Career self-management resources in contemporary career ...

ISSN 1392-1142 (Print), ISSN 2335-8750 (Online) ORGANIZACIJŲ VADYBA: SISTEMINIAI TYRIMAI 2016.76 http://dx.doi.org/10.7220/MOSR.2335.8750.2016.76.6

Kristina PARADNIKĖ Auksė ENDRIULAITIENĖ Rita BANDZEVIČIENĖ

Career self-management resources in contemporary career frameworks: a literature review The aim of the paper is to briefly describe and compare the main individual career resources and competencies proposed in the most acknowledged contemporary career frameworks. The findings of literature review suggest some valuable insights for future research and practice in the field of career management. Keywords: career self-management, career resources, career competencies, career adaptability. Straipsnio tikslas yra glaustai apžvelgti ir palyginti pagrindinius asmeninius karjeros resursus ir kompetencijas, siūlomas plačiausiai žinomose šiuolaikinėse karjeros paradigmose. Literatūros analizės rezultatai pateikia vertingų įžvalgų ateities tyrimams ir praktikai karjeros valdymo srityje. Raktiniai žodžiai: karjeros savivalda, karjeros resursai, karjeros kompetencijos, karjeros adaptyvumas.

Introduction The twenty-first century has brought new challenges to both employees and organizations. Globalization has raised such issues as cultural differences in the workplace (Neault, 2005). Demands of growing markets have provoked the gap between requirements of the labor market and qualification level of graduates (Yessengeldin, Sitenko, Ramashova, 2015). Employees are constantly competing and competi-

tive atmosphere between co-workers does not necessarily bring the best work results (Fletcher, Nusbaum, 2010). Digitalization has also brought some new challenges: despite the benefits and possibilities of informational technologies, they are also a major source of stress (Barley, Meyerson, Grodal, 2011; Salanova, Llorens, Cifre, 2013). Due to the changing environments and crises, today employees can no longer expect to work in one organization for a long time (Savickas, 2012). New work forms, such as

Kristina PARADNIKĖ – PhD student at the Faculty of Social Welfare, Institute of Psychology, Mykolas Romeris University. Address: Ateities St.  20, LT-08303 Vilnius, Lithuania. Phone: + 370  5  2714625. E-mail: [email protected]. Auksė ENDRIULAITIENĖ – doctor of social sciences, professor at the General Psychology Department, the Faculty of Social Sciences, Vytautas Magnus University. Address: Jonavos St. 66, LT-44191 Kaunas, Lithuania. Phone: +370 37 327824. E-mail: [email protected]. Rita BANDZEVIČIENĖ – doctor of social sciences, professor at the Faculty of Social Welfare, Institute of Psychology, Mykolas Romeris University. Address: Ateities St.  20, LT-08303 Vilnius, Lithuania. Phone: +370 5 2714620. E-mail: [email protected].

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moving from project to project, with flexible work hours, occur and demand flexible, adaptable and resourceful employees (Savickas, 2011; Savickas, 2012). Consequently, in the face of globalization, economic and political crises and technology invasion, entering the modern world of work requires much more effort, deeper knowledge about oneself and greater confidence than ever before (Savickas, 2011). Various individual assets, such as flexibility, willingness to learn and the ability quickly adapt to the changes, are necessary for successful functioning in the rapidly changing world. Thus, career practitioners and theorists provide new career explanations and new constructs such as personal career management, career adaptability, and career resources. The notion of career resources, or various personal characteristics that help the individual manage one’s career successfully, is the object of this paper. The aim of the paper is to briefly describe and compare the main concepts of career resources and competencies, proposed in the most acknowledged contemporary career theories and career self-management models. The main aim of the paper is pursued by employing critical literature research as a method and through four objectives: • reviewing most acknowledged contemporary career frameworks; • extracting the career resources and competencies offered in those frameworks; • briefly describing and comparing the career resources; • integrating and systemizing the findings in the literature. The paper starts with the literature review of recent contemporary career frameworks and the resources offered by those frameworks. The papers for litera-

ture review were chosen due to their relevance to the field of career psychology. Only those papers that included career resources, skills or competencies were analysed. Those career resources, skills or competencies were then extracted, analysed and compared. Furthermore, a possible synthesis and integration of those resources are then suggested. The paper also explains the importance of various resources to individuals and organizations, based on empirical findings in the field by other scholars. Finally, the paper ends with conclusions and some possible implications for future research and practice in the field of career management.

