CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION The world wide talk of Globalization ...

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

The world wide talk of Globalization has created lots of panic in the minds of social workers, Academicians, Policymakers, Social Thinkers and the layman all over the world. Even though the world opinion is divided on this issue the studies conducted in sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America have empirically shown the adverse impact on the poor and marginalized section of the society. The World Bank Report (1996) traced the picture of trends in poverty in all countries except industrialized countries. The Bank findings are that in developing countries and in the former socialist’s countries, far from decline in poverty there have been some deterioration in recent years. In absolute figures people living in poverty in the developing world has increased from 1.23 billion in 1987 to 1.31 billion in 1993. In South Asia and North Africa more people in 1993 than in 1987.In South Asia 43% of its total population is poverty stricken ( Naidu, 1998) Former World Bank President and the Noble laureates in Economics has expressed deep concern towards the Globalization. Globalization has not benefits all, the effects of the policies set by Washington Consensus has benefits the well off at the expenses of the poor. In many cases commercial interests and values have superseded concern for the environment, democracy, Human rights and social justice. 1 The entire planet is in a historical crisis. Most ideologies, movements, and theoretical formulations have been discredited by historical events. Failures of socialism in Eastern Europe and elsewhere in the world led people like Facuyama to proclaim the end of history. But if socialism is dead, the neoliberal horse too has become anemic. If Socialism left everything to state, Socialist’s over confidence in the state and ‘neoliberals’ total lack of it proved rather flawed.

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What the world would be looking like in a 21st century? Several scholars have tried to visualized different images of the new world ranging from peaceful, prosperous global village to the world full with turmoil,. conflicts and violence,

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clash of civilizations. The post cold war world is facing paradigm shift in many spheres and breathtaking changes are taking place in geopolitics, geo-economics, technology ….life styles and culture. 3 All these changes have profound effects on the third world countries (Developing countries).This global change has created enormous situation for the developing and under developed countries as they are fraught with dangers of return of the old dominance of the powerful over the weak. The Indian subcontinent has always remained a hotbed of violence and sea of deprivations for centuries together. The so called ‘new world order’ has not yet been formed and nobody knows who will be the actors of this new social order or will there be any social order existing in future? 4 Shortly before the September attacks on US, a United Nations panel issued a report pointing out that even if there are no ultraistic concern among the rich nations to help the world poor their own self-interest should lead them to do so. In a global village, some one else poverty very soon, becomes one’s own problem.5 The policy prescriptions to solve the problems of all the countries in the world under the instrument of Washington consensus has resulted into increased in inequalities in most of the countries including the developed countries. The open market economy does not catered to the needs of the poor people. The new economic and social order that is coming into shape has left out many sections of the society. They are asked to wait for a miracle called, ‘trickle down effect’. The question is therefore always raised as to how an international knowledge based society can come into existanance? What will be the feature of poor and under developed societies in the world? Will they be able to enjoy their inherent human rights- right to livelihoods and right to live a dignified life?

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TABLE 1.1 THE WASHINGTON CONSENSUS 1

Fiscal discipline

2 3

Reordering public expenditure in favor of education, health and economic infrastructure Tax reform (towards broader bases with moderate rates)

4

Financial liberalization

5

Competitive exchange rate

6

Trade liberalization

7

Liberalization of foreign direct investment

8

Privatization (of public enterprises)

9

Deregulation (of barriers to entry and exit)

10

Property rights

Source: Williamson (1990), cited by Acharya Shankar (2006) 6 P. 4573 Globalization has become the current “mantra” or even panacea to solve all human problems and it is believed that the policy of globalization would make the people all over the world happy, prosperous and contended. There would be no conflict, no poverty, no inequality, no violation of human right, no illiteracy, and no malnutrition and diseases etc. But the reality seems to be totally different. There has been increasing discontents and disillusionment among the policy makers throughout the world and some basic questions are asked as to who want globalization? Globalization for what and for whom? Why is globalization of human resources not taking place? Do people want globalization at all? It is found that the issues of globalization is receiving considerable attention from all quarters but no work is being done on the social cost involved. (In term of poverty, inequality, unemployment and tensions) 7

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Michel Chossudovsky in his easy, “Global Poverty in the Late 20th Century,” has tried to throw some light on the impact of globalization on the world economy particularly the economy of the developing countries. He opined that the late 20th Century will go down in World history as a period of global impoverishment marked by the collapse of productive systems in the developing World, the demise of national institutions and the disintegration of health and educational programmes.

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Terming the globalization as globalization of poverty

he further states that the policy of globalization has largely reversed the achievements of post-War decolonization- was initiated in the Third World countries coinciding with the onslaught of the debt crisis. Since the 1990s, it has extended its grip to all major regions of the World including North America, Western Europe, the countries of the former Soviet block and the Newly Industrialized Countries (NICs) of South East Asia and the Far East.9

TABLE 1.2 TRENDS IN GDP GROWTH FOR DEVELOPING AND INDUSTRIALIZED COUNTRIES 1965-1996 (AVERAGE ANNUAL GROWTH IN PERCENTAGE) Countries

1965-1980

1980-1989

1990-1996

Low and Middle Income Countries

5.9

3.1

1.9

High Income countries

3.8

3.2

1.7

United States

2.7

3.0

2.5

Japan

6.6

41.0

1.2

World

4.1

3.1

1.8

Source- Singh 1999 in Palley, 2002, cited by Mandar Harsh 10 (2004)

