Mar 15, 2002 - bili Dam between 1988 and 1998, and finally the Jenelata Dam which was expected to be completed in ...... Highest Pt: Mt. Bakun (1,279m).
CATALOGUE OF RIVERS FOR SOUTH EAST ASIA AND THE PACIFIC-Volume IV
The UNESCO-IHP Regional Steering Committee for Southeast Asia and the Pacific
Edited by: RICHARD IBBITT National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research (NIWA), New Zealand
KAORU TAKARA Disaster Prevention Research Institute (DPRI) Kyoto University, Japan
MOHD. NOR BIN MOHD. DESA Regional Humid Tropics Hydrology and Water Resources Centre for Southeast Asia and the Pacific (HTC Kuala Lumpur), Malaysia
HIDAYAT PAWITAN Department of Geophysics and Meteorology Bogor Agricultural University, Indonesia
March 2002
Members of IHP Regional Steering Committee for Southeast Asia and the Pacific (1999-2001) Chairman* Secretary
Richard Ibbitt Kaoru Takara
Member Countries
Australia Cambodia People’s Republic of China Indonesia Japan Democratic People’s Republic of Korea Republic of Korea Malaysia New Zealand Papua New Guinea The Philippines Thailand Vietnam
Observer
Lao People’s Democratic Republic
Secretariat
UNESCO Jakarta Office
* Since 22 November 2001 Chairman
Keizrul Abdullah
ISBN 4-9900653-1-X PRINTED IN JAPAN
i
New Zealand Japan
Malaysia
Preface It is with great pleasure that we present the fourth volume of the Catalogue of Rivers for Southeast Asia and the Pacific. This Volume contains 25 rivers from 10 countries and brings the total number of rivers catalogued in the region, including those in volumes I to III, to 94. With this volume a new phase of publication has been entered for, besides the printed book, a CD-Rom version is also included. It is intended that over time previous volumes will also be made available in CD-Rom format. Further information on this project will become available on the Web page maintained by the Humid Tropics Centre (HTC), Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia i.e. http://htc.moa.my/apfriend/wa/ The objectives of the publication of the Catalogue, as stated in the first two volumes, are: *
To promote mutual understanding of hydrology and water resources of the region and of the neighbouring countries. This is essential for better regional co-operation in hydrological sciences as well as for water resources development and management.
*
To promote information exchange among different organisations in each country. This is essential for the development of hydrological sciences and for better development and management of the water resources within each country.
*
To promote the establishment of an international data exchange and collaborative research network in the region. This is expected to assist the Asian FRIEND (Flow Regime from International Experimental and Network Data) Projects in IHP-V and IHP VI to meet their goals.
It is heartening to note that all these objectives are being realized. With the dissemination of more information it is hoped that there will be better understanding and co-operation on matters related to water resources within each country as well as regionally. Of particular importance are the establishment of the Asian Pacific FRIEND, a UNESCO-IHP regional collaborative project, and the Asian Pacific Water Archive (APWA) that archives and makes available hydrometeorological and related data for Asian Pacific FRIEND projects and other IHP related activities in the region. In connection with the APWA that is held at the HTC Kuala Lumpur, the contents of the Catalogue of Rivers acts as a source of “meta-data” for some of the data in the APWA. Owing to differences in national data-release policies not all basins covered in the Catalogue of Rivers have matching data in the APWA. It is hoped that over time these differences can be resolved and that a complete set of matching data will become available. Producing the Catalogue of Rivers is a complicated logistical exercise. This volume alone has involved contributions from 10 countries most of which do not use English as their first language. Furthermore, the languages of 7 of the countries have their own character sets. Similar logistical problems have also been a feature of the compilation of the first 3 volumes. It is not surprising then, that from time to time, errors or editorial misinterpretations will have crept into the text despite the best efforts of the editors and the contributors. At the ninth Regional Steering Committee meeting for the IHP in the Southeast Asia and Pacific Region, held in Ha Long Bay in November 2001, this matter was discussed. It was resolved that as errors are detected they will be compiled into errata notes to be held on the HTC Kuala Lumpur Web page, and users of the Catalogues are advised to check there for the latest corrections. Another feature of the Catalogue of Rivers is that different contributors sometimes place their own unique interpretation on how to present particular information. No attempt has been made during editing to standardise such presentations as merit is seen in providing different ways to look at similar data. Often this can throw new insight on the information signal contained in the data. While some standardisation of formats has been made, data are expressed in the units in which they were provided. This can sometimes lead to apparent errors, for example when monthly mean discharge, expressed in m3/s, is presented alongside daily flows in the same units. The reader is reminded of this fact as ultimately it is the users’ responsibility to check that the data are suitable for their particular use.
ii
We would like to express our sincere appreciation and due respect to all the individual contributors of all the countries who have consolidated the data and information from various, and often diverse, sources, prepared the text, maps and tables, and co-operated with us by responding to revision requests. We also express our sincere gratitude to the many institutes, agencies and other organisations that provided the data, facilities, and above all, the funds and the personnel to carry out the work. In particular, we would like to thank the following organisations for providing the necessary financial support: UNESCO Jakarta Office The Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT), Japan The Infrastructure Development Institute of Japan We are hopeful that the Catalogues can serve in various ways to further fulfil the national and regional objectives that were originally aimed for. Finally, we ask the readers to provide critical comments and ideas to improve future volumes of the Catalogue. Editors: Richard Ibbitt
(National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research (NIWA), New Zealand)
Kaoru Takara
(Disaster Prevention Research Institute, Kyoto University, Japan)
Mohamed Nor bin Mohamed Desa (HTC Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia) Hidayat Pawitan (Department of Geophysics and Meteorology, Bogor Agricultural University, Indonesia) March 15, 2002
iii
Rivers Catalogued in Vols. I to IV The following 94 rivers are compiled in the four volumes of the Catalogue of Rivers in Southeast Asia and the Pacific, which is a product of UNESCO’s International Hydrological Programme (IHP) regional activities in the framework of the Asian Pacific FRIEND.
Country Australia
Vol. I (1995)
Vol. II (1997)
Vol. III (2000)
Vol. IV (2002)
Burdekin River Pioneer River Prek Thnot
Todd River Torrens River East Finniss River Scott Creek Stung Chinit
China
Bei-jiang Jin-jiang Jiyun-he
Gan-jiang Taizi-he Ou-jiang
Bailong-jiang You-jiang Huang-he
Fen-he Hongshui-he Jialing-jiang Luan-he
Indonesia
Citarum Bengawan Solo Kali Brantas
Sungai Asahan Citanduy Kali Progo
Cimanuk Kali Serayu
Kali Tuntang Jeneberang River
Japan
Yoshino-gawa Ara-kawa Mogami-gawa
Chikugo-gawa Fuji-kawa Ishikari-gawa
Shimanto-gawa Shonai-gawa Watarase-gawa
Shinano-gawa Tone-gawa Yodo-gawa
Korea (Rep. of)
Pyungchang-gang Geumho-gang Miho-chun
Soyang-gang Nam-gang Gap-chun
Nam Han-gang Hwang-gang Geum-gang
Seomjin-gang Milyang-gang Sapkyo-chun
Nam Khane Nam Ngum Sedone
Nam Theun/Cading Nam Ou Nam Sebangfay Nam Suang Nam Sebanghieng Nam Sekong
Cambodia
Lao PDR
Malaysia
Rajang Batang
Sungai Johor
New Zealand
Buller River
Motu River Taieri River Hutt River Ramu Wara Purari Wara Ilog Itaas ng Agno
Papua New Guinea Philippines Ilog Magat Ilog Pampanga Thailand
Vietnam
Number of Rivers
Mae Nam Ping Mae Nam Mae Klong
Mae Nam Nan
Mae Nam Yom Mae Nam Wang
Song Ky Cung Song Thu Bon Song Ba Song Srepok 25
Kelantan River Chalok River Mahurangi River Sepik Wara
Prachinburi River Bang Pakong River Tonle Sap River East Coast Gulf River Cau River Tra Khuc River
24
iv
20
25
CONTENTS Regional Steering Committee Preface Rivers Catalogued in Vols.ⅠtoⅣ
1.
China 10. 11. 12. 13.
2.
Kali Tuntang Jeneberang River
55-67 68-78
Shinano-gawa Tone-gawa Yodo-gwawa
79-94 95-109 110-124
Korea (Republic of) 10. 11. 12.
5.
1-13 14-25 26-40 41-54
Japan 10. 11. 12.
4.
Fen He Hongshui He Jialing Jiang Luan He
Indonesia 9. 10.
3.
i ii iv
Seomjin-gang Milyang-gang Sapkyo-chun
125-139 140-151 152-163
Lao PDR 7. 8. 9.
Nam Ou Nam Suang Nam Sekong
164-179 180-190 191-205
v
6.
Malaysia 3. 4.
7.
228-242
Sepik Wara
243-253
Thailand 6. 7. 8. 9.
10.
Mahurangi River
Papua New Guinea 3.
9.
206-218 219-227
New Zealand 5.
8.
Kelantan River Chalok River
Prachinburi River Bang Pakong River Tonle Sap River East Coast Gulf River
254-268 269-283 284-296 297-311
Vietnam 5. 6.
Cau River Tra Khuc River
312-326 327-338
vi
China China-10: Fen He China-11: Hongshui He China-12: Jialing Jiang China-13: Luan He
1
Introduction The four rivers catalogued in this volume are the Fenhe, the Hongshuihe, the Jialing Jiang and the Luanhe. The Fenhe is a main tributary of the Yellow River. The catchment area is 39,472 km2 and the length of the main channel is 693 km. Upstream, the river zigzags through the Luliang mountains. The middle and downstream reaches flow though the Taiyuan and Lingfen basins. In these basins the depth of yellow soil is about 10-30 m, and it is the main source of soil erosion in Shanxi province. The average annual precipitation for the basin is 544 mm. The annual discharge at the Hejin station was 48.7 m3/s for the period of 1934-1979. The Hongshui is the upper stream of the Xijiang River, a main tributary of The Pearl River. It is located in the south of Guizhou, southeast of Yunnan province and west of the Guangxi Autonomous Region. The catchment area is 138,340 km2 and the length of the main channel is 1,573 km. The area of the upper stream belongs to Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau. The annual precipitation for the catchment varies along the main stream. The average annual precipitation is about 1100-1300 mm in Yunnan and Guizhou, while it can reach 1500-1800 mm in Guangxi. The maximum recorded annual precipitation is 2300 mm in the Daming mountains in the downstream part of the basin. The annual evaporation is relatively stable between 1100-1200 mm. Annual discharge at the Shilongkou station is 2,151 m3/s. The Jialing Jiang is a large upstream tributary of the Yangtze River. The Bailong Jiang, which was catalogued in Volume 3 of the Catalogue of Rivers, is upstream of the Jialing Jiang. The catchment area is 159,800 km2 and the length of the main channel is 1,119 km. The annual average precipitation is 965 mm. The precipitation increases from upstream to downstream. It is 1200 mm in the downstream tributary Qujiang and Fujiang rivers. The precipitation of the basin is concentrated in May-October, when, typically, more than 80% of the annual rainfall occurs. The annual discharge at the Beipei station is 2,120 m3/s. The Luanhe flows directly to the Bo Sea. Usually it is combined with the Haihe and is called the Hailuanhe, because both rivers are hydraulically connected. The Luanhe basin is mainly in Hebei province, with some flow coming from Inner Mongolia. The main river originates north of Mt. Bayanguer. The catchment area is 44,900 km2 and the main channel length is 888 km. About 800 km2 and 167 km of the river channel are in Inner Mongolia. The average annual precipitation is 564 mm. Annual discharge at the Luanxian station is 147 m3/s.
Acknowledgements The following people and organizations are highly appreciated and acknowledged for their contributions. Liu Heng (Chair), Xie Ziyin, Zhou Bingqing, Jin Guansheng Nanjing Institute of Hydrology and Water Resources, Ministry of Water Resources Sun Qichang, Zhu Xiaoyuan, Liang Jiazhi Bureau of Hydrology, Ministry of Water Resources Information Center, Ministry of Water Resources (MWR) Pearl River Water Resources Commission, MWR Yangtze River Water Resources Commission, MWR Yellow River Water Resources Commission, MWR Hydrology and Water Resources Bureau of Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region
2
China ― 10
Fenhe (Fen He) Map of River
Table of Basic Data Name(s): Fenhe (in Huanghe River)
Serial No. : China-10
Location: Shanxi Province, Northern China
N 35° 34' ~ 38° 53'
Area: 39,471 km2
Length of the main stream: 694 km
Origin: Mt. Guancen (2,147 m)
Highest point: Mt.Woyangchang (2,603 m)
Outlet: Huanghe
Lowest point: 365 (m)
E 110° 34' ~ 111° 58'
Main geological features: Hard layered clastic rocks, Group of hard massive metamorphic rocks 2
2
2
2
Main tributaries: Lanhe (1,146 km ), Xiaohe (3,894 km ), Changyuanhe (2,274 km ), Wenyuhe (3,979 km ), Honganjiandong (1,123 km2), Huihe (2,060 km2) Main lakes:
------------
Main reservoirs: Fenhe (723×106m3, 1961), Wenyuhe (105×106m3, 1970), Fenhe II (under construction) Mean annual precipitation: 493.2 mm (1971 ~ 1990) (basin average) 3
2
Mean annual runoff: 48.7 m /s at Hejin (38,728 km ) (1971 ~ 1990) Population: 3,410,700 (1998)
Main cities: Taiyuan, Linfen, Yuci, Houma
Land use: Forest (24%), Rice paddy (2%), Other agriculture (29%), Water surface (2%),Urban (6%), Uncultivated land (20%), Qthers (17%)
3
China ― 10
1.
General Description
The Fenhe is a main tributary of The Yellow River. It is located in the middle of Shanxi province. The main river originates from northwest of Mt. Guanqing and flows from north to south before joining the Yellow River at Wanrong county. It flows through 18 counties and cities, including Ningwu, Jinle, Loufan, Gujiao, and Taiyuan. The catchment area is 39,472 km2 and the main channel length is 693 km. Forests cover about 30% of total basin area. Upstream, the river zigzags through the Luliang mountains. The middle and downstream reaches flow though the Taiyuan and Lingfen basins. In these basins the depth of yellow soil is about 10-30 m, and it is the main source of soil erosion in Shanxi province. The average annual precipitation for the basin is 544 mm. It varies from 500 mm in the upstream reaches to between 500 - 600 mm in the lower reaches. The precipitation of the basin is concentrated in the June-September period when more than 60% of the annual rainfall occurs. The annual discharge at the Hejin station was 48.7 m3/s for the period of 1934-1979. The average annual volume of runoff was 2.06 billion m3 for the period of 1919-1979 and 2.66 billion m3 for the period of 1956-1979. There are two large reservoirs, the Wenyu and the Fenhe, located on the tributary Wenyu river and main stream of the Fenhe River respectively. The Fenhe II reservoir is under construction. Shanxi is an industrial priority province in China, specialising in metallurgy, coal, energy and chemistry. The population of the catchment was 3,410,700 in 1998. The climate is cold and dry. There is very little cultivation land for paddy rice. The main crops are wheat, corn, and potatoes.
2.
Geographical Information
2.1
Geological Map
4
China ― 10
2.2
Land Use Map
2.3
Characteristics of the River and the Main Tributaries
No.
Name of river
Length [km] Catchment area [km2]
Highest peak [m] Lowest point [m]
Cities Population (1990)
Land use [%] (2000)
1
Fenhe (Main River)
694 39,471
2,341 365.8
Taiyuan, + Linfen 2,108,200
F (24.24) L (2.47)
2
Lanhe (Tributary)
61.9 1,146
1,420 1,117
3
Xiaohe (Tributary)
148.9 3,894
1,150 758.5
4
Changyuanhe (Tributary)
93 2,274
1,450 752
5
Wenyuhe (Tributary)
157.9 3,979
1,040 730
6
Honganjianhe (Tributary)
84.7 1,123
1,410 438.2
7
Huihe (Tributary)
118.4 2,060
1,130 386
F: Forest L: Lake, River, Marsh O: Others
P: Paddy rice,
OA: Other Agriculture
U: Urban
5
P (2.0) OA (29.25) Yuci 238,600
U (5.5) UL (19.92) O (16.62)
Xiaoyi 112,900
UL: Uncultivated land
China ― 10
2.4
Longitudinal Profiles
3.
Climatological Information
3.1
Annual Isohyetal Map and Observation Stations
6
China ― 10
3.2 No.
List of Meteorological Observation Stations Elevation [m]
Location
Observation period
Mean annual precipitation1) [mm]
Mean annual evaporation1) [mm]
Observation 2) items
Lancun
880
N 38° 00' E 112° 26'
1934 ~ present
525
986
P (TB)
Yishang
760
N 37° 00' E 111° 50'
1958 ~ present
540
1,157
P (TB), E
Hejin
379
N 35° 34' E 110° 48'
1934 ~ present
490
1,008
P (TB), E
Shangjingyou
1,150
N 38° 10' E 111° 49'
1954 ~ present
438
Lujiazhuang
900
N 37° 44' E 113° 03'
1953 ~ present
474
Pantuo
970
N 37° 13' E 112° 29'
1954 ~ present
483
P (TB), E
Dongzhuang
599
N 36° 13' E 111° 52'
1965 ~ present
536
P (TB), E
Station
P (TB), E P (TB), E
1,395
Evaporation used with Φ20 Evaporation vessel 1) Period for the mean is from 1971 to 1990 2) P: Precipitation E: Evaporation TB: Tipping bucket with recording chart
3.3
Monthly Climate Data
Station: Taiyuan Observation item Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun
Jul
Aug Sep
Oct Nov Dec Annual
Period for the mean
Temperature [°C] -6.0
-2.9
3.8
2.3
-4.4
Precipitation [mm]
2.9
6.3
10.7 23.8 35.3 54.6 120.2 94.4 64.3 29.1 12.1
3.2
Evaporation [mm]
47.7 65.0 131.6 214.6 272.9 253.7 205.0 174.5 133.0 111.5 65.9 44.2 1,719 1961~1990
Solar radiation [MJ/m2/day]
8.77 10.1 14.3 18.4 18.7 20.1 18.3 17.0 13.0 11.5 9.47 8.12
Duration of sunshine [hr]
182.2 172.5 210.9 223.2 268.0 263.4 235.0 228.5 204.9 210.4 182.5 173.6 2,555 1961~1990
11.7 17.9 21.6 23.3 21.8 16.1 10.0
7
9.6
1961~1990
456.8 1961~1990
14.0 1982~1985
China ― 10
3.4
Long-term Variation of Monthly Precipitation
4.
Hydrological Information
4.1
Map of Streamflow Observation Stations
8
China ― 10
4.2
List of Hydrological Observation Stations No.
Location
Station Lancun Yishang Hejin Shangjingyou Lujiazhuang Pantuo Dongzhuang
H2: manual water level
No.
Observation period
Observation items (frequency)
7,705
1943 ~ present
H2, Q
23,945
1958 ~ present
H2, Q
38,428
1956 ~ present
H2, Q
1,140
1954 ~ present
H2, Q
2,367
1953 ~ present
H2, Q
533
1954 ~ present
H2, Q
987
1965 ~ present
H2, Q
N 38° 26' E 112° 26' N 37° 00' E 111° 50' N 35° 34' E 110° 48' N 38° 10' E 111° 49' N 37° 44' E 113° 03' N 37° 13' E 112° 29' N 36° 13' E 111° 52'
Q: discharge
−1) Q [m3/s]
Qmax2) [m3/s]
− Qmax3) [m3/s]
− Qmin4) [m3/s]
− Q/A [m /s/100km2]
Qmax/A 3 2 [m /s/100km ]
Period of statistics
10.1
1,480
446
0.44
0.13
19.21
1971 ~ 1990
11.42
1,010
295
0
0.048
4.22
1971 ~ 1990
25.73
804
356
0
0.066
2.08
1971 ~ 1990
1.59
935
308
0.162
0.101
82.02
1971 ~ 1990
3.12
788
324
0.316
0.132
33.29
1971 ~ 1990
1.42
2,050
240
0.031
0.266
385
1971 ~ 1990
1,680
387
0.095
0.156
170
1971 ~ 1990
1.54 1) Mean annual discharge
4.3
Catchment area (A) [km2]
2) Maximum discharge
3) Mean maximum discharge
3
4) Mean minimum discharge
Long-term Variation of Monthly Discharge Series
9
China ― 10
4.4
Annual Pattern of Discharge Series
4.6
Annual Maximum and Minimum Discharges 2
Station: Lancun (7,705 km ) 1)
2)
1)
Maximum 3 Date [m /s]
2)
Year
Maximum 3 Date [m /s]
1971
7.31
1,480
12
1.77
1981
8.3
159
11
0.28
1972
8.4
51.5
12
1.17
1982
8.2
1,420
3
0.34
1973
6.28
715
5
0.6
1983
7.28
353
12
0.13
1974
7.27
530
12
0.7
1984
8.12
71.2
12
0.19
1975
8.12
387
5
0.54
1985
5.12
507
2
0.13
1976
8.19
613
11
0.42
1986
7.19
81.9
12
0.11
1977
8.18
515
2
0.32
1987
8.3
48.0
12
0.028
1978
7.19
302
2
0.89
1988
8.14
479
3
0
1979
8.14
601
12
0.4
1989
7.17
163
1
0.005
1980
5.31
150
1
0.7
1990
8.11
304
6
0.07
Minimum 3 Month [m /s]
Year
1), 2) Instantaneous observation by recording chart
10
Minimum 3 Month [m /s]
China ― 10
4.7
Hyetographs and Hydrographs of Major Floods
5.
Water Resources
5.1
General Description
The Fenhe is a main tributary of the Yellow River and originates in the northeast mountains of Shanxi province. The average annual precipitation for the basin is 544 mm. It varies from 500 mm in the upstream reaches to between 500 - 600 mm in the lower reaches. The precipitation of the basin is concentrated in June-September period when more than 60% of the annual rainfall occurs. However, according to the records from the Hejin hydrological station (38,428 km2), the distributions of precipitation and runoff have two distinct parts: a period of relative drought in 1934-1948 and a relatively wet period in 19491979. Floods are mainly caused by storms centred over the basin and there are typically two or three floods each year. The annual discharge at the Hejin station was 48.7 m3/s for the period of 1934-1979. The average annual volume of runoff was 2.06 billion m3 for the period of 1919-1979 and 2.66 billion m3 for the period of 1956-1979. There are two man-made reservoirs in the basin, the Fenhe and the Wenyuhe, which were completed in 1961 and 1970 with capacities of 723 x 106m3 and 105 x 106m3 respectively. The main purpose of the Fenhe reservoir is flood control, with irrigation, fishery and water supply as additional benefits. The Wenyuhe reservoir is a project for irrigation and hydropower generation. The Fenhe II reservoir downstream of existing Fenhe reservoir will have a capacity 120 x 106m3 when completed.
11
China ― 10
5.2
Map of Water Resource Systems
5.3
List of Major Water Resources Facilities
Major Reservoirs Name of river
Name of dam
Catchment area [km2]
Gross capacity [106m3]
Effective capacity [106m3]
Purposes
Year of completion
Fenhe
5,268
723
464
A, F, P
1961
Wenyuhe
1,876
105
91
A, F, P
1970
Fenhe River Wenyuhe River 1) F: Flood control,
1)
P: Hydro-power
Major Interbasin Transfer Name of transfer line Wanjiazhai
Name of rivers and places connected From
To
Yellow
Fenhe
Length [km] 240.68
1) WS: Water Supply
12
Maximum capacity Purposes1) [m3/s] 48
WS
Year of completion 2002
China ― 10
5.4
Major Floods and Droughts 2
Major Floods at Hejin (Catchment area 38,728 km ) Date
Peak discharge [m3/s]
Rainfall [mm] Duration
Meteorological cause
Dead and Missing
Major damages (Districts affected)
1982.8.2
1,420
704.8 7.29 ~ 8.2
Frontal rain
---
Linfen, Houma City
Major Droughts
6.
Period
Affected area
Major damages and counteractions
1972.6 ~ 8
Taiyuan, Yuci cities
Water supply cut to 50%
1980.7
Jinle,Ningwu cities
Water supply cut to 47%
Socio-cultural Characteristics
The Fenhe flows from north to south through Taiyuan, the capital of Shanxi province. The basin is a typical karst area, with several springs, and water flowing from cracks in the rocks. There are many natural scenic features and also ancient constructions, more than 1000 years old, in the rock caves in Tianlong mountains. In and around the city are many Buddhist and Taoist temples. In the northern part of the city there is Wutai Mountain, one of China’ s four famous Buddhism Mountains.
7.
References, Databooks and Bibliography
Geology press (1973): The atlas of geology in China. China atlas press (1978): China Meteorology Atlas. Qingdao Press (1993): Dictionary of China’s River Distribution. Shanxi Water Resources Management Commission, Water resources in Shanxi, 1987 Yellow River Water Commission (1986): Water Resources Assessment for Yellow River Basin. Yellow River Water Commission (1984): The Collection of Flood Control Data in Yellow River Basin. Yellow River Water Commission (1952-1986), The Hydrological Year-book of Yellow River Basin. China Bookstore Press, China Historical Floods, 1992 China Population Investigation, China Statistical Press, 1994
13
China ― 11
Hongshuihe (Hongshui He) Map of River
Table of Basic Data Name(s): Hongshui River
Serial No. : China-11
Location: Sorth-western China Area: 138,340 km
N 23° 04' ~ 26° 49'
2
E 102° 14' ~ 109° 32'
Length of the main stream: 1,573 km
Origin: Mt. Maxiongshandonglu 4,288 (m)
Highest point: Mt. Wumengshan 2,866 (m)
Outlet: Qianjiang
Lowest point: Sanjiangkou 16 (m)
Main geological feature: Carbonate rock, Hard massive metamorphic rock, Clastic rock 2
2
2
2
Main tributaries: Beipanjiang (26,590 km ), Mengjiang (8,607 km ), Huangnihe (8,158 km ), Caoduhe (5,843 km ), 2 2 2 2 Qujiang (4,105 km ), Lujiang (4,342 km ), Qingshuihe (4,067 km ), Diaojiang (3,604 km ) Main lakes: Fuxianhu, Xinyunhu Main reservoirs: Dumu (100×106m3, 1963), Dalongdong (151×106m3, 1960), Dahua (960×106m3, 1960) Mean annual precipitation: 1,182 mm (1954 ~ 1979) (basin average) Mean annual runoff: 2,151 m3/s Population: 20,570,000 (1990)
Main cities: Duwu Wenxian, Diechang Nanping
Land use: Forest (28.5%), Rice paddy (6.6%), Other agriculture (3.8%), Waste (21.6%), Others (39.5%) (1991)
14
China ― 11
1.
General Description
The Hongshui River is the upper stream of the Xijiang, a main tributary of the Pearl River. It is located in the south of Guizhou, southeast of Yunnan province and west of the Guangxi Autonomous Region. The upper stream of the Hongshuihe is called the Nanpanjiang and originates from Maxiong Mountain. The general direction of the Hongshuihe is from southwest to northeast, then from north to southeast. The river joins the Qingjiang at Sanjiangkou after flowing through Wangmo, Luodian, Tian’e, Donalan, and Laibin counties. The catchment area is 138,340 km2 and the main channel length is 1,573 km. Forests cover 40% of the total area of the basin. The upstream part of the basin belongs to YunnanGuizhou Plateau. The annual precipitation varies along the main stream from about 1,100-1,300 mm in Yunnan and Guizhou, to 1,500 - 1,800 mm in Guangxi. The maximum recorded annual precipitation was 2,300 mm in the Daming mountains in the downstream part of the basin. The precipitation of the basin is concentrated in the period May-October, when 80% of the annual rainfall occurs. The annual evaporation is relatively stable being between 1,100-1,200 mm. The annual discharge at the Shilongkou station is 2,151 m3/s. The Hongshuihe is one of China’s main sources of hydro-electric power and there are already 3 large cascading reservoirs in the catchment for this purpose. Flooding, which is mainly experienced in the downstream part of the basin, is caused by summer storms. Yunnan, Guizhou and Guangxi are agriculture provinces in China. The population of the catchment was 20,570,000 in 1990. The climate is warm and wet. The landscape includes mountains: 76%, hills: 20% and plains 4%. The main crops are paddy rice, corn, and sugarcane.
2.
Geographical Information
2.1
Geological Map
15
China ― 11
2.2
Land Use Map
2.3
Characteristics of the River and the Main Tributaries
No.
Name of river
Length [km] Catchment area [km2]
Highest peak [m] Lowest point [m]
Cities Population (1990)
Land use [%] (1985)
1
Nanpanjiang (Main River)
9,14 56,880
2,054.6 290.6
Qujing 830,000
2
Qujiang (Tributary)
198 4,105
1,852.2 1,145.4
3
Lujiang (Tributary)
136 4,342
1,516.4 1,039.0
4
Huangnihe (Tributary)
278 8,158
2,049.5 751.3
5
Beibanjiang (Tributary)
444 26,590
1,533.8 290.6
Forest (28.5%), Rice paddy (6.6%), Other agriculture (3.8%), Uncultivated land (21.6%), Others (39.5%)
6
Hongshuihe (Main River)
659 54,870
290.6 17.8
7
Mengjiang (Tributary)
241 8,607
1,036.8 233.8
8
Mengjiang (Tributary)
241 8,607
1,036.8 233.8
9
Caoduhe (Tributary)
235 5,843
991.6 224.6
10
Diaojiang (Tributary)
237 3,604
371.0 98.4
11
Qingshuihe (Tributary)
189 4,067
235.4 59.6
16
China ― 11
2.4
Longitudinal Profiles
3.
Climatological Information
3.1
Annual Isohyetal Map and Observation Stations
17
China ― 11
3.2 No.
List of Meteorological Observation Stations Station
Elevation [m]
Location
Mean annual Mean annual Observation precipitation1) evaporation1) period [mm] [mm]
Observation 2) items
1
Zhanyi
1,860
N 25° 36' E 103° 50'
1956 ~ present
954.4
1,469.2
P (TB), E
2
Xiqiao
1,836
N 25° 01' E 103° 38'
1957 ~ present
954.7
1,569.8
P (TB), E
3
Gaoguma
1,534
N 24° 47' E 103° 08'
1956 ~ present
922.9
1,237.4
P (TB), E
4
Jiangbianjie
966
N 24° 01' E 103° 37'
1956 ~ present
899.4
1,300.4
P (TB), E
5
Dadukou
929
N 26° 18' E 104° 43'
1963 ~ present
1,115.4
1,004.0
P (TB), E
6
Zhedong
378
N 25° 22' E 105° 47'
1958 ~ present
1,060.3
1,390.0
P (TB), E
7
Zhexiang
327
N 24° 58' E 106° 16'
1954 ~ present
1,061.9
1,304.6
P (TB), E
8
Tiane
245
N 25° 06' E 107° 09'
1959 ~ present
1,344.1
1,011.9
P (TB), E
9
Donglan
226
N 24° 31' E 107° 26'
1937 ~ present
1,431.0
1,113.6
P (TB), E
10
Duan
151
N 23° 50' E 108° 11'
1934 ~ present
1,731.1
1,217.2
P (TB), E
11
Qianjiang
90
N 23° 37' E 108° 58'
1934 ~ present
1,532.1
1,270.7
P (TB), E
Evaporation used with Φ20 Evaporation vessel 1) Period for the mean is from 1956 to 1979 2) P: Precipitation,
3.3
E: Evaporation,
TB: Tipping bucket with recording chart
Monthly Climate Data
Station: Duan Observation item Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun
Jul
Aug Sep
Oct Nov Dec Annual
Temperature [°C] 12.2 13.3 17.1 21.5 25.2 27.2 28.2 27.9 26.9 23.3 18.6 14.4
Period for the mean
21.3 1952~1985
Precipitation [mm]
36.4 43.7 69.5 128.5 254.2 367.5 257.6 295.0 109.0 77.5 48.8 43.6 1,731 1952~1985
Evaporation [mm]
64.2 57.7 66.8 87.2 119.1 122.3 139.3 133.4 143.6 125.2 89.6 68.8 1,217 1952~1985
Solar radiation 2 [MJ/m /day]*
5.52 7.14 9.96 12.5 12.3 12.4 15.5 14.9 12.1 8.82 6.96 5.56
Duration of sunshine [hr]
69.1 53.6 52.7 69.8 109.5 123.0 167.7 180.1 191.3 151.4 126.7 100.6 1,396 1971~1980
* Observed at Guiyang.
18
10.3 1982~1985
China ― 11
3.4
Long-term Variation of Monthly Precipitation
4.
Hydrological Information
4.1
Map of Streamflow Observation Stations
19
China ― 11
4.2
List of Hydrological Observation Stations No.
Station
Location
Catchment area (A) [km2]
Observation period
Observation items (frequency)
21
Gaoguma
N 24° 47' E 103° 08'
6,301
1953 ~ present
H2, Q
23
Xiaolongtan
N 23° 49' E 103° 11'
15,405
1960 ~ present
H2, Q
24
Jiangbianjie
N 24° 01' E 103° 37'
25,116
1954 ~ present
H2, Q
25
Bajie
N 24° 52' E 105° 02'
44,242
1971 ~ present
H2, Q
28
Zhedong
N 25° 22' E 105° 47'
19,300
1957 ~ present
H2, Q
27
Zhexiang
N 24° 58' E 106° 12'
82,480
1953 ~ present
H2, Q
Tiane
N 25° 00' E 107° 09'
105,830
1962 ~ present
H2, Q
Duan
N 23° 50' E 108° 11'
119,245
1936 ~ present
H2, Q
Qianjiang
N 23° 37' E 108° 58"
128,165
1936 ~ present
H2, Q
29
H2: water level by manual
Q: discharge
No.
−1) Q [m3/s]
Qmax2) [m3/s]
− Qmax3) [m3/s]
− Qmin4) [m3/s]
− Q/A [m /s/100km2]
Qmax/A 3 2 [m /s/100km ]
Period of statistics
21
62.6
1,270
646
1.18
0.99
20.16
1953 ~ 1984
23
131.7
2,220
1,064
13.6
0.86
14.41
1961 ~ 1984
24
200
3,080
1,335
35.2
0.80
12.26
1954 ~ 1984
25
563
6,720
3,770
99.8
1.27
15.19
1971 ~ 1984
28
372
5,670
3,680
55.8
1.93
29.38
1958 ~ 1984
27
1180
11,300
7,166
194
1.43
13.70
1954 ~ 1984
1630
15,800
10,230
261
1.54
14.93
1960 ~ 1984
2026
18,700
11,860
339
1.70
15.68
1958 ~ 1984
2151
17,600
12,160
349
1.69
13.73
1952 ~ 1984
29
1) Mean annual discharge
2) Maximum discharge
3) Mean maximum discharge
20
3
4) Mean minimum discharge
China ― 11
4.3
Long-term Variation of Monthly Discharge Series
4.4
Annual Pattern of Discharge Series
21
China ― 11
4.6
Annual Maximum and Minimum Discharges 2
Station: Qianjiang (128,165 km ) 1)
2)
1)
2)
Year
Maximum 3 Date [m /s]
470
1969
7.03
13,300
4
280
1
465
1970
7.16
16,500
3
275
16,500
4
319
1971
8.21
13,300
3
396
10,800
4
295
1972
9.26
7,460
3
353
5.31
11,300
4
380
1973
6.16
9,490
3
465
1957
7.04
10,700
3
339
1974
7.02
14,700
3
312
1958
9.21
9,590
5
222
1975
6.07
6,770
4
293
1959
7.06
11,200
2
336
1976
7.12
15,900
4
291
1960
7.24
14,000
5
308
1977
8.06
11,200
3
300
1961
8.12
10,300
2
330
1978
6.29
10,000
4
324
1962
7.03
14,300
4
397
1979
7.02
17,200
3
339
1963
8.09
7,260
5
240
1980
8.14
12,100
3
316
1964
8.13
16,000
4
416
1981
6.07
9,000
3
351
1965
8.16
11,200
3
347
1982
6.19
12,500
3
354
1966
7.06
15,500
3
351
1983
6.24
15,400
2
434
1967
8.09
13,400
4
362
1984
6.03
9,300
3
346
1968
7.16
17,600
2
523
Year
Maximum 3 Date [m /s]
1952
8.27
11,700
2
1953
6.13
5,660
1954
6.30
1955
6.21
1956
Minimum 3 Month [m /s]
1), 2) Instantaneous observation by recording chart
4.7
Hyetographs and Hydrographs of Major Floods
22
Minimum 3 Month [m /s]
China ― 11
5.
Water Resources
5.1
General Description
The Hongshui River is the upper stream of the Xijiang, a main tributary of the Pearl River. The Nanpanjiang River is the upper stem of the main river and originates from the Yunnan-Guizhou Tibet Plateau. The precipitation of the basin is concentrated in the period May-October, when 80% of the annual rainfall occurs. Water is abundant in the Hongshuihe basin. The annual average discharges at the Tian’e station in upstream part of the basin and Qianjiang station in the downstream part are 1,590 m3/s and 2,140 m3/s repectvely. Flooding, which is mainly experienced in the downstream part of the basin, is caused by summer storms. It is common to have 2 or 3 floods each year. The maximum recorded flood discharge at the Qianjiang station was 18,300 m3/s in July 1968. The Hongshuihe carries the largest sediment load of the rivers in Guangxi. Annual average sediment transportation is 45.6 million tons. There is at present a cascade of 3 large man-made reservoirs on the main stream. The Tianshengqiao, Yantan, and Dahua reservoirs were completed in 1993, 1981 and 1983 with capacities of 88 x 106 m3, 2,430 x 106 m3, and 960 x 106 m3 respectively. The main purpose of these reservoirs is hydroelectric power generation associated with flood control and navigation. The Longtan reservoir, on which construction began July 2001, will have a capacity of 55,490 x 106 m3 and will become the largest reservoir in the Hongshuihe cascade when completed in 2009. There are several large and middle scale reservoirs, such as the Lubuge and Dalongdong, on tributaries rivers.
5.2
Map of Water Resource Systems
23
China ― 11
5.3
List of Major Water Resources Facilities
Major Reservoirs Name of river
Name of dam
Catchment Area [km2]
Gross Capacity [106m3]
Effective Capacity [106m3]
Purposes1)
Year of completion
Nanpanjiang River
Dumu
196
100.4
98.5
A
1963
Lubuge
7,300
120
110
P
1992
Tianshengqiao
50,194
88
26
P
1993
Hongshui River
Yantan
106,580
2,430
990
P, N
1981
Hongshui River
Dahua
112,200
960
419
P, F
1983
Qingshui River
Dalongdong
245
151
150.6
A, P
1960
Huangni River Nanpanjiang River
1) F: Flood control
5.4
P: Hydro-power
N: Navigation
Major Floods and Droughts 2
Major Flood at Qianjiang (Catchment area 128,165 km )
6.
Date
Peak discharge [m3/s]
Rainfall [mm] Duration
Meteorological cause
Dead and Missing
Major damages (Districts affected)
1976.12
15,900
690.6 7.7 ~ 7.12
Frontal rain
---
Duan, Laibing City
Socio-cultural Characteristics
The Hongshuihe originates from the famous 10-thousand mountains area and flows via Yunnan Guizhou and Guangxi provinces. Mountains and hills take up 96% of the total area. Miao, Zhuang, Hani, Yao minorities live in these provinces. Each minority dresses differently, with distinct head decorations, and each have different wedding ceremonies etc. The natural scenery is very beautiful, e.g., Tianshengqiao means a natural bridge between two mountains, while words like Maotiaohe, mean a river that a cat can jump though. Rapids, dangerous beaches, and submerged rocks are quite common. The river basin has karst geological characteristics. There are some vanishing rivers, e.g., the Congli, that disappears underground before returning to the surface some 35 km later. The subterranean rivers make a very loud noise like a thunder.
24
China ― 11
7.
References, Databooks and Bibliography
Geology press (1973): The atlas of geology in China. China atlas press (1978): China Meteorology Atlas. Qingdao Press (1993): Dictionary of China’s River Distribution. Guangxi Water Resources Department, Water resources development for Guangxi, 1985 Pearl River Water Commission (1989): Integrated Water Resources Planning for Pearl River Basin. Pearl River Water Commission (1984): The Collection of Flood Control Data in Pearl River Basin. Pearl River Water Commission (1952-1986): The Hydrological Year-book of Pearl River Basin. China Bookstore Press, China Historical Floods, 1992 China Population Investigation, China Statistical Press, 1994
25
China ― 12
Jialing Jiang Map of River
26
China ― 12
Table of Basic Data Name(s): Jialingjiang
Serial No. : China-12
Location: Sichuan Province, southwest China Area: 160,000 km
2
N 29° 34' ~ 34° 31'
E 102° 34' ~ 109° 02'
Length of the main stream: 1,120 km
Origin: Mt. Qinlingnanlu (2,819 m)
Highest point: Mt. Qinling (2,819 m)
Outlet: Changjiang
Lowest point: 198 m
Main geological features: Mild hard layered clasic rocks, tabular metamorphic rocks, carbonate rocks Main tributaries: Qujiang, Fujiang, Bailong Jiang, Xihanshui Main lakes: -----------6
3
6
3
Main reservoirs: Baozhusi (2,451×10 m , 1996), Bikou (521×10 m , 1976) Mean annual precipitation: 998 mm (1971 ~ 1990) (basin average) Mean annual runoff: 2,120 m3/s Population: 38,000,000 (1998)
Main cities: Nanchong, Guangyuan, Wudu, Mianyang
Land use: Forest (19%), Rice paddy (7.1%), Other agriculture (10.2%),Waste (15.3%), Others (48.4%) (1991)
1.
