J Afr Am St (2013) 17:162–173 DOI 10.1007/s12111-011-9189-7 A RT I C L E S
Changing Attitudes About Computing Science at Historically Black Colleges and Universities: Benefits of an Intervention Program Designed for Undergraduates Jerlando F. L. Jackson & LaVar J. Charleston & Juan E. Gilbert & Cheryl Seals
Published online: 17 August 2011 # Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2011
Abstract The African American Researchers in Computing Sciences (AARCS) program aims to broaden the participation of African Americans from historically Black colleges and universities in the computing sciences at the faculty and research scientist levels. The AARCS program serves as a model that can be incorporated into larger programmatic endeavors at institutions of higher education to target African Americans and other underrepresented groups. This study highlights features of the program, presents key research questions and findings of the evaluation, and generates specific programmatic knowledge for those interested in interventions designed to increase the representation of African American computing scientists, as well as other scientific-related disciplines within higher education. Keywords African American students . Undergraduate students . Historically Black college and university . Computing science There is currently a shortage of skilled workers in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) within the USA (ACT 2006; Foster et al. 2010). This This material is based in part upon work supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant Numbers CNS- 0540492 and 0837675. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation.
J. F. L. Jackson (*) : L. J. Charleston Educational Leadership and Policy Analysis, Wisconsin's Equity and Inclusion Laboratory, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 270-K Education Building 1000 Bascom Mall Madison, Madison, WI 53706-1326, USA e-mail:
[email protected] URL: http://jfljackson.cjb.net J. E. Gilbert Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA C. Seals Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA
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workforce shortage, in concert with a concurrent shortage in students acquiring degrees within STEM-related disciplines, illuminates more now than ever the need to increase and expand the pool of students who are going into STEM fields (Gilbert and Jackson 2007). Moreover, while college enrollment has increased within the past decade, fewer foreign graduate students are making the effort to apply to U.S. graduate programs in STEM, as well as other fields (Selingo 2005). Consequently, the National Science Foundation (NSF) and the National Science Board have issued strong warnings regarding the loss of U.S. dominance in critical areas of science and innovation and the shortage of entering technical fields (CACM News Track 2004; Yue et al. 2011). As highly technological and scientific products and operations are increasingly being demanded within the national and global economy, adequate preparation in STEM-related fields has become an important requirement in an effort to forge access into today’s information-based and knowledge-driven society (ACT 2006; Gilbert and Jackson 2007; Maton et al. 2000; Moore 2006). With computers being at the heart of innovative technologies, computing sciences have become an intricate component within STEM disciplines, thus becoming a gateway major and profession (Carver 1994; Yue et al. 2011). A major contributing factor to the problem of an inadequate STEM and computing sciences workforce is the lack of participation from underrepresented groups, namely African Americans. While the Department of Labor projections have IT job growth outpacing IT degree production for the current decade, the solution, though nothing of novelty, remains to increase underrepresented participation in these fields. Economic and societal ills have and continue to prevent many ethnic/racial minorities from productively contributing to the growing field of computing science, even though STEM disciplines (computing sciences in particular) generally generate high revenue earning jobs (Charleston et al. in press). Nonetheless, with the increasing demographic shifts, the USA must abort its traditional reliance on White, Asian, and Indian males as the only viable sources of scientific and technical talent in order to not only keep up with labor market demands but also to remain globally competitive (Gilbert and Jackson 2007) Within the body of literature relative to participating in computing among African Americans, there is a scarcity of research on programmatic endeavors and their effectiveness. Hence, the underlying rationale for this study was to examine the African American Researchers in Computing Sciences (AARCS) intervention program to provide empirical evidence as it relates to its ability to change attitudes about computing science among African Americans at historically Black colleges and universities (HBCUs). Accordingly, the guiding research questions for this study are: (a) how much effect did the AARCS program have on proposed intervention outcomes (i.e., Graduate school interest, applying to grad school, negative views of computer scientist, apprehension regarding graduate school, and interest in becoming a computer scientist)? and (b) to what extent, if any, do personal characteristics and in-college experiences influence proposed intervention outcomes?
