyon (approximately 80%, assuming comparable DIC contents in water from each coal bed) and the deeper Wall coal bed is not effectively dewatered by either of these wells. These data indicate that once baseline conditions are established, δ13CDIC can be used as a diagnostic measurement to identify the source of water in multi-zone wells and to determine the proportion of water being produced from each seam. Our analysis shows that open-hole

16‰ (A) to represent a conservative isotopic composition of the water produced from the Wyodak coal bed and δ13CDIC = −10‰ and (B) to represent water that has not been affected by methanogenesis (noncoal bed water). This model assumes that the coal bed and non-coal bed waters have comparable DIC concentrations, which appears to be a reasonable assumption for Powder River Basin aquifers (Sharma and Frost, 2008). The results derived from this mixing equation are shown on Fig. 8. Because all of the open-hole commingled wells in this area have water

Identifying Unconfined Coalbeds δ13CDIC Variability B

B´ Meters Above Mean Sea Level

Meters Above Mean Sea Level W-9

W-8 - 0.7 ‰

1490 - 0.3 ‰

W-6 0.5 ‰

1460

1490

W-19 7.3 ‰

W-7 - 4.0

W-13 - 3.3 ‰

W-15 4.0 ‰

W-18 1.5 ‰

W-14 0.9 ‰

W-16 8.0 ‰

W-20 5.0 ‰

1460

1430

1430

1400

1400

1370

1370

1340

1340

1310

1310

1280

1280

1250

1250

B W-9

59

45°

W-8

110°

108°

Explanation

104°

106° Powder

W-6 W-7

River

Sand

Coal

Gamma Log

Shale

Undifferentiated Lithology

Surface Elevation

W-11 W-12 W-13

W-10

W-16

Vertical exaggeration ~ unknown Approximate length 5 Km

Basin

43°

W-15 W-14 W-19 W-20

W-17

W-18

0

0.5

1 Miles

Location map of Cross Section B - B

B´ 2

41° N W

E

0 0

50 Miles 60 Kilometers

S

Fig. 7. Cross-section B–B′ depicts lithology in around the producing coals. The north–west side of the cross-section has a sandier lithology and lower δ13CDIC than the southeast side of the cross-section.


10


100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0%

W-6

W-7

W-8

W-9

Ambient groundwater

59%

77%

64%

63%

W-10 W-11 W-12 W-13 W-14 W-15 W-16 W-18 W-19 W-20 39%

30%

56%

74%

58%

43%

29%

56%

33%

42%

CBNG water

41%

23%

36%

37%

61%

70%

44%

26%

42%

57%

71%

44%

67%

58%

Fig. 8. First order mixing approximations of the sources of water from open-hole type multiple producing zone wells. Note that for some wells over 70% of the produced water may be coming from non-coalbed strata.

type completions are not as efficient at dewatering the reservoir as wells that utilize fully cemented, perforated casing. 5.4. Isotopic variation along flow paths On a regional scale, isotopic compositions of CBNG water in the PRB vary along groundwater flow paths. To illustrate this we show the δ13CDIC and δD measured across a 50-mile section of the Big George coal bed (Figs. 9 and 10). This cross-section is constructed parallel to groundwater flow direction (Bartos and Ogle, 2002 and references therein; Quillinan and Frost, 2012), and thus can be used to investigate isotopic changes along groundwater flow paths. δ13CDIC values of groundwater are 23.3‰ on the up-gradient side nearer the basin margin and decrease to 13.7‰ towards the basin axis. In contrast δD values increase across the same section from −151‰ to −135‰ from the basin margin to the axis. A number of processes may result in isotopic fractionations along flow paths. These may include groundwater mixing, hyperfiltration, and methanogenesis (Phillips et al., 1986; Coplen and Hanshaw, 1973; and Clark and Fritz, 1997). 5.4.1. Groundwater mixing A decrease in δ13CDIC and increase in δD observed along flow paths could indicate a loss of hydraulic confinement within the reservoir (McLaughlin et al., 2011). However, incorporation of groundwater from other aquifers would likely be accompanied by distinct changes in water quality, which is not observed. Moreover, TDS exhibits a steady increase, which is not expected if coals are confined in some places but not in others. In addition, an increase in δD inversely correlates with decreasing carbon isotopic compositions, which would not be expected of mixing of groundwater from two or more aquifers. Groundwater near the basin axis is around 20,000 years old and thus was likely recharged in a cooler climate (Frost and Brinck, 2005; Gillespie et al., 2004), thus compared to the present-day, these formation waters should be depleted with respect to δD. 5.4.2. Hyperfiltration Hyperfiltration can affect the isotopic composition of groundwater and may explain isotopic fractionations in low permeability formations