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The western counties where these policies have been enacted for the first time has undergone the sea changes in their social and economic lives the price of which is invariably paid by the weaker sections in those countries The ReaganThatcher era, but more significantly since the beginning of the 1990s, the application of harsh austerity measures is gradually contributing to the disintegration of the Welfare State (including the entire system of social security). The achievements of the early post-War period are being reversed; the tendency in the West is towards the derogation of unemployment insurance schemes and the privatizations of pension funds and social services. With the breakdown of the Welfare State, the high levels of youth unemployment are increasingly the source of social strife and civil dissent. Urban life is transformed; economic restructuring is conducive to the "thirdworldisation" of Western cities. The environment of major metropolitan areas is marked by "social apartheid": the urban landscape becomes increasingly compartmentalized along social and ethnic lines. Poverty in the ‘ghettos’ and slum areas of American (and increasingly European) cities is in many respects comparable to that prevailing in the Third World. 11

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TABLE 1.3 GOOD GROWTH PERFORMERS OF RECENT DECADES Average Annual Per Capita Growth (Percent) Sr. No

Country

1980-2002

1990s

1990s

1

China

8.2

8.6

7.7

Population in 2000 (Millions) 1262

2

Vietnam

4.6

5.7

1.9

78

3

South Korea

6.1

5.0

7.4

47

4

Chile

3.3

4.3

2.1

15

5

Mauritius

4.4

4.1

4.9

1

6

Malaysia

3.4

3.7

3.1

23

7

India

3.6

3.6

3.6

1016

8

Thailand

4.6

3.4

6.0

61

9

Bhutan

4.3

3.4

5.4

1

10

Sri Lanka

3.1

3.1

3.1

18

11

Botswana

4.7

2.7

7.2

2

12

Indonesia

3.5

2.6

4.4

206

Source: World Bank (2005), cited by Acharya Shankar(2006)12 P. 4573 At the end of Third United Nations Conference of least developed countries in 2001, the members were concerned about the increase in the number of least developed countries (LDCS) from 25 to 49 since the category was created by UN in 1971. They were worried about the increasing wealth gap between the rich and poor nations. The concern of the planners in the poor countries is that how the globalization process is going to solve this problem..13 Some development experts say that there is no win perspective in globalization. Only stronger growth rate can reduce the global poverty. The multidimensional impact of globalization driven by market forces consists of economic, political, cultural and social effects. Moreover, it is feared that the cultural diversity of many recipient countries is adversely affected by the cultural invasion of the west and also rise of terrorism; 6

crimes including transnational crimes are at the increase as a result of dynamics of globalization .14 At the down of the 21st century, the challenge for the human race is no longer primarily surviving the onslaught of natural forces, winning a living from an often harsh and unpredictable environment as it has been for most human history. Nor is it the titanic struggle between the two opposing economic and political systems that overwhelmingly shaped the last half of the 20th century. Today humanity faces a fundamentally different challenges that a managing a planet and a global human civilization in ways that will sustain both indefinitely.15 Globalization is often described as a process steadily progressing overtime, pervasively spreading over space, and clearly inevitable in its development. But globalization is also a revolution one of the most profound revolutions, the world has ever known. All revolutions disrupt the traditions and customs of the people. They threaten a people’s very security safety and even identity.

The world

revolution that is globalization in some measures threatens the security of every people on the globe.16 1.1 GLOBALIZATION: A DEBATE Rough outline of a critical assessment of a globalization from an objective point of view looking at the globalization debate there are at least three types of problems: Firstly there are many different definitions of globalization. Everyone seams to use or interpret globalization differently, emphasizing this or that characteristic this create great confusion. Secondly there are the so called globalization myths, about globalization. Faulty manipulation or interpretation of Data to ascertain that there is something like globalization. Thirdly there is a noticeable degree of teleological, tautological elements in many globalization discourses (sometime this refers to glob-talks). A worldview of the globalization literature produces at least nine different types of glob-talk. Most of the globalization authors tent to combine various positions. 17 7

1. True globalists (Martin Albrow, Bartha Chatterijee, Manuel Castells): Their position is that there are major transformations going on in society, politics and economy and these transformations are taking place on a global scale. These transformations do not form part of modernity, late-modernity, or post modernity; they indicate the coming of new era globality some of these authors stress that we still lack on adequate discourse to describe and analyze the global age. We still have to make use of concepts that comes to us from the modern age and are not really adequate to describe the true nature of globalization. 2. The cyberspace globalists (Mike Featherstone). The microchip revolution ushered in the 21st century before the end of 20th century. The computer age has had such a profound effect on production, consumption and inter personal relations that, like the true globalists, the cyberspace globalists believe that major transformations are taking place. The difference between the true globalist and the cyberspace globalist is constituted in the belief that it is cyberspace that is going to be the major political, economic and cultural arena for the 21st century. 3. The neo-liberal globalists (Kenichi Ohmae, Francis Fakuyama,

John

Naisbitt). For this group of authors globalization is also a process with an antilogy of its own. It is the global spread of market logic, liberalism, and democracy. This rather heterogeneous group. The position is rather structuralists in the same that globalization has an inner logic which cannot be stopped. “Go with the flow” seems to be the message and all will benefits in the end. 4. The cosmopolitanist/New age/postmodernist/culturalist/globalist

(Rajani

Kothari, David Korten, David Held). This school of thought held that Globalization is primarily cultural in nature and traditional identities are under threat and non-traditional identities are strengthened. It also believes that the indigenous people are alienated from their cultural heritage through the global movement of consumer capitalism. The globe

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is the political arena for the conglomerate of new social movements, indigenous movements, and environmentalist movements in increasingly global coalitions. 5. The hybridization globalists (U.F Hannerz,