General Description
The Jialing Jiang is a major tributary of the Yangtze River. The Bailong Jiang, which was catalogued in volume 3 of the Catalogue of Rivers, is a tributary of the Jialing Jiang. The Jialing Jiang is located on the border of Ganshu, Sichuan and Shanxi provinces. One of the sources of the river is Mt. Min in the Xiqing mountains. The Jialing Jiang flows from north to south. Two large tributaries join the main stream in its downstream reaches. One is the Qujiang, which flows from northeast to southwest. The other flows from northwest to southeast. The main stream joins the Yangtze River at the city of Chongqing after flowing through Guangyuan, Wangcang, Jian'ge, Cangxi, Nanchong, and Wusheng. The catchment area is 159,800 km2 and main channel length is 1,119 km. Forests cover 55% of the total basin area. The area of the upper river drains from the Tibetan Plateau, where the average elevation is 3,500 m. The city of Nanchong separates the middle and downstream reaches, which are both in Sichuan province. The annual average precipitation is 965 mm. The average precipitation for the upper basin is about 600 mm. The precipitation increases from upstream to downstream. It is 1,200 mm upstream of Qujiang and Fujiang. The precipitation of the basin is concentrated in May-October, when, typically, more than 80% of the annual rainfall occurs. The annual discharge at the Beipei station is 2,120 m3/s. Two large cascading reservoirs, the Bikou and the Baozhushi, lie in the upstream Bailong Jiang tributary river. The floods, caused by summer storms, are mainly experienced in the downstream part of the basin. The Yangtze flood of 1870 was primarily caused by flow from the Jialing Jiang. Sixty-six large floods were recorded from 653 to 1991. Intense rainfalls cause flooding in the basin while higher water demand for agriculture has led to agricultural droughts. Water-born soil erosion from the Jialing Jiang basin is the main source of sedimentation in the Yangtze River. Sichuan is an agriculture province of China. The population of the catchment was 38,000,000 in 1998. The downstream part of the basin is the main grain production area in Sichuan. Besides wheat and corn, potato and rice are also important crops. The upper basin is predominantly in pasture.
27
China ― 12
2.
Geographical Information
2.1
Geological Map
28
China ― 12
2.2
Land Use Map
29
China ― 12
2.3 No.
Characteristics of the River and the Main Tributaries Length [km] Name of river Catchment area [km2]
1
Jialingjiang (Main River)
1,120 160,000
2
Xihanshui (Tributary)
246 10,103
3
Bailong Jiang (Tributary)
576 31,808
4
Qujiang (Tributary)
720 39,211
5
Fujiang (Tributary)
700 36,400
2.4
Highest peak [m] Lowest point [m]
Cities Population (1990)
Land use [%] (1985)
Nanchong, Hechuan, Forest (19%) Rice paddy Guangyuan (Total = 2,530,000) (7.1%) Other Mt.Maijishan 2,000 agriculture 700 (10.2%) Waste Mt.Wugongshan 4,288 Wudu (15.3%) 460 471,166 Others Mt.Dabashan 2,500 (48.4%) 200 Mt.Qinling 2,819 180
Mt.Minshan 5,588 210
Longitudinal Profiles
30
China ― 12
3.
Climatological Information
3.1
Annual Isohyetal Map and Observation Stations
31
China ― 12
3.2 No.
List of Meteorological Observation Stations Station
Elevation [m]
Ciba
888
Tanjiazhuang
860
Shunlixia
1,400
Daqiao
1,080
Tanjiaba
900
Lueyang
645
Xindianzi
510
Sanleiba
480
Shangsi
510
Tingzikou
400
Qingquanxiang
370
Jianshexiang
310
Wusheng
240
Beipei
220
Pingwu
880
Fujiangqiao
485
Santai
374
Shehong
331
Xiaoheba
240
Wanglituo
320
Fengtan
315
Huangjinkou
320
Donglin
310
Goudukou
260
Luoduxi
240
Location N 33° 51' E 106° 25' N 33° 42' E 106° 12' N 34° 06' E 105° 07' N 33° 45' E 105° 17' N 33° 35' E 105° 46' N 33° 19' E 106° 07' N 32° 35' E 105° 51' N 32° 27' E 105° 38' N 32° 17' E 105° 29' N 31° 51' E 105° 49' N 31° 43' E 106° 04' N 31° 16' E 106° 06' N 30° 16' E 106° 16' N 29° 51' E 106° 25' N 32° 25' E 104° 31' N 31° 31' E 104° 43' N 31° 04' E 105° 09' N30° 52' E 105° 24' N 30° 06' E 106° 03' N 31° 41' E 106° 59' N 31° 06' E 107° 06' N 31° 37' E 107° 51' N 31° 17' E 107° 41' N 30° 51' E 117° 00' N 30° 20' E 106° 35'
Mean annual Mean annual Observation precipitation1) evaporation1) period [mm] [mm]
Observation 2) items
1959 ~ present
682.0
750.1
P (TB), E
1956 ~ present
773.9
797.4
P (TB), E
1953 ~ present
521.9
873.6
P (TB), E
1963 ~ present
466.6
841.2
P (TB), E
1958 ~ present
683.6
662.1
P (TB), E
1934 ~ present
815.6
713.7
P (TB), E
1951 ~ present
1,105.2
991.3
P (TB), E
1954 ~ present
1,154.4
840.2
P (TB), E
1957 ~ present
1,165.3
978.9
P (TB), E
1954 ~ present
1,109.1
814.8
P (TB), E
1953 ~ present
988.2
902.0
P (TB), E
1953 ~ present
961.1
720.3
P (TB), E
1938 ~ present
998.9
724.3
P (TB), E
1943 ~ present
1,142.1
797.0
P (TB), E
1951 ~ present
843.9
759.6
P (TB), E
1956 ~ present
892.9
708.5
P (TB), E
1937 ~ present
898.1
769.2
P (TB), E
1951 ~ present
938.7
751.2
P (TB), E
1951 ~ present
1,030.1
692.0
P (TB), E
1954 ~ present
1,129.9
570.1
P (TB), E
1953 ~ present
1,137.6
---------
P (TB)
1958 ~ present
1,206.8
767.2
P (TB), E
1954 ~ present
1,241.3
764.7
P (TB), E
1954 ~ present
1,074.5
673.8
P (TB), E
1953 ~ present
1,067.9
--------
P (TB)
Evaporation used with Φ20 Evaporation vessel 1) Period for the mean is from 1956 to 1979 2) P: Precipitation, E: Evaporation,
32
TB: Tipping bucket with recording chart
China ― 12
3.3
Monthly Climate Data
Station: Nanchong Observation item Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Temperature[°C] 6.6
8.3
Jul
Aug Sep
Oct Nov Dec Annual
12.8 17.8 22.0 24.8 27.4 27.7 22.5 17.8 12.8
8.1
Period for the mean
17.4 1961~1990
Precipitation [mm]
17.3 16.5 30.7 74.5 126.6 131.6 179.0 136.9 161.3 91.4 37.6 17.5 1,020.8 1961~1990
Evaporation [mm]
18.3 25.3 51.7 74.1 89.1 81.2 106.3 130.3 66.6 42.7 28.1 20.2 733.9 1965~1987
Solar radiation [MJ/m2/day]
4.50 6.56 9.19 13.1 13.8 14.2 16.2 17.7 9.74 7.30 5.24 4.18
Duration of sunshine [hr]
45.5 51.6 98.0 129.5 141.3 137.5 184.4 210.0 98.8 73.9 57.1 39.2 1,266.7 1961~1990
3.4
Long-term Variation of Monthly Precipitation
33
10.1 1973~1985
China ― 12
4.
Hydrological Information
4.1
Map of Streamflow Observation Stations
34
China ― 12
4.2
List of Hydrological Observation Stations No.
Station
Location
Catchment area (A) [km2]
Observation period
Observation items (frequency)
Tanjiazhuang
N 33° 42' E 106° 12'
6,694
1975 ~ present
H2, Q
Tanjiaba
N 33° 35' E 105° 45'
9,538
1958 ~ present
H2, Q
Lueyang
N 33° 19' E 106° 07'
19,206
1939 ~ present
H2, Q
Xindianzi
N 32° 35' E 105° 51'
25,367
1951 ~ present
H2, Q
Sanleiba
N 32° 27' E 105° 38'
29,247
1953 ~ present
H2, Q
Tingzikou
N 30° 51' E 105° 49'
61,089
1954 ~ present
H2, Q
Wusheng
N 30° 16' E 106° 16'
79,714
1940 ~ present
H2, Q
Luoduxi
N 30° 20' E 106° 35'
38,071
1953 ~ present
H2, Q
Xiaoheba
N 30° 06' E 106° 03'
29,420
1951 ~ present
H2, Q
Beipei
N 29° 51' E 106° 25'
156,142
1939 ~ present
H2, Q
H2: water level by manual
No.
Q: discharge
−1) Q [m3/s]
Qmax2) [m3/s]
− Qmax3) [m3/s]
− Qmin4) [m3/s]
− Q/A [m /s/100km2]
Qmax/A 3 2 [m /s/100km ]
Period of statistics
48.6
8,340
1,990
7.37
0.726
124.6
1975 ~ 1987
44.2
4,970
905
8.77
0.464
52.1
1971 ~ 1987
118
8,630
2,330
20.0
0.614
44.9
1940 ~ 1987
196
10,200
4,180
32.7
0.773
40.2
1964 ~ 1987
331
8,960
4,280
80.8
1.132
30.6
1954 ~ 1987
647
23,700
10,900
141
1.060
38.8
1955 ~ 1987
879
28,900
13,100
170
1.103
36.3
1944 ~ 1987
728
24,000
15,200
48.4
1.912
63.1
1954 ~ 1987
482
28,700
9,250
81.7
1.638
97.6
1952 ~ 1987
2,170
44,800
24,600
338
1.390
28.7
1940 ~ 1987
1) Mean annual discharge 3) Mean maximum discharge
2) Maximum discharge 4) Mean minimum discharge
35
3
China ― 12
4.3
Long-term Variation of Monthly Discharge Series
4.4
Annual Pattern of Discharge Series
36
China ― 12
4.6
Annual Maximum and Minimum Discharges 2
Station: Lancun (7,705 km ) 1)
2)
1)
2)
1960
Maximum 3 Date [m /s] 9.07 18,600
1974
Maximum 3 Date [m /s] 9.15 26,100
1961
6.29
24,700
2
323
1975
10.03
37,100
3
360
1962
7.29
22,800
4
334
1976
8.27
16,500
2
354
1963
5.26
29,200
3
318
1977
7.12
24,100
3
366
1964
9.16
21,200
3
378
1978
7.06
26,700
2
255
1965
9.01
27,800
2
382
1979
7.17
20,000
2
277
1966
7.18
18,600
4
262
1980
8.25
26,600
2
242
1967
5.19
24,600
2
338
1981
7.16
44,800
2
316
1968
7.04
28,800
2
409
1982
7.29
25,300
2
384
1969
9.29
25,300
3
350
1983
8.01
32,200
2
355
1970
9.29
12,800
2
305
1984
7.08
36,200
3
362
1971
6.12
18,500
3
303
1985
9.16
28,800
2
362
1972
7.12
23,400
3
290
1986
6.17
12,400
2
367
1973
9.09
35,600
3
244
1987
7.20
34,100
3
238
Year
Minimum 3 Month [m /s] 2 260
Year
Minimum 3 Month [m /s] 3 265
1), 2) Instantaneous observation by recording chart
4.7
Hyetographs and Hydrographs of Major Floods
5.
Water Resources
5.1
General Description
The Jialing Jiang is a major tributary of the Yangtze River. The Bailong Jiang, which was catalogued in volume 3 of the Catalogue of Rivers, is a tributary of the Jialing Jiang. The main river and tributaries of the Jialing Jiang originate in the north-western mountains of Sichuan and the Tibetan Plateau.
37
China ― 12
The annual average precipitation is 965 mm. The precipitation of the basin is concentrated in MayOctober, when, typically, more than 80% of the annual rainfall occurs. The precipitation increases from upstream to downstream. In the Bailong Jiang basin, in the upstream part of the river, annual precipitation is only 600 mm, while it is more than 1,200 mm in the Qujiang and Fujiang Rivers. Most of area in the river basin belongs to the Sichuan basin, and precipitation is relatively small compared to other rivers in the Yangtze River basin. Floods are mainly caused by summer storms. The Jialing Jiang is one of main sources of Yangtze floods, e.g., discharge at Beipei station was 57,300 m3/s and 44,800 m3/s in 1870 and 1998. Historically, the Jialing Jiang has also experienced large floods in 1903, 1921, and 1938. Two large man-made cascading reservoirs, the Bikou and the Baozhushi, lie in the upstream Bailong Jiang tributary river. These reservoirs were completed in 1976 and 1997 and have capacities of 521 x 106 m3 and 2,450 x 106 m3 respectively. Two other large reservoirs, the Luban and the Liangtan were constructed in tributaries in 1980 and 1964. Many middle and small scale reservoirs have been constructed in tributaries to exploit the abundance of hydro-electric power in the basin.
5.2
Map of Water Resource Systems
38
China ― 12
5.3
List of Major Water Resources Facilities
Major Reservoirs Name of river
Name of dam
Catchment Area [km2]
Gross Capacity [106m3]
Effective Capacity [106m3]
Purposes1)
Year of completion
Bailongjiang River
Bikou
26,010
521
450
F, P
1976
Bailongjiang River
Baozhusi
28,896
2,451
1,307
F, P
1996
Luban
21
278
270
A
1980
Liangtan
36,300
500
P, A
1964
Fujiang River Qujiang River 1) F: Flood control,
5.4
A: Agriculture,
P: Hydro-power
Major Floods and Droughts 2
Major Floods at Sanleiba (Catchment area 29,247 km ) Date
Peak discharge [m3/s]
Rainfall [mm] Duration
Meteorological cause
Dead and Missing
Major damages (Districts affected)
1956.6.27
33,500
230 6.22 ~ 6.28
Frontal rain
---
Nanchong City, etc.
1981.7.16
44,800
292.6 7.11 ~ 7.14
Frontal rain
---
Sichuan Province
Major Droughts
6.
Period
Affected area
Major damages and counteractions
1961.7 ~ 10
Mianyang City
Water supply cut to 75%
1978.7 ~ 10
Mianyang City
Water supply cut to 75%
1979.7 ~ 10
Mianyang City
Water supply cut to 75%
Socio-cultural Characteristics
The Jialing Jiang flows across the Sichuan basin or plain. It is an important grain producing area in China. In the downstream reaches of the river, channel width varies between the flood and dry seasons, e.g., between Langzhong and Hechuan the width of river in the dry season is between 100-300 m, while it is between 500-1,000 m in the flood season. The famous scenic area of the Libi, Wentang, and Guanying gorges is called the “mini Three-Gorges”. It provides good rafting conditions for tourists. There are also many dangerous sand shoals and rocks in the river and these hamper navigation. The upstream is very steep, with an average grade of 3.8%. The Jialing Jiang is the main connecting waterway between Chongqing and the areas to the north. The very special natural scenery with mountains, water, terrace, forestry and many cultural antiquities of the region have attracted tourists from around the world. Chongqing is a city constructed in a mountainous area. The lack of flat land and the lack of continuous sunny days have earned it the nicknames of Mountain City and Fog Capital.
39
China ― 12
7.
References, Databooks and Bibliography
Geology press (1973): The atlas of geology in China. China atlas press (1978): China Meteorology Atlas. Qingdao Press (1993): China’s River Distribution Dictionary. Science Press (1996): Flood and Drought Disasters in Sichuan. China Water and Hydropower Press (1998): Flood Control Series: Yangtze River. Ganshu Water Resources Planning and Design Institute, Water resources development for Ganshu Province, 1980 Sichuan Water Resources Planning and Design Institute, Water resources development for Sichuan Province, 1980 Yangtze River Water Commission (1952-1980): The year-book of hydrological data in Yangtze river basin. China Bookstore Press, China Historical Floods, 1992 China Population Investigation, China Statistical Press, 1994
40
China ― 13
Luanhe (Luan He) Map of River
41
China ― 13
Table of Basic Data Name(s): Luanhe (in Huanghe River)
Serial No. : China-13
Location: Hebei Province, Northern China
N 39° 27' ~ 42° 33'
Area: 54,400 km2
Length of the main stream: 888 km
E 115° 56' ~ 119° 08'
Origin: Mt. Bayantuguer (2,129 m)
Highest point: Mt. Bayan (2,129 m)
Outlet: Bohai Bay
Lowest point: 5 m
Main geological features: Massive intrusive rocks, group of hard massive metamorphic rocks Main tributaries: Xiaoluanhe, Xinzhouhe, Yixunhe, Laoniuhe, Qinglonghe, Baohe Main lakes: -----------Main reservoirs: Panjiakou (2,930×106m3, 1975), Daheitin (473×106m3, 1973), Miaogong (183×106m3, 1962) Mean annual precipitation: 564 mm (1971 ~ 1990) (basin average ) 3
2
Mean annual runoff: 99.1 m /s at Luanxian (44,100 km ) Population: 3,509,600 (1998)
Main cities: Chengde, Qianan
Land use: Forestry (21.8%), Rice paddy (6.0%), Other agriculture (29%), Urban (7.3%), Water surface (3.5%)
1.
General Description
The Luanhe River flows directly to the Bo Sea. Usually it is combined with the Haihe and is called the Hailuanhe, because both rivers are hydraulically connected. The Luanhe basin is mainly in Hebei province, with some flow coming from Inner Mongolia. The main river originates north of Mt. Bayanguer. The average annual precipitation is 564 mm. Annual discharge at the Luanxian station is 147 m3/s. From its source in Inner Mongolia it flows north into Hebei province. The general direction of Luanhe is from northwest to southeast. The river flows to the Bo Sea through Fengning, Chengde, Kuancheng, Qian’an, and Luan counties. The catchment area is 44,900 km2 and the main channel length is 888 km. About 800 km2 and 167 km of the river are in Inner Mongolia. The average precipitation is 564 mm. Between 75% and 85% of the annual basin precipitation occurs in June-September. The coefficient of variation of annual precipitation is 0.27. The maximum annual precipitation is 3.5 times the minimum. The annual discharge at the Luanxian station is 147 m3/s. There are two large cascading reservoirs, the Panjiakou and the Daheting, located in the middle part of the Luanhe. To solve water shortages in Tianjin city, a water transfer project from the Panjiakou and Daheting reservoirs to Tianjin was constructed in 1983. Another water transfer project from the Luanhe to Tangshan city was completed in 1984. Floods in the basin are often caused by summer storms of more than two days duration, e.g., in 1962 a serous flood was experienced in northern China including the Luanhe basin. Irrigated agriculture is very important in the Luanhe basin. The difference in unit production with and without sufficient irrigation was 6,000 kg/ha in 1984. The cropping patterns are wheat, corn, bean, potato, paddy rice, etc. Grain is the main crop in the downstream reaches of the Luanhe.
42
China ― 13
2.
Geographical Information
2.1
Geological Map
43
China ― 13
2.2
Land Use Map
44
China ― 13
2.3
Characteristics of the River and the Main Tributaries
No.
Name of river
Length [km] Catchment area [km2]
Highest peak [m] Lowest point [m]
1
Luanhe (Main River)
888 54,400
2,341 365.8
2
Xiaoluanhe (Tributary)
143 2,070
1,420 1,117
3
Xinzhouhe (Tributary)
112 2,070
1,150 758.5
4
Yixunhe (Tributary)
195 7,060
1,450 752
5
Qinglonghe (Tributary)
222 6,500
1,040 730
6
Wuliehe (Main River)
96 2,200
1,410 438.2
7
Baohe (Tributary)
120 1,950
1,130 386
F: Forest L: Lake, River, Marsh P: Paddy Field U: Urban, O: Others (grass, bare land, oasis)
2.4
Cities Population (1990)
F (21.8%) P (6.0%) OA (29%) U (7.3%) L (3.5%) O (31.4%)
Chengde 417,200
OA: Other agricultural field (vegetable field, grass field)
Longitudinal Profiles
45
Land use [%] (1985)
China ― 13
3.
Climatological Information
3.1
Annual Isohyetal Map and Observation Stations
46
China ― 13
3.2 No.
List of Meteorological Observation Stations Station
Elevation [m]
Location
Mean annual Mean annual Observation precipitation1) evaporation1) period [mm] [mm]
Observation 2) items
5
Sandaohezi
380
N 40° 58' E 117° 42'
1953 ~ present
580
900
P (TB)
13
Luanxian
30
N 39° 44' E 118° 45'
1929 ~ present
699
1,100
P (TB), E
36
Chengde
320
N 40° 58' E 117° 56'
1934 ~ present
536
1,468
P (TB), E
24
Goutaizi
850
N41° 39' E 117° 03'
1958 ~ present
490
900
P (TB), E
25
Boluonuo
525
N 41° 06' E 117° 18'
1959 ~ present
570
900
P (TB), E
30
Hanjiaying
380
N 41° 01' E 117° 44'
1953 ~ present
570
930
P (TB), E
26
Weichang
850
N 41° 57' E 117° 46'
1934 ~ present
473
920
P (TB), E
41
Kuancheng
300
N 40° 37' E 118° 30'
1936 ~ present
673
1,000
P (TB), E
44
Taolinkou
98
N 40° 08' E 119° 03'
1956 ~ present
734
1,050
P (TB), E
Evaporation used with Φ20 Evaporation vessel 1) Period for the mean is from 1956 to 1979 2) P: Precipitation, E: Evaporation, TB: Tipping bucket with recording chart
3.3
Monthly Climate Data
Station: Chengde Observation item Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun
Jul
Aug Sep
Oct Nov Dec Annual
Period for the mean
Temperature[°C] -9.3
-5.7
2.3
11.7 18.7 22.5 24.3 22.7 17.2 10.1
6.0
-7.1
Precipitation [mm]
2.1
4.8
8.3
21.2 44.5 83.2 144.1 136.2 50.3 18.9
6.0
2.1
Evaporation [mm]
26.9 37.8 96.7 191.7 259.6 237.8 188.8 156.4 131.5 100.2 49.4 28.2 1,505.1 1961~1990
Solar radiation 2 [MJ/m /day]*
8.46 9.83 15.0 17.9 17.7 17.1 17.7 16.2 15.2 11.3 8.24 7.49 13.50 1982~1985
Duration of sunshine [hr]
200.1 203.7 251.1 257.7 286.3 271.3 237.8 239.6 248.3 235.8 199.0 184.1 2,814.8 1961~1990
* Observed at Beijing.
47
9.4
1961~1990
521.7 1961~1990
China ― 13
3.4
Long-term Variation of Monthly Precipitation
4.
Hydrological Information
4.1
Map of Streamflow Observation Stations
48
China ― 13
4.2
List of Hydrological Observation Stations No.
Station
Location
Catchment area (A) [km2]
Observation period
Observation items (frequency)
5
Sandaohezi
N 40° 58' E 117° 42'
17,100
1953 ~ present
H2, Q
13
Luanxian
N 39° 44' E 118° 45'
44,100
1929 ~ present
H2, Q
36
Chengde
N 40° 58' E 117° 56'
2,200
1934 ~ present
H2, Q
24
Goutaizi
N 41° 39' E 117° 03'
1,890
1958 ~ present
H2, Q
25
Boluonuo
N 41° 06' E 117° 18'
1,378
1959 ~ present
H2, Q
30
Hanjiaying
N 41° 01' E 117° 44'
6,761
1953 ~ present
H2, Q
41
Kuancheng
N 40° 37' E 118° 30'
1,661
1940 ~ present
H2, Q
44
Taolinkou
N 40° 08' E 119° 03'
5,250
1956 ~ present
H2, Q
H2: water level by manual,
Q: discharge
No.
−1) Q 3 [m /s]
Qmax 3 [m /s]
− 3) Qmax 3 [m /s]
− 4) Qmin 3 [m /s]
− Q/A 2 [m /s/100km ]
Qmax/A [m3/s/100km2]
Period of statistics
5
15.13
742
263
1.72
0.088
4.34
1972 ~ 1990
13
99.11
9,340
2,627
13.89
0.225
21.18
1972 ~ 1990
36
5.89
584
247
0.18
0.268
26.55
1972 ~ 1990
24
2.35
97.9
33.57
0.136
0.124
5.18
1972 ~ 1990
25
2.28
359
134
0.203
0.165
26.05
1972 ~ 1990
30
8.72
792
373
0.566
0.129
11.71
1972 ~ 1990
41
5.79
876
259
0.498
0.349
52.74
1972 ~ 1990
44
22.73
6,290
1,271
2.39
0.433
119.81
1972 ~ 1990
1) Mean annual discharge 3) Mean maximum discharge
2)
2) Maximum discharge 4) Mean minimum discharge
49
3
China ― 13
4.3
Long-term Variation of Monthly Discharge Series
4.4
Annual Pattern of Discharge Series
50
China ― 13
4.6
Annual Maximum and Minimum Discharges 2
Station: Luanxian (44,100 km ) 1)
2)
Year
Maximum 3 Date [m /s]
1972
7.29
738
7
1973
8.22
3,530
1974
8.10
1975
8.13
1976
1)
2)
Year
Maximum 3 Date [m /s]
7.94
1982
8.07
159
1
4.49
5
8.90
1983
8.07
217
11
4.48
2,820
5
16.9
1984
8.10
8,850
1
4.71
3,930
5
14.3
1985
8.26
952
4
8.10
8.25
3,680
6
10.6
1986
9.09
879
1
14.5
1977
8.03
5,820
5
22.3
1987
7.05
795
2
21.8
1978
7.29
6,760
5
18.5
1988
7.01
241
1
15.1
1979
7.28
9,340
12
18.7
1989
7.20
183
12
10.2
1980
6.20
273
12
11.1
1990
8.14
453
4
44.8
1981
7.04
300
12
6.50
Minimum 3 Month [m /s]
Minimum 3 Month [m /s]
1), 2) Instantaneous observation by recording chart
4.7
Hyetographs and Hydrographs of Major Floods
5.
Water Resources
5.1
General Description
The Luanhe River flows directly to the Bo Sea. The main river originates in the mountains of Hebei province. In many documents, the Luanhe River is recognized as a part of the Hai or Hailuan river basins, one of the 7 largest river basins in China.
51
China ― 13
Between 75% and 85% of the annual basin precipitation occurs in June-September. The annual variation of precipitation is higher than most rivers in China. Floods, droughts and water pollution problems exist in the basin. Agriculture is the dominant land use in the basin. To solve water shortage problems in the nearby cities, three large-scale water transfer projects for domestic water supply have been constructed. Floods are mainly caused by storms in summer. Usually, floods are of short duration with high peaks. The flood volume over a 30-day period can be 60%-90% of the flood season discharge. There are four large constructed reservoirs in the basin. Two on the main stream, the Panjiakou and the Daheitin, were completed in 1983 and 1984 with capacities of 2,390 x 106 m3 and 473 x 106 m3 respectively. The main purposes of the reservoirs are flood control, irrigation, and hydropower generation. In the channel of the upper and middle stream, potential hydropower is abundant. Currently, water supply to Tianjin and Tangshan is becoming the main objective. The Taolinkou reservoir is a key project in the Qinglonghe, a downstream tributary of Luanhe. Water from this reservoir can irrigate 45,000 ha with suitable canal projects. The water transfer from the Taolinkou reservoir to Qinghuangdao will basically solve the water shortage problems of this beach city.
5.2
Map of Water Resource Systems
52
China ― 13
5.3
List of Major Water Resources Facilities
Major Reservoirs Name of dam
Catchment area [km2]
Gross capacity [106m3]
Effective capacity [106m3]
Purposes1)
Year of completion
Luanhe River
Panjiakou
33,700
2,930
2,920
F, P
1975
Luanhe River
Daheitin
35,100
473
359
F, P
1973
Qinglonghe River
Taolinkou
5,060
2,083
1,613
F, P, S
2000
Yixunhe River
Miaogong
2,400
183
152
A, F, P
1962
Name of river
1) F: Flood control
P: Hydro-power
A: Agriculture
S: Water Supply
Major Inter-basin Transfer Name of rivers and places connected
Name of transfer line
Length [km]
Maximum capacity Purposes1) 3 [m /s]
Year of completion
From
To
Yinluanrujin
Luanhe
Tianjin
70
60
WS
1983
Yinluanrutang
Luanhe
Tangshan
27
80
WS
1984
Qinglonghe
Qinhuangdao
6
WS
2000
Yinqingjiqin 1) WS: Water Supply
5.4
Major Floods and Droughts 2
Major Floods at Luanxian (Catchment area 44,100 km ) Date
Peak discharge [m3/s]
Rainfall [mm] Duration
Meteorological cause
Dead and Missing
Major damages (Districts affected)
1977.7.25 ~ 27
5,820
493 7.25 ~ 7.27
Frontal rain
---
Chengde, Qianan City
Major Droughts Period
Affected area
Major damages and counteractions
1972.3 ~ 8
Chengde, Kuanchang cities
Water supply cut to 66%
1984.3 ~ 4
Luanping, Kuanchang cities
Water supply cut to 30%
53
China ― 13
6.
Socio-cultural Characteristics
Chengde city is located in the northern part of the Luanhe River basin. Near Chengde are large-scale royal constructions from the Qing Dynasty. The Summer Palace, also called the Bishu Shanzhuang in Chinese, is the most famous construction. It is in the north of Chengde city and was constructed in a mountainous area. During summer emperors of the Qing Dynasty resided at, and ruled from, the Summer Palace. Palace construction was begun in 1703 and completed in 1790. It includes 36 scenic points including artificial mountains, lakes, plains, forests, springs, and ancient constructions. The Summer Palace occupies twice the area of the comparable Beijing Summer Palace. The Chengde Summer Palace is also the largest, well-preserved, ancient royal construction in China. A lot of temples were also constructed around Chengde at about the same time as the Summer Palace was being built. In Luanping and Weichang counties, in the upper reaches of the Luanhe, there are many royal antiquities, such as the Mulan hunting area, stone inscriptions, and temples. Tangshan and Qinghuangdao are important coal mining and tourist cities in Hebei province. Both cities depend on water transferred from the Luanhe, even though they are not in the basin. Tangshan experienced an earthquake on the 28 July 1975 which killed 240,000 people. So the new Tangshan City is only 25 years old. Qinghuangdao is a famous tourism city with the Beidaihe, a summer vacation place, and the Shanhaiguan, the starting point of Great Wall in North China.
7.
References, Databooks and Bibliography
Geology press (1973): The atlas of geology in China. China atlas press (1978): China Meteorology Atlas. Qingdao Press (1993): China’s River Distribution. China Science and Technology Press (1993): Research on Water Resources in North China Plain and Shandong Peninsula. Hai River Water Commission, Integrated Water Resources Planning for Hai River Basin, 1996 Hai River Water Commission (1952-1980): The year-book of hydrological data in Yangtze river basin. China Bookstore Press, China Historical Floods, 1992 China Population Investigation, China Statistical Press, 1994
54
Indonesia Indonesia-9: Kali Tuntang Indonesia-10: Jeneberang River
Nusa Tenggara
55
Introduction The Indonesia archipelago, situated in South-east Asia, consists of five main islands (Sumatra, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, Java and Irian Jaya) and some 13,667 other smaller islands with a total area of 1.9 x 106 km2. Geographically, Indonesia is located between the latitudes 6° 08' N - 11° 15' S, and longitudes 94° 45' E - 141° 05' E. The total population according to the 1990 census was 179.4 million with the forecast increase at about 1.98 % per year. Population distribution is uneven throughout the country. Java Island has the highest population density whereas the outer islands have very much lower densities. Politically, Indonesia is divided into 27 provinces, 241 districts, 55 urban municipalities, 3,625 subdistricts and 67,033 villages. Most of the rivers are short, steep and productive in sedimentation. Indonesia is a tropical country affected by tropical monsoon rainfall and has distinct dry and wet seasons. In the wet season, heavy rainfall occurs, ranging from 2,500 up to 6,000 mm/year. The dry season is normally between July and September. The two rivers catalogued in this volume are the Kali Tuntang located in Java Island, and the Jeneberang River located in Sulawesi Island. They are representative rivers of flood, urban megalopolis conditions, industrial development and agricultural areas. The Kali Tuntang is located in the Central Java Province, Java Island. The river leaves the lake of Rawa Pening to the northeast, and then changes direction to flow to the northwest before flowing out into the Java Sea on the north coast of Java. The main problem caused by the river is flooding especially downstream of the Glapan Weir. The water of Rawa Pening Lake is used for irrigation, hydropower, fisheries, tourism and water sport, and domestic water supply. The Jeneberang River is located in the South Sulawesi Province, Sulawesi Island. A major reservoir and a number of small irrigation ponds have been constructed in this basin. It has a long history of flooding and provides water for agricultural and urban needs
Acknowledgements A working group was established for the preparation of the catalogue, and a number of Institutes and individuals collaborated. The working group, chaired by Supardijono Sobirin, Director of the Research Institute for Water Resources, consisted of: Joesron Loebis (Ass.Res.Professor), Nana Terangna Ginting (Head of Environment and Water Quality Division), Sutjipto and Conny Amalia. Dyah Rahayu Pangesti (Research Professor), Darjanta Budihardja, Syaifuddin (Experimental Station for River and Sabo) The organizations that have contributed include: Badan Pertanahan Nasional (National Board for Land Administration). Badan Perencanaan dan Pembangunan Daerah (Provincial Development Planning Board). Badan Meteorologi dan Geofisika (Agency for Meteorology and Geophysics). Direktorat Geologi (Directorate of Geology) Kantor Statistik Propoinsi Jawa Tengah (Central Java Provincial Office of Statistics). Proyek Induk Pengembangan Wilayah Sungai Jratunseluna (Jratunseluna River Basin Development Project). Proyek Induk Pengembangan Wilayah Sungai Jeneberang (Jeneberang River Basin Development Project). Pusat Penelitian dan Pengembangan Sumber Daya Air (Research Institute for Water Resources).
56
Indonesia― 9
Kali Tuntang Map of River
Table of Basic Data Name(s): Tuntang River
Serial No. : Indonesia-9
Location: Java Island, Indonesia Area: 798 km
E 110° 15' 50" - 110° 33' 20" S 06° 51' 25" - 07° 26' 40"
2
Length of the main stream: 139 km
Origin: Mt. Merbabu (3,142 m)
Highest Point: Mt. Merbabu (3,142 m)
Outlet: Java sea
Lowest Point: River mouth (0 m)
Main geological features: Alluvial, Miocene sedimentary, Plio-pleistocene sedimentary, Neogene sedimentary, Miocene- sedimentary, Holocene volcanics, Lava flows and flow breccia. 2
2
Main tributaries: Senjoyo River (120 km ), Bancak River (140 km ). Main lakes: Rawa Pening Main reservoirs: Mean annual precipitation: 2,588 mm (1917 - 1989) (basin average) Mean annual runoff: 28.43 m3/s at Glapan (798 km2) (1953 - 1989) Population: 738,000 (1997)
Main cities: Salatiga, Ambarawa
Land use: Forest (21.3%), Paddy Field (30.5%), Agriculture (37.5%), Urban (7.7%), Water surface (3.0%) (1993)
57
Indonesia ― 9
1.
General Description
The Tuntang River is one of the major rivers located to the east of Semarang, the capital city of Central Java Province, and to the west of the town of Demak. The river drains the northern part of Mt. Merbabu (3,142 m), the southern part of Mt. Ungaran (2,050 m), the northern and eastern flanks of Mt. Telomoyo (1,994 m), the Rawa Pening, the hills forming the divide between the Rawa Pening and the middle Tuntang, the hills between the Serang and Tuntang rivers and, finally, the hills dividing the Tuntang and Jragung catchments. Mt. Merbabu, Mt. Ungaran, and Mt. Telomoyo are extinct volcanoes. Rawa Pening is a large natural depression fed by rivers draining Mts. Merbabu, Ungaran and Telomoyo, and by a number of springs. The only outlet from the Rawa Pening is the Tuntang river which leaves to the northeast, then changes direction downstream of the Glapan Weir to flow to the northwest before flowing out into the Java Sea. The Glapan Weir was constructed between 1853-1859 at the location where the Tuntang River enters the alluvial coastal plain. It was built for irrigation of both the left and right banks of river. The Tuntang River has a catchment area of 798 km2 at the Glapan Weir, including 282 km2 of the upper catchment, which drains directly into Rawa Pening. Below the Glapan Weir there are no additional inflows to the Tuntang River. The length of the river between Mt. Merbabu and the site of the Glapan Weir is approximately 70.5 km and the whole length of the Tuntang River is about 139 km. The average annual rainfall in the basin is 2,588 mm. The basin population was about 738,000 in 1997.
2.
Geographical Information
2.1
Geological Map
58
Indonesia― 9
2.2
Land Use Map
2.3
Characteristics of the River and the Main Tributaries
No.
Names of Rivers
Length [km] Catchment area [km2]
Highest peak [m] Lowest point [m]
Cities Population (1997)
Land use [%] (1993)
1
Tuntang River (Main River)
139 798
Mt. Merbabu, 3,142 River mouth, 0
Ambarawa 42,900
2
Senjoyo River (Tributary)
37 120
Mt. Merbabu, 3,142 Confluence, 75
Salatiga 104,834
A(37.5) F (21.3) L (3.0) P (30.5) U(7.7)
3
Bancak River (Tributary)
30 140
------Confluence, 50
A: Agricultural
F: Forest
L: Lake, river, marsh
P: Paddy Field
U: Urban
59
Indonesia ― 9
2.4
Longitudinal Profiles
3.
Climatological Information
3.1
Annual Isohyetal Map and Observation Stations
60
Indonesia― 9
3.2 No.
List of Meteorological Observation Stations Station
Elevation [m]
Location
Observation Period
Mean annual precipitation [mm]
Mean annual Evaporation [mm]
Observation items
1.
Semarang
3
S 06° 59' 09" E 110° 19' 10"
1983 - 1999
2,233
1,607
DS, E, RH, T, WV
2.
Paras
23
S 07° 05' 54" E 110° 33' 20"
1984 - 1999
2,643
1,280
DS, E, RH, T, WV
3.
Getas
300
S 07° 16' 09" E 110° 26' 00"
1983 - 1999
2,357
1,082
DS, E, T, WV
4.
Gubug
24
S 07° 01' 22" E 110° 37' 10"
1983 - 1999
2,208
1,466
DS, E, RH, T, WV
T: Temperature RH: Relative Humidity DS: Duration of Sunshine
3.3
E: Evaporation
WV: Wind Velocity
Monthly Climate Data
Station: Gubug Observation item Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun
Jul
Aug Sep
Oct Nov Dec Annual
Temperature [°C] 25.2 25.6 26.2 26.3 26.7 26.1 26.1 26.5 26.8 26.7 26.1 25.6 Evaporation [mm]
26.1
Period for the mean 1983-1999
*
91.8 92.2 106.3 108.4 122.8 107.6 119.1 154.8 159.5 159.7 122.1 100
1,466 1983-1999
Relative Humidity [%]
84.5 84.9 83.9 83.8 83.0 83.1 81.9 80.6 78.4 80.3 81.5 82.8
82.2
Duration of sunshine [hr]
167
2,905 1983-1999
188
199
238
269
271
285
296 298
* Average using Class A Pan
3.4
Long-term Variation of Monthly Precipitation
61
274
224
189
1983-1999
Indonesia ― 9
4.
Hydrological Information
4.1
Map of Streamflow Observation Stations
4.2
List of Hydrological Observation Stations
1
b e
No.
Station
Location
Catchment area [km2]
Observation period
Observation items1) (frequency)
1
Glapan
E 110° 04' 40" S 07° 07' 11"
798
1952 - 1999
Q
Q: discharge
No.
−a) Q 3 [m /s]
Qmax 3 [m /s]
− c) Qmax 3 [m /s]
− d) Qmin 3 [m /s]
− Q/A 2 [m /s/100km ]
Qmax/A [m3/s/km2]
Period of statistics
1
27.7
1,088.
500.
4.50
3.48
1.37
1952 - 1999
b)
mean annual discharge c maximum discharge d mean annual maximum discharge mean annual minimum discharge measured over half months
62
3
Indonesia― 9
4.3
Long-term Variation of Monthly Discharge
4.4
Annual Pattern of Discharge
4.5
Unique Hydrological Features
Where the Tuntang River enters the alluvial coastal plain, the Glapan Weir was constructed during 1853-1859 for irrigation of both the left and right banks of the downstream area. Below the Glapan Weir, the channel of the Tuntang River is enclosed between levees that were constructed in the period of 1886-1890 to protect the surrounding area that had just been brought under irrigation. Due to accretion of the channel the levees have had to be raised repeatedly over time, so that now the riverbed is higher than the surrounding area. From the Glapan Weir to the river mouth there are no additional inflows to the river and this brings about the unusual shape of the catchment. Below the Glapan Weir the lower the elevation of the river, the lower is the maximum discharge. Originally, the Tuntang River used to run through the town of Demak. To prevent the recurrent inundations of Demak, a short cut was made from Wonosalam to the sea at the time the levees were built. This cut, which bears the name Kali Kontrak, is the present lower course of the Tuntang River. Originally a gated structure at Wonosalam permitted release of some water to the old Tuntang River (Kali Tuntang Lama). The remains of this structure can still be seen, although it has been closed and is partially buried under fill.