Understanding careers: contemporary career frameworks Social science naturally seeks to respond to the needs of society. Most recent organizational psychology literature emphasizes that, in contrary to peculiarities of the 20th century, today the environment of an individual is dynamic, career choices can be made at any age stage and repeatedly, and career usually develops in several organizations with multidirectional advancement (Baruch, 2004). Due to the changes in societies, work environments and organizations, the focus of career theorists and practitioners have shifted from traditional aspects of career, such as vocational choice, organizational commitment and person-job fit, to new career challenges, such as adapting to changes and transitions, career self-management and self-actualization in different career and life commitments (see Figure 1). As a consequence, a variety of models, seeking to explain contemporary careers, have

Career self-management resources in contemporary career frameworks: a literature review Context of organizations and individuals in XX century

Context of organizations and individuals in XXI century

Urbanization Industrialization A need for a certain number of workers in particular industries The environment of employee is relatively stable

Globalization, mobility Digital revolution A need for flexible, proactive, innovative, able to learn and adapt employee The environment is dynamic and relatively unstable, employees face uncertainty on daily bases

Relationship between individual and organization

Relationship between individual and organization

Main career responsibility lies with organization The direction of career progress is linear, usually in one organization/occupation Success means progress on the hierarchy ladder Employer give job security and expect loyalty and commitment from employee Employee is committed to organization/ occupation

Main career responsibility lies with individual The direction of career progress is multidirectional, usually in different organizations, projects and even different occupations Success means inner feeling of achievement Employer invests in employability (via giving training, opportunities), while employee invests time and effort Organization is only one of many possible commitments of employee

Vocational choice

Career choice

Vocational choices are made at an early age and rarely change

Career choices are made at any age stage and might change repeatedly, sometimes cyclically

The goals of vocational guidance and career education/ scientific research directions

The goals of career counseling/ scientific research directions

Vocational choice premises/ career decision peculiarities/ career maturity Self-knowledge, person-environment fit Organizational and occupational commitment

Career adaptability Self-actualization Career self-management Personal career resources

Fig. 1. A comparison of traditional and contemporary career features (based on works of M. L. Savickas (2011; 2002), Y. Baruch (2004), etc.).

been offered by scholars in the last decade (Gubler, Arnold, Coombs, 2014). Career construction theory (Savickas, 2002), Chaos Theory of Careers (Pryor, Bright, 2007), self-directed career management model (Hirschi, 2012), the concept of employability (Fugate, Kinicki,

Ashforth 2004); career self-management (King, 2004; Kuijpers, Scheerens, 2006; Sturges, 2008; Akkermans et al., 2012; Francis-Smythe et al., 2012; Lent, Brown, 2013), protean (Hall, 2004) and boundaryless career (Arthur, Rousseau, 1996; Sullivan, Arthur, 2006) models, are probably

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those career frameworks that are most acknowledged by theorists and practitioners. All of those frameworks emphasize individual responsibility in managing one’s career and a need for individual career resources (Savickas, 2011). However, some of those models are concentrating on specific career behaviours and competencies, while others are more general and include thinking processes, personality traits, intellectual abilities and social environment. However, despite the differences of those models, they all seek to explain the “new” career in the uncertain and dynamic world and most of them are concerned with individual responsibility and taking charge of one’s career. In order to extract those individual career resources that are most important in individual’s career path and sustainable well-being, it is necessary to understand how different frameworks explain career behaviours and processes. The protean career conception (Hall, 2004) posits that two main factors represent protean career orientation: valuedriven orientation, describing the extent to which one’s career decisions are driven by personal values rather than extrinsic factors, and the extent to which the person feels independent and in charge of one’s career. Similarly the, boundaryless career conception argues that career is not limited to one employer, the individual has many opportunities outside the organization and is in charge of one’s career (Arthur, Rousseau, 1996; Sullivan, Arthur, 2006). Both protean and boundaryless mindset attitudes help individuals to seek external support, cope with changes, and understand their motivation and career (Briscoe et al., 2012; Herrmann, Hirschi, Baruch, 2015). Employability also refers to behaviours and competencies that are