(e.g. Gref et al., 1965; and Hitchon and Friedman, 1969). Groundwater moving by advection along a steep gradient through a fine-grained matrix can act like a filtration membrane that retards larger molecules (Clark and Fritz, 1997). Experimental work with smectite and montmorillonite clays has recorded depletions in δD (2.5 to 5‰, Coplen and Hanshaw, 1973; Coplen, 1970) and enrichment for δ13CDIC (1.5‰; Fritz et al., 1987). This is the opposite of what is observed in the PRB. In addition, permeability measurements of PRB coals are high, ranging from tens of millidarcies to several darcys (Mavor et al., 2003), and is not conducive to hyperfiltration fractionations. The observed deuterium enrichment of 16‰ in the Big George coal bed does not suggest hyperfiltration. 5.4.3. Methanogenesis Biogenic methanogenesis has been observed across the PRB (Flores et al., 2008). Progressive δ13CDIC enrichment from methanogenesis along a gradient has been documented in dolomite aquifers and coal beds of the Atlantic Rim (Clark and Fritz, 1997; Quillinan, 2011). Therefore it seems reasonable that if methanogenic processes remain constant, δ13CDIC will be continually enriched as groundwater flows farther into the PRB. Indeed this is what is observed, δ13CDIC increase rapidly as groundwater enters the basin (−5‰ to greater than 20‰, Fig. 11). However, the pattern of δ13CDIC in deeper coal beds is more complex. After the initial enrichment, δ13CDIC gradually decrease as groundwater flows deeper into the basin (Fig. 11). Fig. 9 shows this gradual decrease in greater detail along flow gradient in the Big George coal seam. The initial enrichment of δ13CDIC of the groundwater is interpreted to reflect fractionations during methanogenesis, which Flores et al. (2008) showed occur by both acetate fermentation and the CO2 reduction pathways near the basin margins. Deeper in the basin CO2 reduction dominates (Flores et al., 2008). During CO2 reduction, the carbon isotope composition of the methane is a direct function of the initial CO2 (Shurr and Ridgley, 2002). Proximal to outcrop the CO2 reduction pathway uses a δ13CDIC characteristic of the meteoric water recharging the coal bed, which has δ13CDIC of approximately −12 to −7‰. As methanogens preferentially take up light carbon, δ13CDIC becomes progressively more enriched, and the CO2-reducing methanogens are forced to utilize a more enriched CO2. The more enriched CO2 leads to more enriched δ13CCH4, leaving more depleted δ13CDIC (Fig. 9). Thus a