63
Indonesia ― 9
4.6
Annual Maximum and Minimum Discharges at Glapan (798 km2) *)
*)
*)
*)
Year
Maximum 3 Date [m /s]
7.6
1974
3.05
468
9
2.2
10
12.3
1975
5.25
437
10
6.5
425
9
7.5
1976
3.19
635
10
2.5
5.29
348
9
7.7
1977
11.30
428
10
2.5
1961
5.03
477
10
2.5
1978
1.19
325
7
6.2
1962
1.21
287
10
2.5
1979
1.16
462
9
2.5
1963
1.10
635
9
6.4
1980
1.22
1,088
1
4.9
1964
2.01
308
10
4.8
1981
4.21
582
11
7.4
1965
4.09
442
9
3.2
1982
2.06
718
11
3.1
1966
2.18
356
10
3.3
1983
2.22
1,084
9
3.3
1967
1.02
323
9
3.8
1984
2.01
652
8
8.0
1968
1.02
486
10
3
1985
2.22
489
9
2.6
1969
2.18
406
11
0.2
1986
6.04
556
9
7.3
1970
4.05
287
10
2.4
1987
2.25
519
10
1.0
1971
4.11
384
9
6.9
1988
2.10
477
9
2.5
1972
12.18
420
9
6.9
1989
2.13
847
10
2.2
1973
5.29
522
10
2.7
1990
2.25
335
10
0.7
Minimum 3 Date [m /s]
Year
Maximum 3 Date [m /s]
1955
11.20
414
10
1958
3.13
363
1959
7.02
1960
*) Instantaneous observation from a recording chart
4.7
Hyetographs and Hydrographs of Major Floods
64
Minimum 3 Date [m /s]
Indonesia― 9
5.
Water Resources
5.1
General Description
The 798 km2 catchment of the Tuntang River is 2.45 % of the land area of Central Java Province (32,544 km2). The Rawa Pening Lake has a maximum storage capacity of 65 x 106 m3 fed by 9 small rivers and 4 springs, the most important of which are the so called Muncul springs which have a firm yield of approximately 2 m3/s. The Rawa Pening Lake is used for irrigation, hydropower, fisheries, tourism and water sport, and domestic water supply especially for the Demak District. The Jelok Weir at the outlet of Rawa Pening acts as the intake structure for the Jelok and Timo power stations. From the Jelok Weir, the water is diverted nearly 3 km to the Jelok power station via a 15 m3/s waterway (mostly in tunnels). The 21 MW Jelok power station was built in 1938, while the 12 MW Timo power station was built in 1963. The Glapan Weir (approximately 60 km downstream of the Jelok Weir) was constructed for irrigation of 20,508 ha of paddy fields. In the tributaries, especially in the Senjoyo River, many small weirs have been built. A barrage is proposed approximately 500 m upstream of the Glapan Weir.
5.2
Map of Water Resources System
65
Indonesia ― 9
5.3
List of Major Water Resources Facilities
Major Lakes Name of river Tuntang
Name of lake
Catchment Area [km2]
Rawa Pening
282
Maximum Minimum capacity capacity [106m3] [106m3] 65
Purpose1)
Year of completion
A, P
Natural lake
25
Others Name of River
Facilities
Purpose
1)
Capacity
Year of completion
Tuntang
Glapan Weir
A
20,508 ha
1859
Tuntang
Jelok Weir
A
279 ha
1938
Tuntang
Jelok Power Station
P
2,098 MW
1938
Tuntang
Timo Power Station
P
1,200 MW
1963
Senjoyo
Senjoyo Weir
A
2,356 ha
Senjoyo
Grenjeng Weir
A
750 ha
Senjoyo
Cepoko Weir
A
621 ha
Senjoyo
Sucen Weir
A
595 ha
Senjoyo
Belon Weir
A
319 ha
Senjoyo
Gendor Weir
A
138 ha
Senjoyo
Aji Getas Weir
A
119 ha
Sicangkring Weir
A
273 ha
Bancak 1) A: Agricultural use,
5.5
P: Hydro-power.
Water Quality
River Water Quality at Pantura Bridge Date
November 10, 1998
pH
7.6
DO [mg/l]
5.4
COD [mg/l]
6.2
Suspended Solid [mg/l] Fecal coli x 10
4*)
420 5.5
*) Membrane Filter Methods, colonies/100ml
66
Indonesia― 9
6.
Socio-Cultural Characteristics
Many people in the catchment area still conduct a traditional ceremony called “Selamatan” (mealceremony) connected with agricultural activities, in which they ask God’s blessing. In the non-irrigated area, all of the villagers still conduct this kind of selamatan, while in the irrigated area approximately 50% of the inhabitants no longer conduct the ceremony. It seems that villagers in the irrigated area are more rational than in the non-irrigated area. The religious life of the community is dominated by Islam, and spread by the famous “Wali Songo” (Nine Moslems Saint). With the influence of Islam, the traditional ceremony has taken on a Moslem tinge and now is connected with Islam. There is a legend of Rawa Pening Lake in which a poor ugly boy namely Baru Klinting won a contest to pull out a palm leaf rib that was embedded in the earth. As soon as the boy pulled out the rib, water spurted from the earth and created the lake of Rawa Pening. The legend is still famous, especially in the Java Island.
7.
References, Databooks and Bibliography
Bappeda TK.I Jawa Tengah kerjasama dengan BPN (1993): Peta Penggunaan Tanah Propinsi Jawa Tengah Tahun 1993. Badan Meteorologi dan Geofisika Propinsi Jawa Tengah: Data Klimatologi. CV Java Books (1997): Periplus Travel Map, Indonesia Regional Map of Java, Scale 1:1 500,000. Directorate of Geology (1999): Regional Geological Map of Middle part of Java, Scale 1:500,000. Haskoning (1992): Tuntang-Jragung Area Studies and Design, Feasibility Study Annex A, Hydrology and Sedimentology. Kantor Statistik Propinsi Jawa Tengah (1998): Jawa Tengah Dalam Angka 1998. Snowy Mountains Engineering Corporation (1999): Final Report on Flood Control for TuntangJragung River System.
67
Indonesia ― 10
Jeneberang River Map of River
Table of Basic Data Name: Jeneberang River
Serial No. : Indonesia-10 S 5° 10' 00" - 5° 26' 00"
Location: South Sulawesi 2
E 119° 23' 50" - 119° 56' 10"
Area: 727 km
Length of the main stream: 78.75 km
Origin: Mt. Bawakaraeng (2,833 MSL)
Highest point: Mt.Lompobatang (2,876 MSL)
Outlet: Makassar Strait
Lowest point: River mouth (0 m)
Main geological feature : Latosol Main tributaries: Jenelata river (220 km2) Main lakes: none Main reservoir : Bili-bili (1998) and Jenelata (2000) Mean annual precipitation: 3,707 mm (Malino) 3
Mean annual runoff: 43.5 m /s (Patalikang) Population: 982,248 (1993)
Main cities: Ujung Pandang, Malino, Bili-bili, Sungguminasa
Land use: Forest (40%), Paddy field (20%), Urban (13%), Other agriculture (27%)
68
Indonesia ― 10
1.
General Description
The Jeneberang River is one of the main rivers in South Sulawesi, flowing east to west across the province. Originating from Mt. Bawakaraeng (2,833 m), it flows to the Makassar Strait. The river is 90 km long with a catchment area of 727 km2. The main tributary is the Jenelata River (220 km2). Forest covers about 69% of the total basin area. The annual precipitation for the catchment varies along the main stream. The average annual precipitation for the upper basin is about 3,700 (3,707 mm at the Malino station) and is about 2,160 mm (2,166 mm at the Bontosunggu station) in the lower stream. Climate conditions in this catchment are influenced by the monsoon, which has two seasons each year, a dry season between March and August and wet season between September and April. The mean annual discharge at the Patalikang station is 43.5 m3/s and at the Jenelata station is 12.8 m3/s. There are two reservoirs, which are now under construction in the catchment, the Bili-bili Reservoir located on the Jeneberang River and the Jenelata Reservoir located on the tributary Jenelata River. Floods are normally caused by rainstorms in the wet season, and often flash floods are experienced. The population living in the catchment was 982,248 in 1993. There is a very little arable land for paddy rice and the area under irrigation area is 17,600 ha.
2.
Geographical Information
2.1
Geological Map
69
Indonesia ― 10
2.2
Land Use Map
2.3
Characteristics of the River and the Main Tributaries
No
Name of Rivers
Length (km) Highest Peak (m) and Catchment Lowest Point 2 (m) Area (km )
Land Use (%)
Cities Population F
L
P
A
U
1
Jeneberang
78.8 727
2,833 0
Ujung Pandang 926,393
69
-
5
12
14
2
Jenelata
40 220
971 150
22,154
43
-
15
22
19
F: Forest
L: Lake
P: Paddy Field
A: Agriculture
U: Urban
70
Indonesia ― 10
2.4.
Longitudinal Profiles
3
Climatological Information
3.1
Annual Isohyetal Map and Observation Stations
71
Indonesia ― 10
3.2 No.
List of Meteorological Observation Stations Elevation [m]
Station
711001 Bontosunggu 711007 Bontobili T: Temperature SR: Solar Radiation
3.3
Location
Mean annual Mean annual Observation precipitation evaporation Period [mm] [mm]
Observation items
10
S 05° 15' 00" 1975 - 1992 E 119° 26' 10"
2,166
54
DS, E, P, RH, SR, T, WV
-
S 05° 18' 00" 1980 - 1996 E 119° 32' 00"
1,810
62
DS, E, P, RH, SR, T, WV
RH: Relative Humidity DS: Duration of Sunshine
E: Evaporation P: Precipitation
WV: Wind Velocity
Monthly Climate Data
Station: Bontosunggu Observation Relative humidity [%]
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun
Jul
Aug Sep
Oct Nov Dec Annual
91.2 90.6 89.2 85.8 84.2 81.2
82
82.6 79.2 83.4
85
88
Temperature [°C] 27.1 27.4 27.5 28.1 28.1 27.1 26.9 26.6 28.1 27.8 27.8 26.9 Evaporation* [mm] Solar radiation [MJ/m2/d] Duration of sunshine [hr]
85.2 1975-1992 27.4 1975-1992
133.2 121.9 136.4 147.3 143.7 139.6 156.3 182 211.2 206.7 153.4 129.2 1,861.2 1975-1992 3.2
3.4
3.3
3.5
3.3
3.3
3.4
3.9
3.8
4.0
3.5
3.1
3.5
1975-1992
153.4 154.1 190.8 218.9 241.9 217.4 266.4 300.9 256.3 241.2 206.6 182.2 2,630.2 1975-1992
* Average Class A Pan
3.4
Period for the mean
Long-term Variation of Monthly Precipitation Series
72
Indonesia ― 10
4.
Hydrological Information
4.1
Map of Stream Observation Stations
4.2
List of Hydrological Observation Stations No.
Station
Location
Catchment area (A) [km2]
Observation period
Observation items (frequency)
4-805-0-1
Patalikang
S 05° 16' W 119° 36'
384.4
1974 - present
H2, Q
4-805-0-2
Parangloe
S 05° 17' W 119° 36'
318.3
1987 - present
H2, Q
H2: water level
Q: discharge
A: area
No.
−1) Q [m3/s]
Qmax2) [m3/s]
− Qmax3) [m3/s]
− Qmin4) [m3/s]
− Q/A [m /s/100km2]
Qmax/A 3 2 [m /s/100km ]
Period of statistics
4-805-0-1
43.5
701
352.2
0.3
11.3
182.4
1974 ~ 1999
4-805-0-2
28.9
130.8
89.7
0.04
9.07
41.9
1987 - 1999
1) Mean annual discharge 3) Mean maximum discharge
2) Maximum discharge 4) Mean minimum discharge
73
3
Indonesia ― 10
4.3
Long-term Variation of Monthly Discharge Series
4.4
Annual Pattern of Discharge Series
74
Indonesia ― 10
4.5
Annual Maximum and Minimum Discharges at Patalikang (384.4 Km2) 1)
Year
Maximum Date [m3/s] 212
2)
1)
2)
Minimum Date [m3/s]
Year
Maximum Date [m3/s]
Minimum Date [m3/s]
30 - 9
49.6
1987
20 - 11
354
24 - 7
1974
13 - 12
1975
24 - 4
495
2 - 10
64.4
1988
15 - 3
381
23 - 9
0.5
1976
20 - 3
322
20 - 10
51.8
1989
26 - 12
92
27 - 9
3.0
1977
17 - 2
564
4 - 11
11.2
1990
10 - 1
165
14 - 10
40.1
1978
11 - 1
307
26 - 8
8.3
1991
24 - 1
498
7 - 11
0.7
1979
11 - 1
258
28 - 9
0.5
1992
7-3
259
6 - 11
1.3
1980
9-1
246
7 - 10
0.5
1993
23 - 11
486
28 - 7
0.9
1981
17 - 11
456
21 - 10
1.7
1994
12 - 3
377
26 - 9
0.3
1982
6-2
701
10 - 11
0.9
1995
14 - 2
466
22 - 9
2.7
1983
30 - 12
355
31 - 7
3.8
1996
29 - 12
87
30 - 9
3.5
1984
29 - 12
516
29 - 8
6.9
1997
23 - 1
73
11 - 10
1.1
1985
6-3
245
29 - 10
1.2
1998
1-4
470
23 - 9
64.1
1986
13 - 1
663
1 - 10
3.6
1999
20 - 12
110
23 - 9
5.6
1), 2) Instantaneous observation
4.6
Hyetographs and Hydrographs of Major Floods
75
0.8
Indonesia ― 10
5.
Water Resources
5.1
General Description
The Jeneberang river has a catchment area of 727 km2 and is located in the Province of South Sulawesi. Ujung Pandang is the capital city and the centre of economy for both South Sulawesi itself and the eastern part of Indonesia. The population growth of this area is 2.93% per year. The fresh waters of the Jeneberang River have been used since 1926, and water from the Kampili Dam irrigates 17,600 ha of rice field. To protect the city of Ujung Pandang from flooding, the government constructed a flood control structure at the down stream end of the Jeneberang River in 1978, the Bilibili Dam between 1988 and 1998, and finally the Jenelata Dam which was expected to be completed in 2000. The Bili-bili reservoir is multi-purpose, with its main objective being to supply drinking water to Ujung Pandang. However, it has also been designed to control floods up to a 50 year return period, irrigate 19,200 ha of land, and generate 69,000 MWh of electric power each year. The Jenelata River is an important tributary with a catchment area of 220 km2. This river has the potential for a 65 m high dam, with a reservoir of 221 x 106 m3 and a effective volume of 210 x 106 m3. The Jenelata dam is planned to control floods up to a 50 year return period and supply drinking water to Ujung Pandang by 2005.
5.2
Map of Water Resources Systems
76
Indonesia ― 10
5.3
List of Major Water Resources Facilities
Major Reservoirs Name of Dam
Catchment Area [km2]
Gross Capacity [106m3]
Effective Capacity [106m3]
Purpose1)
Year of Completion
Jeneberang
Bili-bili
384
375
346
F, W, I
1998
Jenelata
Jenelata
220
240
233
F, W, I
2000
Name of River
F: Flood Control, W: Water Supply, I: Irrigation
5.4
Major Floods and Droughts 2
Major Flood at Kampili (Catchment area 624 km ) Date
Peak Discharge [m3/s]
January 1977
2,130
5.5
Rainfall [mm] Duration
Meteorological cause
Dead and missing
Major damages (Districts affected)
rainstorm
none
35 km
2
Water Quality
River Water Quality at Jeneberang (December 01, 1995) Location Parameter
Units
pH
Lebang
Bantojai
Sunggu
7.2
7.2
7.0
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
mg/l
2.9
2.9
2.2
Suspended Solid
mg/l
13
15
41
6
Socio-cultural Characteristics
The Jeneberang River is in Sulawesi Island (previously called Celebes Island). Ujung Pandang (previously called Makassar) is one the biggest cities on the island and is the capital city of South Sulawesi Province. Not only is the Jeneberang River the main water resource for the area of Ujung Pandang, but it is also the source of prosperity and happiness for the Makassar and Bugis tribes. The pride of the people in this river is shown by a popular folk song often song by young people. This song, ‘Maranno-ranno ri binangae Jeneberang’ means ‘making a happy-day together in the Jeneberang River’. ‘Jene’ is Makassaran for water, while ‘binanga’ is jargon for river. ‘Uwwae’ meaning river water and ‘saloo’ meaning river are the corresponding words used by the Bugis tribe of the area. Recently, the Bili-bili and Jenelata dams have been built in the Jeneberang River and its Jenelata tributary. These dams should increase the prosperity and happiness of the people living near the river.
77
Indonesia ― 10
7
References, Databooks and Bibliography
Bili-bili Multipurpose Dam Project, (1988): Directorate General of Water Resources Development, CTI Engineering Co., Ltd. in Associate with P.T. Indah Karya and P.T. Exsa International, Jakarta, Indonesia. Study Kelayakan Bendungan Jenelata (1995): Proyek Induk Pengembangan Wilayah Sungai Jeneberang, P.T. Darma Didana Cipta Consultant, Jakarta. Buku Publikasi Debit (Year Book): Pusat Penelitian dan Pengembangan Sumber Daya Air, Bandung.
78
Japan Japan-10: Shinano-gawa Japan-11: Tone-gawa Japan-12: Yodo-gawa
79
Introduction The three rivers compiled into this volume are: the Shinano-gawa, the Tone-gawa and the Yodo-gawa, all of which are in Honshu Island. These rivers have very long histories especially in terms of the politics, economy and culture of Japan. The Shinano-gawa is famous for its length (367 km) as the longest river in Japan. The river originates from a high mountainous area (often referred to as the Japanese Alps) in the centre of Honshu Island. Its plentiful waters flow to the Echigo Plain, where rich rice paddy fields have been developed. The basin is famous for its agricultural production of rice and apples. Hydro-electric power is generated from many dams in the mountainous headwaters. The Tone-gawa, which flows through the north of the Tokyo Metropolitan area, is a major water resource for the city. The catchment area is the largest in Japan (16,840 km2) and its population is said to be 12 million. However, 30 million people, including the residents in the Tokyo Metropolitan area, are primarily dependent on the water resources of the Tone-gawa. The Yodo-gawa flows through the Kansai region, a political and cultural centre of Japan for more than 15 centuries. The famous ancient capitals of Nara (710-784) and Kyoto (784-1868) are located in the river’s middle reaches, while Osaka, a modern industrial and commercial city of Japan is at the river mouth. In the upper reaches of the river is Lake Biwa, the biggest lake in Japan. Lake Biwa is a significant water resource, helps to mitigate downstream flooding, and is an area of natural beauty with many tourist resorts. The historical characteristics of the river basin give it much cultural heritage. All three rivers have been modified in their downstream reaches and river mouth areas to mitigate flood damage to important cities such as Tokyo, Osaka and Niigata.
Acknowledgements The information on the three rivers was compiled by voluntary members of the IHP Working Group of the Japanese National Committee for UNESCO’s International Hydrological Programme (IHP), which is chaired by Dr. TAKEUCHI Kuniyoshi, Yamanashi University. Generous assistance from governmental organizations is acknowledged. Contributors are listed as follows: Shinano-gawa: UJIHASHI Yasuyuki, Fukui University of Technology; and Hokuriku Regional Development Bureau, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport (MLIT): YOKOYAMA Syouichi, Research and Design Division, Shinano-gawa Downstream Office, YASUHARA Tatsushi and UMEMURA Koichiro, Shinano-gawa Office, YOKOYAMA Yoshio and TANAKA Yoshitaro, Chikuma-gawa Office. Tone-gawa: KONDOH Akihiko, Chiba University; and Kanto Regional Development Bureau, MLIT: HARA Toshihiko and GOCHO Hiroshi, River Planning Division. Yodo-gawa: TACHIKAWA Yasuto, Kyoto University; and Kinki Regional Development Bureau, MLIT: HOSOKAWA Masaru, River Planning Division, KUBOTA Keijiro, Investigation Division, Yodo River Office, and KITANO Masaakira and FUJII Setsuo, Wide Area Water Control Division, Yodo River Dams Integrated Control Center. The manuscripts were reviewed by TAKARA Kaoru, Kyoto University, and Richard Ibbitt, NIWA, New Zealand. Liaison with government organizations was done by INOUE Tomoo, River Planning Division, River Bureau, MLIT. Financial support was provided by: The Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT), and The Infrastructure Development Institute (IDI) of Japan.
80
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Shinano-gawa Map of River
Table of Basic Data Name: Shinano-gawa
Serial No. : Japan-10 N 36° 49' ~ 38° 09'
Location: Northern Honshu, Japan Area: 11,900 km
2
E 137° 34' ~ 139° 01'
Length of main stream: 367 km
Origin: Mt. Kobushi-ga-dake (2,483 m)
Highest point: Mt. Yari-ga-take (3,180 m)
Outlet: Japan Sea
Lowest point: River mouth (0 m)
Main geological features: Sedimentary rocks; Tertiary, Paleozoic, Volcanic rocks; Andesite, Granitoids Main tributaries: Chikuma-gawa (7,163 km2) (Upper reach), Sai-gawa (3,056 km2), Uono-gawa (1,504 km2) Main lakes: None 6
3
6
3
6
3
Main reservoirs: Takase (76.2×10 m ), Nanakura (32.5×10 m ), Omachi (33.9×10 m ), 6 3 6 3 Nagawado (123×10 m ), Saguri (27.5×10 m ) Mean annual precipitation: 1,822 mm (basin average) Mean annual runoff: 156×108 m3 (495 m3/s) Population: 2,900,000 (1990)
Main cities: Niigata, Nagaoka, Nagano, Matsumoto
Land use: Forest (68%), Rice paddy (11%), Other agriculture (6%), Urban (14%)
81
Japan ― 10
1.
General Description
The Shinano-gawa is one of the largest rivers in Japan. It has a catchment area of 11,900 km2, the third largest in Japan, and a length of 367 km, the longest in Japan. It is called the “Chikuma-gawa” in Nagano Prefecture and “Shinano-gawa” in Niigata Prefecture. The Chikuma-gawa originates from Mt. Kobushi-ga-take (2,475 m), flows north through the Saku basin and joins the Sai-gawa originating from Mt. Yari-ga-take (3,180 m) at Nagano City, and then turns northeast into the Niigata Prefecture through the Zenkouji basin. The Chikuma-gawa’s course is 214 km long, and it drains an area of 7,163 km2. In Niigata Prefecture its name changes to “Shinano-gawa”, and it flows northeast across the Echigo plain, one of the best rice producing districts in Japan, before joining the right tributary of the Uono-gawa at Kawaguchi. It finally discharges to Sea of Japan at Niigata City. The population in the basin is about 2,900,000. The spatial distribution of precipitation in the basin is complex. The middle part of the Chikuma-gawa and the middle and lower part of the Sai-gawa are some of the lowest precipitation areas of Japan with annual precipitation of about 1,000 mm. In contrast, the annual precipitation over the upper part of the Sai-gawa, and the upper and lower parts of the Chikuma-gawa, are 1,600-3,000 mm, 1,000-1,400 mm and 1,400-1,800 mm respectively. The central part of Niigata Prefecture, especially in the mountains, is one of the heavy snow regions of Japan. Sometimes, more than a metre depth of snow can fall during a night. The annual precipitation is from 2,200 to 3,000 mm, 40-50% of which is snowfall. The mean annual precipitation of the basin is about 1,800 mm, almost equal to the mean annual precipitation of Japan. Floods in the Shinano-gawa are caused mainly by frontal rain in early summer (Japan’s rainy season, Baiu), typhoons that hit Japan in summer to autumn, and snowmelt in spring. The Shinano-gawa has high-flows from March to September and is considered to be the best water resource in Japan
2.
Geographical Information
2.1
Geological Map
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2.2
Land Use Map
2.3
Characteristics of River and Main Tributaries
No.
Name of river
Length [km] Catchment area [km2]
1
Shinano (Main river)
367 11,900
2
Chikuma (Upper reach)
214 7,163
Mt. Kobushi-ga-take 2,475
Nagano, Ueda 1,500,000
3
Sai (Tributary)
161
Mt. Yari-ga-take 3,180
Matumoto 208,972
4
Uono (Tributary)
68 1,504
Mt. Nakano-dak 2,085
Koide, Muikamachi 73,530
A: Other agricultural field (vegetable, grass) P: Paddy field
Highest peak [m] Lowest point [m]
Cities Population
Land use
Mt. Yari-ga-take 3,180 Niigata, Nagaoka 2,900,000 River mouse 0
F: Forest L: Lake, River, Marsh U: Urban
83
O: Orchard
F (68%) P (11%) A (7%) U (14%)
Japan ― 10
2.4
Longitudinal Profiles
3.
Climatological Information
3.1
Annual Isohyetal Map and Observation Stations
84
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3.2
List of Meteorological Observation Stations
No.*
Station
Elevation [m]
Location
Mean annual Mean annual Observation precipitation1) period evaporation [mm]
Observation 2) items
40316
Ohyu
300
N 37° 10' 36" 1954 - present E 139° 05' 24"
2,737.8
N
P
40318
Kamizyo
250
N 37° 20' 54" 1974 - present E 139° 03' 00"
2,725.2
N
P
40319
Myozin
162
N 37° 12' 07" 1955 - present E 138° 52' 36"
2,699.0
N
P
1,090
N 36° 03' 16" 1951 - present E 138° 29' 04"
1,047.8
N
P
845
N 36 07' 24" 1955 - present E 138 34' 18"
1,125.2
N
P
679
N 36° 14' 58" 1954 - present E 138° 16' 42"
1,004.1
N
P
4036513 Kakeyu
715
N 36° 18' 02" 1955 - present E 138° 08' 30"
1,236.6
N
P
4036522 Niekawa
900.5
N 36° 00' 29" 1954 - present E 137° 51' 38"
1,724.4
N
P
4036504 Kinasa
721.5
N 36° 40' 48" 1952 - present E 138° 00' 28"
1,427.6
N
P
4036521 Kitamaki 4036520 Koya 4036516
Nagakubo shinmachi
**
Nagano
418
N 36° 39' 06" 1889 - present E 138° 11' 07"
981
N
DS, P, SR
**
Niigata
2
N 37° 54' 30" 1886 - present E 139° 03' 00"
1,804
1,110.2 (1880 - 1950)
DS, P, SR
* Serial number used by River Bureau, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transportation. ** Meteorological Obsevatory, Japan Meteorological Agency. 1) Period of the mean is from the beginning of the observation to present. 2) P: Precipitation DS: Duration of sunshne SR: Solar radiation
3.3
Monthly Climate Data
Observation item
Observation Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun station
Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Annual
Period for the mean
Temperature [°C]
Niigata
Precipitation [mm]
Niigata
180.3 128.0 104.6 93.6 103.3 128.3 178.2 142.7 163.0 148.9 200.6 204.4 1,775.8 1971 - 2000
Evaporation [mm]
Niigata
32.9 37.7 62.2 97.5 126.2 136.3 156.8 179.2 117.8 81.1 52.1 36.5 1,110.2 1888 - 1950
Solar radiation 2 [MJ/m /d]
Niigata
5.1
Duration of sunshine [hr]
Niigata
56.1 72.9 130.9 181.9 204.8 168.1 182.7 214.8 146.4 142.8 90.0 59.4 137.6 1971 - 2000
2.6
2.5
7.7
5.4
11.2 16.1 20.4 24.5 26.2 22.0 16.0 10.2
11.3 15.7 18.0 17.1 17.2 17.3 12.6
85
9.9
6.1
5.3
4.4
13.5
11.8
1971 - 2000
1971 - 2000
Japan ― 10
3.4
Long-term Variation of Monthly Precipitation
4.
Hydrological Information
4.1
Map of Streamflow Observation Stations
86
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4.2
List of Hydrological Observation Stations
No.*
Station
Location
Catchment area (A) [km2]
Observation period
Observation items1) (frequency)
40316
Odiya
45 km
9,719
1942 - present
Q (h)
402037
Tategahana
155.3 km
6,442.3
1975 - present
Q (h)
4036503
Ikuta
212.1 km
2,036.4
1975 - present
Q (h)
4036508
Kuisege
186.4 km
2,595.9
1949 - present
Q (h)
4036516
Koichi
9.0 km**
2,773.0
1953 - present
Q (h)
No.*
−2) Q 3 [m /s]
Qmax 3 [m /s]
− 4) Qmax 3 [m /s]
− 5) Qmin 3 [m /s]
− Q/A 2 [m /s/100km ]
Qmax/A [m3/s/100km2]
Period of statistics
40316
503
9,638
3,776
91
5.18
99
1951 - 1999
402037
232
7, 440
2,485
94
3.60
115.49
1975 - 1999
4036503
53.65
1,361.6
1,092.6
17.51
2.63
66.86
1975 - 1999
4036508
61.93
1,529.4
1,288.0
15.25
2.39
58.92
1949 - 1999
4036516
124.33
1,067.8
1,368.6
37.93
4.48
38.50
1953 - 1999
3)
3
* Serial Number used by The River Bureau, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transportation ** Distance from the confluence of the Chikuma river 1) Q(h): Discharge and Water level 2) Mean annual discharge 3) Maximum discharge 4) Mean maximum discharge 5) Mean minimum discharge
4.3
Long-term Variation of Monthly Discharge
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4.4
Annual Pattern of Discharge
88
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4.5
Unique Hydrological Features
In ancient times, the present Echigo Plain was a giant estuary-like lake and was slowly filled with sedimentary deposits carried down by the Shinano-gawa, to form marshy, low-lying land. As it was marshy, once flooding occurred, water overflowed from the river and washed away houses and fields, and caused loss of life. In 1716, Kazuemon Honma first petitioned the government to construct the Ohkouzu diversion channel. It was to be requested again and again in the course of the following 200 years, until finally it was approved with construction beginning in 1909. The construction was completed some 22 years after it began in 1931. The diversion channel, approximately 10 km long, diverts the flood waters of the Shinano-gawa into the Sea of Japan. Before the construction of the diversion channel, major floods occurred on average every 3 or 4 years. But after the completion of the channel, there has been very little damage and as a result, the Echigo Plain has been developing rapidly. Myoken Weir was constructed in 1989 just upstream at Nagaoka City, where the Shinano-gawa pours onto the flood plain of the Nagaoka-Niigata area. The weir length is 524 m and 8 motor-controlled gates are installed. One of them is used for flushing sediment. Upstream of the weir the maximum control volume that can be stored is 1,100,000 m3. The weir has three functions: one is to protect the river bed from excessive erosion, the second is to stabilize the flow upstream of the weir which shows a diurnal fluctuation due to the operation of the Shinano-gawa (Odiya) Hydropower Plant just upstream of the weir, and the third is to support the planned bridge carrying the national highway. The Sekiya Diversion Channel is located on the western margin of central Niigata City. Although the Sekiya Diversion Channel was planned in the Edo era, the construction of the channel was not started until 1968, and was completed in 1973. The channel length is 1.8 km and it is 240-280 m wide. It has both flood control and water usage functions. It protects Niigata City, the largest seaside city on the Japan Sea, against flooding by the Shinano-gawa, and it prevents saltwater intrusion of the estuary. Moreover, it protects the Niigata coast from erosion and the Niigata-Nishi port against sedimentation.
4.6
Annual Maximum and Minimum Discharges 2
Chikuma-gawa at Tategahana [6,442.3 km ] 1)
Year
Maximum Date [m3/s]
2)
1)
Minimum Month [m3/s]
Year
Maximum Date [m3/s]
2)
Minimum Month [m3/s]
1984
5/2
1,261.35
1/30
83.71
1992
7/18
984.08
9/18
111.01
1985
7/1
4,238.46
3/7
72.33
1993
9/10
1,934.65
3/21
120.82
1986
7/17
1,108.30
2/23
105.59
1994
9/30
1,342.42
8/18
53.93
1987
3/21
692.42
10/30
44.16
1995
7/12
2,905.71
12/28
81.54
1988
6/4
1,912.44
2/29
56.06
1996
6/26
1,835.30
1/2
76.94
1989
9/20
2,062.76
1/5
120.58
1997
7/18
1,172.46
11/11
97.62
1990
9/20
1,401.36
7/29
44.64
1998
9/16
2,998.18
12/29
115.93
1991
9/19
2,524.96
2/9
144.99
1999
8/15
4,050.94
1/2
102.08
1), 2) Instantaneous observation by recording chart
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Japan ― 10
Shinano-gawa at Odiya [9,719 km2] Year
Maximum1) 3 Date [m /s]
Minimum2) 3 Date [m /s]
Year
Maximum1) 3 Date [m /s]
Minimum2) 3 Date [m /s]
1980
4/7
2,830
2/27
52
1990
9/20
3,570
8/17
53
1981
8/23
9,640
5/31
61
1991
8/31
3,230
12/8
50
1982
9/13
9,300
7/4
45
1992
6/21
2,090
8/20
23
1983
9/29
7,810
2/24
81
1993
5/14
3,100
1/25
80
1984
5/2
4,160
8/22
76
1994
4/13
2,010
2/6
74
1985
7/1
7,200
1/28
85
1995
7/12
4,700
2/26
61
1986
9/3
2,560
8/30
87
1996
6/26
2,360
8/15
76
1987
3/25
2,160
10/15
77
1997
4/8
2,790
9/3
88
1988
6/4
2,990
2/23
92
1998
9/16
5,970
2/12
108
1989
9/20
3,180
1/7
146
1999
6/30
4,000
8/3
69
1), 2) Instantaneous observation by recording chart
4.7
Hyetographs and Hydrographs of Major Floods
Rainfall at Niekawa
Discharge at Odiya
Discharge at Tategahana
90
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Discharge at Odiya Rainfall at Niekawa
Discharge at Tategahana
5.
Water Resources
5.1
General Description
The Shinano-gawa has the greatest annual discharge, 154×108 m3, of any river in Japan. Development of this water resource was started before Word War II but greatly increased after the war. A number of dams for hydropower have been constructed in the Chikuma-gawa and upper Sai-gawa basins, both of which have many suitable places for dam construction because of their steep topography, especially in the Sai-gawa basin. Several large hydroelectric power plants have been built by the Tokyo Electric Company along the Takase-gawa in the upper reaches of the Sai-gawa near its source, Mt. Yari-ga-take (3,180 m). The Takase Dam with a height of 176 m is one of the largest dams in the Orient. The ShinTakase-gawa power plant is located downstream of the Takase Dam and its output is 1,280 MW. The combined output from the plants in the Takase-gawa is 1344.9 MW. The total power produced in all the basins is 2,618 MW. Nowadays, water from Shinano-gawa is fully used not only for hydropower but also for irrigation, industrial usage and municipal water supply. It irrigates 12,647 ha of agricultural land, and supplies 15.2 m3/s of municipal and 15.2 m3/s of industrial water.
91
Japan ― 10
5.2
Map of Water Resources Systems
5.3
List of Major Water Resources Facilities
Major Reservoirs Name of dam (reservoir)
Catchment area 2 [km ]
Gross capacity 6 3 [10 m ]
Effective capacity 6 3 [10 m ]
Purposes1)
Year of completion
Takase
Takase
131.0
76.2
16.2
P
1981
Takase
Ohmachi
193.0
33.9
28.9
F, N, W, P
1985
Azusa
Midono
431.0
15.1
4.0
P
1969
Azusa
Nagawado
380.5
123.0
94.0
A,P
1968
Sagurigawa
76.2
19.8
F, N, P, W
1991
Name of river
Saguri A: Agricultural use
F: Flood control
N: Maintenance of normal flows
27.5 P: Hydropower
92
W: Municipal water supply
Japan ― 10
5.4
Major Floods and Droughts
Major Floods at Odiya Date Peak discharge (year. month) [m3/s]
Rainfall [mm] Duration
Meteorological cause
Dead and Missing
Major damages (Districts affected)
1959.8
5,570
-
Typhoon No.7
-
Mid stream
1969.8
6,110
8.8-8.12
Stationary front
0
Mid stream, Uono river basin
1978.6
5,870
385 6.25 - 6.27
Bai-u front
2
Mid stream, Uono river basin
1981.8
9,640
166 8.22 - 8.23
Typhoon No.15
0
Upper and mid stream
1982.9
9,300
167 9.11 - 9.12
Typhoon No.18
2
Upper and mid stream
1983.9
7,810
116 9.27 - 9.28
Typhoon No.10
3
Upper and mid stream
1985.7
7,200
107 6.29 - 6.30
Typhoon No.6
0
Upper and mid stream
1998.9
5,970
113 9.15 - 9.16
Typhoon No.5
0
Mid stream
Major Drought Period
Affected areas
Major damages and counteractions
7 - 9, 1994
Whole basin
Water supply cut to 10-50% of normal. Duration 31 July to 21 August
5.5
Groundwater and River Water Quality 1)
2)
River Water Quality at Cyouseibashi between 2000/6 - 2001/5 Date
6/21
7/19
8/23
9/20
pH
7.2
7.6
7.6
7.8
7.9
7.4
BOD [mg/l]
0.9
1.3
1.1
0.7
1.1
0.7
CODMn [mg/l]
―
11.1
―
―
―
SS [mg/l]
10
112
12
52
5
Coliform group [MPN/100ml] Discharge4) [m3/s]
3)
10/18 11/15 12/20
1/17
2/21
3/21
4/18
5/16
7.3
7.5
7.9
7.5
7.2
7.5
0.7
0.8
1.1
1.1
0.6
0.8
―
―
―
―
―
―
2.1
10
12
8
6
15
20
14
2.3× 2.8× 3.3× 3.3× 1.3× 1.1× 1.7× 1.3× 4.9× 3.3× 1.7× 2.3× 104 103 104 104 104 104 103 102 103 103 103 103 368.2 597.9 227.2 417.5 234.0 303.4 503.7 373.1 343.5 603.4 1,170.5 703.8
1) Observed once a month on a dry day normally several days after rainfall. 2) Located in Nagaoka City 28 km upstream from the river mouth. 3) Measurement method: BGLB (brilliant green lactose bile) culture MPN (most probable number) method. 4) Discharge on the water quality observation date.
93
Japan ― 10
6.
Socio-cultural Characteristics
The Chikuma-gawa catchment area is 7,163 km2, about 10% of which is flat land. The principal activity on this flat land is agriculture, mainly rice production, and the irrigated area is 49,600 ha. Apples are cultivated in the Zenkouji plain as one of the specialties of the Nagano Prefecture. There are many hot springs, such as Tokura, Kamiyamada and Nozawa, along the Chikuma-gawa,. Tourism is one of the major industries of the basin. As amply demonstrated by the Winter Olympic Games held in Nagano, there are many ski resorts as well as mountain and hot spring resorts. Moreover, every year 6,500,000 people visit “Zenkouji” because the head temple of the Buddhist Tendai sect is in Nagano city. The history of the Shinano-gawa is one of fighting floods. As described in Section 4.5, people suffered from floods until the completion of the Ohkouzu Diversion Channel. Nowadays, by using the plentiful waters of the Shinano-gawa, the Echigo Plain is the best granary in Japan, and specialises in rice production.
7.
References, Databooks and Bibliography
Geographical Survey Institute (1984): The National Atlas of Japan, Ministry of Construction (2.1, 2.2). Geological Survey of Japan (1992): Geological Atlas of Japan, Ministry of Construction (2.2). Geological Survey of Japan (1993): 1:1,000,000-scale international map, (NI-52/53/54, NJ-52, 53, 54), Ministry of Construction (front page). River Bureau (1941-1998): Uryou nenpyou (Rainfall Yearbook), Vol.1 ~ 46, Ministry of Construction (3.2, 3.4). River Bureau (1948-1998): Ryuryo nenpyou (Streamflow Yearbook), Vol. 1 ~ 48, Ministry of Construction (4.2, 4.3, 4.4, 4.5, 4.6). Shinano River Work Office (1993): Shinano River, Japan’s longest, Hokuriki Regional Construction Bureau, Ministry of Construction (2.4, 5.1). Shinano River Work Office (1979): A century of history of the Shinano-gawa, Hokuriku Regional Construction Bureau, Ministry of Construction (1, 5.1, 6). Shinanocawa-karyu Work Office (1995): A report on drought in the lower reach of the Shinano-gawa in the summer of 1994, Hokuriku Regional Construction Bureau, Ministry of Construction (5.4). Shinano River Work Office (1994): The Ohkouzu Diversion Channel, Hokuriki Regional Construction Bureau, Ministry of Construction (4.5). Tokyo Electric Power Company: Hydroelectric power plants along the Takase River (5.1).