necessary when seeking external support, coping and taking charge of one’s career. This psycho-social construct subsumes a host of person-centred constructs that enable the individual to effectively adapt to the work-related changes, identify and realize career opportunities, and stay productive and attractive in the labour market (Fugate et al., 2004). Career Construction theory (Savickas, 2002) and Chaos Theory of Careers (CTC) (Pryor, Bright, 2007; Pryor, 2010) explain career from a different perspective. Career Construction theory (Savickas, 2002) conceptualizes career development as driven by adaptation to a social environment with the goal of person–environment integration, thus, people must have an ability to adapt to their environment, or in other words, be adaptable. Adaptable individuals become concerned about their vocational future and actively try to prepare for it, explore possible selves and future scenarios, and pursue their goals with confidence (Savickas, Porfeli, 2012). The Chaos Theory of Careers (Pryor, Bright, 2007; Pryor, 2010) also emerged as a response to the nowadays’ challenges. What makes this theory unique is its relatively deep approach to the choices individuals make in the chaotic and unpredictable world. The CTC (Pryor, 2010) considers individuals, their actions and thoughts in a perspective of unexpected events, chaos, and uncertainty. Individuals are unable to always control their life context, but they can take chances and employ the uncertainty and changes to their advantage if they are resourceful enough (Pryor, Bright, 2007). In addition to the aforementioned theories and concepts, an abundance of career self-management and career competencies models are noteworthy to

Career self-management resources in contemporary career frameworks: a literature review

mention (e.g., King, 2004; Kuijpers, Scheerens, 2006; Sturges, 2008; Akkermans et al., 2013; Francis-Smythe et al., 2013; Lent, Brown, 2013). Career self-management behaviours and career competencies are usually concerned with specific career management behaviours (Hirschi, 2012), such as self-profiling, impressing the gatekeepers at work, social networking or investing in one’s human capital competencies. These specific behaviours and competencies are not linked to one specific job, meaning that they are transferable to different work and life contexts (Kuijpers, Scheerens, 2006). According to A. Hirschi (2012), the concepts of career self-management have similarities with other concepts and suggests integration of the career management behaviours and competencies with employability, career adaptability, boundaryless and protean career mindsets. Hence, the self-directed career management model is an attempt to integrate different career management models into one holistic framework. In addition, the self-directed career management model offers that not only specific career behaviours but also psychological characteristics of individuals should be taken into consideration when explaining careers (Hirschi, 2012). All in all, a variety of career theories and models try to explain the peculiarities of contemporary career. Moreover, all of those frameworks cover certain behaviours, attitudes, competencies and individual characteristics that serve as individual career resources in achieving the objective and subjective career success and employees’ well-being in general. Many of the resources in the aforementioned career frameworks are related to career and job satisfaction, job search behaviours, job performance, coping, etc.

(e.g., Lounsbury et al., 2003; McArdle et al., 2007; Abele, Spurk, 2009; McIlveen, Beccaria, Burton, 2013; Cullen et al., 2014; Kim et al., 2014; Li et al., 2015). Career resources are necessary to employees, young individuals transitioning to the labour market, the unemployed looking for jobs while companies need resourceful, able to learn, innovate and achieve employees. However, the number of career paradigms raises a question what are the most important individual resources and competencies in line with different paradigms. This question is addressed in the further literature review.