Arjun Appadurai): These

authors interpret globalization as a dialectical process where “the global meets the local”. This results in an increasingly hybrid praxis. Authenticity of culture is rejected and Culture is becoming increasingly hybrid. 6. The New- Marxist globalists (Ellen Meiksins Wood, William Tabb). The group of thinkers on globalization believes that Globalization is a fact and it is nothing but capitalism gone global. It further believes to get the classical Marxist Analytical framework out of the cupboard it is high time for using scientific Marxism. The Class struggle should be internationalized and infact it is doing just that. 7. The historical globalist. (Paw Hirst, Graham Thompson, Deepak Nayar). Nayar 1997: 7. There is a common presumption that globalization is something new and a fundamental departure form the past but that it is seldom recognized that there was a similar phase of globalization between 1870-1914.According to Charles Oman the first globalization wave took place bet 1870 -1914. During that time many countries used the gold standard, UK. Was the hegemonic economic power. The second globalization wave took place same years after World War II (1950-1960s). A period characterized by the US as a hegemonic economic power and political power. During that time dollar replaced the gold standards and there was a strong growth of International trade, multinationals and foreign direct investment. According to Fakuyama some societies missed the bout because of cultural constraints, so that part of the first globalization waves was not truly globalize.

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8. The Non-globalists (Michael Mann) they insist that there is no such thing as globalization.  There is a regionalization but even that is nothing new.  The whole globalization debate is one without any ontological foundation.  They differ radically from the globalists who tend to concentrate in their discourse on the demise of the nation state. 9. The diehard modernists (Ernesto and others)  Globalization is nearing its end.  Increasing cultural relativism leads to the noticeable decline in modern universal norms and values.  Modernity spreads itself to all corners of earth as a truly global process.  If at all there is something like globalization, it is now fragmenting. 1.2 CONCEPT, NATURE AND DEFINITIONS OF GLOBALIZATION The globalization means different things for different people. Its content also differs from scholar to scholar. According to Robert McCorquodale

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globalization is a contested term and there is no one accepted definition of it It is a multidimensional concept covering almost all spheres of human lives. According to Bhardwaj 19 the meaning of the term globalization is so vague and unambiguous that its interpretations vary from analyst to analyst. Its sphere cannot be merely restricted to the series of economic processes at international level but it incorporates political and social phenomenon across the border and is having both “Universality” or wider applicability and irresistibility.

“It is very clear the

processes of globalization is having ideological component as it involves the free mobility of capital without any control of state or society. It is a process integrating not just the economy but culture, technology and governance; it is

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considered to be neoliberal. Its normative base is celebration of market. It’s a victory not only over history but also over unions and Keynesian State. 20 Even if it is not a new phenomenon it existed in the early 16th century and the late 19th century but the present form of globalization is different. It has new market, new tools, new rules and new actors. 21 Globalization and its consequences are much more pervasive and destructive than just an internal restructuring of the world’s economic system . 22 Globalization has divided the world into several factions.23 It is affecting different countries differently-growth and expansion in few leading countries; moderate and fluctuating

growth

in

some

countries

attempting

to

fit

into

the

globalization/liberalization framework; and marginalization or deterioration experience by many countries

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In the ultimate analysis of globalization is not a

global integration by breaking barriers across and among the Nations for unifying the world into ‘Global village” but it is an insidious agenda for preparing the hegemony of one over the whole word by force and fraud.25 Scholars like John Harris view globalization as the march and spread of American capitalism. 26 The globalization is a central driving force that is reshaping modern societies and world orders no society escapes from its reach as it recasts traditional patterns, creates new hierarchies and most crucially reshaped the power, functioning, authority and goals of national government. It has positive and negative implications for Dalits and other marginalized sections of Society.27 It is believed that the achievements of globalization will make people all over the world happy, prosperous and there would be no conflicts, no inequality, no poverty, no malnutrition and no illiteracy. But reality seems to be totally different. There has been disillusionment among the policy makers in several parts of the world and some basic questions are asked as to who wants globalization? Why the poor and marginalized are made to bear the social cost of globalization? 28 Present globalization has some distinctive features both economic and noneconomic

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The key economic features of globalization: 1 Growth in Trade 2 Growth in FDI 3 Global production and global consumption 4 Global competition 5 Global trade and investment liberalization policies. Non-economic features: 1 Loss of National Sovereignty. 2 Standardization of values and cultures. 3 Growing concentration of and monopolization of economic regions and powers by TNCS and global financing firms. 4 Globalization of National policies and policy making mechanism Definitions: Although the world global is over 400 years old the common usages of such world as globalization, globalize and globalizing did not begin until about 1960.29 No single universally agreed definition of globalization exists. As with all core concepts in the social sciences its precise meaning remains contested. Globalization has been variously conceived as action at a distance (where by the actions of social agents in one locale can come to have significant consequences for distant others)

time space compression referring to the way in which

instantaneous electronic communication erodes the constrains of distance and time on social organization and interaction), accelerating interdependence (understood as the intensification of enmeshment among national economic and societies such that events in one country impact directly on others), a shrinking world (the erosion of borders and geographical barriers to socio-economic activity), and among other concepts, global integration, the reordering of interregional power relations, consciousness of the global condition and the intensification of interregional interconnectedness. 30

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Tomlinson (1996) 31 Globalization

refers

interconnections

to

the

between

rapidly developing

societies,

cultures,

processes

institutions

of

and

complex individual

worldwide. It is a social process which involves a compression of time and space, shrinking distances through a dramatic reduction in time taken either physically or representational to cross them, so marking the world seem smaller and in certain bringing human beings ‘closer’ to one another. The Encyclopedia Britannica

32

says that globalization is the "process by which

the experience of everyday life ... is becoming standardized around the world." Ulrich Beck,33 (2001) “Globalization is a process of worldwide stratification in the course of which New socio-cultural hierarchy, on a worldwide scale is put together”. Baccman Zygmat 34 “Globalization is first and foremost a redistribution of privileges and deprivations of wealth and poverty, of resources and impotence, of power and powerlessness, of freedom and constrains”. Sjolander 35 Globalization needs to be understood in a more holistic manner. It may fairly be defined as some combination of economic, political, ideological, cultural and sociological phenomenon, which carries with it unanticipated, often contradictory and polarizing consequences”

604 cited by Bharadjwad (2003).