94
Japan ― 11
Tone-gawa Map of River
Table of Basic Data Name: Tone-gawa
Serial No.: Japan-11 N 35° 32' - 37° 5'
Location: Central Honshu, Japan Area: 16,840 km
2
E 138° 24' - 140° 51'
Length of main stream: 322 km
Origin: Mt. Ohminakami
Highest point: 1,834 m (trunk of Tone-gawa)
Outlet: Pacific Ocean
Lowest point: River mouth (0 m)
Main geological features: Mountain area: sandstone, slate, limestone from the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras, and volcanic rock, Plain area: Pleistocene and alluvium Main tributaries: Katashina-gawa (676.1 km2), Agatsuma-gawa (1,355.2 km2), Kanna-gawa (417.6 km2), Kabura-gawa (632.4 km2), Karasu-gawa (759.1 km2), Watarase-gawa (2,621.4 km2), Kokai-gawa (1,043.1 km2), Kinu-gawa (1,760.6 km2) Main lakes: Kazumigaura, Kitaura, Chuzenji-ko, Imba-numa, Tega-numa, Ushiku-numa 6
3
6
3
6
3
Main reservoirs: Yagisawa (115.5 x 10 m , 1967), Naramata (85.0 x 10 m , 1991), Hujiwara (31.0 x 10 m , 1958), 6 3 6 3 6 3 Aimata (20.0 x 10 m , 1959), Sonohara (13.2 x 10 m , 1966), Shimokubo (120.0 x 10 m , 1969), Ikari (32.0 x 106m3, 1956), Kawamata (73.1 x 106m3, 1965), Kawaji (76.0 x 106m3, 1983) Mean annual precipitation: 1162.6 mm at Maebashi, 1580.1 mm at Choshi (1971 - 2000). Mean annual runoff: 165.2 m3/sec at Yattajima, 220.6 m3/sec at Kurihashi (1960 - 2000) Population: about 12,000,000
Main cities: Maebashi, Takasaki, Saitama, Tsukuba Utsunomiya
Land use: Forest (45.5%), Paddy field (18.2%), Cropland (11.2%), Orchard (3.3%), Urban (3.7%), Residential area (6.4%), Water surface (5.1%), Other (6.6%)
95
Japan ― 11
1.
General Description
The Tone River (Tone-gawa) has the largest catchment area (16,840 km2) and the second longest main river channel (322 km) in Japan. The river originates at Mt. Ohminakami in the Echigo Mountains and runs across the Kanto Plain, the largest plain in Japan. The ancient Tone River flowed to Tokyo Bay. During the “Eastward Transfer Project” carried out by the Tokugawa Shogunate in the Edo era (16031867) its course was shifted during the 17th century. The present Tone River flows out to the Pacific Ocean at Choshi City. The Kanto Plain includes the capital of Japan, Tokyo, and the Tokyo Metropolitan area has been expanding into the plain. Although the catchment area of the Tone River occupies only 4.5% of the land area of Japan, about 10% of the Japanese population live in the catchment. The high population density of the basin increases the importance of the Tone River in Japan. Modern river management in the basin started in the Meiji era (1868-1912). Since then there have been unprecedented floods in the basin, and the design flood flow has been revised several times after large floods. In 1947, Typhoon Kathleen brought heavy rainfall, and embankments broke in the middle reaches of the Tone River. The resultant flooding extended to Tokyo, and caused great damage to the Tokyo Metropolitan area. One of the causes of the flooding is urbanization of the Tokyo Metropolitan area. The population of Tokyo and the prefectures in Kanto District was about 10,000,000 in the Meiji era. However, since then it has increased to about 30,000,000, and property values have increased very much. Demand for the available water resources has also increased, and recent droughts have caused serious social problems.
2.
Geographical Information
2.1
Geological Map
* Based on the Geological Map of Japan 1:1,000,000, 3rd Edition CD-ROM, Geological Survey of Japan.
96
Japan ― 11
2.2
Land Use Map
Legend 0: Not used 1: Paddy field 2: Cropland 3: Orchard 1 4: Orchard 2 5: Forest 6: Wasteland 7: Urban area 8: Residential area 9: Transportation area 10: Other land use 11: Lake 12: Riverbed 13: Riverbed 14: Seashore 15: Ocean
* Based on the National Land Information, National Land Agency, Japan
2.3
Characteristics of River and Main Tributaries
No.
Name of river
Length [km] Catchment area [km2]
Highest peak [m] Lowest point [m]
Cities Population (1997)
1
Tone (Main river)
322 16,840
1834 0
Ohmiya, Tsukuba (435,463), (150,351)
2
Katashina (Tributary)
60.8 673.3
2163 288.5
Numata (47,378)
3
Agatsuma (Tributary)
76.2 1,352
1362 169.9
Shibukawa (48,385)
4
Karasu (Tributary)
61.8 470
1654 56.6
Takasaki (238,228)
5
Kanna (Tributary)
87.4 407
1818 64
Fujioka (63,516)
6
Watarase (Tributary)
107.6 2,621.4
2144 13
Kiryu, Ashikaga (119,559), (164,841)
7
Kinu (Tributary)
176.7 1,760.6
2141 7
Utsunomiya, Nikko (434,770), (18,837)
8
Kokai (Tributary)
111.8 1,043.1
185 5
Shimodate, Mouka (66,125), (61,754)
97
Japan ― 11
2.4
Longitudinal Profiles
3.
Climatological Information
3.1
Annual Isohyetal Map and Observation Stations
* Based on the National Land Information, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport, Japan
98
Japan ― 11
3.2
List of Meteorological Observation Stations Mean annual Mean annual Observation precipitation temperature period [mm] [°C]
Observation 1) items
Elevation [m]
Location
42046 Fujiwara *
700
N 36° 51.9' E 139° 3.8'
21
1,801.7
8.7
A
42091 Minakami *
520
N 36° 47.8' E 138° 59.7'
103
1,692.3
10.2
A
42121 Kusatsu *
1,230
N 36° 36.9' E 138° 35.6'
103
1,689.7
7.4
A
42146 Numata *
430
N 36° 39.0' E 139° 3.9'
103
1,084.8
11.4
A
42221 Tashiro *
1,230
N 36° 27.6' E 138° 27.9'
21
1,482.7
7.1
A
180
N 36° 22.5' E 138° 53.9'
21
1,329.2
13.3
A
47624 Maebashi **
112.1
N 36° 24.1' E 139° 3.8'
30
1,162.6
14.2
M
47626 Kumagaya **
30.0
N 36° 8.8' E 139° 23.0'
30
1,243.2
14.6
M
47615 Utsunomiya **
119.4
N 36° 32.8' E 139° 52.3'
30
1,443.4
13.4
M
47648 Choshi **
20.1
N 35°44.2' E 140° 51.6'
30
1,580.1
15.3
M
No.
Station
42286 Kamisatomi *
* Serial Number used by JMA (Japan Meteorological Agency). ** Serial Number used by WMO (World Meteorological Organization). 1) A: The AMeDAS (Automatic Meteorological Data Acquisition System) established in 1979. Some stations have long term records before the installation of the AMeDAS system. The observation items are precipitation, air temperature, wind speed, wind direction and sunshine duration. M: Meteorological Observation, JMA, records 14 items including precipitation, air temperature, sunshine duration, solar radiation, wind speed, wind direction.
3.3
Monthly Climate Data
Observation Item
Observation Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun station
Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Annual
Period for the mean
Temperature [°C]
Maebashi
3.3
Precipitation [mm]
Maebashi
20.8 33.0 56.3 78.7 90.7 151.4 183.0 184.7 214.8 93.4 42.7 13.2 1,162.6 1971 - 2000
Solar radiation 2 [MJ/m /d]
Maebashi
9.4
Duration of Sunshine [hr]
Maebashi
3.6
6.9
12.9 17.7 21.2 24.7 26.1 21.9 16.1 10.5
11.7 14.4 16.1 17.3 13.9 14.4 14.8 11.1 10.5
9.0
5.8
8.4
14.2
12.6
1971 - 2000
1971 - 2000
203.9 186.1 202.8 187.4 193.7 119.0 135.2 162.8 116.8 158.1 173.3 198.6 2,037.7 1971 - 2000
99
Japan ― 11
3.4
Long-term Variation of Monthly Precipitation
4.
Hydrological Information
4.1
Map of Streamflow Observation Stations
Locations for the telemetric water level (open triangle) and water quality (filled circle) stations were chosen by the Foundation of River and Basin Integrated Communications (FRICS). The Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport operates 355 water level stations in the Tone River Basin. Some of small stations are not included in the above diagram.
100
Japan ― 11
4.2
List of Selected Hydrological Observation Stations
No.*
Station
Location
Catchment area (A) [km2]
Observation period
Observation items1)
30302
Yakatabara
N 36° 37' 02" E 139° 02' 39"
980.9
1954 - present
Q
30306
Yattajima
N 36° 15' 37" E 139° 12' 37"
5,150.0
1951 - present
Q
30404
Kurihashi
N 36° 08' 25" E 139° 42' 20"
8,588.0
1938 - present
Q
30506
Fukawa
N 35° 50' 59" E 140° 08' 31"
12,458.0
1938 - present
Q, WQ
30602
Noda
N 35° 56' 08" E 139° 51' 18"
8,687.9
1955 - present
Q
No.*
−2) Q 3 [m /s]
Qmax 3 [m /s]
max 3 [m /s]
min 3 [m /s]
Q/A [m3/s/100km2]
Qmax/A [m3/s/100km2]
Period of statistics
30302
40.62
1,120
1,254.16
0.02
4.14
114.18
42
30306
158.91
17,000
9,222.35
24.20
3.09
3,300.97
46
30404
250.50
13,000
11,443.50
6.10
2.92
1,513.74
60
30506
221.88
8,170
7,559.39
1.64
1.78
65.58
55
30602
109.93
3,700
1,271.55
23.93
1.27
42.59
44
3)
4)
5)
*: Serial number used by The River Bureau, Ministry of Construction 1) Q: Discharge, WQ: Water quality 4) Mean maximum discharge 2) Mean annual discharge 5) Mean minimum discharge 3) Maximum discharge
4.3
Long-term Variation of Monthly Discharge
101
Japan ― 11
4.4
Annual Pattern of Discharge
102
Japan ― 11
4.6
Annual Maximum and Minimum Discharges 2
Station: Yattajima [5,150 km ] Year
Maximum 3 [m /s]
Minimum 3 [m /s]
Year
Maximum 3 [m /s]
Minimum 3 [m /s]
Year
Maximum 3 [m /s]
Minimum 3 [m /s]
1970
1,043
26.8
1980
793
59.1
1990
2,841
57.9
1971
2,562
24.2
1981
7,690
62.4
1991
4,589
84.1
1972
5,370
44.1
1982
8,192
59.0
1992
946
42.7
1973
808
36.1
1983
4,267
60.6
1993
1,623
-
1974
5,553
48.9
1984
-
-
1994
2,758
65.2
1975
1,169
47.3
1985
4,077
43.5
1995
1,209
47.2
1976
1,876
31.1
1986
4,454
55.8
1996
1,079
54.8
1977
2,240
52.1
1987
781
46.2
1997
1,203
55.0
1978
630
44.5
1988
3,047
32.0
1998
9,222
-
1979
1,738
43.3
1989
2,990
43.0
1999
5,202
67.5
103
Japan ― 11
2
Station: Kurihashi [8,588 km ] Year
Maximum 3 [m /s]
Minimum 3 [m /s]
Year
Maximum 3 [m /s]
Minimum 3 [m /s]
Year
Maximum 3 [m /s]
Minimum 3 [m /s]
1970
859
52.1
1980
1,094
54.7
1990
4,472
30.8
1971
3,878
46.9
1981
7,940
58.1
1991
6,543
75.5
1972
6,709
33.2
1982
11,444
65.1
1992
1,207
67.6
1973
579
37.4
1983
5,938
36.1
1993
2,583
73.9
1974
4,926
52.6
1984
-
-
1994
3,157
55.0
1975
1,258
51.1
1985
5,648
36.4
1995
2,074
43.7
1976
2,107
62.5
1986
4,062
50.4
1996
2,217
47.2
1977
3,506
61.3
1987
1,861
28.3
1997
2,176
55.6
1978
1,666
27.0
1988
2,368
35.4
1998
10,577
71.8
1979
3,631
25.1
1989
3,065
55.3
1999
6,608
59.1
4.7
Hyetographs and Hydrographs of Major Floods
104
Japan ― 11
5.
Water Resources
5.1
General Description
Takasaki City, in 1887, was the first city to use the water resources of the Tone River for domestic water supply. The Tokyo Metropolitan government began by exploiting the water resources of the Tama River catchment. The development of this water resource approached its limit with the completion of Ogouchi Dam in 1957 and so Tokyo had to increase its dependence on the Tone River basin for domestic water. Today, seventy five percent of Toyko’s water comes from the Tone River. Some 88% of the domestic water supply comes from dams located in the upper reaches of the Tone River and its main tributaries. There are eight dams in the headwater regions of the Tone River, and three dams in the Kinu River basin, with a total combined capacity is 642,730,000 m3. The water produced from the dams in the Tone River is transferred to the Ara River through the Musashi Canal located in the middle reach of the Tone River, and is then supplied to the Tokyo Metropolitan area for domestic use. Water transferred to the Edo River is taken to the Kanamachi water purification plant, and is used to supply domestic water to the eastern part of Tokyo. The North-Chiba Water Conveyance Channel was constructed to carry water from lower reaches of the Tone River when there is a shortage of water in Tokyo. The amount of water supplied from the Tone River is about 6,500,000 m3 per day. The population using Tone water is about 12,000,000. About 250,000 ha of land are irrigated in the Tone River basin. There are about 4,600 water intake facilities, and water rights for agricultural use total 1,320 m3/s.
5.2
Map of Water Resource Systems
105
Japan ― 11
5.3
List of Major Water Resources Facilities
Major Reservoirs Name of dam (reservoir)
Catchment area [km2]
Gross capacity [106m3]
Effective capacity [106m3]
Purposes1)
Year of completion
Tone
Yagisawa
167.4
204.3
175.8
F, A, P, W
1966
Tone
Fujiwara
401.0
52.5
35.9
F, A, P
1957
Naramata (Tone)
Naramata
60.1
90.0
85.0
F, A, W
1991
Aimata
110.8
110.8
20.0
F, A, P
1958
Sonohara
493.9
493.9
14.1
F, A, P
1965
Shimokubo
3229
130.0
120.0
F, A, P, W, I
1966
Kinu
Ikari
271.2
55.0
46.0
F, A, P
1956
Kinu
Kawamata
179.4
87.6
73.1
F, A, P
1965
Kinu
Kawaji
323.6
83.0
76.0
F, A, W, I
1983
Watarase
Kusaki
254.0
60.5
50.5
F, A, P, W, I
1976
Name of river
Akatani (Tone) Katashina (Tone) Kanna (Tone)
Major Interbasin Transfer Name of transfer line
Name of rivers and places connected
Length [km]
Maximum capacity [m3/s]
Purpose1)
Year of completion
From
To
Musashi Canal
Tone-gawa
Ara-kawa
14.52
50.0
I, W
1968
Tone Saitama Canal Diversion Minumadai Canal
Tone-gawa
(Agricultural field)
16.68
34.0
A
1968
Tone-gawa
(Agricultural field)
102.9
43.4
A, W
1968
Tone-gawa
Edo-gawa
28.5
40.0
F, W, N
1995
North-Chiba Water Conveyance Channel 1) A: Agricultural use F: Flood control W: Municipal water supply
I: Industrial use
N: Maintenance of normal flows
106
P: Hydro-power
Japan ― 11
5.4
Major Floods and Droughts
Major Floods at Yattajima and Kurihashi Peak discharge Peak discharge at Yattajima at Kurihashi [m3/s] [m3/s]
Date
Rainfall [mm] Duration
Meteorological cause
Dead and Major damages** missing
1947.9
17,000
-
300.5*
Typhoon “Catherine”
104 15
IAF: 121,762 IBF: 45,902
1948.9
-
6,640
203.0*
Typhoon “Ion”
36 7
IAF: 5,497 IBF: 2,861
1949.8
9,680
7,180
186.2*
Typhoon “Kitty”
83 6
IAF: 27,338 IBF: 19,508
1950.8
6,320
7,530
180.0*
Stationary Depression
8 14
IAF: 2,327 IBF: 3,848
1958.9
9,730
7,340
174.3*
Typhoon-22 “Kanogawa”
14 14
IAF: 970 IBF: 19,908
1959.8
9,070
10,050
217*
Typhoon-7
14 2
IAF: 984 IBF: 2,591
1966.6
5,880
5,490
170.1*
Typhoon-4
53 2
IAF: 1,561 IBF: 18,815
1971.8
2,460
3,940
166.4*
Typhoon-20
-
N.A.
1972.9
4,380
7,020
199.2*
Typhoon-20
-
N.A.
Continuous Rain
-
N.A. N.A.
1977.8
-
3,621
over 300 mm (22 days)
1979.10
1,756
3,572
300 mm at Watarase area
Typhoon-20
-
1981.8
7,367
8,174
300-500 mm in mountain area
Typhoon-15
-
IAF: 78 IBF: 20
1982.8
7,529
11,118
-
Typhoon-18
-
IAF: 1
1982.10
8,007
11,606
-
-
IAF: 1,268 IBF: 408
1991.9
-
4,688
-
Typhoon-18
-
N.A.
1998.9
9,770
10,430
-
Typhoon-5
-
Inundated Area 182 ha
* Whole Tone basin, three day total precipitation. ** IAF: Inundation above floor, IBF: Inundation below floor in number of houses.
Major Droughts Period
Affected areas
Major damages and counteractions
1964.5 - 1964.7
Kanto district
So called Olympic drought
1987.6 - 1987.8
Kanto district
Maximum cut ratio 30%
1994.7 - 1994.9
Kanto district
Maximum cut ratio 30%
1995.8 - 1995.9
Kanto district
Maximum cut ratio 30%
107
Japan ― 11
5.5
River Water Quality 1)
River Water Quality at Kurihashi in 2000 1 Jan
Date
1 Feb 1 Mar 18 Apr 30 May 21 Jun 25 Jul 24 Aug 5 Sep 11 Oct 7 Nov
7 Dec
pH
7.6
7.6
7.5
7.3
7.2
7.4
7.5
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.5
7.5
BOD [mg/l]
2.6
2.4
2.7
1.4
0.6
1.6
1.4
2.5
1.1
0.9
1.1
3.1
DO [mg/l]
11.8
12.5
12.2
10.7
9.6
8.0
7.7
6.6
7.6
8.2
8.1
11.0
SS [mg/l]
5
9
7
10
17
17
27
100
21
9
15
8
1.7
0.2
0.5
0.2
0.5
3.3
2.8
23.0
4.9
13.0
0.0
3.3
Coliform group2) [x103MPN/100ml]
3) 3 Discharge [m /s] 90.40
86.07 82.11 125.82 245.53 121.58 161.1 229.29 132.5 223.5 212.6 109.5
River Water Quality1) at Fukawa in 2000 1 Jan
Date
1 Feb 1 Mar 18 Apr 30 May 21 Jun 25 Jul 24 Aug 5 Sep 11 Oct 7 Nov
7 Dec
pH
7.6
7.5
7.8
7.4
7.4
7.5
7.9
7.7
7.7
7.5
7.5
7.6
BOD [mg/l]
2.4
2.3
3.1
2.3
1.4
1.9
2.0
1.9
1.4
0.5
1.1
0.9
DO [mg/l]
6.1
11.9
12.4
10.1
8.4
7.6
8.2
8.4
8.1
8.7
9.3
11.5
4
8
6
13
12
16
12
13
23
14.5
11.5
7
1.1
1.3
2.3
4.9
7.9
7.0
4.9
11.0
1.2
7.9
7.0
1.3
73.6
93.8
84.5
195.6
85.2
161.0
SS [mg/l] 2)
Coliform group [x103MPN/100ml]
Discharge3) [m3/s] 122.8
196.1 131.2 294.7 242.1 151.6
1) Observed once a month on a dry day normally several days after rainfall. 2) Measurement method: BGLB (brilliant green lactose bile) culture MPN (most probable number) method. 3) Discharge on the water quality observation date.
6.
Socio-cultural Characteristics
The sea surface level is estimated to have fallen by over 100 m at the last glacial maximum some 20,000 years ago. The sea surface then started to rise in the inter-glacial stage, and about 5,000 years ago, reached a level several metres higher than the present level. At that time, the Kanto plain was a bay. When the sea level was falling, the ancient river course of the Tone was created. About 1,000 years ago the Tone River flowed to Tokyo bay, but about 300 years ago the course was diverted to the Pacific Ocean by the Tokugawa Shogunate. The “Eastward Transfer of the Tone River” project was begun by Ieyasu Tokugawa, the first Shogun of the Tokugawa Shogunate in the Edo era. The purposes of the project were to protect the capital of Edo (the present day Tokyo) from floods, and to develop agriculture in the middle reaches of the Tone River. The project also provided the capital with a defensive barrier against attack by the kingdom of northern Japan. The first western style flood control scheme was introduced in 1897. The design flood flow was set at 3,750 m3/s at Kurihashi. In the severe flood of 1910, the estimated peak flow was about 7,000 m3/s at Kurihashi, about twice the size of the design flood. This event led to a revision of the flood control scheme in the Tone River. However, since then the design flood flow has had to be revised several
108
Japan ― 11
times because of floods that have exceeded the previous design values. Edo, the capital of Tokugawa Shogunate, was renamed to Tokyo in the Meiji era, and continued to grow as the capital of Japan. The Tone River basin is located upstream of the Tokyo Metropolitan area, and rapid changes in land use have led to the need for repeated revisions of the design flood flow. After the serious flooding caused by Typhoon Catherine in 1947, the Tone River has not experienced any breach of its embankments in spite of several major rainfall events. The Kanto Regional Development Bureau, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, and Transport, has a responsibility for river management and continues to maintain this valuable water resource, to prevent flood disasters, and to preserve the nature and environment of the Tone River.
7.
References, Databooks and Bibliography
Geological Survey of Japan (ed.) (1995): Geological Map of Japan 1:1,000,000, 3rd Edition, CD-ROM Version. Digital Geoscience Map G-1, Geological Survey of Japan. Japan Meteorological Agency (2001): Japan Climatological Chart, 320 pp. (in Japanese) Kanto Regional Construction Bureau, Ministry of Construction (1999): Catalogue of Hydrological Stations, 165 pp. (in Japanese) Kanto Regional Construction Bureau (1993): TONEGAWA―Flood Control and Water Resources―. Kokudochousa-kai, 195 pp. (in Japanese) Kanto Regional Construction Bureau (1987): Tonegawa hyakunenshi (100 year’s history of the Tone River), Ministry of Construction, 2303 pp. (in Japanese) Kanto Regional Development Bureau, MLIT (2001): Flood Control and Water Resources in the Tone River, Japan River Association, 14 pp. (in Japanese) Kinu River Dam Control Office, Kanto Regional Construction Bureau, Outline of Dams in Kinu River Basin. 35 pp. (in Japanese) Lower Tone River Office, Edo-gawa River Office, Kanto Regional Construction Bureau, Ministry of Construction (2000): North-Chiba Water Conveyance Channel, 26 pp. (in Japanese) Lower Tone River Office, Kanto Regional Construction Bureau, Ministry of Construction: Tone River ―Lower Basin of the Tone River, 22 pp. River Bureau (1947-2000): Ryuryo nenpyo (Streamflow yearbook). Tone River Dam Control Office, Kanto Regional Development Bureau, MLIT (2001): Outline of Dams in Tone River Basin. (in Japanese) Tomiyama, Kazuko (1974): Water, Green, and Soil. Chuko-Shinsho, (in Japanese) Upper Tone River Office, Kanto Regional Development Bereau, MLIT (2001): Encyclopedia of TONEGAWA, http://www.tonejo.go.jp/jiten/ (Japanese contents) Upper Tone River Office, Kanto Regional Construction Bureau: Tone River, 29 pp. (in Japanese) Water Resources Development Public Corporation: Outline of Tone Water Canal. (in Japanese)
109
Japan ― 12
Yodo-gawa Map of River
110
Japan ― 12
Table of Basic Data Name: Yodo-gawa Location: Honshu, Japan 2
Serial No. : Japan-12 N 34° 24' ~ 35° 44'
E 135° 19' ~ 136° 29'
Area: 8,240 km
Length of main stream: 75 km
Origin: Lake Biwa
Highest point: Mt. Ibuki (1,377 m)
Outlet: Osaka Bay
Lowest point: River Mouth (0 m)
Main geological features: andesite, tuff, granite, schist Main tributaries: Uji River (506 km2), Katsura River (1,100 km2), Kizu River (1,596 km2) Main lakes: Lake Biwa (670 km2) Main reservoirs: Takayama (49.2 x 106m3, 1969), Hiyoshi (58.0 x 106m3, 1998), Shorenji (23.8 x 106m3, 1970), Nunome (15.4 x 106m3, 1992), Hinachi (18.4 x 106m3, 1999), Murou (14.3 x 106m3, 1974), Hitokura (30.8 x 106m3, 1983) Mean annual precipitation: 1387.8 mm (1976 ~ 2000) at Hirakata Mean annual runoff: 270.8 m3/s (1952 ~ 1998) at Hirakata Population: 10,630,000 (1994)
Main cities: Kyoto, Osaka, Otsu
Land use: Mountainous area (71.9%), Flat area (28.1%)
1.
General Description
The 75 km long Yodo River (Yodo-gawa) system, located in the central part of Japan, is the seventh largest river basin in Japan with a catchment area of 8,240 km2. Flowing south out of Lake Biwa, the largest lake in Japan, first as the Seta River and then the Uji River, it merges with the Kizu and Katsura Rivers near the border between Kyoto and Osaka Prefectures. The Yodo River runs through the heartland of the Kinki region and flows into Osaka Bay. The Yodo River basin consists of six sub-catchments, which are the Lake Biwa basin (3,802 km2), the Uji River basin (506 km2), the Kizu River basin (1,647 km2), the Katsura River basin (1,152 km2), the lower Yodo River basin (521 km2) and the Kanzaki River basin (612 km2). It extends over the six prefectures of Shiga, Kyoto, Osaka, Hyogo, Nara and Mie. City areas spread throughout the basin. Metropolitan areas such as Osaka, Kyoto, and Otsu are located along the rivers. The population of the basin is about 10,630,000, which is 9% of the population of Japan and 53% of that in the Kansai region. In the lower Yodo River basin, most of the heavily populated urban developments are located in areas lower than the river water level. In Osaka City, it is estimated that 94.9% of the total metropolitan area is located in flood-prone areas. Precipitation in the basin is widely distributed in time and space. The annual precipitation of the Lake Biwa, Katsura River, Kizu River, and the lower Yodo River basins are about 1,880 mm, 1,640 mm, 1,590 mm, and 1,400 mm respectively. The mean annual precipitation of the whole Yodo River basin is about 1,600 mm. The Lake Biwa basin, the Katsura River basin, and the Kizu River basin have high flows in the snow melt season from March to April, the rainy season from June to July, and the typhoon season from September to October, respectively. Due to the time and space dispersion of high flows in tributaries and the large storage capacity of Lake Biwa, the river flow conditions are more stable than those of other Japanese basins.
111
Japan ― 12
2.
Geographical Information
2.1
Geological Map
112
Japan ― 12
2.2
Land Use Map
2.3
Characteristics of River and Main Tributaries
No.
Name of river
Length [km] Catchment area [km2]
Highest peak [m] Lowest point [m]
Cities population
1
Yodo (Main river)
37 231
Sekidougaoka 680 River mouth 0
Osaka 2,607,700
2
Biwa (Lake)
3,802
Mt. Ibuki 1,377 Outlet 80.8
Otsu 289,601
3
Uji (Tributary)
38 506
Mt. Shubu 681 Confluence 19.0
Uji 191,122
M 71.9
4
Katsura (Tributary)
114 1,100
Mt. Jizou 948 Confluence 17.7
Kyoto 1,467,521
F 28.1
5
Kizu (Tributary)
99 1,596
Mt. Kuroso 1,038 Confluence 15.8
Ueno 59,765
6
Kanzaki (Tributary)
13 612
Mt. Keno 785 River mouth 0
Osaka 2,607,700
M: Mountainous area
F: Flat area
113
Land use [%]
Japan ― 12
2.4
Longitudinal Profiles
3.
Climatological Information
3.1
Annual Isohyetal Map and Observation Stations
114
Japan ― 12
List of Meteorological Observation Stations1)
3.2 No.2)
Station
Elevation [m]
Location
Observation period
Mean annual precipitation [mm]
Observation 3) items
60051
Imazu
88
N 35° 24' 36" E 136° 01' 54"
1974 ~ present
1,829.7 1989 ~ 1998
DS, P, T, W
60131
Hikone
87
N 35° 16' 24" E 136° 14' 48"
1974 ~ present
1,608.8 1989 ~ 1998
DS, P, T, W
60216
Otsu
86
N 34° 59' 18" E 135° 54' 54"
1977 ~ present
1,659.7 1989 ~ 1998
DS, P, T, W
53112
Ueno
159
N 34° 45' 30" E 136° 08' 56"
1985 ~ present
1,480.0 1989 ~ 1998
DS, P, T, W
61271
Sonobe
195
N 35° 03' 12" E 135° 27' 30"
1974 ~ present
1,650.4 1989 ~ 1998
DS, P, T, W
61286
Kyoto
41
N 35° 00' 42" E 135° 44' 06"
1974 ~ present
1,565.9 1989 ~ 1998
DS, P, T, W
62051
Toyonaka
9
N 34° 46' 24" E 135° 26' 54"
1974 ~ present
1,378.2 1989 ~ 1998
DS, P, T, W
62046
Hirakata
26
N 34° 48' 18" E 135° 40' 36"
1975 ~ present
1,453.2 1989 ~ 1998
DS, P, T, W
1) 30 rainfall observation stations managed by Japan Meteorological Agency and 27 managed by Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport are operated in the Yodo River basin. Only some of the stations are listed here. 2) Serial Number used by Japan Meteorological Agency. 3) DS: Duration of sunshine, P: Precipitation, T: Air temperature, W: Wind velocity and wind direction.
3.3
Monthly Climate Data (Observation station: Osaka)
Observation item Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Temperature[°C] 5.8
5.9
9.0
Jul
Aug Sep
Oct Nov Dec Annual
14.8 19.4 23.2 27.2 28.4 24.4 18.7 13.2
8.3
Period for the mean
16.5 1971~2000
Precipitation [mm]
43.7 58.7 99.5 121.1 139.6 201.0 155.4 99.0 174.9 109.3 66.3 37.7 1036.1 1971~2000
Solar radiation 2 [MJ/m /day]
7.4
9.2
11.8 15.0 16.9 15.2 16.6 16.6 12.6 10.5
8.1
6.9
12.3 1971~2000
Duration of sunshine [hr]
142
131
158
147
149
1967 1971~2000
183
200
150
186
115
211 149
162
Japan ― 12
3.4
4. 4.1
Long-term Variation of Monthly Precipitation
Hydrological Information Map of Streamflow Observation Stations
116
Japan ― 12
List of Hydrological Observation Stations1)
4.2
Station
Location
Catchment area (A) [km2]
Observation period
Observation items3) (frequency)
60465
Kamo
66.5 km from the river mouth
1,456.0
1898 ~ present
H, Q
60503
Shinmachi
77.9 km from the river mouth
540.0
1956 ~ present
H, Q
60582
Gunkoubashi
15.8 km from the river mouth
322.8
1954 ~ present
H, Q
60532
Hirakata
25.9 km from the river mouth
7,281.0
1955 ~ present
H, Q
No.
2)
−4) Q [m3/s]
Qmax5) [m3/s]
− Qmax6) [m3/s]
− Qmin7) [m3/s]
− Q/A 2 [m /s/100km ]
Qmax/A [m3/s/100km2]
Period of statistics
60465
45.56
6,200.00
1,610.31
7.13
3.13
425.82
1938 ~ 1996
60503
18.04
1,704.40
679.56
0.71
3.34
315.63
1969 ~ 1997
60582
8.53
1,571.70
613.19
0.26
2.64
486.90
1955 ~ 1996
60532
272.05
7,970.00
3,177.59
91.05
3.74
109.46
1952 ~ 1977
No.
2)
3
1) 53 water stage stations and 9 discharge stations are operated in the Yodo River basin. 2) Serial Number used by Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport 3) H: water level, Q: discharge, Q is obtained from rating curve. 4) − Q: Mean annual discharge 5) Q max : Maximum discharge 6) − Q: max: Mean maximum discharge 7) − Q min: Mean minimum discharge
4.3
Long-term Variation of Monthly Discharge
117
Japan ― 12
4.4
Annual Pattern of Discharge
4.5
Unique Hydrological Features
The Yodo River basin includes Lake Biwa, which is the largest fresh-water lake in Japan with an area of about 670 km2 and a storage capacity of 27.5 billion m3. The catchment area of Lake Biwa is 3,848 km2, which accounts for 47% of the Yodo River basin. Water flows into Lake Biwa from more than one hundred rivers before being discharged into the Seta River, which is the only natural outflow river from the lake. Lake Biwa plays an important role as a regulating reservoir for flood control. In the case of flooding of the main Yodo River, the Setagawa Weir, located at the outlet of Lake Biwa, is controlled to reduce flows to the lower basin. Lake Biwa also has a role as the water source for the 13 million people in Kansai region. When severe drought occurs, the downstream water users, the Central Government, and relevant local governments convene a task force that coordinates drought mitigation measures. The minimum water needed by downstream areas is discharged from Lake Biwa.
118
Japan ― 12
4.6
Annual Maximum and Minimum Discharges 2
Station: Hirakata [7,281 km ] 1)
2)
1)
2)
1952
Maximum 3 Date [m /s] 6.24 4,200
1976
Maximum 3 Date [m /s] 9.11 3,391
1953
9.25
7,800
1.3
104.0
1977
3.31
1,567
10.30
75.5
1954
7.6
3,540
4.11
74.0
1978
6.24
2,406
10.27
65.6
1955
10.21
1,124
5.11
94.8
1979
6.29
2,281
1.25
70.5
1956
9.27
5,025
8.21
134.0
1980
7.11
1,690
11.21
112.1
1957
6.28
2,740
4.19
93.6
1981
10.9
1,378
8.20
106.8
1958
8.26
3,990
3.26
95.0
1982
8.2
6,271
7.6
103.4
1959
9.27
7,970
6.19
119.3
1983
9.29
3,750
6.12
99.9
1960
8.30
3,775
-*
115.0
1984
6.27
1,960
11.12
58.3
1961
10.28
7,206
9.14
97.8
1985
6.26
2,669
2.8
73.5
1962
8.26
2,615
12.28
103.2
1986
7.22
4,091
12.14
59.0
1963
5.18
1,801
11.29
101.1
1987
7.20
1,436
1.12
61.4
1964
7.20
955
8.21
94.3
1988
6.3
2,388
1.21
65.9
1965
9.18
6,868
8.31
93.1
1989
9.3
3,599
1.6
96.6
1966
7.2
2,442
11.13
113.1
1990
9.20
3,949
9.11
89.3
1967
7.10
3,077
6.22
95.7
1991
-*
-*
-*
-*
1968
8.30
1,702
2.5
93.7
1992
8.20
2,308
8.17
58.1
1969
7.9
2,064
12.22
81.0
1993
7.5
4,104
4.24
74.9
1970
6.16
2,638
1.26
73.5
1994
9.30
2,753
9.14
60.8
1971
9.7
2,096
11.26
112.0
1995
5.12
4,760
11.26
73.7
1972
9.17
5,228
10.30
110.7
1996
8.29
1,627
1.21
75.4
1973
5.2
1,114
8.13
75.5
1997
7.27
3,835
6.20
42.5
1974
7.25
2,744
1.5
93.1
1998
10.17
2,348
9.3
66.5
1975
8.23
2,774
1.13
94.8
1999
6.30
3,811
10.25
107.1
Year
Minimum 3 Date [m /s] 8.27 80.0
Year
1), 2) Instantaneous observation by recording chart * missing data
4.7
Hyetograph and Hydrograph of Major Flood
119
Minimum 3 Date [m /s] 2.16 103.4
Japan ― 12
5.
Water Resources
5.1
General Description
The water of the Yodo River was mainly used for agricultural water and transportation services in the past. The first water utilization canal from Lake Biwa to the Kyoto City area (the Lake Biwa Canal) was constructed in 1890 and the water was used for various purposes including the nation’s first hydroelectric power generation, transportation, irrigation and public water supply. In 1912, the second water utilization canal was completed aimed at expansion of the public water supply and power generation. In the Uji River, hydroelectric power generation was developed, and the Uji power generation plant was built. After that, the first phase of the Yodo River Water Control Works was implemented to cope with the increasing demand for water needed for the development of an industrial economy, and the water utilization started through the regulation of the water level in Lake Biwa. In 1962 the Water Resources Development Promotion Law of Japan was used to give the Yodo River system a special designation that has since allowed various projects to be implemented. Now eight dams and two river weirs are operated for the prevention of flood disasters and for the water resources needs of the 13 million people living in the Kansai area.
5.2
Map of Water Resource Systems
120
Japan ― 12
5.3
List of Major Water Resources Facilities
Major Reservoirs Name of dam (reservoir)
Catchment area [km2]
Gross capacity [106m3]
Effective capacity [106m3]
Purpose1)
Year of completion
Nunome
Nunome
75
17.3
15.4
F, N, W
1992
Nabari
Hinachi
76
20.8
18.4
F, N, P, W
1999
Nabari
Takayama
615
56.8
49.2
F, N, P, W
1969
Katsura
Hiyoshi
290
66.0
58.0
F, N, W
1998
Shorenji
Shorenji
100
27.2
23.8
A, F, N, P, W
1970
Murou
169
16.9
14.3
F, N, W
1974
Hitokura
115
33.3
30.8
F, N, W
1983
Name of river
Uda Ina 1) A: Agricultural use P: Hydro-power
F: Flood control I: Industrial use W: Municipal water supply
N: Maintenance of normal flows
Major Water Transfer
Unit: m3/s
121
Japan ― 12
5.4
Major Floods and Droughts
Major Floods Rainfall [mm] Peak Duration discharge Date at Hirakata Kizu Katsura **Uji [m3/s] River River River 1953. 9.25
*(8,650) 7,800
1956. 9.27
4,610
1958. 8.27
4,030
1959. 8.14
6,800
261
268
204
137
166
N.A. 210
130
184
N.A. 305
322
296
1960. 8.30
3,840
1961. 10.28
7,800
177
282
3 days 129
265
60
3 days 289
245
209
4 days 205
1965. 9.17
7,300
1972. 9.17
5,230
1982. 8.2
6,260
1994. 9.30
2,750
1995. 5.12
4,760
216
Typhoon No.13
145
Typhoon No.15
N.A.
N.A.
Typhoon No.17
N.A.
N.A.
Low pressure front and Typhoon No.7
23
159
159
Typhoon No.16 and Typhoon No.18
28
Houses totally destroyed: 47 Houses partly destroyed: 158 Houses washed away: 15 Houses inundated: 28,979
Low pressure front and Typhoon No.26
4
Houses inundated: 12,589
Typhoon No.24
11
Houses totally destroyed: 97 Houses partly destroyed: 123 Houses washed away: 2 Houses inundated: 40,268
Typhoon No.20
12
Houses totally destroyed: 55 Houses partly destroyed: 605 Houses inundated: 78,393
Typhoon No.10
49
Houses totally destroyed: 125 Houses partly destroyed: 136 Houses washed away: 9 Houses inundated: 50,201
Typhoon No.26
N.A.
Houses partly destroyed: 3 Houses inundated: 323
Low pressure front
N.A.
Houses inundated: 55
206
158
248
2 days 178
59
113
4 days 181
199
191
6 days
Houses total destroyed: 5,051 Houses partly destroyed: 13,833 Houses washed away: 1,633 Houses inundated: 137,344
1,674
2 days 312
Houses totally destroyed: 43 Houses partly destroyed: 115 Houses washed away: 109 Houses inundated: 47,476
Typhoon No.15 (Ise Gulf Typhoon)
2 days 167
Major damages (Districts affected)
Houses totally destroyed: 2,820 Houses partly destroyed: 7,808 Houses washed away: 517 Houses inundated: 227,577
265
3 days
7,200
Dead and missing
2 days
250
1959. 9.27
Meteorological cause
* Hypothetical value assuming no damage to the dike. ** Except for the Lake Biwa catchment area.
122
Japan ― 12
Major Droughts Rainfall - Lake Biwa catchment area (mm/month) (ratio to the average value in %) Jul
Aug
Sept
Oct
Nov
Dec
Lake Biwa Lowest water mark
1973
50 (21)
116 (75)
181 (86)
166 (127)
71 (71)
64 (54)
-54 cm Sept. 2
80.9 m3/ s Aug. 13
1977
68 (29)
88 (57)
165 (79)
59 (45)
165 (165)
141 (119)
-58 cm Nov. 2
82.8 m3/ s Oct. 30
1978
41 (18)
71 (46)
195 (93)
83 (63)
95 (95)
89 (75)
-73 cm Nov. 29
73.8 m3/ s Nov. 19
1984
183 (78)
57 (37)
98 (47)
70 (53)
45 (45)
133 (113)
-95 cm Jan. 26
68.4 m3/ s Dec. 10
1986
360 (154)
31 (20)
95 (45)
95 (73)
60 (60)
133 (113)
-88 cm Dec. 14
65.2 m / s Dec. 7
1990
176 (75)
86 (55)
450 (214)
168 (128)
234 (234)
128 (108)
-69 cm Sept. 12
73.1 m / s Aug. 7
1994
25 (11)
65 (42)
305 (145)
37 (28)
53 (53)
88 (75)
-123 cm Sept. 15
52.7 m / s Sept. 14
Year
Water restriction period Month/Day
Year
1st. 2nd. 1st. 1st. 1st. 2nd. 1st.