Career resources in contemporary career frameworks In the most general sense, career resources can be defined as entities that are valuable in their own right (e.g., self-esteem, inner peace, etc.) or entities that act as means to acquire other valued outcomes (e.g., money, credit, etc.) (Hobfoll, 2002). In the organizational context, personal resources can be described as positive self-evaluations that reflect individual contribution in work engagement process, provide a person with a capability to perceive and manage one’s abilities, act on work environment and recover fast (Bakker, Demerouti, 2008). Development of various personal resources may buffer effects of psychological and physical work demands, and also facilitate employee’s goal achievement, promote employee’s growth and development (Xanthopoulou et al., 2009). Different theories and career concepts cover different resources (see Table 1). The protean career conception emphasizes the importance of identity resources

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(adaptability, self-awareness). The boundaryless career conception, which is a relatively similar construct (Briscoe, Hall, Frautschy DeMuth, 2006), includes not only identity resources, but also social and human capital resources, which are referred to as “knowing why”, “knowing whom” and “knowing how” resources.

Similarly, career self-management models (King, 2004; Kuijpers, Scheerens, 2006; Sturges, 2008; Akkermans et al., 2013; Francis-Smythe et al., 2013; Lent, Brown, 2013) also cover various careerrelated competencies and behaviours. In addition to identity and adaptability resources, social capital and human capital Table 1

A summary of career resources and competencies in different career frameworks Framework

Resources/Competencies

Protean career (Hall, 2004)

Adaptability and identity (or self-awareness)

Boundaryless career (Sullivan, Arthur, 2006)

Career motivation and identity resources (i.e., “knowing why”), relationships and reputation (i.e., “knowing whom”), skills and expertise (i.e., “knowing how”)

Employability (Fugate et al., 2004)

Identity resources (career experiences, aspirations, goals, values, etc.); personal adaptability (optimism, openness, internal locus of control, self-efficacy); social capital (social networks); human capital (age, education, cognitive abilities, experience, portable skills)

Career Construction theory (Savickas, 2002)

Career adaptability (concern for what might happen in the future; control in shaping oneself and one’s environment; curiosity in thinking about oneself in various situations and different roles; confidence in being able to actualize choices and design one’s life)

Chaos Theory of Careers (Pryor, Bright, 2007)

Luck readiness (flexibility, optimism, risk, curiosity, persistence, strategy, efficacy, luckiness)

Career Competencies (Akkermans et al., 2013)

Reflection on one’s motivation and qualities, work exploration, career control; networking; self-profiling

Career Competencies (Francis-Smythe et al., 2013)

Goal setting and planning, career resilience, self-knowledge; networking, mentoring relationships; job-related performance, career-related skills, knowing of office politics; feedback seeking, self-presentation

Career self-management (King, 2004)

Boundary maintenance, role transition, strategic choice of mobility opportunities; active network development; strategic investment in human capital; influence behaviour (self-promotion, ingratiation, upward influence)

Career Competencies (Kuijpers, Scheerens, 2006)

Reflection on one’s capacities and motives, work exploration, career planning, etc.; networking; verbal career promotion, presentation in work

Social Cognitive Model of Career Self-Management (Lent, Brown, 2013)

Various career managing behaviours and tasks throughout the life span: e.g., managing work-family-life conflicts, preparing for career-related changes and transitions, revising and stabilizing vocational goals and plans, making careerrelated decisions, etc.

Career self-management (Sturges, 2008)

Work/non-work boundary management; networking behaviours; investment in human capital; visibility and positioning behaviour

Self-directed career management (Hirschi, 2012)

Psychological resources (e.g., optimism, hope, self-efficacy, personality traits); social resources (social relations and support); human capital resources (e.g., education, cognitive abilities).; career identity resources (e.g., self-concept clarity, goal-congruence)

Career self-management resources in contemporary career frameworks: a literature review

