Challenges facing biodiversity in the United Arab

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Challenges facing biodiversity in the United Arab Emirates

Challenges facing diversity in the UAE

Christophe Tourenq Emirates Wildlife Society – World Wide Fund for Nature-UAE Project Office, Dubai, United Arab Emirates, and

Fre´de´ric Launay Environment Agency-Abu Dhabi, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates

283 Received 21 May 2007 Revised 23 August 2007 Accepted 8 October 2007

Abstract Purpose – The purpose of the paper is to show that the Arabian Peninsula, and the United Arab Emirates in particular, has not been spared by the trends of biodiversity loss observed on the world scale. The authors aim to present a rapid review of the challenges facing the biodiversity in the UAE and the solutions that this young country proposes to counteract the erosion of its biodiversity. Design/methodology/approach – The authors gathered and compiled published and unpublished information from governmental and non-governmental sources. Findings – Despite being regarded as a vast desertic and unfertile area with one of the lowest human populations in the world, the UAE hosts a unique and remarkably adapted fauna and flora. Adding to natural causes (drought), the main threats facing biodiversity identified were: coastal development and urbanisation, as well as over-exploitation of natural resources (fishing, hunting, grazing and water extraction) that are linked with the tremendous population increase and changes in lifestyle. Traditional systems of resource management in the UAE have been abandoned. Over the last few decades, the UAE has lost most of its big fauna and is witnessing the remaining Arabian leopard, Mountain Gazelle, Arabian Tahr, Arabian Sailfish, groupers and shark populations at the brink of extinction. Originality/value – The paper proposes the inclusion of environmental issues in the development planning (with proper environment impact assessments), the involvement of local communities in the decision making and the improvement of federal and international trans-boundaries collaborations. Highlights that an urgent step would be the implementation of integrated costal management zoning to stop the current extent of coastal development that contributes through physical alteration of habitats to the disappearance of key resources and habitats. Keywords United Arab Emirates, Biotechnology, Conservation Paper type Research paper

This review would not have been possible without the data compiled among the years by the colleagues from the Environment Agency Abu Dhabi (EAD), a pioneer governmental agency in the conservation of the environment in the UAE, from the Emirates Natural History Groups of Al Ain, Dubai and Abu Dhabi, and participants to the International Conservation Workshops for the Threatened Fauna of Arabia at the Breeding Centre for Endangered Arabian Wildlife/Environment and Protected Areas Authority (EPAA) of Sharjah, UAE. The authors wish to thank Mr Majid Al Mansouri, Environment Agency Development-Abu Dhabi Secretary General, and Ms Razan Al Mubarak, Director of EWS-WWF, for their invaluable support. The authors are grateful to Mike Brook and Edwin Grandcourt of the Environment Agency Development-Abu Dhabi, and Dr John Hoolihan of NOAA-NMFS Southeast Fisheries Science Center USA, for their comments and grand support for providing them with necessary data and references on groundwater and marine issues.

Management of Environmental Quality: An International Journal Vol. 19 No. 3, 2008 pp. 283-304 q Emerald Group Publishing Limited 1477-7835 DOI 10.1108/14777830810866428

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Introduction The industrial revolution in the nineteenth century and the use of fossil fuels allowed human societies to free themselves from nature and expand. As a result, today’s world human population exceeds 6 billion individuals. Human population growth correlated with industrial development resulted in a worldwide increase of human population density to reach today an average of 44 individuals per km2, whereas a “natural” density for a mammal of the size of a human would be around two individuals per km2 (Peters, 1983). Over the past 50 years, humans have changed ecosystems more rapidly and extensively than in any comparable period of time in human history, largely to meet rapidly growing demands for food, fresh water, timber, fiber, and fuel. As a consequence, 40-50 per cent of the ice-free earth surface has been transformed by man and 70 per cent of ecosystems are exploited directly or indirectly by man (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005). This has resulted in a substantial and largely irreversible loss in the diversity of life on earth. Human population growth and economic expansion are some of the key causes of species decline worldwide (Orr, 2003). When examining the population trends of 1,313 vertebrates species (fish, amphibians, reptiles, mammals, birds) in the world, a general 29 per cent of decline during the last 33 years is noticed in the three main ecosystems: terrestrial, freshwater and marine (Figure 1; WWF, 2006). Despite being regarded as a vast desertic and unfertile area with one of the lowest human population in the world, the Arabian Peninsula was not spared by the trends observed on the world scale. We present here a rapid review of the challenges facing biodiversity in the UAE. A brief socio-economical perspective After the discovery of oil in Iran near Abadan in 1908, the Middle East was intensively prospected. Bahrain and Saudi Arabia began to produce commercially significant quantities of oil in 1934 and 1938 respectively. Oil prospecting resumed after the end of the Second World War and throughout the 1950s oil companies expanded their operations to other GCC countries such as Kuwait in 1946, Qatar in 1950 and United Arab Emirates (UAE) in 1962 (Kazim, 2000). Currently, the Middle East represents 64.5 per cent of the world’s oil reserves (Holmes and Jones, 2003). Revenues from the oil exports transformed considerably the face of the region from backward desert countries inhabited by nomads, to countries with a booming economy and one of the highest Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita in the world. Ten years after the beginning of its exploitation in the UAE in 1960, oil represented an annual revenue of US$155 million. In 20 years (1972-1992) the contribution of oil sectors accounted for 81 to 93 per cent of the total revenue for the UAE – up to 63.5 per cent of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of this country (Kazim, 2000). Even if the UAE has diversified its economy during the last decade, oil revenues have boosted all the sectors of the country’s economy and still provide today two thirds of the UAE’s income. Nowadays, the GDP per capita is estimated at US$20,404 (UAE Ministry of Information and Culture, 2006). The wealth brought by oil and gas revenues resulted in drastic changes in the UAE population size. It has increased by 16 times in the last 30 years, with a population growth up to 6.9 per cent (the world average being approximately 1.3 per cent) due to the a formidable influx of emigrants hired as manpower for oil sectors first, then for other sectors of the economy, as well as a mortality rate amongst the lowest in the world