"The inexorable integration of markets, nation-states, and technologies to a degree never witnessed before-in a way that is enabling individuals, corporations and nation-states to reach around the world farther, faster, deeper and cheaper than ever before . . . . the spread of free-market capitalism to virtually every country in the world " (T.L. Friedman, The Lexus and the Olive Tree, 1999, p. 7-8).

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"The compression of the world and the intensification of consciousness of the world as a whole . . . concrete global interdependence and consciousness of the global whole in the twentieth century" (R. Robertson, Globalisation, 1992, p. 8). "A social process in which the constraints of geography on social and cultural arrangements recede and in which people become increasingly aware that they are receding" (M. Waters, Globalisation, 1995, p. 3). “Time-space compression” (Harvey 1999) “A historical process involving a fundamental shift or transformation in the spatial scale of human social organization that links distant communities, and expands the reach of power relations across regions and continents” (J. Baylis, S. Smith, The Globalisation of World Politics, 2005: 24) “…it is nothing but ‘recolonisation’ in a new garb.” (J. Neeraj, 2001, Globalisation or Recolonisation, Pune, p. 6-7) “…integration of national economies leading to the notion of a borderless global or

planetary economy… an interwoven net of factories, fields and forests,

banks, governments, labouring and farming populations, cities and transport spread over the surface of earth.” (Avinash J., 2000, Background to Globalisation, Center for Education and Documentation, Bombay, p. 3) 36 1. Held, McGrew, Goldblatt & Purraton. (1999) Global Transformations: Politics, Economics, and Culture. Stanford: Stanford University Press. “Globalization reflects a widespread perception that the world is rapidly being molded into a shared social space of economic, technological forces, and that developments in one region of the world can have profound consequences for the life chances of individuals and communities on the other side of the globe……Globalization is the widening, deepening, and speeding up of global interconnectedness, the intensification of world-wide systems of communications, and a deepening of both the global and local…..Globalization is a process which embodies a transformation in the spatial organization of social relationships and transactions, assessed in terms of the extensive intensity, velocity, and impact,

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generating transcontinental or interregional flows and networks of activities, interactions, and the exercise of power……Globalization is a set of processes rather than a condition. It reflects emergence of interregional networks and systems of interaction and exchange….Globalization concerns the expanding scale on which power is organized and exercised. Power is the fundamental attribute of globalization. It involves the structuring and restructuring of power relations at a distance.” 4. Held, David, and Anthony McGrew, editors (2000) The Global Transformation Reader. Oxford: Polity Press, Blackwell Publishers. “…globalization refers to these entrenched and enduring patterns of worldwide interconnectedness…..it suggests a growing magnitude or intensity of global flows such that states and societies become increasingly enmeshed in worldwide systems and networks of interaction…….globalization represents a significant shift in the spatial reach of social action and organization towards the interregional or intercontinental scale.” 37

1.3 HISTORY OF GLOBALIZATION Globalization has a long history as a political and cultural reality and as a religious and cultural movement. It is believed that the first stage of globalization started with the early Egyptian, Babylonian, Greek and Roman Empires, which united the world of their time. The second stage traced later part of 1400s when European explorers voyaged out of Europe to discover new land. Trade expended between European explorers voyaged out of Europe to discover new world of gradually the process of colonization started (ibid 188) The third stage of globalization started in the 19th century along with the expansion of colonial empires and trade.

The globalization intensified with advent of industrial

revolution in Europe and sought raw materials and markets for its products. This period ended with World War II but its ideological, economic and cultural consequences continue to influence till today. With the rejection and failure of

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socialism as an alternative, the whole world is thrown open to market economy, liberal democracy and western cultural values with the powerful tool of information technology. This is the new stage of globalization in which we live today.38 According to Pushpa Bishat the four decades spanning from 1870-1914, were characterized by laissez faire and there was virtually no restrictions on the movement of goods,

capital and labor across national boundaries,

Keneys

believed that international economic integration during this period contributed to economic growth. However after World War I ravaged and forced country after country into protectionism. The collapse of gold standard, the great depressions pushed the free trade policy on the backburner giving rise to narrow economic nationalism. 39

1.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF GLOBALIZATION. Arun Kumar Singh

40

and Manoj Sinha

41

have listed the following 22

characteristics of globalization (Repeations have been avoided by this researcher) 1. According to Robert Mecorquodale,

“Globalization is a contested term and

there is no one accepted definition of it” In a broader sense it includes two things, integration of the world and interdependence of the sovereign nation states. 2. The term globalization is all encompassing and is defined in both economic and Non-economic contexts which includes socio-cultural, historical and political. 3. Shrinking space which means people’s lives- their jobs, incomes and healthare affected by events on other side of the globe often by events they don not know about. 4. Shrinking time which is seen in the speed with which markets and technologies are changing. 5. Disappearing Borders: National borders are breaking down not only in trade, capital and information but also for ideas, norms, culture and values.