1973 1977 1978 1984
2nd. 1st. 2nd. 1994 3rd.
5.5
3
3
3
Water restriction ratio
No. of days with restriction
Tap water
96 1 134 159 154 115 56
10% 20% 10% 10% 10% 20% 10%
15% 25% 15% 15% 12% 22% 12%
60 12 9
20% 10% 15%
22% 10% 15%
14
20%
20%
7/31 ~ 9/4 ~ 8/25 ~ 9/1 ~ 10/9 ~ 11/6 ~ 10/17 ~ 11/28 1/27/87 ~ 2/10/87 11/28 ~ 1/27/87 8/22 ~ 9/3 9/3 ~ 9/10 9/27 ~ 9/29 9/10 ~ 9/16 9/19 ~ 9/27
1986
Yodo River, Hirakata Lowest flow
Industrial water
River Water Quality
River Water Quality1) at Hirakata-oohashi2) in 2000 Date
1/12
2/2
3/8
4/12
5/10
6/7
7/5
8/2
9/6
10/4
11/8
12/6
pH
7.5
7.4
7.4
7.5
7.8
7.6
7.5
7.7
7.7
7.4
7.4
7.4
BOD [mg/l]
1.6
1.8
1.4
1.4
1.7
0.8
1.2
0.9
1.5
0.9
0.9
0.9
CODMn [mg/l]
3.6
3.8
3.5
3.5
4
3.5
4.7
3.6
4.2
3.8
3.8
3.4
7
10
11
7.8
4
7
25
4
6
7
7
5
101
107
132
136
127
200
218
156
116
145
145
122
SS [mg/l] 3)
3
Discharge [m /s]
1) Observed once a month on a dry day normally several days after rainfall. 2) Located near Osaka City 25 km upstream from the river mouth. 3) Discharge on the water quality observation date.
123
Japan ― 12
Present water quality of the Yodo River
6.
Socio-cultural Characteristics
The Yodo River basin contains two large historical cities, Kyoto and Osaka. Kyoto played a central role in the development of Japan’s history. The ancient capital was transferred from Nara to Kyoto in 794, which then became the centre of Japanese politics and culture for about 1,100 years until the transfer of the government to Tokyo in 1868. Osaka also fulfilled a vital role as a city of commerce, trade and diplomatic relations with Asian countries. To support the development of the region, many river works have been conducted. The oldest flood control works in the area date back to the time of Emperor Nintoku (about 320 A.D.). Many flood control works have been performed since then, such as the separation of Ogura pond and the Uji River, the construction of the Bunrokutsutsumi (Bunroku Dike) by Hideyoshi Toyotomi in the 16th century, and the Yamato River redirection works during the first part of the 18th century. In the Meiji Period, western techniques were introduced to Japan by De Lekay, an engineer from Holland, Tadao Okino and others, which brought about the start of modern flood control water works and reformed the Yodo River into a new waterway. Based on the historical development, this region constitutes the second largest economic bloc after the Tokyo Metropolitan area.
7.
References, Databooks and Bibliography
Geographical Survey Institute (1984): The national atlas of Japan, Ministry of Construction. Biwa Lake Construction Work Office: Seta River Weir (brochure in English), Kinki Regional Construction Bureau, Ministry of Construction, 19pp. Kinki Regional Bureau: Yodogawa Hyaku-nenn-shi (History of The Yodo River for a hundred years), Ministry of Construction, 1821pp. River Bureau: Uryo nenphyo (Rainfall Yearbook), Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport. River Bureau: Ryuryo nenphyo (Stream flow Yearbook), Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport. River Bureau: Suisitsu nenphyo (River Water Quality Yearbook), Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport. Yodo River Office: The Yodo River (brochure in English), Kinki Regional Development Bureau, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport, 10pp.
124
Republic of Korea Korea-10: Seomjin-gang Korea-11: Milyang-gang Korea-12: Sapkyo-chun
125
Introduction The Korean peninsula, which lies between the Yellow Sea and the East Sea, is about 1,300 km long and 300 km wide and is located at the eastern end of the Asian continent. The eastern coast line of the peninsula runs directly along the edge of steep mountain ranges, while the curved shapes of the western and southern coast lines indicate the occurrence of wide alluvial plains. In general, rivers running to the eastern coast are short and steep. Long rivers with gentle slopes, such as the Han River, the Geum River, the Nakdong River, and the Seomjin River, discharge to the southern or western coasts. Korea is in the moderately humid zone of medium latitudes. It has a definite, seasonal climate that is greatly defined by dry, cold continental air masses during the winter, and humid warm air masses from the ocean during the summer. The average annual temperature is 14° C (57° F) along the southern coast, while it drops to as low as 11° C and 8° C (52° F and 46° F), respectively, over the mid and northern climatic zones. The yearly distribution of precipitation is determined by westerly and northwesterly dry winds from the Asian continent in the winter and moist south-easterly winds from the Pacific Ocean in the summer. Thus the rainfall is concentrated in the summer. Of the annual precipitation of 1,274 mm, approximately 66% occurs during the rainy season from June to September, 16% during the transition period from April to May, and the remaining 18% during the six months from October to March. As of 2000, the population of Korea was 46,136,000 with a population density of 462 person/km2. Of a total land area of 99,450 km2, farm lands account for 21,379 km2 while forests cover about 63,762 km2. The three rivers catalogued in this volume are the Seomjin-gang, the Milyang-gang, and the Sapkyochun. They are representative of Korean rivers. The Seomjin-gang is the fourth largest river in Korea, and flows through the south-western part of the Korean peninsula. The Milyang-gang is one of the main tributaries of the Nakdong river which flows through the south-eastern part of the Korean peninsula. The Unmun and Milyang Dams play important roles by providing drinking water to the residents of nearby Taegu, Milyang and other areas. The Sapkyo-chun is located in the north-west of the Geum river basin and is a typical agricultural area. At the estuary of the Sapkyo-chun, the Sapkyo sea-dike was constructed for the irrigation in 1979.
Acknowledgements A working group was established for the preparation of the contributions to the Catalogue of Rivers as part of the IHP project of 1997 that was supported by the Ministry of Construction and Transportation of the Republic of Korea. The working group members are as follows: Lee, Soontak (Chair), Yeungnam University, Ahn, Sang-Jin, Choongbuk University, and Chun, Byung-Ho, Korean Military Academy. The organizations that have contributed include: The River Planning Division, Water Resources Bureau, Ministry of Construction and Transportation, The Han River Flood Control Office, Ministry of Construction and Transportation, The Nakdong River Flood Control Office, Ministry of Construction and Transportation, The Geum River Flood Control Office, Ministry of Construction and Transportation, The Korean Water Resources Association, and The Korean Water Resources Corporation.
126
Korea (Republic of ) ― 10
Seomjin-gang Map of River
Geographical Survey, MOCT. Korea
Table of Basic Data Serial No. : Korea (R. of) -10
Name(s): Seomjin-gang Location: Junra Province, Korea
E 126° 51' 50" ~ 127° 53' 05" N 35° 11' 44" ~ 35° 50' 00"
2
Area: 2,447.5 km
Length of the main stream: 156.3 km
Origin: Mt. Palgong (1,151 m)
Highest Pt: Mt. Bakun (1,279m)
Outlet: Seomjin-gang
Lowest Pt: Abrog (28.5 m)
Main base rocks: Precambrian Gneiss, Cretaceous to Middle Granite, Sedimentary Rock 2
2
Main tributaries: Yocheon (477.4 km ), Osucheon (374.3 km ) Main lakes: None Main reservoirs: Seomjin reservoir (466×106m3, 1996) Mean annual precipitation: 1,295 mm (1969 ~ 1996) Mean annual runoff: 75.7 m3/sec at Abrog (2,447.5 km2 (1984 - 1996) Population: 250,000 (1996)
Main cities: Namwon
Land use: Forest (78.7%), Rice paddy (5.6%), Others (15.7%), (1995)
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Korea (Republic of) ― 10
1.
General Description
The Seomjin river is the fourth largest river in Korea with a total catchment area to the sea of 4,896.5 km2 and a total river length of 212.3 km. It originates from Mt. Palgong (1,151 m), and flows through the south-western part of the Korean peninsula before discharging into the Korean Strait (South Sea). The northern part of the basin, (2,477.5 km2), has two main tributaries, the Yocheon and the Osucheon, which flow from the north-east. The average annual precipitation over the basin area is 1,295mm and the average annual discharge at Abrog, the basin outlet, was 75.7 m3/sec during 1984∼1996. The population of this basin was 250,000 in 1996.
2.
Geographical Information
2.1
Geological Map
128
Korea (Republic of ) ― 10
2.2
Land Use Map
2.3
Characteristics of the River and the Main Tributaries
No.
Name of River
Length [km] Catchment area [km2]
Highest peak [m]
Cities Population (1999)
1
Seomjin-gang (Main River)
156.3 2,447.5
Mt. Palgong 1,151
Koksun Gun 138,727
2
Yocheon (Tributary)
60.4 477.4
Mt. Bakun 1,279
Namwon City 112,961
3
Osucheon (Tributary)
40.5 374.3
Mt. Cheonwhang 910
Imshil Gun 44,637
F: Forest L: Lake, river, marsh P: Paddy field A: Agricultural field (vegetable field, grass field)
U: Urban
O: Orchard
129
Land use [%] F (78.7) P (5.6) U (2.1) A (11.3) L (2.2) O (0.1)
Korea (Republic of) ― 10
2.4
Longitudinal Profiles
3.
Climatological Information
3.1
Annual Isohyetal Map and Observation Stations
130
Korea (Republic of ) ― 10
3.2
List of Meteorological Observation Stations
No.
Station
Elevation [m]
Location
Mean annual Mean annual Observation Observation Precipitation1) Evaporation2) items period [mm] [mm]
31**
Imshil
244.0
N 35° 37' E 127° 17'
1973 ~ present
1,279.5
1,106.4
P (TB) E, DS
32*
Namwon
89.6
N 35° 24' E 127° 20'
1973 ~ present
1,261.8
1,052.9
P (TB) E, DS
265*
Dunnam
320.0
N 35° 32' 28" 1990 ~ present E 127° 20' 22"
1,070.6
---
P (TB)
269*
Ogog
30.0
N 35° 15' 02" 1990 ~ present E 127° 22' 10"
1,170.4
---
P (TB)
272*** Gangjin
360.0
N 35° 31' 37" 1961 ~ present E 127° 09' 55"
1,345.0
---
P (TB)
106*** Seongsu
420.0
N 35° 42' 30" 1991 ~ present E 127° 20' 48"
---
---
P (TB)
107*** Saangchi
350.0
N 35° 29' 06" 1991 ~ present E 127° 12' 26"
---
---
P (TB)
* Serial number used by the Ministry of Construction and Transportation ** Serial number used by Weather Office, Korean Meteorological Agency *** Serial number used by Korean Water Resources Corporation P: Precipitation E: Evaporation DS: Duration of sunshine TB: Tipping bucket with recording chart 1) Period for the mean is from the beginning of the observation period to 1992 2) Measured by 20 cm pan
3.3
Monthly Climate Data
Station: Namwon Observation item
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Annual
Period for the mean
Temperature [°C]
-1.8
0.4
5.4
11.8
17.2
21.1
25.0
25.5
19.4
13.8
6.3
0.4
12.0
1973~1996
Precipitation [mm]
31.3
39.9
54.1
96.3
89.3
178.3 282.6 223.7 131.6
58.9
47.5
31.4
1,261.8 1973~1996
Evaporation [mm]*
39.3
48.1
82.9
107.6 135.4 124.2 121.5 133.9 94.7
81.4
46.4
37.0
1,052.9 1973~1996
Duration of sunshine [hr]
149
147
198
197
137
134
210
243
193
180
* measured by 20 cm pan
131
211
180
2,179
1973~1996
Korea (Republic of) ― 10
3.4
Long-term Variation of Monthly Precipitation Series
4.
Hydrological Information
4.1
Map of Streamflow Observation Stations
132
Korea (Republic of ) ― 10
4.2
List of Hydrological Observation Stations
No.*
Station
Location
Catchment area (A) [km2]
Observation period
Observation items
168
Ogog
N 35° 14' 02" E 127° 22' 10
2,380.6
1990 ~ present
H1
171
Jeogsong
N 35° 23' 54" E 127° 13' 09"
1,384.5
1990 ~ persent
H1
173
Namwon
N 35° 24' 21" E 127° 23' 26"
219.2
1990 ~ persent
H1
177
Abrog
N 35° 11' 44" E 127° 22' 24"
2,447.5
1917 ~ persent
H1
181
Osu
N 35° 26' 11" E 127° 14' 38"
352.3
1970 ~ persent
H1
No.*
−2) Q 3 [m /s]
Qmax 3 [m /s]
− 4) Qmax 3 [m /s]
− 5) Qmin 3 [m /s]
177
75.7
4,689.0
2,296.0
4.4
3)
* Serial number used by Ministry of Construction and Transportation 1) H1: water level in recording chart 2) Mean annual discharge
4.3
− Q/A 2 [m /s/100km ]
Qmax/A [m3/s/100km2]
Period of statistics
3.1
191.6
1984 ~ 1996
3
3) Maximum discharge 4) Mean annual maximum discharge 5) Mean annual minimum discharge
Long-term Variation of Monthly Discharge Series
133
1)
Korea (Republic of) ― 10
4.4
Annual Pattern of Discharge Series
4.5
Unique Hydrological Features
Note that the Seomjin Dam was constructed in 1966
134
Korea (Republic of ) ― 10
4.6
Annual Maximum and Minimum Discharges
Station: Abrog Maximum Year Date
Maximum
Minimum
Discharge1) Discharge2) Month 3 [m /s] [m3/s]
Year Date
Minimum
Discharge1) Discharge2) Month 3 [m /s] [m3/s]
1984
7.8
4,689
1
10.8
1991
7.10
1,797
10
0.7
1985
9.19
3,066
12
4.0
1992
7.19
1,261
12
2.8
1986
6.25
3,911
1
3.1
1993
7.12
1,419
4
0.4
1987
7.16
3,980
7
12.9
1994
8.12
145
7
0.2
1988
7.16
734
7
10.3
1995
8.26
836
1
0.3
1989
7.25
4,689
6
3.7
1996
6.25
1,299
1
2.4
1990
6.20
2,017
1
5.3
1), 2) Instantaneous observation by recording chart
4.7
Hyetographs and Hydrographs of Major Floods
135
Korea (Republic of) ― 10
Based on the data of Ministry of Construction and Transportation
5.
Water Resources
5.1
General Description
The basin is composed of complex geological formations, and throughout the basin area mountainous forests are dominant. Except for some narrow flat areas in the valleys, most of the basin is mountainous. The area is covered by shallow well-drained soils. In the dry season there is very little runoff in the rivers, with about 70% of the annual runoff occurring between June and September. The site of the concrete gravity Seomjin Dam is in the north-eastern part of the basin. The dam is 64 m high with a crest length of 344.2 m, a gross storage capacity of 466×106 m3, an active storage capacity of 370×106 m3, a flood control space of 32×106 m3, and an annual energy output of 6×106 kwh/yr. This reservoir contributes to: the reduction of flood damages in downstream areas; and the supply of water for municipal and irrigation purposes, and for electric power generation. Some 1,890 m3/day are supplied to the Chilbo power plant (160×106 kwh/yr) which is located about 6.2 km west of the Seomjin dam, and a further 130 m3/day of water goes to Junju city, located near about 22.5 km north of the dam, as drinking water.
136
Korea (Republic of ) ― 10
5.2
Map of Water Resource Systems
5.3
List of Major Water Resources Facilities
Major Reservoir Name of river Seomjin-gang 1) W: Municipal water supply
Name of dam
Catchment area 2 [km ]
Gross capacity 6 3 [10 m ]
Effective capacity 6 3 [10 m ]
Purpose
Seomjin Dam
763
466
370
W, F, I, M, P
F: Flood control
I: Industrial use
M: Maintenance of normal flows
1)
Year of completion 1966
P: Hydro-power
Major Interbasin Transfer Name of transfer line
Name of rivers connected
Length [km]
Maximum capacity [m3/s]
Purpose1)
Year of completion
From
To
Chilbo Conveyance Channel
Seomjin Dam
Chilbo
6.2
21.9
A
1995
Junju Conveyance Channel
Seomjin Dam
Junju
22.5
1.5
W
1996
1) W: Municipal water supply
A: Agricultural use.
137
Korea (Republic of) ― 10
5.4
Major Floods and Droughts
Major Floods Date
Peak discharge 3 [m /s]
Rainfall [mm] Duration
Meteorological Cause
Dead and Missing
Major damages (Districts affected)
1984.7.8
4,689
584.0 7.4 ~ 4
Heavy Storm
3
Namwon
1987.7.16
3,980
251.2 7.11 ~ 16
Typhoon
3
Namwon, Imshil, Sunchang
1989.7.25
4,189
334.7 7.23 ~ 25
Heavy Storm
1
Namwon, Sunchang
Major Droughts
5.5
Period
Areas affected
Major damages and counteractions
1988.8 ~ 12
Namwon, Koksung, Sunchang
Supply cut ratio at the first stage: 10%
1981.1 ~ 12
Namwon, Koksung, Sunchang
Supply cut ratio at the first stage: 40%
1995.1 ~ 6
Namwon, Koksung, Sunchang
Supply cut ratio at the first stage: 15%
Groundwater and Water Quality 1)
2)
River Water Quality at Seomjin Dam Site in 1996 Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
pH
6.6
6.9
7.1
7.3
6.9
6.9
6.9
7.3
6.6
6.9
7.0
6.9
BOD [mg/l]
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.6
1.4
2.1
1.8
2.3
2.0
1.7
1.7
1.8
CODMn [mg/l]
2.4
2.1
2.2
2.0
2.4
2.5
2.6
3.1
2.7
2.8
2.6
2.8
SS [mg/l]
1.9
2.6
1.4
2.7
3.7
3.9
3.8
3.0
4.2
2.4
3.5
2.9
Coliform group 3) [MPN/100ml]
500
340
340
330
210
200
100
260
310
300
270
430
Discharge [m3/s] 4)
1.5
1.0
26.36
5.7
6.4
65.9
46.4
3.7
3.0
1.6
4.7
8.1
Date
1) Observed once a month on a dry day normally several days after rainfall. 2) Located near Chongju City 12 km from the river mouth. 3) Measurement method: BGLB (brilliant green lactose bile) method. 4) Discharge on the observation date.
138
Korea (Republic of ) ― 10
6.
Socio-cultural Characteristics
The main city of the basin, Namwon, is well known for hosting the Korean drama, ‘Chunhyangjun’. The Palpal highway, an important component of national transportation system that links Taegu to Kwangju, passes through the basin. In the eastern part of this basin is the famous Jirisan national park. Other tourist attractions such as the Naejangsan national park, the Dugyusan national park and the Kurye springs are also near the basin.
7.
References, Databooks and Bibliography
Agriculture and Fisheries Development Corporation, List of Hydrological Facilities, 1987, (2.2) (in Korean) Geological Survey of Korea, Geological Atlas of Korea (1/250,000), 1973, (2.1) Junbook Province Office, A Government Report of Water Damage for 1984 ~ 1996, (5.3) (in Korean) Han River Flood Control Instrument, Stage Self Record Paper (Seomjin River Part), 1957 ~ 1996, (4.3, 4.4, 4.5, 4.6, 4.7) (in Korean) Korea Meteorological Administration, Annual Climatological Report 1973 ~ 1996, (3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4) (in Korean) Korea Water Resources Corporation, Korea River Investigation, 1992, (2.3) (in Korean) Ministry of Construction, Annual Hydrological Data Report, 1957 ~ 1996 (4.3, 4.4, 4.5, 4.6, 4.7) (in Korean) Ministry of Construction, Basic Planning for the Maintenance of the Seomjin River, 1989, (1.1, 5.1) (in Korean) Ministry of Construction, Floods in Korea, 1973 ~ 1996, (5.4) (in Korean) Ministry of Environment, Annual Report of Water Quality Observation, 1996, (5.5) (in Korean) Seomjin River Flood Control Instrument, Report of Flood Forecasting in Seomjin River, 1996, (1.1, 2.3, 4.1, 4.2, 5.1) (in Korean) Seomjin River Flood Control Instrument, Stage Self Record Papers, 1991 ~ 1996, (4.3, 4.4, 4.5, 4.6, 4.7) (in Korean)
139
Korea (Republic of) ― 11
Milyang-gang Map of River
Geographical Survey, MOCT, Korea
Table of Basic Data Name(s): Milyang-gang
Serial No. : Korea (R. of) -11
Location: Kyongnam Province, Korea 2
E 128° 32' ~ 129° 15'
N 35° 20' ~ 35° 40'
Area: 1,467.6 km
Length of the main stream: 96.2 km
Origin: Mt. Kohyeon (1,033 m)
Highest Pt: Mt. Kaji (1,240 m)
Outlet: Nakdong River
Lowest Pt: Confluence (11.2 m)
Main geological features: Main tributaries: Tanjang-chun (358.40 km2), Dongchang-chun (4.13 km2), Chongdo-chun (341.33 km2) Main lakes: None Main reservoirs: Unmun reservoir (135×106m3, 1994) Mean annual precipitation: 1,269.5 mm (1916 ~ 96) (basin average) 3
2
Mean annual runoff: 34.3 m /s at Milyang (1,359.0 km ) (1973 ~ 96) Population: 200,000 (1994)
Main cities: Milyang, Chongdo
Land use: Forest (80.1%), Rice paddy (12.7%), Urban (1.2%), Others (6.0%), (1993)
140
Korea (Republic of ) ― 11
1.
General Description
The Milyang-gang is one of the main tributaries of the Nakdong river flowing through the south eastern part of the Korean peninsula. The catchment area is 1,467.6 km2 and the main stream, originating from Mt. Kohyeon (1,033 m), is 96.2 km long and flows into the downstream part of main stream of the Nakdong river. The average annual precipitation is 1,269 mm over the basin and the average annual discharge at Milyang (1,359 km2) was 34.3 m3/s in 1973~1996. The population of the basin was 200,000 in 1994. The Unmum dam, one of the main hydraulic structures in the basin, was built in 1994 to store 135×106m3 of water. The Milyang dam was to have been completed by 1998. These dams provide the cities of Taegu, Milyang and other areas with drinking water.
2.
Geographical Information
2.1
Geological Map
141
Korea (Republic of) ― 11
2.2
Land Use Map
2.3
Characteristics of the River and the Main Tributaries
No.
Name of River
Length [km] Catchment area [km2]
Highest peak [m]
Cities Population (1999)
1
Milyang-gang (Main River)
96.20 1,467.6
Mt. Kaji 1,240
Milyang City 134,160
2
Tanjang-chun (Tributary)
69.80 358.40
Mt. Kaji 1,240
Milyang City 134,160
3
Dongchang-chun (Tributary)
5.30 4.13
Mt. Kaji 1,240
Chongdo Gun 56,827
4
Chongdo-chun (Tributary)
41.00 341.33
Mt. Piseul 1,083
Chongdo Gun 56,827
F: Forest L: Lake, river, marsh P: Paddy field A: Agricultural field (vegetable field, grass field)
2.4
U: Urban
O: Orchard
Longitudinal Profiles
142
Land use [%]
F (80.1) P (12.7) U (1.2) A (3.1) L (1.4) O (1.5)
Korea (Republic of ) ― 11
3.
Climatological Information
3.1
Annual Isohyetal Map and Observation Stations
3.2
List of Meteorological Observation Stations
No.
Station
Elevation [m]
Location
Mean annual Mean annual Observation Observation Precipitation1) Evaporation2) items period [mm] [mm] P (TB) E, DS
020620* Milyang
19.8
N 35° 27' 30" 1916 ~ present E 128° 47' 17"
1,269.5
020700* Chongdo
56.7
N 35° 41' 13" 1988 ~ present E 128° 45' 27"
1,049.6
P (TB)
020600* Sannae
200.0
N 35° 34' 51" 1962 ~ present E 128° 53' 00"
1,118.4
P
024300* Yongseong
250.0
N 35° 44' 53" 1988 ~ present E 128° 54' 34"
1,052.6
P
*: Serial number used by Ministry of Construction and Transportation P: Precipitation E: Evaporation DS: Duration of sunshine TB: Tipping bucket with recording chart 1) Period for the mean is from the beginning of the observation period to 1990 2) Measured by 20 cm pan
143
1,172.6
Korea (Republic of) ― 11
3.3
Monthly Climate Data
Station: Milyang Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Annual
Period for the mean
Temperature [°C]
-0.5
1.4
6.5
12.8
17.4
21.6
25.0
25.5
20.4
14.4
7.6
1.5
12.8
1960~1996
Precipitation [mm]
22.8
30.6
62.6
116.3 101.2 195.3 262.2 223.3 138.7
54.2
45.2
17.1
1,269.5 1916~1996
Evaporation [mm]*
53.7
63.0
96.0 118.5 142.9 137.0 128.6 135.3 100.8
88.9
58.9
49.1
1,172.6 1960~1996
Solar radiation 2 [MJ/m /d]
8.1
11.3
12.6
13.4
16.2
15.4
14.1
14.9
13.1
12.2
10.6
7.9
12.5
1974~1996
Duration of sunshine [hr]
204
192
225
233
256
209
187
217
192
215
188
201
2,519
1974~1996
* measured by 20 cm pan
3.4
Long-term Variation of Monthly Precipitation Series
144
Korea (Republic of ) ― 11
4.
Hydrological Information
4.1
Map of Streamflow Observation Stations
4.2
List of Hydrological Observation Stations No.
Station
Location
Catchment area (A) [km2]
Observation Period
Observation items1) [Frequency]
52*
Milyang
N 35° 28' E 128° 46'
1,359
1973 ~ 1996
H1
No.
−2) Q 3 [m /s]
Qmax 3 [m /s]
− 4) Qmax 3 [m /s]
− 5) Qmin 3 [m /s]
52*
34.3
2,595.4
1,012.9
1.90
3)
*: Serial number used by Ministry of Construction and Transportation 1) H1: water level in recording chart 2) Mean annual discharge
− Q/A [m /s/100km2]
Qmax/A [m3/s/100km2]
Period of statistics
2.52
190.9
1973 ~ 1996
3
3) Maximum discharge 4) Mean annual maximum discharge 5) Mean annual minimum discharge
145
Korea (Republic of) ― 11
4.3
Long-term Variation of Monthly Discharge Series
4.4
Annual Pattern of Discharge Series
3
Q = 102. 44 m /s
146
Korea (Republic of ) ― 11
4.5
Unique Hydrological Features
4.6
Annual Maximum and Minimum Discharges
Station: Milyang
Date
Discharge [m3/s]
Maximum
Minimum
Maximum Year
1)
Month
Discharge [m3/s]
2)
Year Date
Discharge [m3/s]
Minimum 1)
Month
Discharge2) [m3/s]
1973
9.01
236.2
4
5.7
1985
6.24
799.1
2
1.8
1974
5.19
719.8
11
1.6
1986
6.25
922.7
2
2.0
1975
9.16
609.6
2
1.3
1987
7.16
437.7
3
0.2
1976
6.08
1,472.7
1
1.6
1988
7.26
348.0
2
3.1
1977
7.28
400.5
12
1.2
1989
7.29
1,226.6
1
1.4
1978
6.18
2,147.4
11
1.8
1990
6.20
757.9
12
1.7
1979
8.25
2,595.4
1
2.6
1991
8.23
1,370.8
1
1.9
1980
9.11
1,229.6
1
1.4
1992
9.24
804.3
2
2.1
1981
8.30
1,880.6
11
1.8
1993
8.22
1,175.1
11
2.0
1982
8.14
1,761.1
2
3.2
1994
8.01
588.0
1
0.5
1983
8.17
860.9
12
2.4
1995
9.12
263.4
1
0.6
1984
7.07
1,478.9
1
2.1
1996
9.09
224.7
2
1.7
1), 2) Instantaneous observation by recording chart
147
Korea (Republic of) ― 11
4.7
Hyetographs and Hydrographs of Major Floods
5.
Water Resources
5.1
General Description
The Milyang river basin occupies about 6.2% of the Nakdong river basin, and agricultural and forestry areas in this basin are about 3.1% and 80.1% of the total basin area, respectively. The runoff of the river in the dry season is very small while floods are frequent in the wet season. The average annual precipitation in the basin is far greater than the average value for the whole of Korea, and most of the precipitation occurs between June and September. Because of the above average precipitation and its variability, floods or drought are likely almost every year. The Unmum reservoir provides domestic water supply for cities in the basin with the water being treated at the Jain and Unmum purification plants.
148
Korea (Republic of ) ― 11
5.2
Map of Water Resource Systems
5.3
List of Major Water Resources Facilities
Major Reservoir Name of river Milyang 1) W: Municipal water supply
Name of dam
Catchment area [km2]
Gross capacity [106m3]
Effective capacity [106m3]
Purpose
Unmun Dam
301.3
135.3
126.17
W, A, I
I: Industrial use
1)
Year of completion 1994
A: Agricultural use.
Major Inter-basin Transfer Name of transfer line
Name of rivers connected
Length [km]
Maximum capacity Purposes1) 3 [m /s]
Year of completion
From
To
Chongdo Conveyance Channel
Unmun Dam
Chongdo
27.4
0.19
W, A
1995
Taegu Conveyance Channel
Unmun Dam
Taegu
27.5
3.47
W, I
1994
Youngchon Conveyance Channel
Unmun Dam
Youngchon
24.6
0.46
W, I
1994
1) W: Municipal water supply
I: Industrial use
A: Agricultural use.
149
Korea (Republic of) ― 11
5.4
Major Floods and Droughts
Major Floods Date
Peak discharge [m3/s]
Rainfall [mm] Duration
Meteorological cause
Dead and missing
Major damages (Districts affected)
1972.7.4
1,082.4
124.5
Typhoon
2
Milyang City Changdo Gun
1978.6.18
2,147.4
227.9
Typhoon
3
Milyang City Changdo Gun
1979.8.25
2,595.4
271.4
Typhoon
1989.7.29
1,426.6
138.5
Typhoon
1993.8.22
1,175.1
133.5
Typhoon
Milyang City Changdo Gun Milyang City Changdo Gun
1
Milyang City Changdo Gun
Major Droughts Period
5.5
Areas affected
Major damages and counteractions
1976. 6 ~ 9
Milyang City Chongdo Gun
Supply cut ratio at the first stage: 11%
1982. 8 ~ 11
Milyang City Chongdo Gun
Supply cut ratio at the first stage: 16%
1994. 7 ~ 10
Milyang City Chongdo Gun
Supply cut ratio at the first stage: 20%
Groundwater and Water Quality
River Water Quality1) at Dongchang-chun2) in 1996 Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
pH
7.3
7.8
7.1
7.8
7.0
6.8
7.2
7.1
8.2
7.8
7.7
7.8
BOD [mg/l]
0.8
2.6
2.6
3.0
2.3
2.3
3.2
2.3
4.2
3.0
1.6
2.2
CODMn [mg/l]
1.2
3.7
3.0
3.8
4.6
7.2
6.5
4.3
4.9
6.4
2.7
5.9
SS [mg/l]
2.0
12.4
2.0
7.2
17.5
58.8
19.2
20.8
5.5
7.5
2.5
6.0
Coliform group [MPN/100ml] )3
33
17
27
33
34
35
220
110
110
130
79
540
-
-
-
-
3.7
1.3
-
-
-
-
-
-
Date
Discharge [m3/s] 4)
1) Observed once a month on a dry day normally several days after rainfall. 2) Located near Chongdo Gun 18 km from Unmun dam 3) Measurement method: BGLB (brilliant green lactose bile) method. 4) Discharge on the observation date.
150
Korea (Republic of ) ― 11
6.
Socio-cultural Characteristics
The Milyang river is located in the south eastern part of the Korean peninsula. The railroad between Seoul and Pusan, the “Kyongbusun”, goes through Milyang city, the main city of the basin. The “Kyongbusun” also passes through the city of Chongdo in this basin. In addition, the Pusan-Taegu expressway runs parallel to the Seoul-Pusan railway line. Thus these cities lie on an important route from Seoul and Taejun to Ulsan, one of the largest industrial cities in Korea, and Pusan, the most important trade port.
7.
References, Databooks and Bibliography
MOC, Milyang Dam Establishment Project Report, MOC/ISWACO, 1991.7 (5.2) (in Korean) MOC, National River Report, MOC/ISWACO, 1992.12 (in Korean) Lee, S. T., S. W. Kim, H. K. Jee, A Mathematical Model to Forecast Community Water Demand, Presented at Vth Water Congress on Water Resources, IWRA, Brussels, Belgium, 1985 (5.3, 5.4, 5.5) Lee, S. T., Optimal Water Allocation Model through Inter-Basin Water Transfer, Proceedings of IWRA Beijing Seminar on Inter-Basin Water Transfer, Beijing, China 1986 (5.2, 5.3) Korean Meteorological Administration, Annual Climatological Report, 1960-1993 (3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 4.2, 4.3, 4.4, 4.5, 4.6, 4.7) (in Korean)
151
Korea (Republic of) ― 12
Sapkyo-chun Map of River
Geographical Survey, MOCT. Korea
Table of Basic Data Name(s): Sapkyo-chun
Serial No. : Korea (R. of) -12
Location: Chungnam Province, Korea
E 126° 36' 29" ~ 127° 12' 51" N 36° 23' 34" ~ 36° 34' 20"
Area: 1,612.0 km2
Length of the main stream: 63.47 km
Origin: Mt. Jo Chup (791 m)
Highest Pt: Mt. Jo Chup (791 m)
Outlet: A-san Bay
Lowest Pt: A San Bay (D. W. L - 1.50 m)
Main base rocks: Granite, metamorphic rock, a pyrogenic rock 2
2
Main tributaries: Muhan-chun (465.04 km ), Gokkyo-chun (542.14 km ) Main lakes: Sapkyo Lake (84.1×106m3) Main reservoirs: Yedang Reservoir (47.1×106m3) Mean annual precipitation: 1,254.0 mm (1983 ~ 92) (basin average) 3
Mean annual runoff: 2.2 m /s at Suchun Population: 561,943 (1993)
Main cities: Yesan, Hongsung, A-san
Land use: Forest (48.5%), Rice Paddy (25.2%), Agriculture (13.13%), Urban (3.63%), Others (9.54%), (1993)
152
Korea (Republic of ) ― 12
1.
General Description
The Sapkyo-chun is located in the middle-west of the Korean peninsula and consists of two tributaries, the Muhan-chun, and the Kogkyo-chun. The catchment area is 1,612.1 km2 and the length of river is 63.47 km. This river originates from Jochop Mountain (EL. 791.0 m) and flows into the Sapkyo Sea. The average annual precipitation of the river basin is 1,254 mm and the average annual runoff is 2.2 m3/sec at the Suchun water level gauging station. The total population of the Sapkyo river basin was 561,943 persons in 1993. The Sapkyo Sea Dike for the supply of irrigation water was completed in 1979 and has 84.1million m3 of gross storage capacity. Hongsung and Yesan cities in the Sapkyo river basin were built on well-developed plains and small hills, and are typical of modernized rural villages.
2.
Geographical Information
2.1
Geological Map
153
Korea (Republic of) ― 12
2.2
Land Use Map
2.3
Characteristics of the River and the Main Tributaries
No.
Names of River
Length [km] Catchment area [km2]
Highest peak [m]
Cities Population (1999)
1
Sapkyo-chun (Main River)
63.47 634.72
Mt. Gaya 671.0
Hong Sung Gun 57,672
2
Muhan-chun (Tributary)
48.24 465.04
Mt. Bong Su 534.4
YeSan City 114,695
3
Gokkyo-chun (Tributary)
58.26 542.14
Mt. Seunggyu 574.0
ChunAn City 205,665 A-San City 123,525
F: Forest L: Lake, river, marsh P: Paddy field A: Agricultural field (vegetable field, grass field)
U: Urban
O: Orchard
154
Land use [%]
F (48.45) P (25.2) U (3.63) A (11.08) L (0.0) O (2.10)
Korea (Republic of ) ― 12
2.4
Longitudinal Profiles
3.
Climatological Information
3.1
Annual Isohyetal Map and Observation Stations
Based on the data of Ministry of Construction and Transportation
155
Korea (Republic of) ― 12
3.2 No.*
List of Meteorological Observation Stations Station
Elevation [m]
Location
Observation period
Mean annual Mean annual Observation Precipitation1) items** evaporation2) [mm]
256
Yesan
50.0
N 36° 41' 05" 1933.9 ~ present E 126° 47' 33"
1,153.24
P (TB)
257
Ducksan
20.0
N 36° 31' 53" 1957 ~ present E 126° 40' 04"
1,224.80
P (TB)
258
Hongsung
30.0
N 36° 35' 59" 1918 ~ present E 126° 39' 46"
1,124.70
P (TB)
38
A-san
24.5
N 36° 47' 00" 1971 ~ present E 126° 59' 00"
1,250.30
1,002.9
P (TB)
* Serial number used by Ministry of Construction and Transportation ** P: Precipitation, TB: Tipping bucket with recording chart 1) Period for the mean is from the beginning of the observation period to 1992 2) Measured by 20 cm pan
3.3
Monthly Climate Data
Station: A-san Jan
Nov
Dec
Annual
Period for the mean
6.43
-0.05
11.64
1982~1994
119.2 252.0 248.1 152.6 101.0 115.5
43.9
1,282
1982~1994
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Temperature [°C]
-2.91 -1.05
4.37
11.35 17.12
21.5
Precipitation [mm]
23.8
52.3
54.4
Evaporation [mm]*
29.79 39.68 66.95 111.6 136.0 137.6 119.6 126.7 98.51 77.27 41.06 29.82 1,014.5 1982~1994
Duration of sunshine [hr]
172.2 188.5 224.2 248.1 264.0 348.0 210.3 235.0 214.8 220.1 165.3 161.3 2,551.9 1982~1994
31.2
88.1
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
24.78 25.15 19.91 13.12
*measured by 20 cm pan
156
Korea (Republic of ) ― 12
3.4
Long-term Variation of Monthly Precipitation Series
4.
Hydrological Information
4.1
Map of Streamflow Observation Stations
157
Korea (Republic of) ― 12
4.2
List of Hydrological Observation Stations
No.*
Station
Location
Catchment area (A) [km2]
Observation period
Observation items1) [Frequency]
163
Su Chon
N 36° 41' 00" E 126° 43' 57"
223.26
1945 ~ present
H1
162
Gu Man
N 36° 44' 00" E 126° 45' 25"
317.50
1962 ~ present
H1
167
Won Pyong
N 36° 40' 51" E 126° 49' 23"
379.50
1929 ~ present
H1
166
Chang So
N 36° 45' 55" E 126° 50' 00"
420.30
1962 ~ present
H1
165
Kang Cheong
N 36° 49' 17" E 126° 56' 06"
433.70
1962 ~ present
H1
No.*
−2) Q 3 [m /s]
Qmax 3 [m /s]
− 4) Qmax 3 [m /s]
− 5) Qmin 3 [m /s]
− Q/A 2 [m /s/100km ]
Qmax/A [m3/s/100km2]
Period of statistics
163
0.79
350.3
80.87
0.019
0.350
1.57
1976 ~ 1995
167
0.27
802.7
45.29
0.049
0.071
2.12
1976 ~ 1995
165
19.45
750.4
228.25
1.250
4.480
1.73
1976 ~ 1995
3)
* Serial number used by Ministry of Construction and Transportation 1) H1: water level in recording chart 2) Mean annual discharge
4.3
3
3) Maximum discharge 4) Mean annual maximum discharge 5) Mean annual minimum discharge
Long-term Variation of Monthly Discharge Series
158
Korea (Republic of ) ― 12
4.4
Annual Pattern of Discharge Series
4.5
Unique Hydrological Features
159
Korea (Republic of) ― 12
4.6
Annual Maximum and Minimum Discharges 2
Station: Suchon (223.26 km )
Date
Maximum
Minimum
Maximum Year
Discharge2) Discharge1) Month 3 [m /s] [m3/s]
Year Date
Minimum
Discharge1) Discharge2) Month 3 [m /s] [m3/s]
1971
7.26
97.86
1
2.29
1984
7.14
97.86
11
1.39
1972
7.9
32.35
1
1.63
1985
10.10
102.91
2
1.62
1973
7.3
8.99
8
2.21
1986
7.19
269.49
6
4.87
1974
7.9
57.54
11
2.59
1987
8.29
195.66
5
2.35
1975
8.6
18.20
5
1.75
1988
7.17
9.26
9
1.91
1976
2.16
11.49
2
1.39
1989
9.15
331.20
5
1.79
1977
7.13
21.71
6
1.69
1990
6.22
185.42
1
3.27
1978
7.7
67.85
1
1.65
1991
5.25
20.13
7
2.04
1979
6.26
79.62
12
2.12
1992
8.28
25.09
8
2.29
1980
7.14
40.25
6
1.72
1993
7.13
100.87
5
2.39
1981
7.12
80.46
6
0.72
1994
8.29
64.96
8
1.87
1982
7.15
131.49
6
0.82
1995
8.92
137.92
9
1.76
1983
8.24
55.64
1
1.65
1), 2) Instantaneous observation by recording chart
4.7
Hyetographs and Hydrographs of Major Floods
160
Korea (Republic of ) ― 12
5.