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Figure 1. Biodiversity trends since 1970

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(neonate mortality rate: 5.54/1000; infant mortality: 7.7/1000, maternal mortality rates: 0.01/100,000, life expectancy: 78 years; UAE Ministry of Information and Culture, 2006). The annual growth rate of the urban population of 5.6 per cent between 1972 and 1980 has increased dramatically during the last decade. Like all the countries of the Arabian Peninsula, with the exception of Yemen, the UAE now a level of urbanisation exceeding 80 per cent (United Nation Population Division, 2001). In the same period the UAE natural and social environment has undergone dramatic changes with substantial development of infrastructures (roads, housing, industries, etc.) and agriculture (farms, forest plantations) and drastic modifications of lifestyle with the end of nomadism, modernisation of hunting and modernisation of fishing (Gulf Research Center, 2007). A local biodiversity perspective The following information was extracted from more general and detailed contributions published (e.g. Gross, 1987; Western, 1989; Harrison and Bates, 1991; Aspinall, 1995; Osborne, 1996; Jongbloed, 2001; Jongbloed et al., 2001; Jongbloed, 2003; Barth and Boër, 2002; Perry, 2002; Aspinall and Hellyer, 2004; Loughland et al., 2004; Hellyer and Aspinall, 2005; EAD-AGEDI, 2006; Launay, 2006), numerous issues of the “Tribulus” magazine published by the Emirates Natural History Group of Abu Dhabi (available at: www.enhg.org/tribulus.htm), as well as unpublished proceedings of the International Conservation Workshops for the Threatened Fauna of Arabia, organised since 1999 by the Breeding Centre for Endangered Arabian Wildlife/Environment and Protected Areas Authority (EPAA) of Sharjah, UAE, and reports mostly from the Environment Agency Abu Dhabi (EAD) (e.g. Boër et al., 1999; Brown et al., 2003a, b; Drew and Al Dhaheri, 2003; Drew et al., 2003a, b, c; Javed and Khan, 2003; Brown et al., 2004; Drew, 2004; Drew et al., 2004; Javed et al. 2004; Drew et al., 2005a, b; Soorae et al., 2005; Tourenq and Drew, 2005). Physical features The Arabian Peninsula falls within the Saharo-Sindian sub-region of the Palaearctic region. This sub-region includes the desert and arid zone belt from the Western Sahara, through North Africa, Arabia and as far eastwards as the Sind in Pakistan and northwards through the deserts and semi-deserts of Afghanistan to Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan, and could also be extended to include the Great Indian Desert of Rajasthan (Delany, 1989; Joger, 1987). A wide variety of habitats typify the UAE, including extensive sand dunes, sabkhas, coastal mangroves and wetlands, acacia savannah plains, inland gravel outwash plains and high mountains of the Musandam Peninsula that overlook passage through the Persian Gulf. The landscape is characterised by rapid changes between: . the sand and gravel desert which dominates most of the south and west of the country (and extends inland to the high dune systems of the Rub al Khali); and . a gravel savannah plain (with Acacia tortilis) abutting the western side of the arid Hajar Mountains, which rise rapidly to over 1,300m and then steeply down to the coast of the Gulf of Oman/Arabian Sea. The Arabian Gulf littoral of the UAE is characterised by a succession of active coastal sabkhas and mangroves, represented by a single species, Avicennia marina. Sabkhas develop 300km in length, varying in width, they extend continuously for 20km or more