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6. Globalization

also

means”

universalisation

of

perticularism

and

particularization of universalism”, that is what is local is global and what is global is local. 7. It is two fold process (Global-local) has many aspects it is political, social and cultural process, but it is foremost an economic process (P. 137) 8. Some

scholars

like

John

Harris

views

globalization

as

American

capitalism/imperialism Stanley Hoffmann illustrates, the following feature of globalization (P. 138) 9. Globalization is a multidimensional process it has three basic dimensions economic, cultural and political. 10. Benefits of globalization, though undeniable are limited as well as uneven. The reach of globalization remains limited as it excludes many poor countries/ poor people. 11. Globalization main effect is rise of social movements due to the discontents of globalization. 12. Globalization suffer from many contradictions. 13. It is the market which has been the main beneficiary of the state’s retreat. 14. Economic globalization has affected states sovereignty. 15. Stanley Hoffmann further points out that character of citizenship remains intact despite of the global integration of the economic life of the people. 16. Hoffman’s perceived that there exists a relationship between globalization and violence (p. 138-141) 17. Communication and information Technology reduces the distance in real time. 18. Deregulated markets with speedy transfer of capital. 19. The emergence of global media network linked with global communication. 20. Global consumer culture and global music, film, T.V. culture. 21. Increased concentration of capital in the hands of few individuals via merger and acquisitions.

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22. Greatest awareness, but not very effective to address problems of human rights violations and other problems faced by the mankind today.

1.5 DIMENTIONS/ASPECTS OF GLOBALIZATION There are many potentially positive and Negative aspects of globalization. Developments linked with globalization have opened up boundless possibilities for human development, enormous new opportunities and enhanced the quality of life for many people in the third world countries. The globalization has been reciprocally beneficial. It also creates and promotes global concern and attracts worldwide attention to the local issues. Globalization has many dimensionseconomic, political, social, technological, cultural, and ideological etc. Each of them affects the local either positively or negatively. Manoj Sinha

42

has

highlighted the various aspects of globalization; some of them are summarized as follows: Economic Aspect. 1. Some Nations have tremendous economic advantages, other have become more and more dependent. 2. The main players in the process of globalization are governments of powerful Nations G7, TNCS, IMF, WB and WTO. 3. Development of third world countries has to be related with world market. 4. Over all control of global economy is in the hands of G 7 countries. 5. The foreign depts. works as an instrument to control development process in these countries. 6. Terms and conditions are imposed on them which make them almost impossible to develop on their own terms. 7. Growth of multinationals and emphasis on foreign trade is not in tune with the basic needs of the people 8. In the globalize free market economy, the only people who counts are those who have goods to sell and those who have money to buy.

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9. Widening the gap between the rich and the poor, both between countries and within countries. 10. There has been a world wide growth in poverty, inequality and human misery and social injustice is becoming an accepted reality. 11. Present economic system do not serve the interests of majority it rather destroys the lives of many people due to its unjust distribution of wealth, exploitation and deprivation of basic needs. 12. Globalization leads to lowering of labor costs and wages. (p. 193-194)

Social Aspects: 1. Globalization created the situation of marginalization, exclusion and social disintegration countries like India are facing there problems squarely. 2. People in Rural area are isolated from the urban privileged groups. 3. It creates an inferiority complex among the poor rural masses. 4. Because of urban centric model of developments, many rural people are forced to migrate to cities in search of employment and better living. 5. The migrants are the most exploited people; they suffer from insecurity and social exclusion. 6. Permanent employment and skilled workforce is being replaced by the casual and part time employment creating insecurity among the workers. 7. Diminishing trade unionisms have made the workers absolutely voiceless. 8. Profit oriented free market has lost the present social realities. 9. Society has become impersonal, mechanical and inhumane and is lost in consumerism and materialism. 10. Unprincipled living, selfishness, corruption, opportunism, and violence are the products of consumerism and materialism which intern is the effect of globalization. (p. 195)

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Cultural Aspects 1. Globalization involves cultural invasion. 2. Globalization means the export and import of cultures. 3. The whole idea of progress and development is shaped by western life style 4. A monoculture is fast emerging based on western values of consumerism and individualism undermining the ethnicity and traditions of locals. 5. There was a community ownership of land and property, accumulation of wealth by an individual was not welcome, but today wealth is increasingly regarded as belonging to individuals and not to community. 6. Indigenous cultural values are vastly ignored. (p. 196). Political Aspects: 1. Statelessness - shrinking of state and degradation of sovereign power. 2. In a state Vs market debates, there is erosion of power of the states to the MNCS and TNCS (Major constituents of market). 3. Opening of market led to a neo-colonialism allowing not only economic domination but also political domination of rich nations over the poor nations. 4. The Governments in the developing countries and LDCS are more committed to protection of foreign investment and less to the protection of the citizen’s of the country. 5. Many countries including India are forced by the world institutions to abandon its social responsibilities. 6. State has become powerless and tool in the hand of rich and the powerful. It is distancing itself from its constitutional duties like respects for democratic rights, social justice and state welfarism. 7. The only function left for state is to suppress any organized resistance of the people who are victims of the prevailing unjust system. (p. 194-195). Ecological Aspects: 1. Globalization led to environmental degradation and pollution.

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2. The world wide talk about climate change and the researchers conducted in different parts of the world corroborates the fact that the policies of globalization mainly the over industrialization has caused irreparable damage to the planet earth. 3. The sustaining power of earth for nurturing life is being destroyed and whole planet is at threat. 4. Forest and fishing resources are depleted for quick profits disregarding the state laws and regulations. 5. The vast constructions in the hilly areas and outside the city areas is mainly responsible for rise in temperatures. 6. The mining companies exploit resources with little regards to environmental and social costs. 7. The ecological catastrophe today is the direct product of modern industrial and technological growth and the modern life styles (pp. 197)