Situating the Problem Almost three decades ago, Toffler (1971) predicted that the USA would be divided into an “information-rich” vs. an “information-poor” society. An examination of the
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demographics of our society reveals this prediction has come to fruition as the educational, societal, and economical discrepancies within our society illuminate that African Americans have befallen on the “information-poor” side of the spectrum (Carver 1994; Charleston et al. 2011). However, many scholars (e.g., Carver 1994; Casey 1992; Charleston et al. 2011; Merrell 1991; Yue et al. 2011) believe that a remedy can be found in computing as the utility of computer technology enables the circumnavigation of an inadequate educational system, enabling would-be at-risk students to not only succeed within the STEM education pipeline but to also become contributing members of this information-based society. In an effort to increase African American participation in computing science as well as other STEM-related disciplines, prior research (e.g., ACT 2006; Gilbert and Jackson 2007; Maton et al. 2000; Moore 2006) dictates the importance of gaining the interests of students at an early age, and cultivating that interest throughout the educational pipeline. Though school systems within the USA have succeeded with providing some measure of computer access to all students, there are stark differences between those interactions based on school and district wealth and geographic location (Jackson et al. 2009). More plainly, though most African Americans have access to computers within the U. S. public school systems, the computer interaction experienced by African American students within urban public schools is starkly different from their White counterparts within suburban school districts (Jackson et al. 2009; McAdoo 1994). The computing interactions within urban public schools commonly provide instruction that facilitates the completion of remedial tasks with little to no technical skill development. In other words, computing class activities encompass tasks that do not ignite students’ interest into the pursuance of computing-related fields. A 2007 study that addressed the state of STEM affairs in a vital Midwest region found that in an effort to increase STEM participation among the underserved, state systems must aggressively develop and nurture interest in the STEM disciplines early in a student’s educational matriculation to not only gain, but maintain the students’ interest (Gilbert et al. 2007). The literature (e.g., Gilbert et al. 2007) further posits that mechanisms by which increased participation and interest in STEM can be achieved include the cultivation of students’ interest through pre-college, enrichment, internship and cooperative programs, and creating a welcoming environment that would retain and cater to individuals’ health, financial, and cultural needs. Additionally, a research report conducted by the Educational Planning and Assessment System for ACT states that, “The students most likely to major in STEM fields in college and persist to earn degrees are those who develop interest in STEM careers through early career planning and take challenging classes that prepare them for college-level science and math coursework” (ACT 2006, p. 1). In 2005, a national survey was conducted and concluded that boys and girls are equally likely to use computers at an early age (Calvert et al. 2005). However, a socioeconomic divide in early access to computers fostered a differential demographic effect as these experiences were more prevalent among White children, higher-income families, and families from higher education attainment levels (Calvert et al. 2005). The research literature posits that the value that is placed on technological competence among students varies based on early experiences and exposure, which can directly be related to socioeconomic statuses. In other words,
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the inability to afford various technologies is responsible for the lower sense of value and lack of interest in technology, computing, and other technologically based applications (Ching et al. 2003); thereby making it increasingly difficult for African Americans, who are largely represented among those who are lower socioeconomic status, to pursue careers involving these technologies (Jackson et al. 2009). Similarly, research studies have indicated that technology ownership likely plays a major role in the value of technology, as well as the alignment to various technologies among individuals (Ching et al. 2003). The studies related to STEM, computing, and African Americans strongly indicate the necessity of future research to illuminate the role of technologies in children’s lives, as well as an assessment of the impact of individual experiences with regard to technology, computing, and the development of skills thereof (Jackson et al. 2009). The significance of recognizing the connection between self-concept, confidence, and ability in STEM education is highly emphasized within the literature (Leslie et al. 1998). This body of work posits that the likelihood of students to enroll in optional or additional math and science courses is directly related to their confidence to maintain a higher level of ability in these subjects. Furthermore, research indicates that the formal and informal mentoring relationships and contributions of teachers, parents, mentors, counselors, and peers have a positive effect on the persistence of students in STEM (Leslie et al. 1998). To be sure, by the time students reach the undergraduate and graduate levels, ethnic minorities are highly underrepresented in STEM-related majors (Gilbert and Jackson 2007; Graham 1997; Hrabowski and Pearson 1993; Jackson et al. 2009; Moore 2006). Underrepresented students are often ill-advised and discouraged from pursuing advanced courses in STEM, positively contributing to the lagging participatory rates in STEM as it relates to their White counterparts (Jackson et al. 2009; Moore 2006). The aforementioned relevant literature elucidates the necessity of efficient and effective intervention in an effort to counter the lack of equitable participation in STEM and computing. The literature suggests that more aggressive, active, and effective measures are necessary in order to adequately prepare African Americans for careers in computing, particularly careers at the highest levels of the field (e.g., faculty and research scientist careers) (MacLachlan 2006; Charleston et al. 2011). The number of African Americans who have advanced to the levels of Ph.D. has increased within the past 30 years, but has not shown significant gains in STEM as compared to African Americans’ share of the population (MacLachlan 2006). As of 1998, African Americans have never achieved more than 2.0%, 1.4%, and 0.7% of the Assistant, Associate, and Full Professors in computer science. Additionally, the numbers of African American Ph.D. graduates in computer science are limited to no more than 2% in a single year over this same time period (Jackson et al. 2009). Conversely, African Americans represent 12.9% of the U.S. population according to the 2008 U.S. Census Bureau (U.S. Census 2008a). In a comparison of the Computing Research Association’s (CRA 2009) Taulbee Survey figures to the U.S. Census Bureau’s data, the gravity by which African Americans are underrepresented in computer science faculty positions is elucidated, revealing marginal gaps at every level of the professoriate. Additionally, the NSF’s Women, Minorities, and Persons with Disabilities in Science and Engineering data surmised that that only five African American females (.028%) and 11 African American males (0.61%) achieved a Ph.D. in computer science in 2006 (NSF 2009).