inland, such as the Sabkha Matti. This expansive area of sabkha, with a total area of approximately 6,000km2 extends 130km southwards from the UAE coastline into the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, with the northern and eastern portion falling inside the boundaries of the United Arab Emirates. Sabkha Matti was declared of international importance, in terms of its uniqueness and its geological formations. With the exception of the small site of 6km2 on the Gulf of Oman/Arabian Sea coast (Khor Kalba; Sharjah Emirate), all the natural mangrove is dispersed on the Arabian Gulf coast where Avicennia marina reaches its northern limit in Asia. The mangrove distribution is patchy and covers in total about 40km2 of the UAE shoreline. Most areas of mangrove are relatively small in size and only a few extensive mangroves exist. Mangrove patches are known to have been more extensive both historically and in the recent past prior to human interference. Compared to the Gulf of Oman/Arabian Sea where the continental shelf drops quickly below 100m and the salinity does not exceed 37ppt, the Arabian Gulf coastal waters are extraordinarily shallow (mean depth of 20m), saline (37 to 45ppt) and gently shelving with numerous inshore and nearshore islands. Most of these islands are simply part of a formerly more extensive and continuous sabkha invaded and dissected by post-Quaternary Shamallic storms and thence inundated by a sea level rise. Offshore, larger islands are mostly the higher parts of a diapiric surface, the clearest evidence for which is where the migrating salt has erupted through to the surface to form distinctive and obtrusive looking hills. Other islands are anything from tiny sandy and shelly shoals to those larger with raised coral and outcropping limestone, which are mostly covered with drift deposits. The climate of the UAE is characterised by high temperatures (12-528C), high humidity and low rainfall (35-200mm/year), typical of this region. However, the east coast and the mountains receive an annual average rainfall of 100-200mm higher in comparison to the west coast receiving the lowest average of less than 60mm. Biological features The Arabian Peninsula is often regarded as a vast arid land with little or no value from a biodiversity point of view. With high temperatures and low rainfall, UAE deserts could be considered as simple ecosystems with basic food chains, a low primary production and a low biodiversity. However, these habitats host unique species that show remarkable adjustments to survive harsh environmental conditions with physiological, behavioural and morphological strategies. To avoid water and heat related stress, most of the species are active only at night (Sand Cat, Felix margarita), have the physiological abilities to extract water from their food (Sand Gazelle, Gazella subgutturosa marica), posses a low digestive process and the possibility to fast one-year (Spiny-tailed Lizard, Uromastyx spp.), show a low basal metabolic rate and evaporative water loss (larks), have long (Arabian toad-headed Agama, Phrynocephalus arabicus) or hairy (Cheesman’s gerbil, Gerbillus cheesmani ) members to limit contact with the hot sand or move easily on soft surfaces, etc. (Schleich et al., 1996; Tieleman et al., 2002). So far, more than 1,500 species of insects, 13 species of terrestrial molluscs, 646 species of marine invertebrates, 724 species of plants (including 36 marine algae and seagrasses), 435 species of birds, 221 species of fish (including three freshwater species), 67 species of reptiles (including 14 marine species), 64 species of mammals (including 17 marine species) and two species of amphibians have been identified in the country (Hornby, 1996a; Hornby and Aspinall, 1996; Cunningham, 2004; Hellyer and


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Aspinall, 2005; Tourenq and Drew, 2005; van Harten, 2005; EAD-AGEDI, 2006; van Harten, 2007). Nevertheless, despite this apparent biodiversity, there is no recognised nationally endemic species of wildlife, except one endemic sub-species of bird (White-collared Kingfisher, Halcyon chloris kalbaiensis). This lack of endemism is presumably due to the fact that all of the major UAE habitat types are also present in adjacent areas of Oman and Saudi Arabia. This apparent lack of bio endemism however, shall be revised in the future with numerous species of marine invertebrates found in UAE still unidentified (Hellyer and Aspinall, 2005) and the recent discovery of, at least, 85 insect species new for science in the country (van Harten, 2007). During the last seven years, two new species of mammal and four species of reptile for UAE and northern Oman, as well as ten species of coral new for science in neighbouring Omani waters, have been described (Wilms and Bo¨hme, 2000; Babocsay, 2004; Gardner, 2005; Soorae and Al Hameiri, 2005; Tourenq and Drew, 2005; Claereboudt, 2006). It is also worth mentioning that some of the vertebrate mountain species are endemic to the northern Oman and UAE mountains (Arabian Tahr, Hemitragus jayakari ) or with a range restricted to southeastern Arabia, hence may be categorised as regional endemics (Arabian Jird, Meriones arimalius, and eleven species of reptiles). Moreover, 311 animal species ( ¼ 12 percent of the total identified species) of the UAE fauna are listed in the IUCN Red Data List, including 63 species ( ¼ 2 per cent of the total species) classified internationally endangered: 24 bird, 19 fish, 16 mammal, two reptile and two insect species (IUCN, 2006). These species are nevertheless classified based on their global status worldwide. Pioneer works of Hornby (1996b) and Hornby and Aspinall (1996) were recently updated to give a regional status to some species (Cunningham, 2004; Tourenq and Drew, 2005). As an example, on the 48 species of terrestrial mammals occurring, or having occurred, in UAE: two are considered now extinct in the wild: Arabian Oryx (Oryx leucoryx) and Wild Goat (Capra aegagrus), two are probably extinct: Arabian Wolf (Canis lupus arabs) and Striped Hyena (Hyaena hyaena), seven are close to extinction in the wild: Arabian Tahr, Arabian Leopard (Panthera pardus nimr), Mountain Gazelle (Gazella gazella cora), Sand Gazelle (Gazella subgutturosa marica), Caracal Lynx (Felis caracal schmitzi ), Blanford’s Fox (Vulpes cana), Gordon’s Wild Cat (Felis silvestris gordoni ), and six are considered endangered because of their restricted range, particular habitat and/or low populations: Brandt’s Hedgehog (Hemiechinus hypomelas), Muscat Mouse-tailed Bat (Rhinopoma muscatellum), Ru¨ppell’s Fox (Vulpes rueppelli ), Sand Cat (Felis margarita), Egyptian Spiny Mouse (Acomys cahirinus), Arabian Jird (Meriones arimalius) (Hornby, 1996b; Cunningham, 2004; Tourenq and Drew, 2005; EAD-AGEDI, 2006). A region of priority for conservation The WWF Conservation Science Program has identified 1,507 ecoregions in the world comprising 825 terrestrial ecoregions, so far 450 freshwater ecoregions, and 232 coast and shelf marine ecoregions. Ecoregions were defined as large areas of land or water that contain a geographically distinct assemblage of natural communities that: . share a large majority of their species and ecological dynamics; . hare similar environmental conditions; and . interact ecologically in ways that are critical for their long-term persistence.