competencies, career self-management models suggest the importance of selfpresentation skills, e.g. self-promotion (King, 2004) or self-profiling (Akkermans et al., 2013). Those resources are mainly excluded in other career paradigms. However, though various career selfmanagement resources are linked to performance, income, promotions, satisfaction with life and career (McArdle et al. 2007; Koen et al., 2010; Francis-Smythe et al., 2013), it is debatable if using only selfpresentation skills or only social networking is enough for individual’s sustainable well-being and career success. Thus, different concepts complement each other, but some potentially beneficial psychological career resources remain excluded. The concept of employability (Fugate et al., 2004) fills this gap by including optimism, openness, internal locus of control and general self-efficacy as psychological resources for successful career self-management. However, this model emphasizes that all of the employability resources are career-related. Even though they are transferable (i.e., not related to one specific job, but to a career as a whole (Fugate et al., 2004)), it is questionable if career-related resources are sufficient for successful career and adjustment. It is possible that there is some hierarchy of resources in which more general psychological characteristics (e.g., optimism, resilience, openness to experience in general) serve as a basis for job and career related traits (e.g., career optimism, career resilience, openness to career changes). The Chaos Theory of Careers (Pryor, Bright, 2007) goes beyond this issue by offering broader personal characteristics (e.g., optimism, flexibility, efficacy, etc.), that help individuals to navigate in a life filled with uncertainties. However, the di-

mensions of luck readiness lack resilience and coping skills. The results of previous studies suggest that both resilience and coping skills are linked with well-being (Zambianchi, Ricci Bitti, 2014; Mayordomo-Rodríguez et al., 2015) and employees who use adaptive coping strategies are less prone to burn-out (Nizielski et al., 2013; Montero-Marin et al., 2014). Hence, resilience, as well as adaptive coping strategies, could serve as protective factors from not being able to adapt to changes and uncertainties. Moreover, in a way, the theory excludes the importance of such competencies as having skills to plan one’s career. Despite the chaos and instability surrounding the individual nowadays, career success depends not only on the ability to use chances and opportunities for one’s gain but also on the ability to plan one’s career (Blanco, Golik, 2015). On the other hand, the Career Construction theory (Savickas, 2002), emphasizes the abilities to adapt to changes, transitions, and life tasks by understanding oneself, one’s environment and possible career paths, planning and taking action. The main resources of this theory are career adaptability (Savickas, 2002; Savickas, Porfeli, 2012), which is operationalized as concern, curiosity, control, and confidence. However, it is questionable if the four career adaptability resources can sufficiently explain successful career behaviours and occupational well-being alone. Even though, career adaptability is extremely beneficial for an individual (e.g., Brown et al., 2012; Zacher, 2014; Ohme, Zacher, 2015), it is still a straight career-related resource. Hence, it is important to understand whether more general resources representing individual’s personal responsibility and flexibility, e.g., general adaptability (Hamtiaux,

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Houssemand, Vrignaud, 2013) or dispositional autonomy (Weinstein, Przybylski, Ryan, 2012), might play even a more important role when adapting to organizational environment, career transitions, and labour market issues. Finally the, self-directed career management model (Hirschi, 2012) tries to integrate various constructs and ideas of aforementioned models and offers possible career counselling strategies to acquire and strengthen different types of identity, social, human capital and psychological resources. However, self-directed career management model does not mention self-presentation skills indicated by other scholars (e.g., King, 2004; Akkermans et al., 2013; Francis-Smythe et al., 2013; Spurk et al., 2015). These skills are used in presenting oneself in the most favourable and competent light, making oneself attractive to others (King, 2004), and ensuring that one’s achievements were noted by influential staff (Sturges, 2008). Hence, these career management behaviours can be viewed and investigated as a separate group of career resources.

Integrating career self-management resources from different theories and models A brief review of the career self-management resources and competencies from different theoretical perspectives suggest that all career resources can be divided into at least five different types of resources: psychological; identity and adaptability; social; human capital; and self-presentation resources (see Table 2). Identity and career adaptability resources represent the skills, competencies and abilities of knowing oneself, finding one’s place in