1.6 GLOBALIZATION: INDIAN SCENARIO Right from Britishas the Indian Economy had been a mixed Economy. After India’s Independence we continued the economic policy as led down by the Britishas. The growth of the idea of mixed economy can be paraphrased from the various official documents, declaration and resolutions, like the Constitution, the Five Year Plans and the Industrial Policy Resolutions. In its directive principles of state policy, the Constitution of India states,” the state shall strive to promote the welfare of the people by securing and protecting as effectively as it may a social order in which justice, social, economic and political, shall inform all the institutions of social life”. These basic and general principles were given a more precise definition when the Indian Parliament accepted in December 1954, the “Socialistic pattern of society” as the objective of social and economic policy. It essentially means that “the basic criterion for determining the lines of advance must not be private profit but social gains”. The socialistic pattern of society was

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conceived within the framework of mixed economy.43.However several factors like 1. International Scenario 2. Domestic circumstances such as- increased in fiscal deficit, increased in foreign debt, balance of payment crisis, mounting inflationary pressure and unsatisfactory performance of public sectors forced the government in mid 1970s and 1980s to liberalized its economy.44 TABLE 1.4 CENTRAL GOVERNMENT DEFICIT (% OF GDP AT CURRENT MARKET PRICES) Year

Budgetary Deficit

Revenue Deficit

Gross Fiscal Deficit

1980-81

2.0

1.5

5.7

1981-82

0.9

0.2

5.4

1982-83

0.9

0.7

6.0

1983-84

0.7

1.2

6.3

1984-85

1.6

1.8

7.5

1985-86

2.0

2.2

8.3

1986-87

2.8

2.7

9.0

1987-88

1.7

2.7

8.1

1988-89

1.4

2.7

7.8

1989-90

2.4

2.6

7.9

1990-91

2.4

3.5

7.0

Source: Economic Survey, 1992-93, p. 10 Budgetary deficit = Total Expenditure (Revenue + capital)- Total receipts (Revenue + Capital).

22

Revenue Deficit = current revenue expenditure (Non-plan expenditure)—Current revenue receipts (Net tax revenue + Non-tax revenue). Gross Fiscal Deficit = Revenue Receipts (Net tax revenue + Non tax revenue) + Capital Receipts (only recoveries of loan and other receipts)- Total expenditure (Plan and non-plan expenditure).

In order to get way from the economic crisis the Indian government has no other alternative but to approach the World Bank and I. M. F. for further financial assistance which was happy to help Indian government in its difficult time. But the assistance was given with the severe conditions to be followed by Indian Government with measurers like opening the Indian economy to the world markets and also the privatization of India’s PSEs. Although economic reforms were introduced under Rajeev Gandhi regime, they did not yield the desired results. In the end of June 1991, country landed in an unprecedented economic crisis.

Reserves of foreign exchange were just

sufficient to pay for two weeks imports. New loans were not available. Balance of payment situation was leading towards a crisis.

Faith of international

community in Indian economy was shaken.

23

TABLE 1.5 TRENDS IN CURRENT ACCOUNT DEFICIT, FOREIGN DEBT AND SERVICING OF FOREIGN DEBT Year

Deficit of

Foreign

Foreign

Foreign

Foreign

current

Debt

Debt

Debt

Debt

account

(in million

(as % of

(as % of

servicing

(% of

$)

GDP)

export)

(% of

GDP)

receipts)

1980-81

1.2

23.8

14.3

14.9

7.9

1981-82

1.4

24.3

14.2

13.5

7.7

1982-83

1.3

27.9

15.6

14.6

8.7

1983-84

1.1

31.1

16.0

17.2

10.3

1984-85

1.2

31.9

17.1

19.8

11.7

1985-86

2.3

37.0

17.4

26.7

15.9

1986-87

2.0

43.8

19.4

39.4

31.0

1987-88

1.9

50.8

19.5

41.3

26.4

1988-89

2.6

53.5

21.1

38.9

25.4

1989-90

2.2

57.7

21.6

31.1

21.5

1990-91

2.3

62.3

23.8

29.8

21.7

Source: Deepak Nayyar, Economic Liberalization in India (1991). p.6 In order to pull the economy out of economic crisis and to put it on the path to rapid and steady economic growth, it was most essential to correct financial disequilibrium, curb rising prices, correct adverse balance of payment and replenish foreign exchange reserves. To achieve all these objectives, introduction of economic reforms or an appropriate economic policy was considered inevitable. P.V. Narasimha Rao-led Congress (I) Government after resumption of office on June 21, 1991 adopted a number of stabilization measures that were designed to restore internal and external confidence.

The government adopted, as the

24

centerpiece of economic strategy, a programme to bring about reduction in fiscal imbalance to be supported by reforms in economic policy that were essential to impart a new element of dynamism to the growth process in the economy.45

TABLE 1.6 TRENDS OF INTERNAL DEBT OF CENTRAL GOVERNMENT (% of GDP) Year

Internal Debt

1980-81

35.6

Gross interest Payment as % of total Expenditure 11.6

1983-84

38.6

13.3

1984-85

41.8

13.1

19.85-86

45.5

14.1

1986-87

49.9

14.4

1987-88

51.7

16.0

1988-89

51.7

17.5

1989-90

53.2

18.7

1990-91

52.8

26.2

Source: Economic Survey, 1991-92, p. 13. In conformity with the Theoretical framework of I M.F. and World Bank the government of India introduced programs of: A. Stabilization and B. Structural Adjustment Program. Stabilization: The main objective of stabilization was to control balance of payment crisis in short run by reducing deficit on currant account and to curb inflation. The main instrument for stabilization is fiscal policy and monitory policy and devaluation of domestic currency. This package of policies was used in a manner so as to lead to sharp reduction in fiscal deficit of the government.