Five ecoregions are present in UAE: Al Hajar mountane woodlands, Arabian Desert and East-Saharo-Arabian desert and xeric shrublands, Gulf of Oman desert and semi-desert, Persian Gulf desert and semi-desert, and Arabian Sea (Figure 2). Furthermore, the WWF assessed the 1,507 ecoregions and identified the “Global 200” – the most biologically distinct terrestrial, freshwater and marine ecoregions of the planet. The Global 200 include 142 terrestrial, 53 freshwater and 43 marine priority ecoregions for conservation priority in the world (Olson and Dinerstein, 1998). The Global 200 were selected for their species richness, endemism, higher taxonomic uniqueness, unique ecological or evolutionary phenomena, global rarity of habitats, intactness and representation. Their conservation status of ecoregions was assessed in the tradition of IUCN Red Data Book categories for threatened and endangered species. As per the Global 200 WWF classification, the UAE lies in two priority Global 200 Ecoregions of the world identified by the WWF: the “Arabian Highlands and Shrublands” and the “Arabian Gulf and Sea” (www.worldwildlife.org/wildworld; Olson and Dinerstein, 1998).


Threats to biodiversity in UAE and the region From coral reefs to man-made oases, a great variety of habitats that host a noticeable number of species can be found in the country. Therefore, to illustrate our statement, we choose to examine the situation at the level of the three main groups of habitats: marine, desert and mountain.

Figure 2. WWF ecoregions identified in the UAE and neighbouring countries

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Marine habitats Coastal and offshore waters of UAE support a rich and diverse fish fauna, including many species of reef-associated fish, seasonally abundant large pelagic species, and small schooling fish (Sheppard et al., 1992). Coastal habitats (coral reefs, sand strands, tidal flats, lagoons, mangroves, seagrass beds, etc.) are one of the most biologically diverse marine ecosystems in the world. In the UAE they play important ecological, economic, recreational and cultural roles. Some of these habitats provide food and shelter for numerous fish and marine species, protect coastal areas from storm surge, prevent coastal erosion and support commercial fishing and an array of recreational activities. Added to overfishing, pollution and natural causes (fluctuation of temperatures, attacks by the Crown of Thorns starfish, Acanthaster planci, etc.), unplanned coastal development during the last decades is currently the main threat on coastal habitats. Between 1970 and 1985, Dubai city increased in size from 18kmsq to 110kmsq but this rate jumped dramatically during the 2000s and now the whole 60km coastline of Dubai Emirate from Jebel Ali to Sharjah is urbanised. About 70 per cent of the UAE coastline has been reclaimed since 1990 (UAE Ministry of Information and Culture, 2006; EWS-WWF, unpublished). Destruction of marine wildlife breeding and feeding habitats (coral reefs, seagrass beds, lagoons, mangroves, beaches) and overfishing, consequently impacts on marine biodiversity, on population numbers and on local economy (fisheries). While contributing to the cultural heritage of the UAE, the marine environment supports moderate to large local commercial and artisanal fisheries of substantial economic value to the people. Between 2003 and 2005, fish landings along the coast of Abu Dhabi and Fujairah emirates totalled between 6,658 and 18,764 tons, corresponding to values between 13,204,620 and 39,577,000 USD (Hartmann et al., 2005; Fujairah Statistics Yearbook, 2005). However, the comparison of a recent fish resource assessment in UAE waters in 2002 (Shallard et al., 2003) with a similar assessment by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) in 1978 (FAO, 1981), showed that the biomass of demersal (living on or near the bottom) fish species declined by 81-93 per cent in 24 years in the East and Gulf coasts of UAE (Figure 3). Demersal species represented 85 per cent of the total fish landings in Abu Dhabi Emirate between 2001 and 2003 and grouper species (Serranidae) represented 18 per cent of the total catch and up to 27-30 per cent of the value of landed catch, equivalent to 17-20 million AED (Grandcourt et al., 2002, 2003, 2004). The Orange-spotted Grouper (Epinephelus coioides) is a very common grouper species in the Arabian Gulf, where it is the most important commercially exploited species, representing up to 35 per cent of the catch and 40 per cent of its value in Abu Dhabi Emirate. Recent surveys showed that the Orange-spotted Grouper had been exploited far beyond sustainable yields (up to seven times more than the sustainable level) during the last five years (Grandcourt et al., 2005a); 80 per cent of the species mortality being due to fishing only, and one third of the yield in numbers consisted of fish that were below the size at first sexual maturity (three years). As the key species, like the groupers, in the demersal fishery are generally long-lived, it was estimated that the stock recovery will only be fully realized after some 15 to 20 years following the removal of the appropriate amount of effective fishing capacity (Grandcourt et al., 2004).