Water Resources
5.1
General Description
The Sapkyo-chun flows into the Yellow Sea from the middle part of the Korean peninsula. The Sapkyochun has a total catchment area of 1,612.0 km2 and consists of a main stream and two tributaries, the Muhan-chun and the Gokkyo-chun. About 38.4% of the total river basin is cultivated land and 48.5% is forested. Of the total annual runoff, 75.6% occurs in the flood season, June to September, with the remaining 24.4% being spread through the rest of the year. The total amount of municipal water needed for cities in the basin is 33.46 million m3/year and this has been supplied from outside the basin by the Daechong wide area water supply system. Of the 53,918 m3/day used by industry, 20,500 m3/day comes from the Daechong wide area system. The remaining industrial water demand has been met by private industry developing its own sources. Irrigation water demand is 336.9 million m3/year and a further 52 million m3/year is diverted from the Sapkyo-chun to other river basins. Chunnan City, which is the biggest city in the Sapkyo area, uses 92,000 m3/day supplied from the Daechong wide area water system.
5.2
Map of Water Resource Systems
161
Korea (Republic of) ― 12
5.3
List of Major Water Resources Facilities
Major Reservoirs Name of Dam
Catchment area [km2]
Gross capacity [106m3]
Effective capacity [106m3]
Purpose1)
Year of completion
Sapkyo-chun
Sapkyo Sea Dike
1,612.0
84
-
A, I, W
1979
Muhan-chun
Yedang Reservoir
373.60
47.1
46.04
A
-
Name of River
1) W: Municipal water supply
I: Industrial use
A: Agricultural use.
Major Interbasin Transfer Name of rivers connected
Name of Transfer line
From
Length [km]
Maximum Capacity 3 [m /s]
Purpose1)
Year of Completion
To
Daechong Wide Area Water Supply
Daechong Dam
A-san Filter Plant
115. 0
11. 34
W
1988
Boryong Wide Area Water Supply
Boryong Dam
Hongsung Filter Plant
55.5
0. 14
W
1998
Boryong Wide Area Water Supply
Boryong Dam
Yesan Filter Plant
55.5
0. 15
W
1998
Sapkyo-chun Line
Sapkyo-chun
Tangjin Filter Plant
34
207. 4
A, I
1998
1) W: Municipal water supply
5.4
I: Industrial use
A: Agricultural use.
Major Floods and Droughts
Major Floods Date
Peak Discharge [m3/s]
Rainfall [mm] Duration
Meteorological Cause
Dead and missing
Major damages (Districts affected)
1980.7.19
379.28
181.2 7.19 ~ 22
Storm
17
Yesan
1981.7.11
228.25
165.0 7.11 ~ 13
Storm
-
Hongsung
1984.9.1
620.63
149.5 9.1 ~ 3
Storm
-
Duksung
1990.6.17
178.78
153 6.17 ~ 19
Storm
-
A-san
1995.8.23
750.39
417.5 8.23 ~ 25
Storm
-
Yesan
162
Korea (Republic of ) ― 12
Major Droughts Period
Affected Areas
Major damages and counteractions
1977. 1 ~ 4
A-san, Onyang
Supply cut ratio at the first stage: 10%
1987. 1 ~ 7
Chunan
Damage of the crops: 10%
1994. ~ 1995.
Chunan, Onyang
Supply cut ratio at the first stage: 20%
5.5
Groundwater and Water Quality 1)
2)
River Water Quality at Sapkyo-chun , 1995 Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
pH
7.1
7.2
7.1
7.1
7.3
7.4
7.8
6.7
6.9
7.5
7.5
7.8
BOD [mg/l]
13.0
14.0
14.0
8.6
10.0
8.3
8.0
9.0
8.2
9.7
9.1
5.7
Date
CODMn [mg/l]
7.4
7.6
7.0
9.0
10.0
11.4
7.5
6.2
8.0
8.1
8.5
5.2
SS [mg/l]
4.7
10.4
9.8
13.4
17.0
32.8
28.0
22.0
22.0
14.0
14.3
15.0
Coliform group [MPN/100ml] 3)
900
1100
900
940
1100
1400
900
350
300
500
130
220
7.33
8.75
9.19
8.50
3.54
0.91
2.59
4.82
2.73
3.31
3.38
5.58
3
Discharge [m /s]
4)
1) Observed once a month on a dry day normally several days after rainfall. 2) Located near the Observation Station 2 km from the Sapkyo Sea Dike 3) Measurement method: BGLB (brilliant green lactose bile) method. 4) Discharge on the observation date.
6.
Socio-cultural Characteristics
The Sapkyo-chun flows into the A-san bay. The three sea-dikes of Sapkyo, A-san and Namyang are located in the A-san bay and the reservoirs created by these three dikes supply irrigation water to the basin. There are many cities and counties such as Chunan City, A-san City, Yesan County and Hongsung County in the basin. Chunan is the second city in Chungnam province. The Onyang and Togo districts are the best known hot-spring resorts in Korea. Sudock temple, which is located in Yesan county, is very old and is one of best-known sights in the county. The Sapkyo-chun basin has been developed as a typical agricultural area. The Yedang Reservoir was constructed for irrigation while the Sapkyo Sea Dike was constructed for both irrigation and municipal and industrial water supply in 1979.
7.
References, Databooks and Bibliography
Ministry of Construction, Report on the Basic Plan for Integrated Development of the Sapkyo-chun, 1994 (2.3) Chungnam Province office, Report on the Basic Plan for Integrated Development of the Sapkyo-chun, 1986 (5.1, 5.3) Ministry of Construction and Transportation, Hydrological Annual Report of Korea, (3.2, 4.2, 4.3, 4.6, 4.7) Ministry of Environment, Environmental Statistics Year Book, 1996 (5.5) Korea Meteorological Administration, Annual Climatological Report, 1994-1995 (3.3)
163
The Lao People’s Democratic Republic Lao-7: Nam Ou Lao-8: Nam Suang Lao-9: Nam Sekong
164
Introduction The Lao People’s Democratic Republic is a land locked country situated in Southeast Asia, between the latitudes 13° 50-22° 30' N and the longitudes 100° 00'-107° 45' E with an area of 236,800 km2. The axis of the country is in the Northwest-Southeast direction with a length of more than 1,700 km. In the EastWest direction, the distance varies between 100 and 400 km. The topography is closely related to the geology with highlands of granites and metamorphic rocks, draining over Jurassic and Cretaceous Indonesian sandstones and shales, and finally over piedmont slopes to low flat land with fertile flood plains embracing about 30% of the land along the Mekong River. The forest cover varies from 22% to 70%. The climate is tropical monsoon with two distinct seasons: the wet season from mid-April to midOctober and the dry season from November to March. The average annual precipitation is 1,950 mm with a large variation from 1,300 mm in the northern valleys to 3,500 mm in the southern plateau. The total population by the end of the 20th century was about five million people with a roughly even distribution of males and females. The population density is about 21 persons/km2 and the growth rate is about 2.6% per year. The three rivers catalogued in this volume are the Nam Ou and the Nam Suang in the northern region, and the Sekong, upper and middle reaches, in southern region. These three rivers were selected on the basis of their unique features. The Nam Ou and the Sekong belong in the large basin category with limited hydrological data. The Nam Suang is a medium sized river basin with hydrological data since 1965 and is a catchment heavily affected by slash and burn shifting cultivation that has resulted in a low forest coverage, only 22%, with other land cover of dry woods, shrub land, bamboo, and grassland. Bare mountains are predominant in the Nam Ou and Nam Suang basins. Wetlands in these three basins are small. It is noted that the flow regimes of the Nam Ou and Sekong have increased over time, with both rivers having a north to south orientation. In contrast, the Nam Suang has a northeast to southwest orientation and its annual runoff for the period 1989 to 1998, has decreased when compared with the period of 1978 to 1988. A similar situation has also occurred in other rivers with a mainly east to west flow orientation.
Acknowledgements The report was prepared by the hydrometeorological Advisor of the Department of Meteorology and Hydrology (DMH) who has spent his full time drafting and supervising the preparation of this work. Thanks are also due to the computer personnel of the DMH and other organizations and Departments for permission to use their data. -
MRC for forest cover map 1996-97, Hydrological Yearbooks available until 1995.
- Waterway Department (WD), for Hydrological data of Nam Ou and Nam Suang available until 1998.
165
Lao ― 7
Nam Ou Map of River
Table of Basic data: Name(s): Nam Ou River Location: Northern region, Lao PDR 2
Serial No. : Lao-7 E 101° 40' - 103° 08'
N 19° 55' - 22° 30'
Area: 19,700 km
Length of the main stream: 390 km
Origin: Ban Uan Touy-Gnai (1,263 m)
Highest Pt: 1,865 m
Outlet: Mekong at Pakou
Lowest Pt: B. Pakou 350 m
Main base rock: Mesozoic to Palaeozoic limestone, sub-volcanic Main tributaries: Nam Leng (1,451 km2), Nam Phak (2,716 km2) Main base lakes: none Main reservoirs: none Mean annual precipitation: 1,600 mm (1988-2000) Mean annual runoff: 389.3 m3/s at M. NGoy 19,700 km2 (1988-2000) Population: 54,685 (1995)
Main cities: Phonsaly, Oudomxai, M. Ngoy
Land use: Forest (38%), Agriculture (20%), Urban (1%), other (41%)
166
Lao ― 7
1.
General Description
The Nam Ou is the longest river in the northern region of Lao PDR. It originates at Ban Lantoug Gnai near the Lao-China border and flows to the south. It has a total length of 390 km to the confluent point with the Mekong river. The total drainage area is 25,000 km2 covering Phongsaly province, one third of Oudomxay province, and one half of Luang Prabang province. The geology is mostly red continental sandstone and clays with middle limestone. The climate is subtropical monsoon with a significance change in rainfall caused by the traditional practice of shifting cultivation by slash and burn practised by the local, mostly, nomadic people. The mean annual rainfall at Phongsaly for the period 1921-1929 was 1,739 mm and has decreased to 1,511 mm for the period 1988-2000. Under an integrated rural development scheme, Phongsaly province has several micro-projects for water resources development in irrigation, hydro-electric power, water supply and environment protection. All these projects are now on going.
2.
Geographical Information
2.1
Geological Map
167
Lao ― 7
2.2
Land Use Map
168
Lao ― 7
2.3 No.
1
2
Characteristics of the River and the Main Tributaries. Name of river
Length [km] Catchment area [km2]
Highest peak [m] Lowest point [m]
Nam Ou
390 19,700
1,865 350
Nam Phak
120 2,716
550 400
F: Forest; L: Lake, river, marsh; P: Paddy field; U: Urban O: Orchard; A: Agricultural field (vegetable field, grass field)
2.4
Longitudinal Profiles
169
Cities Population (year)
Land use [%]
Phongsaly
F (38) A (15) U (1.5) O (43.5)
Oudomxay
F (35) A (20) U (1.5) O (43.5)
Lao ― 7
3.
Climatological Information
3.1
Annual Isohyetal Map and Observation Stations
3.2
List of Meteorological Observation Stations Mean annual Mean annual Observation Precipitation evaporation period [mm] [mm]
Number
Station
Elevation [m]
Location
1
Phongsaly
1,000
N 21° 44' E 102° 12'
1988 - 2000
1,511
1,200
P, E
2
Oudomxay
550
N 20° 57' E 101° 24'
1929 - 1938 1988 - 2000
1,611
1,300
P, E, DS
3
Muang Khoa
400
N 21° 05' E 102° 30'
1988 - 2000
1,460
-
P
4
Muang Ngoy
380
N 20° 42' E 102° 40'
1988 - 1998
1,749
~
P
* P: Precipitation,
E: Evaporation,
DS : Duration of sunshine
170
Observation Items*
Lao ― 7
3.3
Monthly Climate Data
Station: Phongsaly Observation station
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun
Jul
Aug Sep
Oct Nov Dec Annual
Period for mean
Temperature [°C]
15.9 17.6 21.1 22.0 22.0 21.9 21.6 22.0 21.4 19.9 17.2 14.6
Precipitation [mm]
12.8 24.2 51.0 75.5 218.8 231.1 368.9 240.8 160.8 87.3 24.5 21.0 1,511 1988 - 2000
Evaporation PET [mm]
40
58
93
121
136
63
47
19.8
133
134
123 117
100
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun
Jul
Aug Sep
Oct Nov Dec Annual
1990 - 2000
1,165 1990 - 2000
Station: Oudomxay (550) Observation station Temperature [°C]
18.2 19.0 22.5 25.0 25.8 26,2 25.8 25.5 25.0 23.3 20.4 17.8
Precipitation [mm]
6.4
Evaporation PET [mm]
70
3.4
22.9
Period for mean 1990 - 2000
28.1 43.1 94.8 172.7 350.1 335.1 329.8 171.1 76.8 29.2 23.3 1,607 1929 - 2000 75
102
125
120
115
120
110 109
Long-term Variation of Monthly Precipitation
171
115
100
70
1,230 1990 - 2000
Lao ― 7
4.
Hydrological Information
4.1
Map of Streamflow Observation Stations
172
Lao ― 7
4.2
a b e
List of Hydrological Observation Stations No.
Station
Location
Elevation [m]
Catchment area (A) [km2]
Observation period
Observation itemsa (frequency)
1
Ban Hatsa
N 21° 44' E 102° 42'
800
5,894
1990, 1996
H2 daily
2
Muang Ngoy
N 20° 42' E 102° 40'
19,700
1978 - 98
Q, P, WQ
Qmine [m3/s]
Q/A 2 [m /s/100km ]
Qmaxc/A [m3/s/100km2]
period of statistics
64
2.021
39.447
1978 - 98
No.
Qb [m3/s]
Qmaxc [m3/s]
Qmaxd [m3/s]
2
398.25
7,771
3,612
H2: manual water level, Q: discharge, P: precipitation, c maximum discharge mean annual discharge mean annual minimum discharge
4.3
3
WQ: BOD etc. d mean annual maximum discharge
Long-term Variation of Monthly Discharge
173
Lao ― 7
4.4
Annual Pattern of Discharge
4.5
Unique Hydrological Features
174
Lao ― 7
4.6
Annual Maximum and Minimum Discharges
Nam Ou at Muang Ngoy, Catchment Area = 19,700 km
2
Maximum Year Date
a b c
a
Minimum b
3
Discharge [m /s]
Month
Dischargec [m3/s]
1978
6.29
3,900
3
58.4
1979
8.26
2,264
4
37.8
1980
8.21
3,734
5
41.0
1981
8.6
3,664
4
51.1
1985
9-1
3,200
4
63.4
1986
7.23
2,720
3
72.6
1987
9.2
2,100
5
48.2
1988
8.15
2,440
4
55.3
1989
8.15
1,950
4
85.0
1990
7.22
2,600
4
75,8
1991
7.16
5,360
4
53.6
1992
7,26
1,660
5
57.8
1994
7.18
7,771
5
74.4
1995
8-16
4,599
5
89.7
1996
8.19
7,017
5
72.9
1997
9.7
4,329
6
84.8
1998
8.31
2,095
3
63.4
Sum =
61,403
1,085.2
Mean =
3,612
63.8
date in form month.day 2 readings per day daily reading
175
Lao ― 7
4.7
Hyetographs and Hydrographs of Major Floods
176
Lao ― 7
5.
Water Resources
5.1
General Description
The water resources development in Bountay District, South west of Phongsaly (First figure in Section 5.2) aims to improve the living standard of the people in the Nam Ngen watershed by providing water supplies to all villages, and the use of the water resources of the area under the slogan of water is life. In the lower Nam Ou, the Nam Bark area in Luang Prabang Province is the most suitable irrigable area and the rural development project is comprised of a small scale project in 4 tributaries of Nam Bark that can irrigate approximately 2,000 ha (Second figure in Section 5.2). This micro project, comprised of the Nam Khan, Nam Muang, Nam Mong and Nam Lum, will improve the two cropping cultivation of the people of the Nam Bark District.
5.2
Map of Water Resource Systems
177
Lao ― 7
5.4
Major Floods and Droughts
Major Floods at Muang Ngoy (Catchment Area 19,700 km2) Date
Peak discharge [m3/s]
Storm rainfall [mm]
Meteorological cause
Damages
1994 15 Jul - 20 Jul
7,771
1,090
Monsoon Typhoon
Agriculture and Livestocks
1996 15 Aug - 19 Aug
7,017
≈ 60 heavy rainfall from the east
Monsoon
Agriculture
Drought Major droughts occur during strong ENSO events: the 1992 drought was the most severe in terms of damage for agriculture for the whole northern region. The 1997/98 El Nino was also severe with low rainfall and low runoff - rice production was below the average.
178
Lao ― 7
5.5
Groundwater and Water Quality
Water Quality: Concentration of the major constituents for the Nam Ou
6.
Socio-cultural Characteristics.
Most of the people of different ethnicities in the whole basin live in rural areas and depend largely on subsistence-agriculture, exchanging their products by means of fluvial navigation from Pak Ou to Ban Hatsa, Phongsaly province. Recent road network improvements are bringing a positive impact through integrated rural development. However, people of the area still preserve their traditional mode of living.
7.
References, Databooks and Bibliography
National Geographic Department map 1:1.000.000 Scale, 1986. Department of Geology and Mines: 1:1.000.000 Scale map of Geological and Mineral occurrence map of Lao P.D.R. 1991. MRC Hydrologic year books available until 1995 and Forest cover map of Lao P.D.R. 1996/97. WAD: Hydrological data of Nam Ou and Nam Suang 1990-98.
179
Lao ― 8
Nam Suang Map of River
Table of Basic Data Name(s): Nam Suang River Location: Northern region, Lao PDR 2
Serial No. : Lao-8 E 102° 15' - 103°15'
N 19° 37' - 20° 54'
Area: 5,800 km
Length of the main stream: 150 km
Origin: Near Ban Sopkok, 1,482 m
Highest Pt: 2,257 m
Outlet: Ban Sibounhom
Lowest Pt: Paksuang 320 m
Main base rock: Mesozoic to Palaeozoic sandstone, siltstone muddy limestones Main tributaries: Nam Seng (2,052 km2) Main base lakes: none Main reservoirs: none Mean annual precipitation: 1,282 mm at Luang prabang (1950 - 2000) Mean annual runoff: 115.87 m3/s at Ban Sibounhom (1965 - 1998) Population: 127,000 (1996)
Main cities: Luang Prabang, Viengkham
Land use: Forest (22%), Agriculture (20%), Bare mountains (56%), Urban (2%)
180
Lao ― 8
1.
General Description
The Nam Suang river with a length of 150 km has its source near Ban Sopkok at 1482 m, flows in a southwestly direction for about 50 km and then turns to the west and finally west south west to enter the Mekong River. It is often confused with the Nam Xeng or Nam Seng. The two rivers meet in Pakseng District and flow together to Paksuang where they join the Mekong River. The drainage area at Ban Sibounhom, 8 km from the river mouth, is 5,800 km2 with 76.4% of the catchment classified as mountains, and 22.9% as hills. Forest cover is only 22%, the lowest for the whole country. Soil classes are: 0.6% red yellow Podzoiic, and 99.3% undifferenciated shallow soils. Hydrogeology classes are: 3.2% sandstone and conglomerate, 4.5% limestone, 50.6 % sedimentary rocks, 4.9% gneiss, schist, quartzite, and granite, 29.8 % shale and 7.1% miscellaneous impermeable rocks. The climate is tropical with an annual precipitation of 1,349 mm. People living in the basin practise subsistence agriculture using shifting slash and burn cultivation of the forest. This form of agriculture affects the natural environment and the habitats of rare species, and conservation measures have been established to prohibit logging, burning and hunting. However, change to land use and traditional agricultural practices is difficult and it will take time to bring about the required changes.
2.
Geographical Information
2.1
Geological Map
181
Lao ― 8
2.2
Land Use Map
182
Lao ― 8
2.3 No.
1
2
Characteristics of the River and the Main Tributaries Name of river
Length [km] Catchment area [km2]
Highest peak [m] Lowest point [m]
Cities Population (year)
Nam Suang
150 5,800
2,257 320
L. Prabang 100,000
F (22) A (20) P (5) O (53)
Nam Seng
90 2,052
1,426 600
Pakbeng 27,000
F (22) A (25) P (6) O (47)
F: Forest; L: Lake, river, marsh; P: Paddy field ; U: Urban O: Orchard; A: Agricultural field (vegetable field, grass field)
2.4
Longitudinal Profiles
183
Land use [%]
Lao ― 8
3.
Climatological Information
3.1
Annual Isohyetal Map and Observation Stations
3.2
List of Meteorological Observation Stations
Number
Station
Elevation [m]
Location
Mean annual Mean annual Observation Precipitation evaporation period [mm] [mm]
Observation Items*
1
Luang Prabang
305
N 19° 53' E 102° 08'
1950 - 2000
1,282
2
Pakseng
600
N 20° 10' E 102° 40'
1936 - 1996
1,195
P
3
Phonexay
450
N 19° 55' E 102° 36'
1993 - 1996
1,174
P
4
Viengkham
700
N 20° 28' E 102° 53'
1993 - 1996
1,595
P
* P: Precipitation
E: Evaporation
DS: Duration of sunshine
SR: Solar radiation
184
T: Temperature
1,595
P, E, DS, SR, T
Lao ― 8
3.3
Monthly Climate Data
Station: Luangprabang (1950-2000) Observation station
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec Annual
Temperature [°C]
20.9
23.0
25.7
28.0
28.6
28.4
27.8
27.5
27.3
25.9
23.4
20.5
25.6
Precipitation [mm]
11.9
18.4
33.9
94.7
148.7 182.2 226.1 265.7 164.3
96.0
29.2
12.1
1,282
Evaporation PET [mm]
99.9
112.0 151.1 162.9 170.6 150.3 136.6 133.3 144.9 131.3 105.2 95.1
1,595
47.9
Solar radiation 44.2 2 [MJ/m /d] Duration of sunshine [hrs]
3.4
56.2
58.9
59.9
50.9
49.8
43.0
40.3
50.5
173.1 185.5 197.0 213.1 190.0 124.8 111.3 123.7 170.3 188.0 169.3
165
2,011
Long-term Variation of Monthly Precipitation
185
50.8
52.0
44.9
Lao ― 8
4.
Hydrological Information
4.1
Map of Streamflow Observation Stations
4.2
List of Hydrological Observation Stations
a b e
No.
Station
Location
Elevation [m]
Catchment area (A) 2 [km ]
Observation period
Observation a items (frequency)
1
Ban Sibounhom
N 19° 58' E 102° 16'
325
5,800
1968 - 98
H2, Q, P
No.
Qb [m3/s]
Qmaxc [m3/s]
Qmaxd [m3/s]
Qmine [m3/s]
Q/A 2 [m /s/100km ]
Qmaxc/A [m3/s/100km2]
period of statistics
1
115.87
2,000
1,289
22.04
2.0
34.483
1965 - 98
3
H2: manual water level, Q: discharge, P: precipitation c maximum discharge d mean annual maximum discharge mean annual discharge mean annual minimum discharge
186
Lao ― 8
4.3
Long-term Variation of Monthly Discharge
4.4
Annual Pattern of Discharge
187
Lao ― 8
4.5
Unique Hydrological Features
188
Lao ― 8
4.6
Annual Maximum and Minimum Discharges
Nam Suang at Ban Sibounhom, Catchment area = 5,800 km
2
Maximum Year
Month
Dischargec [m3/s]
7.26
690
5
0.50
1966
9.2
1,900
5
12.0
1967
8.20
980
3
0.34
1968
8.16
990
5
12.0
1969
8.19
1,570
5
12.5
1970
8.12
1,500
5
20.0
1971
x
x
x
x
1972
8.30
1,710
6
17.0
1973
x
x
x
x
1974
9.2
1,170
3
65.8
1975
9.1
1,950
5
57.8
1976
8.15
2,000
3
60.2
1977
7.31
1,210
6
58.6
1978
8.11
1,510
4
75.4
1979
9.13
1,800
3
12.0
1980
8.27
1,600
5
9.2
1981
8.5
1,900
4
12.5
1982
8.10
1,620
5
13.0
1983
9.18
700
3
9.5
1984
7.16
1,100
4
9.0
1985
8.31
1,900
4
12.0
1986
7.31
980
4
13.0
1987
9.3
503
5
11.1
1988
8.11
647
4
11.8
1989
8.15
1,950
4
85.0
1990
8.1
1,700
4
10.0
1991
8.16
1,320
3
99.9
1992
7.27
258
5
12.3
1993
9.8
564
x
x
1994
8.30
1,076
3
6.99
1995
8.21
1,166
5
12.7
1996
8.17
1,307
3
7.9
1997
9.7
1,193
6
16.5
1998
9.8
787
3
16.5
1965
a b c
Minimum
Discharge [m /s]
Date
a
b
3
Sum =
4,1251
683.1
Mean =
1,289.1
22.0
date in form month. day 2 readings per day daily reading
189
Lao ― 8
4.7
Hyetographs and Hydrographs of Major Floods
Daily rainfall is from Viengkham (upper basin), while the discharge is at Ban Sibounhom (basin outlet).
6.
Socio-cultural Characteristics.
With the designation of Luang Prabang city as a world cultural heritage site by UNESCO in 1996, an increasing number of tourists have visited not only the city, but the whole province of Luang Prabang. During 1999-2000 visitor numbers were significant. The Buddha cave, “Thamting”, situated near Paksuang, Pakou is an important attraction. People living in the lower Nam Suang are famous for their traditional handicraft goods and these are sold to tourists as souvenirs.
7.
References, Databooks and Bibliography
National geographic Department map 1:1,000,000 Scale, 1986. Department of Geology and Mines: 1:1,000,000 Scale map of Geological and Mineral, Occurrence map of Lao P.D.R 1991. MRC Hydrologic yearbooks available until 1995 and Forest cover map of Lao P.D.R, 1996/97. WAD, Hydrological data of Nam Ou and Nam Suang, 1990-98.
190
Lao ― 9
Nam Sekong Map of River
Table of Basic Data Name(s): Sekong
Serial No. : Lao-9
Location: South-east Lao PDR
E 106° 16' - 107° 29'
2
N 14° 41' - 16° 20'
Area: 10,500 km
Length of the main stream: 170 km (Attapu)
Origin: Lao-Vietnam border 1,800 m
Highest Pt: Ban Tane, 2,066 m
Outlet: ATTAPU, Muang Mai
Lowest Pt: Attapu, 106 m
Main base rock: Mesozoic to Paleozoic, Sandstones and volcanic rock Main tributaries: Xenam Noy, 1,501 km
2
Main Lakes: None.
Main Reserrvoir: None
Mean Annual Precipitation: 2,149 mm (1988-2000)
Mean annual Runoff: 512 m3/s at Attapu (1988-2000)
Population: 87,700 (Census 1996)
Main Cities: ATTAPU, Muang Sekone
Land use: Forest 61%, Agriculture 20%
Others 10%; Water resources 9% (1996)
191
Lao ― 9
1.
General Description
In Lao, Se or Nam means River, while Kong is a drum played in a pagoda or Wat. The origin of the name Sekong comes from the Jadis, the people who live in the remote source area of the river. Legend has it that the Jadis had to leave their village to go to Attapu. Whilst crossing the river they lost the big drum of the pagoda into the river, probably in a flash flood. Since that time the river has been named “Sekong”. The source of the river is near the Lao-Vietnam border at an elevation of 1,800 m. The length of the main stream to Attapu is about 170 km. The highest point in the basin, near Ban Tang, is 2,066 m, whilst the lowest point, 106 m, is at Attapu. The total catchment at Attapu is 10,500 km2 just above where the Sekamane River (catchment area of 4,454 km2 at Ban Fang Deng about 15 km east of Attapu town) joins the Sekong. The Sekamane River joins the Sekong downstream of the Muang Mai gauging station and can cause a backwater effect on the Sekong during floods. The basin is composed of 42.1% sandstone and conglomerate, 29.4% gneiss, schist, quartzite, granite, and gable, 13.9% basalt, 8.8% shale and only 3.3% sandy alluvium. The climate is tropical humid and despite the basin having a high forest coverage (54-67%), there have been important trends in the variation of rainfall. For example, at Attapu the averages over groups of years have varied between 2,534 mm/y (1900-1910), 2,203 mm/y (1913-1921), 2,814 mm/y (1929-1941), and 2,149 mm/y (19882000). At Sekong only 1,493 mm/y fell from 1988 to 2000. It is generally considered that deforestation by nomadic people in the basin has had a direct effect on the natural environment causing an increase of the surface runoff and water velocity so that the natural flood mitigation of the forest has been reduced. In recent years natural disasters resulting from climatic abnormalities have caused more frequent floods and droughts, with the 1996 flood being the most severe at Attapu.
192
Lao ― 9
2.
Geographical Information
2.1
Geological Map
193
Lao ― 9
2.2
Land Use Map
2.3
Characteristics of the River and the Main Tributaries.
No.
1
Name of river
Length [km] Catchment area [km2]
Highest peak [m] Lowest point [m]
Cities Population (year)
Sekong
170 10,500
2,066 106
Sekong (Lamam) 20,000
F (54) A (10) U (2) O (31)
Attapu 50,000
F (66) A (15) U (5) O (141)
2 F: Forest; L: Lake, river, marsh; P: Paddy field; U: Urban O: Orchard; A: Agricultural field (vegetable field, grass field)
194
Land use [%]
Lao ― 9
2.4
Longitudinal Profiles
195
Lao ― 9
3.
Climatological Information
3.1
Annual Isohyetal Map and Observation Stations
mm
3.2
List of Meteorological Observation Stations
Number
Station
Elevation [m]
Location
Mean annual Mean annual Observation Precipitation evaporation period [mm] [mm]
Observation Items*
1
Sekong Town
144
N 15° 26' E 106° 44'
1989 - 2000
1,493
1,506
P, E, T, WV
2
Thateng
800
N 15° 28' E 106° 22'
1929 - 1998
2,192
-
P
3
Attapu
106
N 14° 48' E 106° 50'
1988 - 2000
2,149
Pich + 1.5 1,469
P, E, DS, T, WV
* P: Precipitation
E: Evaporation
DS: Duration of sunshine
WV: Wind velocity
196
T: Temperature
Lao ― 9
3.3
Monthly Climate Data
Station: Sekong (Lamam) Observation station
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun
Jul
Aug Sep
Oct Nov Dec Annual
Period for mean
Temperature [°C]
24.2 26.2 28.3 288 28.5 28.1 27.2 27.3 27.3 26.8 25.6 24.0
26.9
Precipitation [mm]
2.7
16.0 43.7 80.5 151.9 207.4 289.0 286.1 281.1 107.0 24.2
3.3
1,493 1989 - 2000
Evaporation PET [mm]
128
140
111
1,506 1995 - 2000
173
149
144
127
158
100
93
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun
Jul
Aug Sep
93
89
1995 - 2000
Station: Attapu Observation station
Oct Nov Dec Annual
Period for mean
Temperature [°C]
25.2 27.0 29.4 30.3 29.3 28.7 27.3 27.3 27.4 27.1 26.4 25.3
27.5
Precipitation [mm]
6.2
24.0 43.9 97.6 211.0 306.9 438.4 440.1 417.9 144.6 25.7
5.9
248.9 1988 - 2000
Evaporation PET [mm]
105
116
132
98
80
53
48
46
41
57
84
120
Sunshine [hours]
277
256
263
213
184
167
149
156 128
189
89
242
3.4
Long-term Variation of Monthly Precipitation
197
980
1989 - 2000
1989 - 2000
2,442 1989 - 2000
Lao ― 9
4.
Hydrological Information
4.1
Map of Streamflow Observation Stations
198
Lao ― 9
4.2
List of Hydrological Observation Stations No.
Station
Location
Elevation [m]
Catchment area (A) 2 [km ]
Observation period
Observation itemsa (frequency)
1
Lamam (Sekong)
N 15° 26' E 106° 50'
135
-
1990 - 2000
H2 daily
2
M. Mai (Attapu)
N 14° 48' E 102° 40'
106
10,500
1988 - 2000
H2, Q daily
3
Sekamane (B. Fangden)
N 14° 48' E 106° 55'
106
4,454
1991 - 1999
H2, Q daily
b
a e
c
d
e
Q 3 [m /s]
Qmax 3 [m /s]
Qmax 3 [m /s]
Qmin 3 [m /s]
Q/A [m /s/100km2]
Qmax /A 3 2 [m /s/100km ]
period of statistics
2
512.1
13,878
5,852
118.7
4.88
132.2
1988 - 2000
3
324.1
5,235
3,076
81.4
7.28
117.5
1991 - 2000
3
H2: manual water level, Q: discharge b mean annual discharge c maximum discharge mean annual minimum discharge
4.3
c
No.
Long-term Variation of Monthly Discharge
199
d
mean annual maximum discharge
Lao ― 9
4.4
Annual Pattern of Discharge
200
Lao ― 9
4.5
Unique Hydrological Features
201
Lao ― 9
4.6
Annual Maximum and Minimum Discharges
a) Nam Sekong at Attapu (M. Mai), Catchment area = 10,500 km Maximum Year
a
Date
2
Minimum b
3
Discharge [m /s]
Month
Dischargec [m3/s]
1987
8.23
5,700
X
X
1988
10.17
4,640
5
157.8
1989
7.24
4,750
4
40.0
1990
9.20
5,710
4
36.7
1991
8.17
5,040
4
44.0
1992
8.28
2,320
4
165.0
1993
9.9
3,390
4
87.8
1994
9.7
7,848
3
125.0
1995
7.31
2,798
4
126.6
1996
9.20
13,878
4
138.0
1997
9.26
7,163
4
151.2
1998
11.21
4,108
5
120.1
1999
8.4
5,678
4
141.5
2000
8.24
8,905
4
209.0
Sum =
81,928
1,542.7
Mean =
5,852
118.7
b) Nam Sekhamane at Attapu (B. Fengdeng), Catchment area = 4,454 km
Minimum
Maximum Year
a b c
a
2
b
3
Date
Discharge [m /s]
Month
Dischargeb [m3/s]
1991
8.19
3,365
4
70.6
1992
10.25
1,500
5
77.8
1993
9.7
2,438
5
70.6
1994
9.6
4,135
3
79.7
1995
7.31
1,356
3
83.4
1996
9.19
5,235
3
89.2
1997
9.26
3,767
4
103.1
1998
11.21
2,959
3
70.6
1999
8.3
2,933
3
87.2
Sum =
27,688
732.2
Mean =
3,076
81.4
date in form month. day 2 readings per day daily reading
202
Lao ― 9
4.7
Hyetographs and Hydrographs of Major Floods
203
Lao ― 9
5.
Water Resources
5.1
General Description
In the Sekong basin there are several promising projects for different sized hydropower developments. As hydropower has a prominent place in the national policy, the government of the Lao PDR has recognized the strategic value of the hydropower sector and its competitive advantage over other indigenous energy sources in the region. According to the study conducted by the Mekong Committee, there are 5 sites in the Sekong, and 4 sites in Sekhamane and Xenamnoy with a potential total installed capacity of 3,130 MW and annual energy production of about 15,613 GW/h. A study of the Xenamnoy, and Houay KaTakTok by JICA identified sites with a potential installed capacity of 354 MW and annual energy production of 1,042.4 GW/h. In the 290 km2 Xe Katam basin (a river that flows in a south-easterly direction from an elevation of 300 m - see map), accurate hydro-meteorological data were collected and used in a Tank Model simulation. Ten years of data were collected (1980-1990) for this study. A Memorandum of Understanding has been signed for a scheme with a potential capacity of 100 MW (Source: Hydropower, Office of the Ministry of Industry and Handicrafts).
5.2
Map of Water Resource Systems
204
Lao ― 9
5.4
Major Floods and Droughts Date
Peak discharge [m3/s]
Rainfall [mm]
Meteorological Cause
Damages at Attapu
1996 9.16 - 9.21
13,687
920.5 mm over 6 days
Typhoon
5 deaths Rice fields flooded
2000 8.22 - 8.24
8,905
162.8 mm over 3 days
Typhoon
Rice fields flooded
Remark: An historic flood caused by a typhoon flash flood at Attapu M. Mai was reported in September 1930 and caused damage to properties and crops. Droughts mostly occur during ENSO events and cause severe damage to rice production.
6.
Socio-cultural Characteristics
Most people of the Sekong basin live by subsistence agriculture, with a small amount of cash crop production. Pools on the margins of river and in seasonal wetlands are used for agriculture, buffalo grazing and for mammal and waterbird hunting. This is likely to have serious impacts on the small but very important populations of Giant Ibis, White-shouldered Ibis, Lesser Adjutant and Woolly-necked storks that feed in these habitats. In the upper Xenamnoy tributary of the Sekong there are freshwater marshes, lakes, and ponds with about 6 km2 covered by wetland. The largest is the Nonglom, which appears to be the result of damming of the valley, possibly by a basalt flow. There is a local legend that a village formerly stood in what is now the middle of the Nonglom. One night springs are reported to have broken through under the village and flooded it and the valley, giving rise to the Nonglom. Villagers from far and near come to fish for Pakoh (channa striata), Padouk (clarias sp), Pakeng (anabas testiduneus), shrimp and occasionally tortoises. Fishing equipment is mainly gill nests, cast nets, and set lines. Hand-baskets are used in shallow waters. The Xenamnoy wetlands are under study. Outside of the Sekong there is a small wetland of l km2 in the upper Sekhamane and a larger one of about 350 km2, southwest of Attapu and forming the border between the Lao PDR and Cambodia.
7.
References, Databooks and Bibliography
National Geographic Department 1:1.000.000 Scale map, 1986. Department of Geology and Mines: 1:1.000.000 Scale map of the Geological and Mineral Occurrence in Lao P.D.R. 1991. MRC Hydrologic year books available until 1995 and Forest cover map of Lao P.D.R. 1996/97. WAD, Hydrological data of Nam Ou and Nam Suang 1990-98. JICA, December 1991, Feasibility study on Xe Katam small-scale hydroelectric Power development project. IUCN (1996): The world conservation union. Inventory of wetlands in Lao P.D.R. Lao P.D.R. Country Report on Water Resource Management at 8th SE Asia and Pacific Regional Steering Committee meeting for UNESCO’s International Hydrological Programme, Christchurch, New Zealand, 20-24 November 2000.
205
Malaysia Malaysia-3: Kelantan River Malaysia-4: Chalok River ND LA AI TH S IT RA ST
SOUTH CHINA SEA
F O CA AC AL M
ra at m Su
INDONESIA
206
Introduction Malaysia is situated in the heart of Southeast Asia, just north of the equator. It has a total land area of 330,434 km2 and is divided into two distinct regions: Peninsular Malaysia, which extends from the Thai border down to the island nation of Singapore: and, across the South China Sea on the northern coast of Borneo, the two states of Sabah and Sarawak which are bordered by Indonesia to the south and the Philippines to the east. Being in the tropical region, the climate is hot and humid throughout the year. The mean annual rainfall is 2,500 mm and the temperature ranges from 21°C to 32°C. Out of a total population of about 20 million (1997), approximately 16.9 million live in Peninsular Malaysia whilst 3.1 million live in Sabah and Sarawak. The population come from a variety of ethnic backgrounds. The majority of Malays, Chinese and Indians live in Peninsular Malaysia whereas Iban, Kadazan and Bidayuh are the main indigenous ethnic groups in Sabah and Sarawak. The rivers catalogued in this volume are the Kelantan River, Kelantan, and the Chalok River in Trengganu. At 248 km, the Kelantan River is the longest river in Kelantan State and drains an area of 13,100 km2. The river originates in the Tahan mountain ranges and flows northwards to discharge into the South China Sea. The basin is mainly in tropical rain forest and has a mean annual rainfall of about 2,505 mm. Its mean annual discharge measured at Guillermard Bridge is about 557.5 m3/s The Chalok River, by contrast, is a small coastal basin of 20.5 km2 that drains directly to the South China Sea with a mean flow of 1.22 m3/s. It is a representative basin and the main land use is rubber plantation. The basin receives an annual rainfall of about 2,700 mm/y.
Acknowledgements A collaborative working group of institutes and individuals was established to prepare this contribution to the Catalogue of Rivers. The working group consisted of: Ir. Dato’ Hj. Keizrul bin Abdullah, Chairman of Malaysian National Committee for IHP Ir. Liew Chin Loong, Secretary, Malaysian National Committee for IHP Ir. Low Koon Sing, Water Resources Engineer, Department of Irrigation and Drainage Malaysia Mdm Zimah Ibrahim, Technical Assistant, Department of Irrigation and Drainage Malaysia The organisations that have contributed by providing data include: the Malaysian Meteorological Services, the Department of Agriculture Malaysian and the Geological Survey Department of Malaysia. Financial support was provided by the Malaysian Government.