the world and creating one’s unique life narrative. Social career resources include networking behaviours and social support. Human capital resources refer to being able to perform work tasks and to show the knowledge and skills when necessary. Finally, self-presentation resources include self-promoting behaviours and active efforts to represent oneself in the most favourable light. Various psychological resources, such as optimism, flexibility, efficacy, are often objects of organizational behaviour research. The evidence suggests that these resources are linked to career success, performance, lower levels of work stress, career decision abilities, etc. (e.g., Abbas et al., 2014; Kim et al., 2014; Ngo et al., 2014; Ahn et al., 2015; etc.). Identity and adaptability resources are linked to various positive outcomes as well. For example, the results of empirical studies confirm relations between career adaptability and career satisfaction, successful job search behaviors, self-esteem, career optimism (Koen et al., 2010; Mcllveen et al., 2013; Cullen et al., 2014; Tolentino et al., 2014; Zacher, 2014). Career planning and exploration are linked to career satisfaction (Raabe, Frese, Beehr, 2007). Self-concept clarity mediates the link between stress and satisfaction with life (Ritchie et al., 2011). Social and human capital resources are also positively related to career and work satisfaction (McArdle et al., 2007; Wolniak, Pascarella, 2005; Francis-Smythe et al., 2012; Koen, Klehe, Van Vianen, 2013; Seršić, Tomas, 2014; Poon et al., 2015). It is obvious that employees need resources and employers need resourceful employees. Thus, it is important to assess, develop and strengthen those resources that are most valuable in employee’s sustainable well-being, performance, and

Career self-management resources in contemporary career frameworks: a literature review

99 Table 2

Integrating resources and competencies from different career frameworks Identity and adaptability resources

Psychological resources

“Knowing why”, career adaptability, identity, career aspirations and values, self-knowledge, reflection on oneself, self-concept clarity, career exploration, goal setting and planning, managing different life roles, preparing for career-related changes and transitions, goal-congruence, etc.

Optimism, openness, internal locus of control, general selfefficacy, flexibility, risk taking, curiosity, persistence, luckiness, hope, personality traits, etc.

Human capital resources “Knowing how”, skills and expertise, education, cognitive abilities, experience, portable (transferable) skills, job-related performance, etc.

engagement. However, in order to do that, the most valuable resources must be identified. Different career theories and career self-management models emphasize a variety of resources that differ in their depth, extent, and value to the individual. Some of them are more about specific career behaviours (e.g., feedback seeking, self-promotion or mentoring relationships, etc.) while some of them refer to career processes (e.g., career planning, managing career transitions, etc.). Likewise, some resources are directly career-related (e.g., career adaptability or career optimism) while others are general individual characteristics (e.g., general adaptability or optimism). Some career resources are more prone to changing over time and more susceptible to training (e.g., specific career self-management behaviours), while others are more stable and permanent (e.g., personality traits or

Social resources “Knowing whom”, relationships and reputation, social capital, networking behaviours, mentoring relationships, social support, etc.

Self-presentation resources Self-profiling, feedback seeking, self-presentation, influence behaviours (self-promotion, ingratiation, upward influence), visibility and positioning behaviours, etc.

cognitive abilities). In addition, some personal characteristics and competencies are absent from analysed career self-management frameworks at all. For example, trait mindfulness (Brown, Ryan, Creswell, 2007) and personal growth initiative (Robitschek et al., 2012) are excluded from analysed theories, despite their benefits to individuals. Finally, even though contemporary career theories emphasize the challenges of globalization and employees’ physical and psychological mobility (Hall, 2004; Neault, 2005; Sullivan, Arthur, 2006), such specific competencies as intercultural communication skills and knowledge of languages do not receive enough attention in career self-management frameworks, even though they include to some extent human capital resources (e.g., education). The differences in depth, extent, stability and transferability of career resources

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and the omitted resources raise a question, whether some of the career resources are more important in comparison to others. The issue of the hierarchy of resources is a challenge for future studies. In addition, theoretically, different resources linked to each other promote the development of each other during time (Hobfoll, 2012). Hence, it should be clarified which of resources are more susceptible to training and what forms of training are the most effective. Even though, separate theories and models offer career counselling or career skills training strategies (e.g., Savickas, 2002; Pryor, Bright, 2007; Hirschi, 2012; Akkermans et al., 2015), it is unclear what are the most beneficial programs in terms of time, money and gain to individuals and organizations as there is a lack of empirical studies, comparing different interventions.