Figure 3. Demersal fish species trends in the UAE waters

Pelagic fish populations are also in bad shape: Kingfish (Scomberomorus commerson) landed catch is immature at 95 per cent (Grandcourt et al., 2005b) and the Arabian Gulf Sailfish (Istiophorus platypterus) population in UAE is said to have decreased by 70 per cent in eight years (pers. com.) – a reduction of approximately 50 per cent per annum sailfish catch rates in Iran since 2000 has been estimated (Hoolihan, 2004). The concern in proper management of fish stock lead the government of Abu Dhabi to introduce in 2004 regulations intended to reduce the fishing effort and retention of juvenile fish in the emirate (EAD-AGEDI, 2006). At a national scale, the number of UAE national fishermen has already decreased due to a lack of profit and difficulties in maintaining their fleet (Gulf News, 05/04/2005; http://archive.gulfnews.com/articles/05/04/20/ 161533.html). On the east coast, the drop in fish catches has been very dramatic as local authorities imposed a ban on fishing six fish species: bedha (majarra), safi (streaked spine foot), biah (flathead mullet), sheri (spangled emperor), hamour (thorny cheek grouper) and a fish locally known as hams to preserve local fish stock (Gulf News, 2005) Despite their dryness and rough aspect, UAE islands of the Arabian Gulf host a unique biodiversity (Soorae, 2004; Javed et al., 2004; Soorae and Al Hameiri, 2005; Soorae et al., 2005). Island habitats are relevant to nearly 40 per cent of all bird species recorded in the UAE (Javed and Khan, 2003). Of the 19 Important Bird Areas (IBAs) identified in the United Arab Emirates, 68 per cent are on coastal areas of which 42 per cent of them are on islands (Evans, 1994; BirdLife International, 2006). Five species of Terns (Sterna spp.), Sooty Gull (Larus hemprichii ), Socotra Cormorant (Phalacrocorax nigrogularis), Crab Plover (Dromas ardeola), Red-billed Tropicbird (Phaethon aethereus), Osprey (Pandion haliaetus) and Sooty Falcon (Falco concolor) are classified as “important” and “regional priority species” (Aspinall, 1996; Evans, 1994; Javed and Khan, 2003). Each of this species relies on island ecosystems as breeding grounds and coastal ecosystems as feeding grounds. The above mentioned decrease of fish stocks, added to land reclamation, disturbance (noise, pollution) and introduction

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of invasive species (House Crow, Corvus splendens, Feral pigeon, Columba livia, and cats, rats, mice) associated with coastal development, impacted seabird populations directly though predation and physical destruction of suitable breeding habitat, or indirectly through the decrease of breeding success (Javed and Khan, 2003; Soorae et al., 2005). Surveys in 2007 showed that if Osprey breeding pairs remain relatively stable (61 pairs vs 65 in 1994) in Abu Dhabi emirate, that holds 90 per cent of the UAE, key sites for breeding sites, such as Yasat islands, Ghagah and Faziya, have lost more than 50 per cent of the nests over a decade (EAD, unpublished; Aspinall, 1996). Loss of breeding colonies of Socotra Cormorant, as well, has been observed during the last decade (Table I) and a decrease in some populations of seabirds has been noticed already (Javed and Khan, 2003). The whole marine food chain from coral beds to predators is therefore today, in jeopardy in the UAE. Desert habitats Due to the economical growth and the subsequent increase in population, the need in infrastructure development has been necessary to house and nourish a population booming from 250,000 habitants, mostly nomads, in 1971 to 4,104,695 habitants in 2005 (UAE Ministry of Information and Culture, 2006). The Government put considerable efforts to drive the country towards self-sufficiency in agricultural food items. Since the 1970s, the farmland surface has increased dramatically (i.e. 46 per cent of increase of farmland surface between 1996 and 2003 in the Abu Dhabi Emirate only; Brook et al., 2006). Over 40 million date palms, of which 16 million line the roads, have been planted in the UAE. There are now more than 100,000 hectares of cultivated land in the country producing a range of crops, including salad vegetables, potatoes, fruit and fodder, as well as flowers grown mainly for export to Europe (UAE Ministry of Information and Culture, 2006). As well as farmlands, extensive forestry plantations all over the UAE have increased the greenery in the country significantly. In the Abu Dhabi Emirate alone, forestry plantations have increased at a rate of 26 per cent per year since 1989 (Brook

Table I. Population numbers of Socotra Cormorant (Phalacrocorax nigrogularis) in the UAE between 1995 and 2002

Island colony site

1995

2002

Remarks

Arzanah Deyyinah Delma Dhabbiya Ghagah Ghasha Jazira-e-Naitah Jarnein Yasat Qasr Selaha South Furayjidat Umm Zirku Total

þ? 10,000 2500 300 6,000 þ? þ? þ? 2,000 80 1,338 150 15,000 39,363

0 15,000 0 5,000 10,000 0 0 0 0 0 0 10,000 0 42,002

Colony now extinct Currently occupied Colony now extinct Currently occupied Currently occupied Colony now extinct Colony now extinct Colony now extinct Colony now extinct No recent information No recent information Currently occupied Colony now extinct