207
Malaysia ― 3
Kelantan River Map of River
Table of Basic Data Name: Kelantan River Location: Guillemard Bridge 2
Area: 11,900 km
Serial No. : Malaysia-3 N 4° 40' ~ 6° 12'
E 101° 20' ~ 102° 20'
Length of main stream: 248 km
Origin: Mt.Ulu Sepat (2,161 m)
Highest point: Mt. Korbu (2,183 m)
Outlet: South China Sea
Lowest point: River mouth (0 m)
Main geological features: shale, mudstone, limestone Main tributaries: Lebir river (2,430 km2), Galas river (7,770 km2) Main reservoirs: Nil Mean annual precipitation: 2,505 mm (1970 - 1997) Mean annual runoff: 557.5 m3/s at Guillemard Bridge (1950 - 1990) Population: 810,000
Main cities: Kota Bharu
Land use: virgin jungle, rubber, paddy, oil palm, tobacco, other agriculture, urban
208
Malaysia ― 3
1.
General Description
The Kelantan River basin is located in the north eastern part of Peninsular Malaysia between latitudes 4° 40' and 6° 12' North, and longitudes 101° 20' and 102° 20' East. The maximum length and breadth of the catchment are 150 km and 140 km respectively. The river is about 248 km long and drains an area of 13,100 km2, occupying more than 85% of the State of Kelantan. It divides into the Galas and Lebir Rivers near Kuala Krai, about 100 km from the river mouth. The Galas River is formed by the junction of the Nenggiri and Pergau Rivers. The Nenggiri River originates in the south western part of the central mountain range (Main Range). The Lebir River originates from the Tahan mountain range. The Kelantan River system flows northward passing through such major towns as Kuala Krai, Tanah Merah, Pasir Mas and Kota Bharu, before finally discharging into the South China Sea. About 95% of the catchment is steep mountainous country rising to a height of 2,135 m while the remainder is undulating land. The mountainous areas are covered with virgin jungle while rubber and some paddy are planted in the lowlands. The eastern and western portions, consisting of mountain ranges, have a granitic soil cover consisting of a mixture of fine to coarse sand and clay. The soil cover is a metre or so deep but depths of more than 18 m may be encountered in localised areas. A fine sandy loam soil is found in the extreme east and west of the southern half of the basin. Its depth seldom exceeds a few metres. The remaining portion, comprising almost one-third of the catchment, is cloaked by a variable soil cover that varies in depth, from a few metres to more than 9 m. The basin has an annual rainfall of about 2,500 mm much of which occurs during the North-East Monsoon between mid-October and midJanuary. The mean annual temperature at Kota Bharu is 27.5° C with mean relative humidity of 81%. The mean flow of the Kelantan River measured at Guillemard Bridge is 557.5 m3/s.
2.
Geographical Information
2.1
Geological Map
209
Malaysia ― 3
2.2
Land Use Map
2.3
Characteristics of the River and the Main Tributaries
No.
Name of river
Length [km] Catchment area [km2]
Highest peak [m] Lowest point [m]
Land use [%] (1990)
1
Kelantan River (Main river)
248 11,900
Mt.Korbu (2,183 m)
F (73.2), U (0.1), L (10), OP (4), R (10), P (2.2), A (0.5)
2
Galas River (Tributary)
178 7,770
Mt Setong (1,422 m)
F (85), OP (2), R (4), L (9).
3
Lebir River (Tributary)
91 2,430
Cintawasa Hill (1,185 m)
A: Other agricultural field (vegetable, grass) U: Urban
F: Forest R: Rubber
L: Lake, River, Marsh OP: Oil Palm.
210
O: Orchard
F (66), OP (12), R (13), L (9)
P: Paddy field
Malaysia ― 3
3.
Climatological Information
3.1
Annual Isohyetal Map and Observation Stations
KOTA BHARU
KUALA KRAI
211
Malaysia ― 3
3.2
List of Meteorological Observation Stations No.*)
Station
Elevation [m]
Location
Observation period
Mean annual precipitation1) [mm]
Observation 2) items
6021060
Peng. Kubor Pumphouse
-
N 06° 01' 05" E 102° 10' 40"
1951 - present
3,086 (1952 - 1997)
(P) SM
5518035
Luboh Bungor
-
N 5° 42' 05" E 101° 50' 20"
1956 - present
3,220 (1957 - 1996)
(P) SM
5322044
Kg. Laloh
541
N 05° 18' 30" E 102° 16' 30"
1971 - present
2,222 (1971 - 1996)
(P) PAT
5320039
Ldg Kuala Garis
1,422
N 05° 22' 40" E 102° 00' 55"
1967 - present
2,022 (1971 - 1996)
(P) SM
4923001
Kg Aring
1,200
N 04° 50' 15" E 102° 21' 10"
1975 - present
2,404 (1975 - 1998)
(P) PAT
4819027
Gua Musang
1,539
N 04° 53' 05" E 101° 58' 10"
1970 - present
2,258 (1972 - 1998)
(P) PAET
4726001
Gunung Gagau
1,376
N 04° 45' 25" E 102° 39' 20"
1982 - present
4,339 (1985 - 1996)
(P) SAT
4717001
Blau
898
N 04° 46' 00" E 101° 45' 25"
1975 - present
2,116.6 (1980 - 1995)
(P) SA
*: Serial number used by Department of Irrigation and Drainage, Malaysia. 1) Period for the mean is from the beginning of the observation period to 1996. 2) (P): Precipitation, SM: Secondary Manual, PAT: Primary Auto telemetric, PAET: Primary auto, evaporation and telemetric , SA: Secondary Auto, SAT: Secondary auto telemetric
3.3
Monthly Climate Data
Observation item
Observation Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun station
Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Annual
Period for the mean
Temperature [°C]
Kota Bharu 25.7 26.2 27.9 28.1 27.7 27.2
27
1968 - 1997
Precipitation [mm]
Peng. Kubor 169 Pumphouse
74
87
83
178
187 212
26.8 26.7
26
25.8 26.8
26.8
257 280 302
640 618
3,086 1952 - 1997
Evaporation [mm]
96.5 98.5 123.7 129 119.5 113.4 114.3 112.8 112.2 104.6 85.2 86.5 1,296.2 1975 - 1196
Duration of sunshine [hr]
7.1
8.1
8.4
8.8
7.9
7.0
212
7.0
6.8
6.5
5.9
4.6
4.8
6.9
1968 - 1997
Malaysia ― 3
3.4
Long-term Variation of Monthly Precipitation
(a) Pengkalan Kubor Pump House, Kelantan (6021060)
(b) Gua Musang, Kalantan (4819027)
213
Malaysia ― 3
4.
Hydrological Information
4.1
Map of Streamflow Observation Stations
214
Malaysia ― 3
4.2
List of Hydrological Observation Stations
No.*
Station
Location
Catchment area (A) [km2]
Observation period
Observation items1) (frequency)
5222452
Kg Tualang
N 05° 16' 30" E 102° 18' 00"
2,430
1973 - present
WL/Q (A), SS (Wk), WQ (Wk)
5320443
Dabong
N 05° 22' 55" E 102° 00' 55"
7,770
1972 - present
WL/Q (A), SS (Wk), WQ (Wk)
5521446
K.Krai
N 05° 32' 05" E 102° 10' 50"
10,950
1979 - present
WL (A)
5721442
Guillemard Bridge
N 05° 45' 45" E 102° 09' 00"
11,900
1959 - present
WL/Q (A), SS (Wk), WQ (Wk)
No.*
−2) Q 3 [m /s]
Qmax 3 [m /s]
− 4) Qmax 3 [m /s]
− 5) Qmin 3 [m /s]
− Q/A 2 [m /s/100km ]
Qmax/A [m /s/100km2]
Period of 2) statistics
5222452
109.8
4,020
1,636
32.4
4.52
165.4
1950 - 1990
5721442
557.5
12,900
5,387
153
4.68
108.4
1950 - 1990
3)
* Serial number used by Dept. of Irrigation and Drainage Malaysia. 1) WL: Water Level; Q: Discharge; SS: Suspended sediment; WQ: Water quality; (A): Automatic; (Wk): 2- weekly.
4.3
3
2)Mean annual discharge 3)Maximum discharge 4)Mean maximum discharge 5)Mean minimum discharge
Long-term Variation of Monthly Discharge
215
3
Malaysia ― 3
4.4
Annual Pattern of Discharge
4.6
Annual Maximum and Minimum Discharges 1)
2)
Year
Maximum Date [m3/s]
1960
10/12
3,322
7
1961
05/01
2,777
8
1962
18/12
2,737
6
1963
9/12
3,088
5
1964
29/12
1,222
1965
29/11
6,170
1966
24/12
1967 1968
1)
2)
Year
Maximum Date [m3/s]
53.4
1979
29/11
10,252
8
170.1
102.9
1980
20/12
1,709
4
138.3
183.7
1981
03/12
2,029
8
102.5
70.4
1982
16/12
7,186
3
90.9
4
175.9
1983
07/12
12,007
4
80.4
3
102.9
1984
25/12
7,744
8
236.1
3,154
9
233.2
1985
16/03
2,665
8
167.8
03/01
8,280
8
233.2
1986
02/12
6,957
8
88.0
08/12
1,254
4
113.4
1987
12/12
4,785
7
135.7
1969
29/11
6,650
4
62.5
1988
22/11
12,900
4
214.7
1970
29/12
8,800
6
147.3
1989
03/01
1,275
8
190.6
1971
05/01
8,191
10
229.7
1990
14/12
6,064
7
105.6
1972
18/12
10,260
8
164.6
1991
13/12
3,846
7
122.7
1973
09/12
11,180
4
178.8
1992
13/11
5,409
5
111.8
1974
29/12
4,019
3
245.3
1993
24/12
11,117
5
179.6
1975
29/11
5,676
8
261.4
1994
24/11
5,282
4
214.7
1976
24/12
2,605
4
163.8
1995
29/12
3,075
8
190.6
1977
03/01
2,717
5
142.1
1996
12/12
2,412
7
105.6
1978
08/12
3,277
4
166.2
1997
05/12
2,619
7
122.7
Minimum Month [m3/s]
1), 2) Instantaneous observation by recording charts
216
Minimum Month [m3/s]
Malaysia ― 3
4.7
Hyetographs and Hydrographs of Major Floods
5.
Water Resources
5.1
General Description
Water of the Kelantan River is at present used for four major irrigation schemes, i.e the Kemubu, Salor, Lemal and Pasir Mas, all of which lie in the lower reaches of the Kelantan River. The present irrigable area for these schemes is about 31,000 ha and takes about 72 m3/s at maximum water use if entire double cropping is to be achieved. The Kelantan River and other surface flows were sought as water sources to solve the quantitative and qualitative restriction on groundwater use and to cope with the rapidly increasing domestic and industrial water demand of the area. The present maximum demand is about 134 Ml/d in the lower reaches of the Kelantan River covering the districts of Kota Bharu, Tumpat, Pasir Mas, Machang, Bachok, Pasir Putih and Kuala Krai.
5.4
Major Floods and Droughts
There are no major historical droughts experienced in the Kelantan River basin.
217
Malaysia ― 3
Major Floods Date
Water level [m]
Meteorological cause
Dead and missing
Major damages [Districts affected]
27.11.90
16.82 m at Guillemard Bridge 5.41 m at Kota Bharu
Heavy rainfall
4 died
4,581 people were evacuated. Road closed for 1-3 days
1991
10.12 m at Rantau Panjang at Golok River.
Heavy rainfall
2 died
Agricultural land inundated with total damages of RM200 thousand. Road and structural damages RM135 thousand.
13.11.92
25.45 m at Tangga Krai
Heavy rainfall
23.12.93
5.49 m at Kota Bharu
Heavy rainfall
14 died
Villages and roads were flooded and damaged. 13,587 people were evacuated Damage cost RM1.5 million.
24.11.94
24.37 m at Kuala Krai 5.15 m at Kota Bharu
Heavy rainfall
14died
1,184 people were evacuated. Roads were flooded to a dept of 2 m for 3-5 days.
6.
743 people were evacuated, roads, bridge side drains and culverts were flooded and damaged. Damages cost RM560 thousand.
Socio-cultural Characteristics
The State of Kelantan belongs to the Eastern Region of Peninsular Malaysia and is one of eleven States in Peninsular Malaysia. The State of Kelantan is normally divided into North and South, and is composed of ten Districts. Kota Bharu is the capital of Kelantan as well as the development centre of North Kelantan. The population of the State is 1,181,680 as recorded in 1993. About 68.5 per cent of the population live in the Kelantan River Basin. The others are found in the Golok and Kemubu River basins and in the northern coastal plain of the State. The population of Kota Bharu and Kuala Krai districts are 366,800 and 90,800 respectively. The major economic activities in Kelantan State are agricultural based, mainly the cultivation of paddy rice, rubber, oil palm and tobacco. Fishing and livestock farming are also an important occupation found in this area.
218
Malaysia ― 4
Chalok River Map of River
Table of Basic Data Name: Chalok River Location: East coast of Peninsular Malaysia 2
Serial No. : Malaysia-4 N 5° 23' 15" ~ 5° 27' 15"
E 102° 48' 10"~ 102° 50' 45"
Area: 20.5 km
Length of main stream: 6.9 km
Origin: Mt Durian (80.5 m)
Highest point: Mt Tinggi (221 m)
Outlet: South China Sea
Lowest point: River mouth (0 m), Gauging Station (4.37 m)
Main geological features: granite, phyllite, slate, shale and sandstone, slate and shale, schist. Main tributaries: Pak Pengas River Main lakes: Nil Main reservoirs: Nil Mean annual precipitation: 3,560 mm Mean annual runoff: 1.22 m3/s Population: 3,000
Main cities: Kuala Trengganu
Land use: Forest (2%), Rubber (78%), Scrub (10.8%), Horticulture (5.3%), Orchard (1%)
219
Malaysia ― 4
1
General Description
The Chalok River is located between latitudes 5° 23' 15" and 5° 27' 15" North and longitudes 102° 48' 10" and 102° 50' 45" East. The basin can be accessed via the Kuala Trengganu - Jerteh road, 22 km north of Kuala Trengganu. There is an airport at Kuala Trengganu. The Chalok River basin is one of the representative basins selected by the Drainage and Irrigation Department (DID) of Malaysia for water resources study, and drains an area of 20.5 km2. The basin measures about 6.0 km x 3.5 km wide. The Chalok River is 6.9 km long and flows north to meet the Bari River before discharging into the South China Sea. The basin is undulating land with the highest peak at Bukit Tinggi standing at 221 m above mean sea level. The area is covered with belukar and some agricultural crops, mainly rubber trees. The soils in this catchment are deep friable soils developed over granite. Soil textures are coarse sandy clay loam to coarse sandy clay with a weak to moderate medium subangular blocky structure. An igneous body comprising undifferentiated rocks are the main geological formation structures found in this area. In the southern part of the basin the granite is in contact with a meta-sediment and in the northern part with recent alluvium. The basin temperature ranges from 25° C - 27° C. The catchment receives an average annual precipitation of 3,560 mm, while the mean annual discharge at Chalok Bridge (20.5 km2) was 1.51 m3/s for the period 1979-1993. The Chalok’s major tributary is the Pak Pengas River.
2.
Geographical Informtion
2.1
Geological Map
220
Malaysia ― 4
2.2
Landuse Map
2.3
Characteristics of River and Main Tributaries
No.
Name of river
Length [km] Catchment area [km2]
Highest peak [m] Lowest point [m]
Landuse [%] (1990)
1
Chalok river [Main river]
6.9 20.5
113 0 (River Mouth) and 4.37 (Main Road Bridge)
Rubber [78%] O [1%], A [5.3%] F [2%]
2
Pak Pengas river
2.6 2
136 10
O: Orchard
F: Forest
A: Other Agriculture (vegetable, grass)
221
Malaysia ― 4
3.
Climatological Information
3.1
Annual Isohyetal Map and Observation Stations
3.2
List of Meteorological Observation Stations Mean annual Mean annual Observation Observation precipitation evaporation items3) period 2) [mm] [mm]
No1)
Station Name
Elevation [m]
5428001
Bt Hampar (Site 1)
−
N 05° 26' 50" 1979 - 1995 E 102° 48' 55"
3,412
1,652
Hw, S8
5428002
Klinik Chalok (Site 2)
−
N 05° 24' 40" 1979 - 1995 E 102° 49' 25"
3,709
1,652
Hw, S8
Location
1) Station number used by DID Malaysia. 2) Evaporation measured at Kuala Trengganu. 3) HW: Hattori weekly S8: Secondary Station (with 8" orifice)
222
Malaysia ― 4
3.3
Monthly Climate Data
Observation item Temperature [°C]
Observation Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun station Kuala Trengganu
Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Annual
Period for the mean
25.2 25.7 26.4 27.2 27.3 27.0 26.6 26.5 26.3 25.1 25.7 25.5
26.2
Precipitation [mm]
132
48
174
100 105
114 105
155 185 226
847 527
2,718 1984 - 1996
Evaporation [mm]
4.1
4.7
5.1
5.3
4.8
4.4
3.9
4.2
4.3
3.9
3.6
3.8
4.3
1983 - 1993
Duration of sunshine [hr]
6.2
7.8
8.0
8.2
7.9
6.9
7.0
5.8
6.1
5.5
4.5
4.2
6.5
1973 - 1993
Note: Above are derived from Malaysian Meteorological Service data.
3.4
Longterm Variation of Monthly Precipitation
223
1973 - 1993
Malaysia ― 4
4
Hydrological Information
4.1
Map of Rainfall and Streamflow Observation Stations
4.2
List of Hydrological Observation Stations
No.*
Station
Location
Catchment area (A) [km2]
Observation period
Observation items1)
5428401
At Chalok bridge
N 05° 26' 30" E 102° 50' 05"
20.5
1979 - 1993
WL, Q (A)
No.*
−2) Q 3 [m /s]
Qmax 3 [m /s]
− 4) Qmax 3 [m /s]
− 5) Qmin 3 [m /s]
5428401
1.2
127.7
63.6
0.19
3)
* Water level recording station number used in DID Malaysia 1) WL: Water level, Q: Discharge (rating curve used), WQ: Water quality, A: Automatic water level recording station
224
− Q/A 2 [m /s/100km ]
Qmax/A [m3/s/100km2]
Period of statistics
5.9
622.9
1979 - 1993
3
2) Mean annual discharge 3) Maximum discharge 4) Mean maximum discharge 5) Mean minimum discharge
Malaysia ― 4
4.3
Longterm Variation of Monthly Discharge
i
4.4
Annual Pattern of Discharge
225
Malaysia ― 4
4.6
Annual Maximum and Minimum Discharges 2
Station: Chalok Bridge (5428401) [20.5 km ] 1)
2)
1)
2)
Year
Maximum 3 Date [m /s]
Minimum 3 Date [m /s]
Year
Maximum 3 Date [m /s]
Minimum 3 Date [m /s]
1979
01.11
60.8
05.04
0.157
1987
03.12
67.6
28.05
0.228
1980
19.12
34.8
03.06
0.175
1988
01.12
127.7
26.04
0.316
1981
05.12
74.1
26.06
0.174
1989
18.11
29.2
01.07
0.302
1982
15.12
78.0
06.12
0.105
1990
26.11
26.3
08.06
0.234
1983
15.12
84.6
16.04
0.145
1991
19.11
91.9
30.06
0.203
1984
23.12
56.3
25.06
0.274
1992
12.11
93.5
12.06
0.284
1985
09.03
28.1
28.07
0.225
1993
31.10
23.1
30.05
0.212
1986
01.12
95.1
20.05
0.127
1994* 17.11
45.7
26.04
0.224
1995 1), 2) Instantaneous observation by data logger. * Data not available
4.7
Hyetograph and Hydrograph of Major Floods
226
Malaysia ― 4
5
Water Resources
5.1
General
The water use in this basin is generally limited to agricultural activities, mainly rubber plantation and other cash crops. There is no water supply scheme nor groundwater extraction in this basin. So far, the basin has not been inundated extensively by any major flood.
5.5
Groundwater and River Water Quality 1)
2)
River Water Quality at Chalok Bridge 1986 Apr 21 May 19 Jun 2 Jun 24 Jul 7
Date
7
pH
6.8
6.9
6.4
6.9
Jul 21 Aug 18 Aug 25 Sep 29 Oct 14 Nov 3 6.8
6.9
6.9
6.9
0.2
CODMn [mg/l]
9.5
8.6
7.8
5.4
7
7.1
9.4
12.5
19
12.3
9.2
18
5
7
6
3
13
10
10
9
11
6
0.4
0.3
0.7
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.4
1.1
0.7
1
3)
3
Discharge [m /s]
0.9
6.8
BOD [mg/l]
SS [mg/l]
1
7
1.3
1) Observed once a month on a dry day normally several days after rainfall. 2) Located at about 22 km along the main road from Kuala Trengganu. 3) Discharge on the water quality observation date.
6.
Socio-cultural Characteristics
The FELDA (Federal Estate and Land Development Authority) scheme found in this basin forms the primary agricultural activity and main source of income for most households in and around this area. FELDA is a Federal Government agency entrusted with the development and management of mainly rubber and oil palm estates from undeveloped State owned lands. The Agency involves the locals in the participation of the scheme by giving them a contractual equity share of the estate. There are a few rural villages in the basin with a majority of the inhabitants being from the Malay ethnic group. Most of them are farmers working on the FELDA scheme. The water taken from Chalok River is primarily for agricultural activities in the basin.
7.
References, Databooks and Bibliography
Department of Agriculture (1991): Agricultural Statistics of Peninsular Malaysia Department of Irrigation and Drainage, Hydrological data, compiled by Hydrology Division, Malaysia. Department of Statistics Malaysia (1997): Yearbook of statistic (Table of Basic Data, 2.3) Geological Survey Department of Malaysia (1991): Geological map of Chalok Basin. Land and Survey Department, Topography and land use maps, Johore (Table of Basic Data, 2.3)
227
New Zealand New Zealand-5: Mahurangi River
228
Introduction New Zealand lies in the Southwest Pacific Ocean between latitudes 34° S and 47° S. It consists of two main islands and a number of smaller islands with an area of 271,000 km2. The islands extend over 1,500 km between the latitude limits, and have an average width of about 180 km. Much of the country is hilly or mountainous, and the highest mountains exceed 3,500 m in elevation. Much of one island is traversed by the intersection of Pacific and Australian/Indian continental plates. Consequently the landscape is young, vigorous and tectonically active: earthquakes are frequent and there is an active volcanic zone. Rivers are short and steep and carry high sediment loads. The climate is temperate, with a winter precipitation maximum in the north and a summer-autumn maximum in the far south. In the North Island, precipitation typically ranges from 750 to 2,400 mm/year, but in isolated mountainous locations it reaches up to about 6,400 mm/year. Winter snowfall occurs at higher elevations. About 51 % of New Zealand’s land cover is pasture and arable, and about 28% is forest. The population of New Zealand is about 3.8 million. The New Zealand river catalogued in this volume is the Mahurangi River. This river basin is 50 km north of the city of Auckland that contains 31% of the country’s population. The Mahurangi River drains about 50 km2 and enters an estuary at the town of Warkworth (population 12,000) which is the only population concentration in the basin. The drainage network of the Mahurangi River divides into northern and southern branches 2 km west of Warkworth. The elevation range of the catchment is from sea level to in excess of 250 m in hills on the northern and southern boundaries. About one half of the catchment, in the central lowlands, is in pasture that is grazed by farm animals. Another quarter of the catchment is in plantation forest of introduced pine species, and the remainder in native forest and scrub. Mean annual rainfall over the catchment is about 1,600 mm, and mean annual runoff measured just above the tidal limit is 860 mm (1.27 m3/s). The plantation forestry has probably reduced runoff to some extent, but there are no significant water resource developments within the catchment. The scope for withdrawal of water for irrigation in summer is limited because the summer flows are naturally low. The MAhurangi catchment has been the focus of an intensive data collection experiment. The aim of the experiment is to provide data for improved modelling of spatial variability in hydrological response. The Mhurangi River Variability EXperiment (MARVEX) is specifically designed to answer the question: “what are the most important sources of variability in streamflow and hydrological response” for a temperate area of New Zealand and to provide data for testing and developing spatial modelling methods.
Acknowledgements The report was prepared by Alistair McKerchar of the National Institute for Water and Atmospheric Research (NIWA), with guidance from Richard Ibbitt and Ross Woods of the same organisation. Data are drawn from NIWA’s archive, and the report has drawn heavily from published material. The project has been funded by the Foundation for Research, Science and Technology through contracts CO1817 (Water Fluxes and Pathways in River Basins) and C01X0010 (Effects of Changes in Landuse on Water Quantity and Quality).
229
New Zealand ― 5
Mahurangi River Map of River
Table of Basic Data Name: Mahurangi River
Serial No. : New Zealand-5
Location: Northland region, New Zealand
S 36° 19' ~ 36° 29'
Area: 46.6 km2
Length of the main stream: 10 km
Origin: Hills
Highest point: The Dome, (336 m)
Outlet: Mahurangi Harbour, Hauraki Gulf,
Lowest point: River mouth (0 m)
E 174° 36' ~ 174° 41'
Main geological features: Waitemata sandstones comprising alternating layers of sandstone and siltstone. Main tributaries: Mahurangi River (left branch), Mahurangi River (right branch) Main lakes: None Main reservoirs: None Mean annual precipitation: 1,600 mm Mean annual runoff: 860 mm Population: 12,000 at Warkworth, otherwise sparse.
Main cities: Auckland, 50 km south.
Land use: Pasture grazing in lowland area, plantation and protected (native) forest in hills.
230
New Zealand ― 5
1.
General Description
The Mahurangi River drains 50 km2 of steep hills and gently rolling lowlands located 50 km north of Auckland, New Zealand. This part of New Zealand experiences a warm humid climate, with typical annual rainfalls of 1,600 mm. Maximum rainfall is usually in July, the middle of the austral winter. Annual pan evaporation is 1,310 mm, with maximum monthly temperature and pan evaporation occurring during January or February. Frosts are rare and snow and ice are unknown. In late summer, the remnants of a tropical cyclone occasionally pass over northern New Zealand, producing intense bursts of rain. Convective activity is significant in summer, whereas the majority of the winter rains comes from frontal systems. The drainage network of the Mahurangi River divides the catchment into northern and southern subcatchments, whose junction is 2 km west of Warkworth, a town of 12,000 inhabitants at the mouth of the Mahurangi River where it enters an estuary. Catchment elevation ranges from more the 250 m on the northern and southern boundaries, to near sea level at Warkworth on the east coast. The soils of the catchment have developed over Waitemata sandstones, which typically display alternating layers of sandstone and siltstone. Most of the soils in the catchment are clay loams, no more than a metre deep. In the 19th century the dominant vegetation was native forest, but now much of the lowland area is used for grazing. Plantation forestry, dominantly Pinus radiata, occupies most of the hills in the south, and a mixture of native forest, scrub and grazing occurs on the hills in the north. The Mahurangi catchment has been the focus of an intensive data collection experiment. The aim of the experiment is to provide data for improved modelling of spatial variability in hydrological response. The MAhurangi River Variability EXperiment (MARVEX) is specifically designed to answer the question: “what are the most important sources of variability in streamflow and hydrological response” for a temperate area of New Zealand and to provide data for testing and developing spatial modelling methods. A network of 28 streamgauges and 13 raingauges has been the key element of the MARVEX study. Rainfall has also been observed with C-band and X-band radars. The soil moisture measurement component has used two sampling strategies: a network of continuously recording sensors, and seasonal mapping campaigns in selected subcatchments. Some further details are given in Woods et al (2001), but at the time of writing the participants in this experiment are still working up other data.
231
New Zealand ― 5
2.
Geographical Information
2.1
Geological Map
2.2
Land Use Map
232
New Zealand ― 5
2.3
Characteristics of River and Main Tributaries
No.
Name of river
Length [km] Catchment area [km2]
Highest peak [m] Lowest point [m]
Cities population (1985)
1
Mahurangi (Main river)
2 km 4.6 km2
87 m 10 m
Warkworth 12,000
A58 F 42
10 km 14.0 km2
336 m 30 m
None
A82 F 18
8 km 25.0 km2
330 m 30 m
None
A43 F 57
2
3
Mahurangi left branch (Tributary) Mahurangi right branch (Tributary)
A: Other agricultural field (vegetable, grass)
2.4
F: Forest
Longitudinal Profiles
233
Land use [%] (1991)
New Zealand ― 5
3.
Climatological Information
3.1
Annual Isohyetal Map and Observation Stations
3.2
List of Meteorological Observation Stations
No.*
Station
Elevation [m]
Location
Mean annual Mean annual Observation precipitation evaporation period [mm] [mm]
Observation items1)
A64463 Warkworth
72
S 36° 26' E 174° 40'
1973 - 1997
1,491
No data
P, TB, T
A64282 Leigh
72
S 36° 16' E 174° 48'
1973 - 1997
1,122
1,308
BP, DS, P, RPE, SR, T, W
* Code used by National Institute for Water and Atmospheric Research. 1) BP, barometric pressure DS: Duration of sunshine P: Precipitation with recording chart SR: Solar radiation T: temperature (air and soil) W: wind speed and direction.
234
RPE: Raised pan evaporation
New Zealand ― 5
3.3
Monthly Climate Data
Observation item
Observation Period for Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Annual station the mean
Temperature[°C] Warkworth 18.5 19.0 17.9 15.5 13.1 11.1 10.3 10.8 12.0 13.6 15.2 16.9 14.5
1973-1999
Precipitation [mm]
Warkworth
97
Evaporation (raised pan) [mm]
Leigh
181 155 136 97
Solar radiation 2 [MJ/m /day]
Leigh
23.1 19.6 16.9 11.4 8.4 6.9 7.1 10.4 13.7 16.8 20.5 23.0 14.8
Duration of sunshine [hr]
Leigh
244 195 170 164 167 118 144 153 156 186 197 234 2,111 1972-1988
3.4
76 119 111 118 176 165 160 146 110 100 110 1,493 1973-1997
70
48
50
Long-term Variation of Monthly Precipitation
235
62
84 117 141 168 1,308 1973-1997
1993-2001
New Zealand ― 5
4.
Hydrological Information
4.1
Map of Streamflow Observation Stations
236
New Zealand ― 5
4.2
List of Hydrological Observation Stations Location
Catchment area (A) [km2]
Observation period
Observation items1) (frequency)
Mahurangi at College
R9:586319
46.6
1982 ~ present
Q (15 min), S (periodic)
6809
Wyllie Stm at Whitemans Br.
R9:566302
1.145
1997 ~ present
Q (2 min)
6810
Redwood Forest at Airstrip Ridge
R9:568259
0.6
1994 ~ 1998
Q (15 min)
6812
Mahurangi at Dome Valley
R9:564533
0.429
1998 ~ present
Q (2 min)
6813
Mahurangi at Sheepworld
R9:565354
2.627
1997 ~ present
Q (2 min)
6814
Mahurangi at Taylors
R9:571338
4.606
1997 ~ present
Q (2 min)
6815
Mahurangi at Taylors Reserve
R9:571338
3.917
1997 ~ present
Q (2 min)
6816
Mahurangi at Upper Goatley (right)
R9:584355
0.364
1997 ~ present
Q (2 min)
6817
Mahurangi at Upper Goatley (left)
R9:584355
0.710
1997 ~ present
Q (2 min)
6819
Mahurangi at Mid Goatley
R9:580344
2.811
1998 ~ present
Q (2 min)
6820
Falls Rd at Br.
R9:582319
2.341
1997 ~ present
Q (2 min)
6821
Mahurangi at Wynyards
R9:573314
13.997
1997 ~ present
Q (2 min)
6823
Mahurangi at Cashmores (right)
R9:574308
2.963
1997 ~ present
Q (2 min)
6824
Mahurangi at Cashmores (left)
R9:573308
24.803
1997 ~ present
Q (2 min)
6825
Mahurangi at Morrison’s Fence
R9:587302
0.928
1998 ~ present
Q (2 min)
6826
Mahurangi at Morrison’s Br.
R9:586301
0.930
1998 ~ present
Q (2 min)
6827
Mahurangi at Fish Farm
R9:572289
1.997
1998 ~ present
Q (2 min)
6828
Mahurangi at Harnish’s
R9:578287
15.054
1997 ~ present
Q (2 min)
6829
Mahurangi at Perry Rd
R9:575283
5.769
1997 ~ present
Q (2 min)
6830
Mahurangi at Waterfall (left)
R9:557268
2.650
1998 ~ present
Q (2 min)
6831
Mahurangi at Waterfall (right)
R9:558267
0.509
1998 ~ present
Q (2 min)
6832
Mahurangi at Satellite Stn (right)
R9:599289
0.343
1998 ~ present
Q (2 min)
6833
Mahurangi at Satellite Stn (left)
R9:602287
0.514
1998 ~ present
Q (2 min)
6834
Meikles Stm at Old Army Br.
R9:582286
3.006
1998 ~ present
Q (2 min)
6835
Mahurangi at Scenic Reserve
R9:587275
2.301
1998 ~ present
Q (2 min)
6836
Mahurangi at Grimmer’s
R9:588275
0.424
1998 ~ present
Q (2 min)
6837
Pohuehue Stm at Redwoods
R9:584267
2.867
1997 ~ present
Q (2 min)
6838
Redwoods Stm at Redwoods Ford
R9:582267
5.025
1997 ~ present
Q (2 min)
No.*
Station
6806
237
New Zealand ― 5
No.*
−1) Q 3 [m /s]
Qmax 3 [m /s]
− 3) Qmax 3 [m /s]
− 4) Qmin 3 [m /s]
− Q/A 2 [m /s/100km ]
Qmax/A [m3/s/100km2]
Period of statistics
6806
1.27
205
90.9
0.105
2.70
438
1983 - 1999
6809
0.0255
10.4
6.24
0.002
2.23
908
1998 - 2000
2)
3
* Streamgauge number used in New Zealand 1) Mean annual discharge 2) Maximum discharge 3) Mean of annual maximum discharge 4) Mean of annual minimum discharge
4.3
Long-term Variation of Monthly Discharge
238
New Zealand ― 5
4.4
Annual Pattern of Discharge
4.5
Unique Hydrological Features
The unique hydrological feature of this area is the intensive instrumentation network to measure the spatial and temporal variability of moisture fluxes. The basin itself is characteristic of many basins in northern New Zealand.
239
New Zealand ― 5
4.6
Annual Maximum and Minimum Discharges 2
Station: Mahurangi at College [46.6 km ] 1)
Year
Maximum Date[m/d] [m3/s]
2)
1)
Minimum Date[m/d] [m3/s]
Year
Maximum Date[m/d] [m3/s]
2)
Minimum Date[m/d] [m3/s]
1983
12/6
47.0
3/4
0.043
1992
7/22
49.2
3/2
0.045
1984
12/11
70.9
3/3
0.160
1993
6/29
57.1
3/28
0.038
1985
5/22
205
2/7
0.194
1994
7/25
63.6
3/12
0.031
1986
1/4
60.0
12/20
0.122
1995
3/29
139
1/8
0.054
1987
12/16
60.7
3/8
0.048
1996
6/23
88.1
2/7
0.118
1988
7/18
121
3/5
0.142
1997
6/30
63.0
2/18
0.133
1989
9/8
64.2
4/27
0.112
1998
7/14
147
2/18
0.060
1990
8/23
84.6
3/3
0.053
1999
11/4
56.5
3/4
0.069
1991
8/25
51.3
3/14
0.040
1), 2) Observations at 15 min. intervals by recording gauge.
4.7
Hyetographs and Hydrographs of Major Floods
240
New Zealand ― 5
5.
Water Resources
5.1
General Description
No significant water resource developments (dam, transfers, etc.) exist in this river basin.
5.2
Map of Water Resource Systems
Not applicable.
5.3
List of Major Water Resources Facilities
Major Reservoirs No reservoirs in this basin Major Interbasin Transfer No water transfers to or from this basin.
5.4
Major Floods and Droughts
Major Floods at College streamgauge Date
Peak discharge 3 [m /s]
Rainfall [mm] Duration
Meteorological cause
Dead and missing
Major damages (Districts affected)
22 May 1985
205
200 24 h
No details
0
Northland region
29 March 1995
139
157 24 h
No details
0
Northland region
14 July 1998
147
86 24 h
No details
0
Northland region
Major Droughts
5.5
Period
Affected area
Major damages and counteractions
January 1993 to June 1994
Auckland metropolitan region
Urban water shortages for December 1993 to June 1994.
Groundwater and River Water Quality
No groundwater or water quality data was collected as part of the MARVEX experiment.
241
New Zealand ― 5
6.
Socio-cultural Characteristics
The Mahurangi River basin is lightly populated. The only town in the basin (Warkworth) is beside the tidal estuary of the river. The principal land uses are grazing and plantation forestry, which is typical of large areas of northern New Zealand. Exploitation of slower growing native hardwood species since the time of European settlement in the 19th century has been completely replaced by plantation forestry, which uses mainly the exotic Pinus radiata. The region regularly suffers soil moisture deficits in the later part of summer. The environment and natural resources of the Mahurangi River basin are managed by the Auckland Regional Council, within the provisions of the New Zealand Resource Management Act 1991 (see: www.arc.govt.nz). In practice of course, the ultimate managers of the water resources are the landowners and users of the river system, with the Auckland Regional council exercising an oversight role. Management is carried out within the framework of a Regional Policy Statement and a system of issuing “resource consents” to abstract or divert water, discharge effluents and so on.
7.
References, Databooks and Bibliography
Auckland Regional Water Board (1990): Mahurangi River Catchment: 1990 Allocation and Management Plan, Technical Publication No. 90 of the Auckland Regional Water Board, Auckland, New Zealand. DSIR Land Resources (1992): New Zealand Land Resource Inventory Survey, 1:50000. Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, Wellington, New Zealand. Woods, R.A., Grayson, R.B., Western, A.W., Duncan, M.J., Wilson, D.J., Young, R.I., Ibbitt, R.P., Henderson, R.D. and T.A. McMahon (2001): Experimental Design and Initial Results from the Mahurangi River Variability Experiment: MARVEX. In: Observations And Modeling Of Land Surface Hydrological Processes, Eds: Lakshmi, V., Albertson, J.D. and J. Schaake., Water Resources Monograph, American Geophysical Union, 3, 201-213.
242
Papua New Guinea PNG-3: Sepik Wara
243
Introduction Papua New Guinea comprises over 1400 islands, atolls and coral reefs in the Bismarck, Solomon and Coral Seas. The mainland of Papua New Guinea (PNG) is made up of the eastern half of the island of New Guinea, which is located between the latitudes 2° and 12° south of the equator. This small but environmentally dynamic and diverse nation is situated to the north of Australia and east of Indonesia. The total land area is 462,000 km2 of which 405,000 km2 is on the mainland. PNG is highly mountainous, with approximately half the land area over 1,000 metres above sea level. The Central Ranges, also named the Highlands and Central Cordillera, make up the backbone of PNG. They are a complex system of mountain belts, upland valleys and volcanoes running unbroken from Milne Bay to the border with West Papua and widening into a series of parallel ridges separated by high, flat, intermontane valleys. The Sepik River flows across extensive lowland plains in the northwest of PNG and its basin runs parallel to the Central Ranges. In its middle and lower reaches the flat nature of the terrain causes the Sepik River to meander through broad and swampy flood plains.
Acknowledgements This report has been prepared by the Water Resources Management Branch of the Office of Environment, to be included in the Catalogue of Rivers for the Southeast Asia and the Pacific, Volume IV. Sincere thanks are expressed to the staff of the Water Resources Management Branch of the Office of Environment and the East Sepik Provincial Administration for their contributions. Particular mention should be given to Nason Yube for the maps and his technical officers for the data processing, retrieval, and analysis.
244
PNG ― 3
Sepik Wara Map of River
Table of Basic Data Name(s): Sepik Wara
Serial No.: PNG-3
Location: East and West Sepik Province Area: 40,922 km
2
S 3° 45' 00" - 4° 00' 00"
E 141° 35' 55" - 144° 30' 00"
Length of main stream: 847.65 km
Origin: West Sepik Province (PNG)
Highest point: 3,993 m
Outlet: Bismarck Sea
Lowest point: Mean sea level (msl)
Main geological features: Quaternary, cretaceous-eocene, paleogene, pliocene and miocene. Main tributaries: Green River, Upper May River, Wario River, April River, Karawari River, Yuat River and Keram River. Main lakes: Chambri, Murik, Watang, Wabu and Caranburum Main reservoirs: None Mean annual precipitation: 2,085 mm at Upper Sepik River station (1978 - 1987) 3
Mean annual runoff: 3,099.60 m /s at Ambunti Population: 341,583 (2000)
Main cities: Wewak
Land use: Forest (30%), sago (20%), urban (10%), secondary vegetation (30%), and others (10%) (1990)
245
PNG ― 3
1.
General Description
The mighty Sepik River is the second largest in Papua New Guinea and drains from the south before flowing out into the Bismarck Sea in the north. The catchment area at the river’s mouth is approximately 80,000 km2 and the length of the river channel is estimated to be 848 km and is formed from various tributaries originating in the Central and Bismarck ranges (1,300-1,500 m). The average annual precipitation at Sepik in the upper catchment is 2,157 mm. The maximum flow at the Ambunti station was 8,964 m3/s in July 1990, leading to the conclusion that the total maximum flow at the mouth of the river should amount to 11,000 m3/s. The population along the main river system in 2000 was 100,000. There are no major earth works such as dams and channel diversions. The river can be categorized into two: a high-energy, rapidly flowing river at high elevations, and a slow meandering flood plain river that passes through the plains of the East Sepik province, and subsequently discharges into the Bismarck Sea. The entire river system does not change name despite flowing through many different ethnic regions. The upper tributaries flow through 50 km of narrow gorges and valleys between mountains over 2000 m high.