25

Structural Adjucement Program (S.A.P.). Bhandari and Nayar (1996). Described the main elements of S.A.P. as to shift the resources froma) Importing substituting activities to export activities. b) Away from government sector to the private sector. The Salient Features of Globalization in India  Globalization began in India in 1980s with slow Liberalization and privatization  The Economic Reforms in India contrary to other country was crisis driven.  The Structural Adjustment Program salient on Rural reforms where 70 % of population resides  No discussion in the parliament on major policy changes regarding LPG, Matter was bet IMF,WB and GOI  The Govt. continues the policy saying it is irreversible but will give it Human face. Out come of Globalization •

The growth in service sector

•

Improvement in Balance of payment

•

Higher accumulation of foreign exchange reserves

•

IT Revolution and Telecommunication revolution

•

Stock Market boom

•

Higher growth of export- INDIA SHINES? 46

The other side of the Globalization The globalization does have a dark side. It has affected the lives of poor in India and elsewhere in the World. Globalization demands new skills and new competencies so as to get the gainful employments. This has pushed many unskills labors out of the labors force and forced them to become agriculture labors. This can be seen from Table 1.7

26

TABLE 1.7 COMPARATIVE FIGURES FOR % OF DISTRIBUTION OF RURAL POOR DURING PRE-REFORM AND POST-REFORM PERIOD By Occupation

1993-1994

1999-2000

32.33

28.25

11.16

11.53

Agriculture Labors

42.62

48.01

Other Labor

7.84

7.12

Others

6.04

5.09

Total

100

100

Scheduled Castes

28.19

27.10

Scheduled Tribes

15.46

17.41

Others

56.35

55.49

Total

100

100

Self Employed in Agriculture Self Employed in NonAgriculture

By Castes

Source: Sundaram and Tendulkar (2003)

27

India and the Second Generation of Economic Reforms The “First Generation Reforms” initiated in 1991 were crisis driven. Nearly a decade of significant stabilization of our economy as indicated by the following facts: i) The growth rate of GDP remained between 5 to 7 per cent in the first decade of economic reforms. ii) The country has been able to build a sufficient foreign exchange reserve (US $ 39.55 billion in March 2001). iii) The country has been able to manage its external debt, which stood at US $ 101.13 billion in March 2001. Thus the country has no fear of defaulting on its external obligations. iv) The export-import ratio has improved from 78-29 per cent in 1989-90 to 88.17 per cent in 2000-01 which is a healthy sign. v) The wholesale price index during 1995-96 to 1999-2000 has shown a very per annum on the average.47 It can be reasonably argued that leaving aside the question of reducing fiscal deficit the stabilization of the economy has been achieved as a result of economic reforms as such the policy-makers felt the need to shift gears of the economy from a crisis-driven economic reforms to development-driven economic reforms. Mr. Yashwant Sinha, the then Union Finance Minister, while presenting the Union Budget for 2000-01 underlined the need for preparing an agenda and action plan regarding “Second Generation Economic Reforms”

to go further in

achieving the liberalization, privatization and globalization (LPG) in India. The Finance Minister in his budget speech for the year 2000-01 laid down the objectives for second generation Reforms some important among them are: 1)

Strengthen the foundations of growth of our rural economy, especially

agriculture and allied activities.

28

2) Accord the highest priority to human resource development and other social programmes and policies in education, health and other social services, with special emphasis on the poorest and weakest sections of the society. 3) Dr. Manmohan Singh after assuming power (2004) continued the same policies by underlining that-a) Development to be a key priority; reforms to aim at removing poverty and increasing employment.

b) Economic Reforms to be

pursued with human face.48

1.7 GLOBALISATION AND NEO-BUDDHIST Neo Buddhists/Buddhists constitutes of 0.7 percent of total population in India and their literacy rate is 72.4 per cent 49 According to 1991 census, there are around 5 million Buddhists. They form the majority of six million Buddhists living in Bengal, Tripura, Sikkim, Mizoram, Uttar Pradesh, and Himachal Pradesh today, in addition to the Tibetans exiles in India (Vijayananni 1995; xiv, Kantowsky 1999:4:Zelliot 1984:

95-5). Most of the Mahars in Maharashtra

considered themselves as Buddhist.50

TABLE 1. 8 RATE OF GROWTH OF BUDDHISTS IN INDIA Year

Buddhists

1951

Population (Total) 361 088 090

189 577

Percentage of the total Population 0.05

1961

439 234 771

3 250 277

0.74

1971

548 200 000

3 900 000

0.7

1981

659 300 460

4 650 194

0.7

1991

816 169 666

6 323 492

0.77

Source:

Patwardhan 1973, Bhandare and Mukhopadhyay 1997; Vijayanunni

1995. cited by Johannes Beltz (2005), 51

29

Yet it is impossible to say how many Mahars remained Hindus because the official antes did not refers to the 4 castes when it refers to the religious background. On 14/15 Oct. 1956, millions of ‘Mahars’ converted into Buddhism under the leadership of Dr. Ambedkar in a ceremony held at Nagpur. This is followed by the mass conversions of Chambhar group in North parts of India, particularly in places like Delhi, Agra, Meerat, jalandhar (Lynch 1969, Singh 1986,

Shastri 1959)’

These mass conversions have grown tremendously

according to the last census. 52 (Table 1 and 2 p. 89).