Source: Aspinall, 1996; Javed and Khan, 2003

et al., 2006). Habitat fragmentation, already brought about by urbanization and road construction, increasingly became a problem with large scale enclosure of agricultural developments and forestry plantations, as the fences used are not only livestock-proof, but also greatly restrict the movement of wild animals. Expansion of cultivation and forestry plantations in a desert ecosystem may increase the overall number of species in the area. However, such increase in most cases is due to the colonization of common and opportunistic species. Changing a desert landscape from a sparsely vegetated area to a dense forestry plantation, alters and encroaches upon habitat for typical/native desert species and possibly results in their decline over a period of time. The expansion of plantations benefits invasive species that impact native and typical desert fauna, already weakened with the loss of their original habitat through competition for feeding and breeding resources, predation and transmission of diseases. Historically, UAE’s water requirements were met solely from groundwater obtained from shallow hand dug wells and the traditional “falaj” system, man-made channels used to collect groundwater, spring water and surface water and transport it, by gravity, to a demand area. Over the last 30 years, however, rapid economic development, coupled with sharp population increases and the development of large agricultural and forestry sectors, substantially supported from Government subsidies, has meant an increasing pressure on the existing water resources (groundwater). In the Abu Dhabi Emirate, 82 per cent of the water is taken by agriculture, forestry and amenity plantations (Figure 4). Groundwater represents ca 80 per cent of all water used, with 2.5 billion cubic meters/year abstracted, of which 99 per cen is used by forestry and agriculture (Brook et al., 2006). With an arid climate with less than 100 mm/year average rainfall, a very high evaporation rate (2-3m/year) and a low groundwater recharge rate (,4 per cent of total annual water used), well fields have been placed under increasing stress, resulting in declining water levels and an increase in groundwater salinity with a resultant decrease in total production. In Al Ain region, Abu Dhabi Emirate, a groundwater level loss of 61 to 93m in ten years has been observed (Brook et al., 2006). Camels have been bred for millennia in the Arabian Peninsula, mostly for milk, meat, wool and beast of burden. With the tremendous development in the Middle East, and the UAE in particular, traditional events such as camel breeding and racing have been promoted to preserve or construct a past in such fast modernized countries (Mortensen, 1999). This resulted in an increase in camel herds with a deep change in the traditional systems of livestock management. The traditional “heema“ system, which facilitated the sustainable use of rangelands and other natural resources by setting aside large reserves during times of stress, was abandoned in the 1960s in the Arabian Peninsula and Mashriq countries. While about 3,000 “heema” reserves existed in Saudi Arabia in 1969, only 71 were still in existence under various degrees of protection in 1984 and only nine were on the 1997 Protected Areas list (Launay, 2006). Groundwater extraction for cultivation added to the overgrazing by camel and the natural drought has resulted in the loss of desert habitats that are of national importance – notably some of the Ghaf (Prosopis cineraria) forests and the Acacia ehrenbergiana stands on the gravel plains, which provided habitat for unique species, such as the Least Semaphore Gecko (Pristurus minimus) and the Leptien’s Spiny-tailed Lizard (Uromastyx leptieni ) both endemic to the UAE and Oman, (Boër et al., 1999; Drew et al., 2004). A sustainable and traditional hunting practice, falconry, has been an integral part of desert life for many centuries and was practiced originally for purely


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Figure 4. Sources and users of water in Abu Dhabi Emirate in 2003

practical reasons, i.e. the necessity to supplement a meagre diet of dates, milk and bread with fresh wildlife meat. Practiced on camel or horseback until the late 1950s, hunting parties became highly mechanized and mobile to include nowadays air-conditioned four-wheel drives, automatic rifles, Global Positioning System (GPS), VHF, hired professional trackers, etc. The construction of road networks for oil exploitation and easier access to remote areas drastically increased the hunting pressure on local wildlife that extirpated in many places, such as the Arabian Oryx, the Arabian Wolf and the Striped Hyena, considered as extinct in the wild, or the Mountain Gazelle, classified as close to extinction.

Mountain habitats The UAE mountains host one of the rarest species in the world, the Arabian Tahr (classified “Critically Endangered” by IUCN; IUCN, 2006), which is endemic to UAE and Oman arid highlands (Munton, 1985). Main populations of this species have been documented from few locations in its range: Wadi Wurayah in Fujairah Emirate and Jebel Hafeet in Abu Dhabi Emirate in UAE, and Wadi Sareen, Al Ghamah and Jebel Qahwan/Jebel Sabtah in Oman (Hellyer and Aspinall, 2005; Insall, 1999). In 1978, the estimated total world population of Arabian Tahr was less than 2,000 (Munton, 1985) and these figures must be nowadays revaluated. Only the Wadi Sareen population of ca 200-300 individuals is located in a protected area, and the UAE population is estimated very low (, 100 individuals) and fragile (Aspinall and Hellyer, 2004; Hellyer and Aspinall, 2005; Tourenq and Drew, 2005). Because of its low numbers and fragmented distribution with isolated populations, the Arabian Tahr, officially protected in the UAE and Oman, is particularly threatened by illegal hunting and the loss of habitat in its range. A recent survey by the EWS-WWF has shown a decline of sightings by local bedouins of Arabian Tahr, as well as other large mammals, such as the Arabian Leopard, the Caracal and the Mountain Gazelle, in the Wadi Wurayah area in the Fujairah Emirate during the last 15 years (Figure 5; EWS-WWF, 2006). Local people in the northern mountains of Oman and UAE had their own traditional method of resource conservation through the establishment of “hamiyaat” or “heema“, traditional livestock-free protected areas where fodder is cut by hand. The abandonment of key “hamiyaat” in Oman has led to further grazing pressure and further loss of suitable habitat for the Arabian Tahr (Insall, 1999).