Conclusions and implications This review is an attempt to integrate the viewpoints of different career paradigms and to raise the possible issues of the topic. This analysis of contemporary career psychology literature was not a systematic review or a meta-analysis, however, some valuable insights for scholars and practitioners can be made. Firstly, different frameworks emphasize different resources and competencies (e.g., while some theories mostly focus on specific career related behaviours and skills, others are more focused on psychological resources). Consequently, none of the analysed theoretical models fully cover the variety of potential career resources. In addition, some potential resources remain outside any model despite the evidence that suggests their benefits in the

career path. Thirdly, due to the variety of potential career resources, there is a need to establish with certainty what are the interconnections and hierarchy of different career resources in successful career self-management. For example, are psychological resources more relevant ones? Or is it more efficient to focus on assessing and strengthening the specific careerrelated competencies, such as networking skills or self-promotion behaviours? The understanding of what career resources are most relevant for a successful career could be achieved by employing longitudinal or experimental study designs in future studies. Despite these issues, it is possible to conclude that the resources and competencies suggested by different career theories and models can be divided into at least five groups: psychological (e.g., optimisms, flexibility); identity and career adaptability (e.g., self-knowledge, self-concept clarity); social (e.g., networking, social support); human capital (e.g., specific work-related knowledge); and self-presentation (e.g., self-profiling) resources. These resources are necessary for employees’ well-being. Psychological career resources cover various individual psychological characteristics, traits, and states that are necessary for successful career self-management; identity and career adaptability resources represent the skills, competencies and abilities of knowing oneself, finding one’s place in the world and creating one’s unique life narrative; social career resources include networking behaviours and social support; human capital resources refer to being able to perform work tasks and being able to demonstrate the knowledge and skills; self-presentation resources include active efforts to represent oneself in a

Career self-management resources in contemporary career frameworks: a literature review

favourable light and self-promote when necessary. As far as organizations are considered, some additional insights might be added. Companies are concerned to recruit and support resourceful employees who use their strengths not only for personal gain but also for achieving company goals through performance, proactivity and innovation. Thus, recruiting potentially resourceful employees would highly benefit organizations. Modern organizations might be also interested in providing effective and efficient resource strengthening interventions for their employees. Even though last decade’s literature suggests the individuals are responsible for taking charge of their career (Baruch, 2004; Savickas, 2012; Sullivan, Arthur, 2006), studies support the importance of organizational factors to employee’s well-being, results, job and career satisfaction. Links between subjective career success and job results and various organizational resources, such as job autonomy (Brauchli, Bauer, Hämmig, 2014), company micro-climate (Idris, Dollard, Tuckey, 2015), social support from leaders (Fullarton, Fuller-Tysz-

kiewicz, von Treuer, 2014) or leadership style (Mulki, Caemmerer, Heggde, 2015), suggest the importance of organizational environment to individuals’ well-being and career success. Thus, the effects of leaders and company management strategies should not be overlooked. One of the possible suggestions for companies is employing high performance work practices (Cristini, Eriksson, Pozzoli, 2013; Mitchell, Obeidat, Bray, 2013). In addition, creating easily accessible self-help tools, such as online interventions, would be highly beneficial for employees, graduates, un-employed and other parties, interested in self-development. Numerous studies suggest that internetbased interventions can be used effectively on a variety of issues (e.g., Hintz, Frazier, Meredith, 2015; Sergeant, Mongrain, 2015; Clarke, Kuosmanen, Barry, 2015). Even though there is a lack of studies on the effects of online self-help career interventions, given that the internet is easily accessible these days, employing online interventions in resource assessment and development is a perspective niche to exploit.

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Career self-management resources in contemporary career frameworks: a literature review

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The paper submitted: August 22, 2016 Prepared for publication: December 2, 2016