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Program Features of the AARCS Program The AARCS program consists of three components: (a) Targeted Presentations; (b) Future Faculty/Researcher Mentoring; and (c) an annual AARCS miniconference. However, the focus of this study is solely on the Targeted Presentations component. Targeted Presentations The targeted presentation component is designed to address seven barriers, identified by social science research, that limit or prohibit African American participation in computing sciences. The presentation is given by a faculty member, and at least one graduate student is present to answer questions from a graduate student perspective. The presentation attendees are undergraduate students at a historically Black college or university (HBCU). The presentation discusses graduate school, computing sciences research, academic faculty, research scientists, and corporate/government research employment. The content of the targeted presentation can be described as follows with respect to the seven barriers: stereotypes, role models, helping professions, financial concerns, inadequate advisement, lack of knowledge regarding the advantages of having a Ph.D., and employment opportunities. An African American with a Ph.D. in computing sciences typically gives the presentation. The presenter serves as a living example of what the students could become. The graduate student is also an African American, again reinforcing the fact that they too can be a graduate student, faculty member, or computing sciences researcher. Future Faculty/Research Scientist Mentoring Program The Future Faculty/Research Scientist Mentoring (FFRM) program was established to address the fact that African Americans do not receive adequate advice during and upon completion of their Ph.D. (Davidson and Foster-Johnson 2001). Prior to the FFRM program, African American computing science Ph.D. students did not have a formal mechanism through which to understand the process of obtaining a faculty or research position within the field of computing science (e.g., the search for academic/research positions, the interview process, or negotiating salary). It is often the case that many of these students are told that they would make “good teachers.” In other words, these students developed the perception that they are supposed to apply for teaching positions, with research and research positions not even being in their purview. Accordingly, research studies have reiterated this reality, demonstrating that among science and mathematics graduate students, 17% of African American students reported publishing a journal article, while the figures for other groups were much higher: Asians (49%), Latinos (42%), and Whites (47%) (Nettles and Millett 2005). These data support the notion that African American Ph.D. students are being ushered into teaching positions, not research ones thus placing them at a disadvantage with regard to the attainment of top positions within the field. The Future Faculty/ Research Scientist Mentoring program was designed to address these issues by fully equipping participants with the tools to successfully navigate the academic and research scientist job search.
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AARCS Mini-Conference The AARCS mini-conference is a gathering of AARCS participants taken from the Future Faculty/Research Scientist Mentoring program and targeted presentations. Prominent African American faculty, research scientists, and other computing scientists are gathered together with the AARCS participants to discuss opportunities and strategies related to computing sciences. Networking and mentoring activities occur in formal and informal settings at the mini-conference. Session topics featuring the prominent guests from the computing sciences community include (among other topics): Navigating Graduate School; Publish, Publish, Publish; Managing Family and Academic Life; and Being an Entrepreneur.
Method Student Sample The student sample consisted of 232 students who attended an AARCS targeted presentation at a HBCU between 2006 and 2009. The participants consisted of 55.5% male and 45.5% female as well as 95.7% African American/Black, 0.4% Hispanic, 1.7% Asian/Pacific Islander, 1.7% White, and 0.4% American Indian/ Alaskan Native. The majority of the participants were from low-income, single head of households, and middle-income households. Data Analysis Data analysis occurred in a three-stage process. In stage one, the difference between the pre- and posttest means (i.e., mean differences) and effect size estimates were calculated (p=−0.15 and =0.15 and 0.40 and 0.75 and 1.10 and 1.45.
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Table 1 Variable codes and descriptions Code
Descriptions
Male
Male participants with females as referent group
African American
African American participants with all other racial/ethnic groups as referent group
Age
Age of participants [continuous]
SES
Socioeconomic status of family [continuous]
Knew
Participant knew/had a parent, relative, or family friend involved in computing science while growing up
FED
Father’s level of education [continuous]
MED
Mother’s level of education [continuous]
Extra
Participant was involved in an extracurricular activity that emphasized computing science
Research
Participant was involved in undergraduate research opportunity/program
Contact
Level of contact with faculty in undergraduate home department [continuous]
UDComplete
Number of years of undergraduate education completed [continuous]
large effect size for a positive change in interest in applying for graduate school within 5 years. Likewise, they showed a large effect size for a positive change in attitude regarding apprehensions about graduate school. AARCS participants demonstrated a medium effect size for a positive change in attitude regarding graduate school interest. AARCS participants showed a negligible effect size for change in attitude regarding interest in becoming a computer science professor/researcher. Table 3 represents the personal characteristic and in-college experience independent variables that influenced program outcomes for the AARCS program. Within this set of independent variables, participation in extracurricular activities that emphasized computing science (b=0.659, β=0.264, p