11

Big George Cross-Section δ13CDIC Variability

A Meters Above Mean Sea Level 1585

A´

22.4 ‰ 22.8 ‰

1525 1435 1400

24.5 ‰

Not Sampled Inferred 13.7 ‰ 12.0 ‰ 12.0 ‰

Not Sampled Inferred

14.0 ‰


1340

23.3 ‰


14.0 ‰ 13.4 ‰ 13.6 ‰

1280

B-103 13.0 ‰

14.7 ‰

14.9 ‰ 14.1 ‰

1220 1160 1100 1035 975 915 855 790

A

B-104 B-102 B-34 Not Sampled B-35 B-103 B-106 B-108

B-113

730 670

45°

110°

108°

104°

106° Powder

B-23

Big George Coal Seam δ13CDIC

Explanation

High 24.5 ‰ Coal

Gamma Log


Surface Elevation

River Basin

43°

Not Sampled

Not Sampled W-37

Not Sampled

0 2.5 5 Miles

10

Low 12.0 ‰ Vertical exaggeration ~ 80x Approximate length 80 Km

B-24

B-17

W-41 W-33 W-44 A´

41°

Fig. 9. Cross-section A–A′ highlights the decreasing δ13CDIC of deeper coal beds along groundwater flow path.

gradually decreasing δ13CDIC is expected if CO2 reduction is the main pathway that generates gas in the center of the basin. This interpretation is consistent with the observed enrichment in the δD along the same section. The δD values enrich from − 151‰ near the margin to − 135.3‰ towards the basin axis (Fig. 10). Because the hydrogen isotope ratio of the methane is related to the hydrogen isotopic composition of the water, methanogenesis by the CO2 reduction pathway should enrich the δDH2O along flow path in the deeper portions of the basin. Deuterium enrichment in the groundwater as a result of methanogenesis is also observed in Atlantic Rim coal beds, and landfill leachates where large quantities of methane have been generated (Clark and Fritz, 1997; Quillinan, 2011; and Siegel et al., 1990). These interpretations are supported by the isotopic compositions of the methane measured by Flores et al. (2008), who report a slightly more enriched δ13CCH4 and a slightly more depleted δDCH4 towards the basin axis, interpreted as a result of a shift towards the CO2 reduction pathway. δ13C enrichment and depletion in δD in gas is associated with depletion of δ13C and enrichment of δD in the water, just as we observed. The restriction of the acetate fermentation pathway to the basin margins could be a result of two conditions that differ between basin margin and center. First is the supply of acetate: fermentation bacteria consume acetate and any other fermentative substrates and may exhaust it as groundwater flows towards the basin center. The second may relate to increases in salinity along flow path. Acetate fermentation dominates in freshwater sediments, whereas CO2 reduction dominates in marine sediments (Whiticar et al., 1986). Whereas the waters of PRB coal beds are far less saline than

seawater, TDS concentrations exceed 5000 mg/L near the basin axis (Quillinan and Frost, 2012). In any case, it appears that a decrease of up to 10‰ in δ13CDIC can result from methane production by CO2 reduction across the basin. 5.5. Volume of gas generation Positive δ13CDIC is a powerful indicator of methanogenesis because even small amounts of methanogenesis can enrich the relatively small pool of DIC. In contrast to the DIC pool, the δD of formation water is not as easily enriched. Clark and Fritz (1997, pg. 157) suggest that “a measurable positive shift in δD requires a large quantity of methane generation”. Therefore waters that have both δ13CDIC and δD enrichment must be associated with relatively large quantities of methane generation. A positive shift of 16‰ is recorded in the Big George coal seam suggesting a significant amount of methanogenesis. This qualitative evidence of large amounts of methane generation is supported by the volume of biogenic methane that has been recovered from the Big George coal bed: the more than 2000 BCF (5.6 × 107 m3) produced from that coal exceeds the combined total production from all other coal beds in the PRB (Quillinan and Frost, 2012). We therefore suggest that the combination of enriched δ13CDIC and enriched δD is a robust indicator of environments that have generated large quantities of biogenic methane. 6. Conclusions Our stable isotopic investigation of produced waters associated with coalbed natural gas in the Powder River Basin of Wyoming and Montana