Kristina PARADNIKĖ, Auksė ENDRIULAITIENĖ, Rita BANDZEVIČIENĖ

KARJEROS SAVIVALDOS RESURSAI ŠIUOLAIKINĖSE KARJEROS PARADIGMOSE: LITERATŪROS APŽVALGA Santrauka

Šiandienėje ekonominių ir politinių krizių bei technologijų invazijos apimtoje darbo rinkoje dabuotojai susiduria su įvairiausias iššūkiais: konkurencija, kultūriniais skirtumais, neužtikrintumu dėl ateities ir nuolatiniu poreikiu bei reikalavimais mokytis naujovių. Taigi įžengti į šiuolaikinį darbo pasaulį reikia kur kas daugiau pastangų negu bet kada anksčiau. Lankstumas, gebėjimas greitai prisitaikyti prie pokyčių bei gebėjimas valdyti savo karjerą tampa būtini sėkmingam funkcionavimui. Kartu su pokyčiais darbo rinkoje ir organizacijoje keičiasi ir karjeros samprata. Atsiranda įvairios naujos karjeros teorijos bei paradigmos, apibūdinančios karjerą besikeičiančiais laikotarpiais. Paskutiniųjų poros dešimtmečių karjeros paradigmos kaip reikšmingą veiksnį karjeros kelyje išskiria įvairius individualius karjeros resursus: asmenines ypatybes, kompetencijas bei elgesius, reikalingus objektyviai ir subjektyviai sėkmingai karjerai. Šio straipsnio tikslas yra apibūdinti ir palyginti įvairius karjeros resursus,

išskiriamus įvairiose paskutiniojo dešimtmečio karjeros paradigmose. Atlikus mokslinės literatūros apžvalgą ir analizę apibūdinti ir išskirti pagrindiniai asmens karjeros kelyje reikalingi asmeniniai resursai. Literatūros apžvalgos rezultatai leidžia teigti, kad egzistuoja bent penkios karjeros resursų grupės: psichologiniai, socialiniai, tapatumo ir adaptyvumo, žmogiškojo kapitalo, reprezentaciniai. Psichologiniai resursai apima tokias asmenines charakteristikas kaip optimizmas, lankstumas, smalsumas, atkaklumas, viltis, atsparumas, vidinis kontrolės lokusas ir pan. Tapatumo ir karjeros adaptyvumo resursai apima žinias apie save, „žinau kodėl“ kompetencijas, karjeros planavimo įgūdžius, karjeros adaptyvumą ir kt. Socialiniai ištekliai apima socialinį kapitalą, tinklaveiką, socialinę paramą. Žmogiškasis kapitalas apima profesines žinias ir įgūdžius, „žinau kaip“ kompetencijas, patirtį bei išsilavinimą. Galiausiai reprezentaciniai ištekliai apima gebėjimą save

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Kristina PARADNIKĖ, Auksė ENDRIULAITIENĖ, Rita BANDZEVIČIENĖ

pateikti aplinkai bei darbdaviui kaip patrauklų darbuotoją, tinkamai reprezentuoti savo profesinius gebėjimus ir pan. Įvairūs karjeros ištekliai reikalingi sėkmingam funkcionavimui organizacijoje ir laviravimui karjeros kelyje. Daugelis šių resursų turi sąsajų su sėkmingu įsidarbinimu, darbo rezultatais, įsitraukimu į darbą ir kitais pozityviais kriterijais. Taigi sėkmingai karjerai reikšmingas šių resursų atpažinimas ir stiprinimas. Literatūros apžvalgos rezultatai taip pat kelia klausimų ateities tyrimams. Pavyzdžiui, atsižvelgiant į skirtinguose teoriniuose modeliuose pateikiamą resursų bei kompetencijų įvairovę ateities tyrimuose būtų aktualu ieškoti, kurie individualūs resursai vaidina svarbiausią vaidmenį sėkmingai

karjerai. Tolesniuose tyrimuose taip pat būtų galima nagrinėti, ar egzistuoja tam tikri baziniai, svarbesni už kitus, asmens karjeros resursai. Galiausiai aktualu tyrinėti, kokiomis intervencijomis tuos išteklius būtų galima efektyviausiai stiprinti. Apibendrinant galima teigti, kad ši karjeros resursų apžvalga bei analizė leidžia daryti išvadą, kad įvairūs asmeniniai karjeros resursai, susiję ir su platesnėmis bendromis asmeninėmis psichologinėmis charakteristikomis, ir su specifiniais karjeros valdymo elgesiais, yra ypatingai svarbūs sėkmingai asmens karjerai. Taigi svarbu ieškoti efektyvių būdų šiems resursams įvertinti bei stiprinti individualiai bei organizaciniu lygmeniu.