2.
Geographical Information
2.1
Geological Map
246
PNG ― 3
2.3
Characteristics of the River and the Main Tributaries
No.
Name of river
Length [km] Catchment area [km2]
Highest peak [m] Lowest peak [m]
Cities Population (1985)
1
Sepik Wara (Main River)
848 40,922
3,993 0
Wewak 50,000
2
Green River (Tributary)
18.0 860
120 40
3
Ilam (Tributary)
3.2 282
2,000 1,200
4
Trayap (Tributary)
7.8 700
1,800 800
5
Freida (Tributary)
35.0 1,000
1,054 40
A: Agriculture field (vegetable, grass); F: Forest; O: Orchard; P: Pardy field; U: Urban
2.4
Profiles
247
Land use [%] (1991) A F O P U
(20%) (50%) (5%) (10%) (15%)
PNG ― 3
3.
Climatological Information
3.1
Annual Isohyetal Map and Observation Stations
3.2
List of Meteorological Observation Stations No.
Station
Elevation [m]
Location* (UTM)
Observation period
Mean annual 1) precipitation [mm]
104480
Waru
137
N 9420600 E 359700
1974 - 1976
2,204
a
P (TB)
104500
Upper Sepik
1,000
N 9424100 E 341700
1977 - 1991
1,776
a
P (TB)
104850
Sunday Hill
40
N 9271500 E 588700
1970 - 1988
2,950a
P (TB)
105950
Ambunti
40
N 9266100 E 588700
1988 - 1990
1,900a
P (TB)
* UTM coordinate at local zone a Missing data included 1) 1965-1990 2) P: Precipitation; TB Tipping bucket with recording chart
248
Observation Item2)
PNG ― 3
3.3
Monthly Climate Data
Station: Sepik at Upper Sepik Station Observation Item Precipitation [mm]
3.4
Observation Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Station 104500
176
200
257
169 212
193
Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Annual 152
237 250
Long-term Variation of Monthly Precipitation
249
206
158
Period for the mean
165 3,782 1977 - 1989
PNG ― 3
4.
Hydrological Information
4.1
Map of Streamflow Observation Stations
4.2
List of Hydrological Stations No.
Station
Location (UTM)
Catchment Area (A) [km2]
Observation period
Observation Items1) (frequency)
104400
Ilam
N 9145000 E 360500
320
1977 - 1994
H1, Q
104500
Telefomin
N 9424100 E 341700
670
1976 - 1993
H1, Q
104550
NearTelefomin
N 9319700 E 521800
7.8
1983 - 1988
H1, Q
104850
Green River
N 9271400 E 588700
9,500
1970 - 1993
H1, Q
105450
Old Base Camp
N 9270600 E 590000
1,028
1980 - 1993
H1, Q
105950
Ambunti
N 9268800 E 594100
40,922
1967 - 1994
H1, Q
111600
Angoram
N 9265100 E 493300
78,706
1968 - 1980
H1
250
PNG ― 3
No.
−2) Q 3 [m /s]
Qmax 3 [m /s]
− 4) Qmax 3 [m /s]
− 5) Qmin 3 [m /s]
− Q/A 2 [m /s/100km ]
Qmax/A [m3/s/100km2]
Period of statistics
104400
15
187
46
14
4.7
58
1972 - 1990
104500
51
1,586
565
15
7.6
236
1976 - 1993
104550
0.6
17
15
0.064
7.7
218
1984 - 1988
104850
1,297
3,573
2,533
436
13.6
38
1970 - 1992
105450
200
2,221
1,579
69
19.4
216
1981 - 1993
105950
3,615
8,964
5,448
1,702
8.8
22
1967 - 1994
3)
1) Q: Discharge, WQ: water quality H1: Daily water level
3
2) Mean annual discharge 3) Maximum discharge 4) Mean maximum discharge 5) Mean minimum discharge
4.3
Long-term Variation of Monthly Discharge
4.4
Annual Pattern of Discharge
251
PNG ― 3
4.6
Annual Maximum and Minimum Discharge
Station: Sepik at Ambunti Year
Maximum
Minimum
Date
[m /s]
3
Date
[m /s]
3
Year
1967
06/05
4,331
19/11
2,429
1968
22/02
4,883
14/06
1969
01/04
5,606
1970
05/07
8,964
1971
24/04
1972
Maximum
Minimum
Date
[m /s]
3
Date
[m /s]
3
1981
30/04
5,602
27/08
1,632
1,242
1982
28/03
5,465
25/11
1,142
20/08
1,821
1983
13/03
5,999
18/09
1,509
24/02
2,696
1984
29/12
4,703
28/01
1,828
4,240
26/09
1,822
1985
25/01
5,232
22/08
2,111
09/03
4,757
18/08
1,074
1986
24/04
4,808
31/08
999
1973
03/04
7,081
23/08
2,326
1987
09/02
5,502
01/08
932
1974
09/03
4,893
01/10
1,082
1988
20/12
5,008
07/11
2,736
1975
16/04
5,989
30/07
1,452
1989
28/06
6,203
10/12
1,448
1976
19/04
5,164
21/08
1,183
1990
27/11
5,809
10/07
1,907
1977
15/02
5,622
01/10
2,205
1991
05/01
4,926
12/10
1,482
1978
16/04
5,636
29/07
1,538
1992
25/05
4,938
14/07
1,747
1979
10/04
5,606
19/08
1,153
1993
30/12
5,017
15/11
1,320
1980
15/05
5,509
18/07
2,009
1994
12/03
5,061
31/03
2,825
4.7
Hyetographs and Hydrographs of Major Floods
252
PNG ― 3
5.
Water Resources
5.1
General Description
The Sepik River is the second largest river system in Papua New Guinea in terms of river length and mean annual discharge. It drains the evenly populated upper Sepik catchment, and the sparsely populated middle and lower Sepik catchment before finally discharging into the Bismarck Sea. There are no major water resources developments such as hydro-power, water supply or irrigation in place or proposed. However, the Sepik River system has been used for transportation of heavy equipment, and for passage of tourist vessels that frequent the waterway. It is also a major natural tourist attraction because of its scenery. Floods are frequent with gradually rising and receding limbs. This is attributed to the large catchment size with a high water retention capacity and slow catchment response times (days) causing delays in the discharge of stored water to the outlet. The greatest floods occur during the southeast trade winds that are associated with the monsoons that affect Southeast Asia. The potential water resources of the Sepik River and its tributaries are virtually unexplored. The only anthropogenic impacts are areas associated with the subsistence agriculture and traditional farming practised by village communities. These are mainly on the river plains and the raw wastes and effluent produced by this activity affect the river system.
6.
Socio-cultural Characteristics
The socio-cultural characteristics vary little from place to place, and are derived from the cultural beliefs and the background of the area. For instance, in the upper Sepik catchment the inhabitants believe that the river spirits can cause illness, especially to people. The villagers also believe that strangers can become sick if they venture into the restricted areas within the sacred areas. Folklore and legends are common but vary from place to place with the main theme being based around the river system. The other major socio-cultural characteristic is the type of agricultural activities in the upper, middle and lower Sepik. The cash economy is declining because of the rising cost of goods and services. The inhabitants are predominantly subsistence farmers and their major produce is sago, with the river providing fish, recreation and water for domestic use.
7.
Reference, Data Books and Bibliography
Bureau of Water Resources (1987): Hydrometric Yearbook: Report No.1/90 King, D. and Ranck, S. (1982): Papua New Guinea Atlas: A Nation in Transition National Statistics Office of PNG (2000): PNG 2000 Census Preliminary Figures Water Resources Management Services Branch Archive (2001): Office of Environment and Conservation Zhu, F. John (1997): Hydrology and Water Resources of Papua New Guinea: Department of Environment and Conservation
253
Thailand Thailand 6: Mae Nam Prachinburi Thailand 7: Mae Nam Bang Pakong Thailand 8: Tonle Sap Thailand 9: East Coast Gulf Rivers
254
Introduction Thailand is situated in the tropical monsoon zone of Southeast Asia and covers an area of 513,115 km2 from latitudes 5° 30' to 21° 00' N and longitudes 97° 00' to 105° 30' E. The country is bordered on the west and northwest by Myanmar, on the northeast and east by the People’s Democratic Republic of Lao, on the southeast by Cambodia and the Gulf of Thailand, and on the south by Malaysia. Thailand has maximum dimensions of about 2,500 km north to south and 1,250 km east to west, with a coastline of approximately 1,840 km along the Gulf of Thailand, and 865 km along the Indian Ocean. The topographic features of Thailand comprise of three main types of landform: highlands, plains and plateaus. The highlands include several mountain ranges covered with forest extending from north to south along the entire western length of the country. The coastal area east of the Gulf of Thailand is another part of the highlands. The central part of the country is an extensive alluvial plain, while the northeast region is an undulating plateau. Thailand is a warm and semi-humid tropical country. The climate is monsoonal, marked by a pronounced rainy season lasting from about May to September and a relatively dry season for the remainder of the year. The monsoon season rainfall is around 90 percent of the annual rainfall. The mean annual precipitation is 1,400 mm varying from 1,100 mm in the northeast plateau to over 1,800 mm in the southern peninsula. The population in 2000 was approximately 61 million. The four river basins catalogued in this volume are: the Mae Nam Prachinburi, the Mae Nam Bang Pakong, the Tonle Sap and the East Coast Gulf Rivers. All are located in the eastern sub-region of Thailand.
Acknowledgements Translated from the “Assessment of the Information System for the Catalogue of Rivers in Thailand to the Standard of the IHP-IV”, Ms. R. Krisnamara et al. Report submitted to the Office of the National Research Council, 1998. 5 volumes by Associate Professor Dr. Suravuth Pratishthananda under the auspices of The Hydrological Information Subcommittee, Thai National Committee for IHP.
255
Thailand ― 6
Mae Nam Prachinburi Map of River
256
Thailand ― 6
Table of Basic Data Serial No.: Thailand-6
Name: Mae Nam Prachinburi Location: Eastern region Area: 10,006 km
2
E 101° 10' - 102° 33'
N 13° 02' - 14° 28' Length: 325 km (total length)
Origin: Mt. Phanom Donglek
Highest point: 1,369 m (Mt. North Soidao)
Outlet: Mae Nam Bang Pakong
Lowest point: 1 m
Main geological formations: Kanchanaburii Formation, Phu Phan and Phra Wihan Formation, Porphyry, Ratburi Formation, Gneiss and Schist, Alluvium and Eluvium, Granite and Granodiorite, Phu Kradung Formation, Andesite-Rhyolite, Porphyry and Tuff, Basalts and its equivalents 2
2
2
Major tributaries: Khlong Phrasathung (2,648 km ), Phraprong (1,692 km ), Hanuman (20,142 km ), Lower Prachinburi (3,521 km2) Major reservoirs: Phrasathung Dam (61.4x106m3, 1998), Sainoi Dam (322x106m3, 1998), Huai Samong Dam (275.5x106m3, 1998) Mean annual precipitation: 1,619.0 mm (1952-1995) at station 01150502 (A. Kabinburi, Prachinburi) Mean annual runoff: 1,210 mm (1944-1995) at station 01150502 (A.Kabinburi, Prachinburi) Population: 584,552 (1998)
Major cities: Prachinburi, Sakaeo
Land uses: Forest 26.1%, Rice paddy 36.7%, Upland crops 37.1%, Urban 0.1% (1998)
1.
General Description
The headwaters of the Mae Nam Prachinburi lie in the mountain ranges of the northern part of Prachinburi province in the eastern sub-region of Thailand. The drainage direction is from east to west. The River is formed by the confluence of the Hanuman and Phraprong Rivers before flowing westward to merge with the Nakhonnayok River at A. Bang Nampriao, near Chachoengsao, to form the Mae Nam Bang Pakong River. The middle and lower parts of the basin are plateau and plain areas with the flat land being used for agriculture.
257
Thailand ― 6
2
Geographical Information
2.1
Geological Map
Source: Geological Map of Thailand, Jumchet C. and Javanaphet, 1969, Department of Mineral Resources
Soil Map
Source: Eastern Sub-region Land Use Map, 1998, Land Use Planning Div., Department of Land Development
258
Thailand ― 6
2.2
Land Use Map
Source: Eastern Sub-region Land Use Map, 1998, Land Use Planning Div., Department of Land Development
2.3
Characteristics of River and Major Tributaries
No.
Name of river
Length [km] Catchment area [km2]
Highest peak Elevation [m]
Cities
1
Khlong Phrasathung
172 2,648
North Soidao Mt. 1,369
A.Wangnamyen, Sakeao A.Pongnamron, Chanthaburi
2
Phraprong River
112 1,691
Yai Mt. 816
A.Watthananakhon, Sakeao
3
Hanuman River
111 2,145
Leam Mt. 1,326
A. Nadi Prachinburi
4
Prachinburi (lower)
155 3,521
Plailamkhraduk Mt. 1,000
Kabinburi Prachinburi
5
Prachinburi (main river)
325 10,006
North Soidao Mt. 1,369
Chanthaburi Prachinburi, Sakeao
259
Thailand ― 6
2.4
Longitudinal Profiles
3.
Climatological Information
3.1
Annual Isohyetal Map
Source: Isohyetal Map of Thailand, 1966-1995, Meteorological Department
260
Thailand ― 6
3.2
List of Meteorological Observation Stations
Code
Station
Gauge
Location
Duration
Mean annual
Data
01150202
A.Mueang Sakeao
standard
N13° 48' 29" E 102° 03' 35"
1952 - 1996
1,633.6
Precipitation
03150401
A.Nadi Prachinburi
standard
N14° 06' 55" E 101° 46' 56"
1965 - 1996
2,076.3
Precipitation
01150402
A.Nadi Prachinburi
standard
N14° 09' 30" E 10° 52' 52"
1967 - 1996
1,969.0
Precipitation
01150502
A. Kabinburi Prachinburi
standard
N13° 59' 05" E 101° 42 32"
1952 - 1996
1,601.5
Precipitation
03150501
A.Mueang Prachinburi
standard
N13° 49' 10" E 102° 04' 35"
1952 - 1996
1,946.0
Precipitation
03150502
Prachantakham Prachinburi
standard
N14° 03' 45" E 101° 31' 05"
1952 - 1996
1,741.2
Precipitation
03150503
Bansang Prachinburi
standard
N13° 59' 35 E 101° 13' 25"
1951 - 1996
1,571.0
Precipitation
03150504
A. Simahaphot Prachinburi
standard
N13° 58' 09" E 101° 31' 13"
1951 - 1996
1,562.0
Precipitation
03150505
A. Simahosot Prachinburi
standard
N13° 53' 18" E 101° 24' 23"
1983 - 1996
1,327.0
Precipitation
3.3
Monthly Climate Data
Station: A. Mueang, Prachinburi (03150501) Observation item Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec mean Annual
Period
Temperature [°C]
26.7 28.3 29.7 30.1 29.3 28.8 28.4 28.1 28.1 28.0 27.2 26.1 28.2
Precipitation [mm]
8.8 19.4 53.7 120.7216.7253.7284.0386.1364.8162.9 33.8 8.5 159.4 1,913.0 1966 - 1997
Evaporation [mm]
137.9130.9169.7160.6147.0124.9133.6126.5123.6124.9135.2137.4 137.7 1,652.3 1966 - 1997
261
-
1966 - 1997
Thailand ― 6
3.4
Long-term Variation of Monthly Precipitation
Station: A. Mueang, Prachinburi (03150501) (1952 - 1996)
Station: A. Kabinburi, Prachinburi (0115502) (1952 - 1996)
262
Thailand ― 6
4.
Hydrological Information
4.1
Map of Stream Flow Observation Stations
Source: Chantajitra, Y. et al. 1994, Location Map of Hydrologic and Meteorological Stations in Thailand, Office of National Research Council
263
Thailand ― 6
4.2
List of Hydrological Observation Stations Station
Location
Catchment area [km2]
Observation period
Q [cms]
Observation items
01150202 A. Mueang, Sakaeo
N 13° 48'" 29 E 101° 03' 05"
2,523
1966 - 1995
25.4
Q, H1, WQ
01150301 A. Mueang, Sakaeo
N 13° 56' 02" E 101° 58' 41"
1,540
1966 - 1995
18.7
Q, H1, WQ
01150404 N 14° 08' 46 A. Kabinburi, Prachinburi E 101° 55' 39"
590
1968 - 1995
11.2
Q, H1
01150502 N 13° 59' 05" A. Kabinburi, Prachinburi E 101° 42' 32"
7,502
1941 - 1995
121.0
Q, H5d, WQ
45
1983 - 1995
1.56
Q, H1, WQ
01150509 A. Pakphli Nakhonnayok
N 14° 12' 02" E 101° 22' 05"
No.
−2) Q 3 [m /s]
Qmax 3 [m /s]
− 4) Qmax 3 [m /s]
− 5) Qmin 3 [m /s]
− Q/A 2 [m /s/100km ]
Qmax/A [m3/s/100km2]
Period of statistics
01150202
25.4
1,420
353
0.25
1.01
56.3
1966 - 1995
01150301
18.7
487
167
0.04
1.21
31.6
1966 - 1995
01150404
11.2
558
204
0.12
1.90
94.6
1968 - 1995
01150502
121.0
2,220
753
2.46
1.61
29.6
1941 - 1995
01150509
1.56
126
68.8
0.01
3.47
280.0
1983 - 1995
3)
1) Q: Discharge H1: Water level (daily) 2) Mean annual discharge 5) Mean minimum discharge
4.3
H5d: Water level (5-day) 3) Maximum discharge.
3
WQ: Water qualities 4) Mean maximum discharge
Long-term Variation of Monthly Discharge 2
Station: A. Kabinburi, Prachinburi (01150502) (7,502 km . )
264
Thailand ― 6
4.6
Annual Maximum and Minimum Discharges 2
Station: A. Kabinburi, Prachinburi (01150502) (7,502 km ) Year
Minimum
Maximum Date
3
Date
Year
3
Minimum
Maximum Date
3
Date
3
1941
8.27
[m /s] 632
5.05
[m /s] 3.50
1969
9.23
[m /s] 1,111
4.27
[m /s] 0.12
1942
8.31
1,042
4.17
6.20
1970
8.29
577
4.01
1.50
1943
9.21
890
3.31
8.20
1971
9.05
552
4.09
0.50
1944
8.18
894
4.27
6.95
1972
9.21
993
3.21
1.40
1945
9.27
826
3.31
6.35
1973
9.30
855
4.20
0.80
1946
10.06
945
4.25
6.50
1974
10.16
952
3.15
0.70
1947
7.27
827
4.01
8.00
1975
10.12
579
5.01
1.70
1949
10.13
744
4.01
0.00
1976
9.20
659
4.27
1.50
1950
9.18
878
4.28
0.00
1977
9.13
670
3.12
1.10
1951
9.10
853
4.02
0.00
1978
10.03
1,056
3.31
0.00
1952
10.29
927
4.15
0.00
1979
10.01
538
4.10
0.00
1953
10.02
883
4.30
0.00
1980
9.02
513
4.21
1.20
1954
-
-
-
-
1981
9.30
770
4.01
1.80
1955
6.30
808
4.01
0.86
1982
8.26
606
3.18
0.20
1956
9.27
811
3.28
0.00
1983
10.20
1,064
3.23
0.00
1957
10.14
940
4.05
0.00
1984
8.16
504
3.28
0.00
1958
9.27
710
4.31
0.00
1985
9.22
516
3.29
0.20
1959
10.17
845
4.26
0.00
1986
10.11
795
4.12
0.70
1960
10.07
885
5.24
0.85
1987
9.13
538
3.24
2.20
1961
8.22
768
4.28
1.08
1988
10.25
613
4.13
2.10 1.90
1962
9.20
586
4.27
0.00
1989
8.15
604
4.23
1963
10.08
824
4.25
0.00
1990
-
-
-
-
1964
10.05
856
5.01
0.00
1991
8.21
576
4.21
1.50
1965
9.24
592
5.07
0.45
1992
9.02
555
2.02
0.00
1966
9.20
720
4.01
0.70
1993
9.11
488
5.11
0.00
1967
10.04
725
4.15
0.20
1994
9.02
660
3.02
1.60
1968
8.17
400
4.15
0.08
1995
9.24
1,067
3.31
0.40
4.7
Hyetograph and Hydrograph of Major Flood 2
Station: 01150502 A. Kabinburi, Prachinburi (7,502 km )
265
Thailand ― 6
5.
Water Resources
5.2
Map of Water Resources System
Source: Map of Irrigation Projects in Thailand 1989, Planning and Budget Div., Royal Irrigation Department
266
Thailand ― 6
5.3
List of Major Water Resource Facilities Catchment Gross area capacity [km2] [106m3]
Effective capacity [106m3]
Purposes
Year of completion
65
61.4
A, F, I, P, W
1998
459
326
322
A, F, I, P, W
1998
Huai Samong Dam
443
295
275.5
A, F, I, P, W
1998
Lam Phrayathan Dam
68
30
25.95
A, F, I, P, W
1998
River
Dam
Khlong Phrasathung
Phrasathung Dam
574
Khlong Sainoi
Sainoi Dam
Huai Samong Lam Phrayathan A: Agriculture
5.4
F: Flood protection
I: Industries
P: Hydropower
W: Water supply
Major Floods Maximum discharge
Station code
Catchment area [km2]
m /s
3
m /s/km
01150301
1,540
487
0.316
5.5
3
2
Date
Observation period
10/5/83
1966 - 1995
01150404
590
558
0.946
10/5/90
1968 - 1995
01150202
2,523
1,420
0.563
10/6/90
1966 - 1995
01150502
7,502
2,220
0.296
10/6/90
1941 - 1995
01150509
45
126
2,800
9/10/93
1983 - 1995
Water Quality Major Indices Sampling point
Year
1) Prachinburi River - A.Bansang, Prachinburi
1991
2) Prachinburi River - A.Mueang, Prachinburi
1997
3) Prachinburi River - A.Bansang - A.Mueang -A. Prachantakham -A.Simahaphot
1998
4) Kwai Khamong (Hanuman River tributary) A.Kabinburi, Prachinburi
1998
5) Phraprong River -A.Kabinburi, Prachinburi -A.Mueang, Sakaeo -A.Wattananakhon, Sakaeo
1998
pH
DO [ppm]
BOD [mg/l]
Coliform [MPN/100ml.]
7.7 - 7.8
6.0 - 7.0
0.56 - 0.80
-
-
5.4
0.6
60,500
-
-
6.0 - 6.9 6.4 - 7.0 5.8 - 6.8 6.1 - 7.2
5.0 - 7.2 6.9 - 7.1 6.5 - 7.2 7.4 - 7.2
6.2 - 7.1
6.5 - 7.4
-
-
6.5 - 7.2 6.7 - 6.8 6.8 - 7.1
6.5 - 7.1 7.5 - 7.8 7.6 - 8.2
-
-
Sources: 1) Pal Consultant Ltd. 1994 Study of Potential Development of Water Resources in the Prachinburi River Basin, submitted to NESDB 2) Brown Record, Thailand Pollution Status Report 1997, Department of Pollution Control 3)-5) Hydrological Data System Report, Land and Water Conservation Div., Dept. of Land Development
267
Thailand ― 6
6.
Socio-Cultural Characteristics
The Mae Nam Prachinburi originates from the mountain ranges of the eastern sub-region within the provinces of Sakaeo and Prachinburi. The population of this sub-region is similar to that of the Central Plain in terms of culture, language, religion and beliefs. The people living on the low lying river plain are mainly involved in agriculture. Water related festivals are the Songkran and the Loy Kratong. In general, people in this region are diligent, but conservative, and prefer a peaceful life. The basin climate is suitable for agriculture and is a major source of agricultural produce for the Bangkok area. Hence the economic conditions in this river basin are better than average with high average annual incomes for the majority of households.
7.
References
Chantajitra, Y. et al. (1994): Location Map of Hydrological and Meteorological Stations in Thailand, submitted to Office of National Research Council. Brown Record, Thailand Pollution Status Report 1997, Department of Pollution Control, Ministry of Sciences, Technology and Environment. Dept. of Water Resources Engineering, Kasetsart University (1994): Study of the Potential Development of Water Resources in the Prachinburi River Basin, submitted to NESDB. Eastern Sub-region Land Use Map 1998, Land Use Planning Div., Department of Land Development Electricity Generating Authority of Thailand (1992): Surface runoff and specific yield of river basins in Thailand, Survey and Ecology Department (February, 1992), Meteorology and Hydrology Division. Isohyetal Map of Thailand 1966-1995, Hydrometeorology Div., Department of Meteorology Jumchet, C. and Javanaphet (1969): Geological Map of Thailand, Department of Mineral Resources. Map of Irrigation Projects in Thailand 1989, Planning and Budget Div., Royal Irrigation Department Meteorological Department, Climatological Data of Thailand. 1952-1997, Bangkok, Thailand. Pal Consultant Ltd. (1994): Study of Potential Development of Water Resources in the Prachinburi River Basin, submitted to NESDB. Soils the Kingdom of Thailand, Explanatory Text of the General Soil Map, Soil Survey Division, Department of Land Development, 1972. Thailand Hydrological Yearbook, 1978-1996, Hydrology Division, Royal Irrigation Department, Bangkok, Thailand.
268
Thailand ― 7
Mae Nam Bang Pakong Map of River
269
Thailand ― 7
Table of Basic Data Serial No : Thailand-7
Name: Mae Nam Bang Pakong Location: Eastern sub-region of Thailand
N 13° 05' - 14° 30'
Area: 8,706 km2
Length of main stream: 434 km
Origin: Kead Mt.
Highest point: 1,351 m (A. Banna, Nakhonnayok)
Outlet: Gulf of Thailand
Lowest point: 1 m (A. Bangpakong, Chachoengsao)
E 100° 57' - 102° 00'
Main geologic formation: Alluvium, Eluvium, Kanchanaburi Formation, Rataburi Formation, Phu Phan and Phra Wihan Formation, Porphyry, Tarutao Formation, Granite&Granadiorite, Gneiss and Schist 2
2
Major tributaries: Nakhonnayok River (2,543 km ), Khlong Tharat (2,965 km ), Khlong Luang (798 km2), Bangpakong (2,400 km2) Major reservoirs: Khlong Siyat Dam (325x106m3, 1998), Khlong Rabom (252x106m3, 1998), Khlong Luang (135 x106m3, 1998), Huai Prea reservoir (8.3 x106m3, 1988) Mean annual precipitation: 1,895 mm (1952 - 1996) station 03160501 A.Mueang, Chachoengsao 3
Mean annual runoff: 9.02 m /s (1969 - 1996) station 01160302 Ban Takloi, A. Sanamchaikhet, Chachoengsao Population: 1,503,988 (1998)
Major cities: Chonburi, Chachoengsao, Nakhonnayok, Prachinburi, Saraburi
Land uses: Forest 10.6%, Rice paddy 48.1%, Upland crops 39.2%, Orchard 1.9%, Water resources 0.2% (1998)
1.
General Description
The Mae Nam Bang Pakong merges with the Mae Nam Prachinburi at A. Bang Nampriao, Chachoengsa, and drains into the Gulf of Thailand at A. Bangpakong, Chachoengsao. The basin area is approximately 8,573 km2 and the main river reach length is approximately 241 km. The majority of the basin area is a low plain and is affected by seawater intrusion in the dry season, resulting in brackish water during the months of January to April.
270
Thailand ― 7
2
Geographical Information
2.1
Geological Map
Source: Geological Map of Thailand, Jumchet C. and Javanaphet, 1969, Department of Mineral Resources
271
Thailand ― 7
Soil Map
Source: General Soil Map Of Thailand, 1972, Soil Survey Division, Department of Land Development
272
Thailand ― 7
2.2
Land use Map
Source: Eastern Sub-region Land Use Map 1998, Land Use Planning Div., Department of Land Development.
273
Thailand ― 7
2.3
Characteristics of the River and the Main Tributaries
No.
Name
Length [km] Catchment Area [km2]
Highest Peak Elevation [m]
Major cities
1
Nakhonnayok
114 2,543
Kead Mt. 1,351
A. Pakphli, A. Mueang Nakhonnayok
2
Khlong Thalat
133 2,965
Yai Mt. 777
A. Sanamchaikhet Chachoengsao
3
Khlong Luang
53 796
Chao Mt. 525
A. Bothong Chonburi
4
Lower Bangpakong
134 2,400
Chompoo Mt. 732
A. Banbueng, Chonburi A. Mueang, Chachoengsao
5
Bangpakong (main river)
241 806
Kead Mt. 1,351
Chonburi, Chachoengsao Nakhonnayok
2.4
Longitudinal Profiles
274
Thailand ― 7
3.
Climatological Information
3.1
Annual Isohyetal Map
Source: Isohyetal Map of Thailand, 1966-1995, Meteorological Department.
275
Thailand ― 7
3.2
List of Meteorological Observation Stations
Code
Station
Gauge
Location
Duration
Mean annual [mm]
Data
03160301
A. Phanomsarakham Chachoengsao
Standard
N13° 44' 36" E 101° 21' 00"
1952 - 1996
1,490.2
Precipitation
03160302
Thatakiap Agr. Exp. Sta. A. Sanamchaikhet Chachoengsao
Standard
N13° 28' 29" E 101° 37' 44"
1967 - 1996
1,331.6
Precipitation
03160501
A. Mueang Chachoengsao
Automatic
N14° 03' 00" E 101° 22' 00"
1952 - 1995
1,894.9
Precipitation
03160503
A. Bangkhla Chachoengsao
Standard
N13° 43' 34" E 101° 04' 55"
1952 - 1996
1,282.8
Precipitation
03160504
A. Bangnampriao Chachoengsao
Standard
N13° 50' 44" E 101° 03' 25"
1952 - 1996
1,353.3
Precipitation
03160508
A. Bangpakong Chachoengsao
Standard
N13° 32' 29" E 100° 59' 50"
1982 - 1996
936.3
Precipitation
01160205
Hua Narok A. Mueang Prachinburi
Standard
N14° 17' 13" E 101° 24' 16"
1986 - 1996
2,855.6
Precipitation
03160201
A. Mueang Nakhonnayok
Standard
N14° 12' 07" E 101° 13' 12"
1951 - 1996
1,894.9
Precipitation
03160202
A. Banna Nakhonnayok
Standard
N14° 15' 54" E 101° 03' 51"
1952 - 1996
1,743.0
Precipitation
03160203
A. Pakphli Nakhonnayok
Standard
N14° 09' 44" E 101° 15' 53"
1952 - 1996
1,721.7
Precipitation
03160204
A. Ongkharak Nakhonnayok
Standard
N 14° 07' 17" 1952 - 1996 E 101° 00' 08"
1,314.6
Precipitation
3.3
Monthly Climate Data
Observations
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Mean Total
Period
Temperature [°C]
26.7 28.3 29.7 30.1 29.3 28.8 28.4 28.1 28.1 28.0 27.2 26.1 28.2
Precipitation [mm]
8.8 19.4 53.7 120.7216.7253.7284.0386.1364.8162.9 33.8 8.5 159.4 1,913.0 1966 - 1997
Evaporation [mm]
137.9130.9169.7160.6147.0124.9133.6126.5123.6124.9135.2137.4 137.7 1,652.3 1966 - 1997
276
-
1966 - 1997
Thailand ― 7
3.4
Long-term Variation of Monthly Precipitation
Station: A. Mueang, Nakhonnayok (03160201)
277
Thailand ― 7
4.
Hydrological Information
4.1
Map of Stream Flow Observation Stations
Source: Chantajitra, Y. et al., 1994, Location Map of Hydrologic and Meteorological Stations in Thailand, Office of National Research Council
278
Thailand ― 7
4.2
List of Hydrological Observation Stations Location
Station
Catchment area [km2]
Duration
Mean discharge [m3/s]
Data items
951
1969 - 1995
9.02
Q, H1, WQ
01160302 N 13° 28' 29" Ban Thaloi A. Sanamchaikhet, E 101° 37' 44" Chachoengsao 01160401 A. Phanatnikhom, Chonburi
N 13° 23' 17" E 101° 20' 40"
535
1965 - 1995
3.49
Q, H1, WQ
01160205 A. Mueang, Prachinburi
N 14° 17' 23" E 101° 24' 16"
128
1986 - 1995
7.70
Q, H1, WQ
01160204 A. Banna, Nakhonnayok
N 14° 17' 07" E 101° 04' 26"
203
1977 - 1995
4.59
Q, H5d
01160202 A. Mueang, Nakhonnayok
N 14° 14' 45" E 101° 12' 38"
519
1973 - 1995
22.40
Q, H5d
− 4) Qmax 3 [m /s]
− 5) Qmin 3 [m /s]
− Q/A 3 2 [m /s/100km ]
Qmax/A [m3/s/100km2]
Period of statistics
500
190
0.02
0.95
52.6
1969-1995
358
66.2
0.10
0.65
66.9
1965-1995
7.70
429
286
0.00
6.02
335
1986-1995
01160204
4.59
115
79.1
0.03
2.26
56.7
1977-1995
01160202
22.40
535
342
0.11
4.32
103.08
1973-1995
No.
−2) Q 3 [m /s]
Qmax 3 [m /s]
01160302
9.02
01160401
3.49
01160205
1) Q: Discharge 2) Mean annual discharge 5) Mean minimum discharge
4.3
3)
H1: Water level (daily) 3) Maximum discharge.
H5d: Water level (5-day) 4) Mean maximum discharge
WQ: Water qualities
Long-term Variation of Monthly Discharge
Station: A. Sanamchaikhet, Chachoengsao (01160302)
279
Thailand ― 7
4.6
Annual Maximum and Minimum Discharge 2
Station: A. Sanamchaikhet, Chachoengsao: (01160302) (951 km ) Year
Maximum
Minimum
Date
m3/s
Date
m3/s
1969
9.22
268
3.21
0.00
1970
9.22
138
3.23
0.00
1971
10.30
212
4.14
1972
9.25
129
3.31
1973
9.19
217
4.17
1974
10.20
134
1975
10.05
1976
Year
Maximum
Minimum
Date
m3/s
Date
m3/s
1982
9.11
55
3.31
0.02
1983
10.20
383
4.24
0.00
0.03
1984
10.10
118
3.17
0.01
0.01
1985
10.24
73
3.31
0.00
0.00
1986
10.07
184
4.09
0.00
4.04
0.10
1987
10.06
79
4.20
0.01
158
3.08
0.09
1988
10.19
214
4.11
0.00
9.14
500
3.10
0.06
1989
9.13
54
5.07
0.15
1977
9.24
101
3.27
0.00
1990
10.05
475
4.23
0.00
1978
9.19
301
3.29
0.00
1991
9.26
220
3.31
0.00
1979
9.30
91
5.06
0.00
1992
11.02
121
5.10
0.00
1980
9.24
118
5.09
0.00
1993
8.24
103
3.09
0.03
1981
9.23
171
4.11
0.03
1994
9.03
223
3.06
0.05
1995
10.11
243
4.01
0.12
4.7
Hyetograph and Hydrograph of Major Flood
Station: A. Sanamchaikhet, Chachoengsao (01160302)
280
Thailand ― 7
5.
Water Resources
5.1
Map of Water Resources System
Source: Map of Irrigation Projects in Thailand 1989, Planning and Budget Div., Royal Irrigation Department
281
Thailand ― 7
5.2
List of Major Reservoirs River
Name
Catchment area [km2]
Gross capacity [106m3]
Effective capacity [106m3]
Purposes
Year completed
Khlong Rabom (Khlong Tharat tributary)
Khlong Rabom Dam
798
272
252
A, W
1990
Khlong Luang
Khlong Luang
528
135
119
A, W
1995
Khlong Siyat
Khlong Siyat Dam
951
325
300
A, W
1995
A: Agriculture
5.4
W: Water supply
Major Floods Peak discharge
Station code
Catchment area [km2]
3
m /s
m3/s/km2
01160302
951
500
01160401
535
01160205
5.5
Date
Duration
0.526
14/9/76
1969 - 1995
303
0.566
10/5/90
1965 - 1995
128
429
3.352
10/5/90
1986 - 1995
01160204
203
115
0.567
10/5/90
1977 - 1995
01160202
519
535
1.031
13/8/91
1973 - 1995
Water Quality Location
Year
pH
DO [ppm]
BOD [mg/l]
Coliform [MPN/100ml.]
Nakhonnayok River (Khlong Hokwa)
1991 1992
7.1 7.1
7.28 5.68
1.12 0.16
-
Bangpakong River (Wat Sothon)
1991 1992
7.0 7.5
3.60 5.28
0.88 1.44
-
Bangpakong River (Bangpakong Bridge)
1991 1992
7.1 7.8
3.44 5.20
0.80 1.60
-
Khlong Rabom
1991 1992
8.3 7.8
4.80 5.28
0.64 0.72
-
Source: Dept. of Water Resources Engineering, Kasetsart University, 1994, Study of Potential Development of Water Resources in the Bangpakong River Basin, report submitted to NESDB
282
Thailand ― 7
6.
Socio-cultural Characteristics
The Mae Nam Bang Pakong River originates from the mountain ranges in the eastern sub-region covering the provinces of Chachoengsao, Nakhonnayok, Chonburi, Prachinburi and Saraburi. The population of this sub-region is similar to that of the Central Plain in terms of culture, language, religion and beliefs. The people living on the low lying river plain are mainly involved in agriculture. Water related festivals are the Songkran and the Loy Kratong. There are also other provincial festivals, for example the Buffalo Race and Rice Piling contests in Chonburi. In general, people in this region are diligent, but conservative, and prefer a peaceful life. The beautiful natural resources, like waterfalls and the long coastline, attract tourists all the year round. In addition there exist deep water sea ports catering for international cargo ships. These favorable economic basin conditions make the people of the area well off with relatively high annual incomes.
7.
References
Chantajitra, Y. et al. (1994): Location Map of Hydrological and Meteorological Stations in Thailand, submitted to Office of National Research Council. Brown Record, Thailand Pollution Status Report 1997, Department of Pollution Control, Ministry of Sciences, Technology and Environment. Dept. of Water Resources Engineering, Kasetsart University (1994): Study of the Potential Development of Water Resources in the Prachinburi River Basin, submitted to NESDB. Eastern Sub-region Land Use Map 1998, Land Use Planning Div., Department of Land Development Electricity Generating Authority of Thailand (1992): Surface runoff and specific yield of river basins in Thailand, Survey and Ecology Department (February, 1992), Meteorology and Hydrology Division. Isohyetal Map of Thailand 1966-1995, Hydrometeorology Div., Department of Meteorology Jumchet, C. and Javanaphet (1969): Geological Map of Thailand, Department of Mineral Resources. Map of Irrigation Projects in Thailand 1989, Planning and Budget Div., Royal Irrigation Department Meteorological Department: Climatological Data of Thailand. 1952-1997, Bangkok, Thailand. Soils the Kingdom of Thailand, Explanatory Text of the General Soil Map, Soil Survey Division, Department of Land Development, 1972. Thailand Hydrological Yearbook, 1978-1996, Hydrology Division, Royal Irrigation Department, Bangkok, Thailand.
283
Thailand ― 8
Tonle Sap Map of River
284
Thailand ― 8
Table of Basic Data Name: Tonle Sap
Serial No : Thailand-8
Location: Eastern part of Thailand Area: 4,142 km
N 12° 45' 03" - 13° 42' 43" E 102° 10' 13" - 102° 37" 40"
2
Length of main stream: 187 km
Origin: Upper - Mt. Bantud Phrom Hot - Mt. Tungpauy Lower - Mt. South Soidao
Highest point: Upper - 616 m Phrom Hot - 295 m Lower - 1,640 m
Outlet: Upper - Huai Ta Khen Phrom Hot - Khlong Nam Sai Lower - flow to Kampuchai
Lowest point: Upper - 24 m Phrom Hot - 40 m Lower - 37 m
Main geological formations: Phu Phan and Phra Wihan Formation, Kanchanaburi Formation, Phu Kradung Formation, Ratburi Formation, Gneiss and Schist, Granite and Granodiorite, Andesite-Rhyorite, Porphyry and Tuff, Basalt and its equivalents Major tributaries: Upper (1,626 km2), Huai Phrom Hot (936 km2), Lower (1,580 km2) 6
3
Major reservoirs: Huai Yang Reservoir (60 x 10 m , 1993) Mean annual precipitation: 1,387 mm. (1966-1997) at station 03170101 A. Aranyaprathet, Sakaeo Mean annual runoff: 5.30 m3/s (1964-1988) at station 01170201 A. Aranyaprathet, Sakaeo Population: 480,809 (1998)
Major cities: Sakaeo and A. Pong Nam Ron, Chanthaburi
Land uses: Forest 32.4% Agriculture and urban Areas 67.6% Water resources 0.3% (1998)
1
General Description
The basin of the Tonle Sap contains 8 separate rivers. The basin can be divided into 3 sub-basins, i.e., the Upper Tonle Sap, the Huai Phromhot, and the Lower Tonle Sap basins. All sub-basins are approximately rectangular in shape (compactness coefficient>1). The drainage capacity of the basin is relatively low (drainage density