12


Big George Cross-Section δ13DH20Variability

A Meters Above Mean Sea Level 1585

A´

-152.5 ‰

1525


1435 -135.0 ‰ -137.4 ‰ -135.4 ‰

1400


-135.0 ‰


1340

-151.6 ‰ -151.0 ‰

-150.0 ‰


-137.8 ‰ -136.0 ‰ -135.3 ‰

-135.8 ‰

1280

-136.7 ‰

-136.6 ‰

-135.0 ‰

1220 1160 1100 1035 975 915 855 790

A B-113

730 670

45°

110°

108°

104°

106°

B-104 B-102 B-34 Not Sampled B-35 B-103 B-106 B-108

Powder B-23

Big George Coal Seam

B-24

River B-17

Explanation High -135.0 ‰ Coal

Gamma Log


Surface Elevation

43°

Basin

Not Sampled

0 2.5 5 Miles

10

Low 152.5 ‰ Vertical exaggeration ~ 80x Approximate length 80 Km

Not Sampled W-37 Not Sampled

W-41 W-33 W-44 A´

41°

Fig. 10. Cross-section A–A′ highlights the increasing δDH20 of deeper coal beds along groundwater flow path.

has shown that δ13CDIC compositions of + 10 to + 25‰ identify produced water that is associated with methanogenesis. This is the range of isotopic compositions of produced water from most PRB CBNG reservoirs. Our analyses of water collected from wells that have been pumping for between 1 and 15 years show no correlation between the amount of water that has been withdrawn from the well and the δ13CDIC of the water now being produced. Most importantly, coal bed produced water is isotopically distinct from non-coal bed waters. Regardless of how long the well has been in production,

δ13CDICvs. Depth 30 25

δ13CDIC (‰)

20 15 10 5 Shallow wells

0

Deep Wells

-5 -10

0

200

400

600

800

1000

Depth (m) Fig. 11. δ13CDIC as a function of depth. Shallow wells (b300 m) have a rapid δ13CDIC enrichment trend, while deeper wells illustrate a gradual decreasing trend in δ13CDIC.

coal bed waters have positive δ13CDIC, whereas non-coal bed waters are negative. Although the carbon isotopic compositions of produced waters from individual PRB coal beds vary on a regional scale, they are uniform on a local field scale, and different coal beds have distinct δ13CDIC. Stacked coal beds are easily distinguished from each other: the deeper beds are less enriched with respect to carbon and more enriched with respect to deuterium. This attribute can be used to help identify the source of water in single and multi-production zone environments, and help determine the efficiency of dewatering from different coal beds. δ13CDIC isotope compositions of produced water that is lower than + 10‰ should be interpreted to indicate the possibility that coal beds are in communication with waters that have not hosted methanogenesis, usually from another aquifer. Binary mixing models can be used to estimate contributions from other aquifers or from multiple producing zones. Extreme negative values δ13CDIC within a CBNG reservoir (b−15‰) occurs in water from some shallow wells (b 500 ft.) and indicate that SO4 reducing bacteria may have been oxidizing methane. The particular methanogenic pathways operating at different places along flow paths contribute to the variability that is observed regionally. Enriched δ13CDIC values decrease and δD is enriched with increasing residence time in the deeper coal beds where CO2 reduction has been identified as the dominant methanogenic pathway. This report presents the largest δ13CDIC and δD dataset collected to date from CBNG produced waters in order to characterize multiple coal zones across the basin and describe methanogenic processes at work in different parts of the PRB. The carbon isotope composition is instructive both with respect to the hydrological characteristics and to



the biological characteristics within a reservoir. These stable isotopic analyses can provide inexpensive but valuable information during the exploration and the production phases of coal bed natural gas wells. Most importantly, the carbon isotope composition of a reservoir can be used to identify confined reservoirs and to identify efficient dewatering of coal beds in single and multiple zones: information that can help minimize unnecessary water production. Acknowledgments Analyses were funded through the Wyoming State Geological Survey and the Wyoming Water Development Commission. Funding for publication came through the Office of Research and Economic Development. We thank Anadarko Petroleum, Williams Petroleum, Fidelity Exploration, and Lance Petroleum who provided site access and water samples. Appendix A. Supplementary data Supplementary data to this article can be found online at http://dx. doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2013.10.006. References Ayers, W.B., Kaiser, W.R., 1984. 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