Figure 5. Trends of five species of mountain mammals in the Fujairah Emirate, based on interviews of locals

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The UAE’s first cement factory opened in the Ras al Khaimah Emirate in 1975 with an annual capacity of 550,000 tons. The formidable coastal development initiated in Dubai during the last decade induced an increasing demand for cement in the 1990s. Local cement is generally preferred to imported cement because of freshness. Except for gypsum and some additives, the raw materials for cement as well as most of the building material (rocks, aggregates, etc.) are locally available in the mountainous emirates of Sharjah, Ras al Khaimah and Fujairah. Crushing and quarry licenses dramatically increased in Ras al Khaimah and Fujairah to provide material quasi on site and not rely on overseas importation. In 2001, there were 11 cement factories with an annual capacity exceeding 8 million tons in the whole country. In 2005, there were 64 crushers in the Fujairah Emirate alone, representing 50 per cent of the labour force and income of the emirate, and the construction of a new cement factory with a planned annual production capacity of 1 million tonnes started in Ras al Khaimah. Given the pace of development in the country and the demand for building materials, the market for cement is expected to rise by 10 to 15 per cent annually to a total of around 23 million tonnes per annum within the next five years (Ghanem, 2001; UAE Ministry of Information and Culture, 2003, 2006; Government of Fujairah, 2005). Crushing and quarries for mineral extraction not only mean an irreversible loss of habitat, but also induces a supplementary stress to the remnant arid mountain fragile wildlife populations, weaken by natural causes (drought), overhunting in the past, poaching, water extraction for agriculture, habitat fragmentation with development, interspecific competition with livestock and feral goats for food and water. Discussion: an overview of possible solutions The UAE experienced an unprecedented economical boom during the last three decades that transformed a country inhabited by nomads, to a country with the highest GDP per capita in the world. This welfare deeply affected not only the socio-cultural heritage of the UAE but also its natural heritage. Much of the development ignited by the economical growth initially confined to the coastline, has spread to remote desert areas, mountains and offshore islands, altering the natural habitats of many species of plants and animal and consequently threatening their existence. Several initiatives at different levels have been undertaken concerning environment issues in the UAE. Looking at the time scale and compared to the situation worldwide, these initiatives concerning the protection of the natural heritage appear late. However, we have to keep in mind that the UAE is a young nation (1971) and that, compared to other countries, nature conservation has been considered early in the country’s constitution (as a comparison, the world’s first National Park, the Yellowstone NP, was created in 1872 in the USA, 86 years after the creation of the country). Some of them are as follows: Local initiatives Private protected areas in the UAE have been established for a long time by local rulers mostly for hunting purposes. However, in the early 1990s, public protected areas started to show up in the UAE. In 1995, four marine protected areas (Rul Dibba, Al Faqueet, Dadna and Al Aqa) were established in the Fujairah Emirate. Three years later (1998), the Ras al Khor Sanctuary and the Al Wathba Protected Area were declared in Dubai and Abu Dhabi Emirate respectively. In 2001, the Abu Dhabi

Emirate authorities banned fishing with drift nets, (hayali ), with encircling nets (halaaq) introduced as an acceptable alternative method. The same year, the Marawah Marine Protected Area was established in the Abu Dhabi Emirate. In 2006, the marine protected area of Al Yasat was officially established in the Abu Dhabi Emirate, and the Al Wurayah Protected Area was approved by the ruler of the Fujairah Emirate at the end of 2006. These local initiatives are important in the fight against the erosion of biodiversity at a local scale. Protected areas are one of the pillars of biodiversity conservation. They act as refuges for species and ecological processes that cannot survive in intensely managed landscapes and seascapes. Furthermore, as a major step towards controlling waste and groundwater development in the Abu Dhabi Emirate, the Law 21 on Waste Management and the Law No. 6 on regulation of drilling of water wells were established respectively in 2005 and 2006 (Raouf, 2007). National initiatives On a national level, in 1983 a Decree by Law No. 9 regulating hunting of birds and animals was declared. In 1992, the Federal Laws 39 and 41 concerning importation and handling of agricultural pesticides and fertilizers were established. A year after (1993) saw the creation of the Federal Environment Agency (FEA), whose aim is to federate the protection and development of the environment within the federation of the seven emirates. In 1999, two major Federal Laws were drafted: Laws 23 and 24 for the protection and development of marine environment and environment, respectively. In 2001, the UAE established the Federal Law 11 for wildlife trade. In 2005, the creation of the first Ministry of Environment and Water of the UAE was another milestone in the country’s history, showing the growing concern of authorities towards the environment. The same year, after the dramatic results of the fish resource assessment in UAE waters, trawling was outlawed in UAE waters until 2020. Finally, an up-date of the Federal Law No. 24 of 1999 was proposed in 2006 (Raouf, 2007). Regional initiatives In addition to the existing national legislation and conventions, a number of environmental strategies and action plans have been developed in the region, such as, the Regional Action Plan for the Conservation of Coral Reefs in the Arabian Seas Region and the Kuwait Action Plan developed by the Regional Organization for the Protection of the Marine Environment (ROPME). The Protocol concerning Marine Pollution resulting from Exploration and Exploitation of the Continental Shelf was signed by the UAE in 1990 and the Convention on Conservation of Wildlife and its Natural Habitats in the GCC countries in 2003. The Protocol on the Control of Marine Transboundary Movements and Disposal of Hazardous Wastes and Other Wastes was ratified in 2005 (EAD-AGEDI, 2006). Such regional strategies are vital for migratory species that are not limited to UAE territorial boundaries for most of their vital biological cycle. As an example, the Arabian Gulf sailfish migrates annually in spring towards Iranian waters where it is a by-catch victim of Iran’s tuna fisheries development. This development has been boosted since the 1980s to maximize sustainable yields and to provide industry, employment and a source of protein for impoverished citizens impacted by the


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economic upheaval and international blockade. The Gulf sailfish population has been recently shown to be genetically isolated from the Indian Ocean population (Hoolihan et al., 2004). It is therefore important to treat the whole Arabian Gulf sailfish population as a distinct stock management unit of limited size to protect genetic diversity. International initiatives The UAE ratified and accessed numerous international conventions and protocols on environment protection (Table II). Being located at the crossroad of European, Asian and African continents, UAE ports have been major hubs in the traffic of wild animal and plant species for decades. Convention/protocol

Table II. International agreements and conventions ratified by the UAE

Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter (LDC, 1972) International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS), 1974 International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution of the Sea by Oil, 1954 and its amendments International Convention Relating to Intervention on the High Seas in Cases of Oil Pollution Casualties (INTERVENTION), 1969 International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage (CLC), 1969 Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer of 1985 and Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer of 1987 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) 1973 Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their disposal, 1989 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change for the year 1992 1992 Protocol Concerning Amendments on International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage (CLC), 1969 and International Convention on the Establishment of an International Fund for Compensation for Oil Pollution Damage, 1971 Convention on Limitation of Liability for Maritime Claims (LLMC), 1976 United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification for the year 1994 Convention on Biological Diversity for the year 1992 Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPS), 2001 Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade (PIC Convention), 1998 Montreal Amendments (London, 1990, Copenhagen, 1992, Montreal, 1997, Beijing, 1999) Kyoto Protocol, 1997 Source: EAD, www.ead.ae

Date

Source

1974

www.imo.org

1983

www.imo.org

1983

www.imo.org

1983

www.imo.org

1983

www.imo.org

1989

www.unep/org/ozone

1990

www.cites.org

1990

www.basel.int

1995

www.unfccc.int

1997

www.imo.org

1997

www.imo.org

1998 1999 2002

www.unccd.org www.biodiv.org www.pops.int

2002

www.pic.int

2005 2005

www.unep.org/ozone www.unfccc.int

Therefore, the UAE signed in 1990, the Convention on International Trade of Endangered Species (CITES), ensuring the survival of fauna and flora threatened by international trade. The UN Conference on Environment and Development (Earth Summit) in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 lead to the adoption of a comprehensive programme of action for global action in all areas of sustainable development (Agenda 21), a series of principles defining the rights and responsibilities of states (Rio Declaration on Environment and Development), a set of principles to underlie the sustainable management of forests worldwide (Statement of Forest Principles) and two major conventions aimed at preventing global climate change and the eradication of the diversity of biological species (United Nations, 1997). The UAE signed the two conventions: the United Nation Framework on Climate Change (UNFCC) in 1995, and the Convention Biological Diversity (CBD) in 2000. In 1998, the United Nation Convention to Combat Desertification (CCD) was ratified by the country. The year 2005 saw a major step in international efforts by the UAE towards environment protection with the ratification of the Kyoto Protocol, which is an important political signal, coming from one of the largest oil producers in the world (Launay, 2006; Raouf, 2007). To conclude, the UAE signed the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), yet to be ratified. Conclusion Like most countries, the UAE has ratified biodiversity and environment related international conventions and signed regional agreements. Since the 1990s, the establishment of protected areas in the UAE has been gaining momentum. Therefore, this new country now owns a strong legal framework to protect its environment. Concerning the habitat that is currently the most under threat in the UAE because of unplanned development, the marine coastal habitat, more than ten laws and 20 official decrees have been produced locally or at federal level by the UAE since its creation in 1971, adding to numerous international and regional agreements/conventions and protocols. However, none of these laws and decrees provided a comprehensive framework for integrated planning and management of the coastal zone. As a milestone for the UAE, the first Coastal Zone Management Law has been proposed recently for the Emirate of Abu Dhabi (Al Abdessalaam, 2005; EAD-AGEDI, 2006). Until they are implemented and integrated in the decision making at high local and/or federal levels, UAE efforts in environment protection and stopping biodiversity erosion remain vain. With the spectacular economical and sociological changes, the UAE nowadays faces its main challenges: the integration of the environment and its preservation in development planning (with proper environment impact assessments at international standard levels), the involvement of local communities in decision making (inspired by the local traditional methods of resource conservation such as “hamiyaat” or “heema”), and the improvement of national and international trans-boundaries collaborations and protected areas. References Al Abdessalaam, T.Z. (2005), Coastal Zone Management Law for the Emirate of Abu Dhabi, Environmental Research and Wildlife Development Agency, Abu Dhabi. Aspinall, S. (1995), “United Arab Emirates”, in Scott, D.A. (Ed.), A Directory of Wetlands in the Middle East, IUCN and IWRB, Gland and Slimbridge.


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Wilms, T. and Bo¨hme, W. (2000), “A new Uromastyx species from south-eastern Arabia, with comments on the taxonomy of Uromastyx aegyptia (Forska˚l, 1775) (Squamata: Sauria: Agamidae)”, Herpetozoa, Vol. 13, pp. 133-48. van Harten, A. (2005), The Insects of the United Arab Emirates, Dar Al Ummah, Abu Dhabi, A checklist of published records. van Harten, A. (2007), Arthropods Encyclopaedia of UAE, Vol. 1, Dar Al Ummah, Abu Dhabi.

304 Further reading Reeve, R. (2002), Policing International Trade in Endangered Species. The CITES Treaty and Compliance, Royal Institute of International Affairs & Earthscan Publications Ltd, London. Corresponding author Christophe Tourenq can be contacted at: [email protected]

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