TABLE 1.9 POPULATION OF BUDDHISTS COMPARATIVE FIGURES FOR INDIA AND MAHARASHTRA Year

India

Maharashtra

1951

1,80,823

2,487

1961

32,50,227

27,89,501

1971

38,12,325

32,64,223

1981

47,19,796

39,46,149

1991

63,87,500

50,40,786

2001

79,55.207

58,38,710

Excluding Ladakh Source: Census of India 2001. The first Report on Religion. In the village, the situation is worse, as we also have to take into account the different regions. Danda and Samanta (1993: 272) have studied a village in eastern Maharshtra where the Buddhists, originally ‘Mahars,’ now enjoy more economic power than the other untouchables. N. Kundu (1993: 324-5) has studied a village in the west of Maharashtra, where most Buddhists were employed as farm workers, ill paid, and as poor as before. In a more general manner, Bopagamage (1979: 1) concludes that in spite of their attempts to break free, Buddhists are still considered an inferior caste and suffer from deprivation.53 30

TABLE 1.10 RATE OF GROWTH OF THE BUDDHIST COMMUNITY IN MAHARASHTRA Year Population Buddhists Percentage of the total (total)

Population

1951

32 002 564

2 487

0.01

1961

39 553 781

2 789 501

7.05

1971

50 412 235

3 264 223

6.47

1981

62 783 000

3 946 149

6.39

1991

78 937 000

5 040 785

6.28

Source: Patwardhan 1973; Mahana 1985; Vijayanunni 1995, cited by Johannes Beltz (2005) 54, P. 90 TABLE 1.11 LITERACY AND EDUCATION PROFILE OF BUDDHIST AND HINDUS IN INDIA BY REGIONS _____________________________________________________________ Region Buddhist Hindus __________________________________________________________________ Rural 343 189 Illiterates1 1 Literates 657 557 All 1000 1000 81.9 80.2 Dropout Rate 2 7.8 8.4 Completion Rate 2 _____________________________________________________________________________________________________

Urban Illiterates 1 Literates 1 All Dropout Rate2 Completion Rate 2

193

184

807

811

1000

1000

71.4

57.3

13.5

25.3

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________

Note: 1 = Per thousand distribution of persons aged 7 and above. 2 = Per centage of literate persons aged 7 and above. Source: Calculations on the basis of Statement 3, 5R and 5U in NSS Report No.473, Literacy and levels of Education in India, 1999-2000, cited by Mohanty M.(2006) 55, Pp.3788 .

31

Characteristics of Neo- Buddhist Community 1. In spite of transacts of cases of upwardly mobile Neo-Buddhist, their masses are still in the city slums and are rural landless laborers. 2. There has been a great psychological and cultural change among them after the conversion. Mejority of them no longer performs and practice Hindus rituals and festivals. 3. The literacy rate and level of education among Neo Buddhist is much higher than other non-converted scheduled castes. 4. Few of them could manage to enter into government services holding high positions due to the policy of positive discrimination. But chunk of the NeoBuddhist population lives in rural areas and slums in urban areas are economically poor, educationally backward and socially disorganized. 5. Neo Buddhists are politically conscious and awakened communities but due to lack of strong organization and repeated splits of organizations their ability to be a potential political and social force has been neutralized. 6. Neo-Buddhist has a strong influence of Dr.

Ambedkar,

Jotirao Phule,

Gutama Buddha and Saint Kabir and they believe in their teachings and philosophy. 7. Neo Buddhist is probably the only social group among Scheduled caste of having established various social, educational, cultural, political and religious institutions as an alternative to the existing institution established by upper caste Hindus. 8. The status of Neo Buddhist women is comparatively better than status of other non-converts Scheduled caste women.

Policy Implications for Neo-Buddhist The Neo Buddhists are formerly untouchables and are poorest of the poor in India. The constitutional space enjoyed by them from 1950 t0 1990s made few of them capable to enter into the power structure at various levels. Despites of its

32

little implementation have given rise to an educated and economical sound class who compete to upper castes people. The protective policies of the Govt. played important role in empowering Neobuddhists Community. The Reversal of these policies and closing down or selling off public sector to private parties, withdrawal of food and agricultural subsidies, privatization and marketisation of higher education has serious implication for Neobuddhists population in India. Policy of Globalization /NEP has very significant implications for NeoBuddhist community in Maharashatra, because of their lowest position in caste based stratified society, they are nowhere in power structure, and are worst hit by the new economic policy initiated by Indian Government since 1991. Globalization has reversed the decade long declining trend of poverty. 55 Prof. S.P. Gupta had estimated the poverty figures for the rural area having gone up to 43.0% in 1998 from 34.39% in 1990 where as urban poverty remaining same at 35% (Gupta, 2000). Many surveys and studies independently corroborated the significant rise in poverty after the launch of Globalization (Alternative economic survey 2000-01). As numerous studies indicated that reforms have benefited to rich and not the poor.

1.8 DEVELOPMENT IN SOCIAL SECTORS AFTER THE GLOBALIZATION The social sectors in India (Health, Education, Welfare, etc) are found to be affected by the policies of globalization. The budgetary allocations during the post reform period has shown deceleration. The entry of private players into these important sectors has made it difficult for the common man to access them. The various schemes related to social securities have been either abandoned or have remain on papers. The attempt of privatizing the basic amenities like water, electricity, etc. have further worsen the life of the common people. The rate of unemployment has also gone up during the same period.

33

Changes in employment and unemployment rate before and after the Reform TABLE 1.12 UNEMPLOYMENT AND POVERTY RATIO * Year (%)

Open Semi-Open NonUnUnEmployment Employment Employment (NE%) (%) (%)

Poverty (POV %)

DSU

Rural & Urban(Total) 1973

1.31

6.69

44.88

54.88

8.00

1978

2.61

5.48

30.23

51.32

8.09

1983

2.01

6.27

36.20

44.48

8.28

1988

3.81

2.43

32.62

38.86

6.24

1994

1.85

4.10

30.02

35.97

5.95

1996

1.68

1.82

32.58

36.08

3.50

1997

1.75

2.58

32.90

37.23

4.33

1998

2.49

3.30

37.22

43.01

5.79

Sources: I. Estimates of Unemployment-related concepts are based on NSS data of various Rounds. II. Estimates of Poverty are based on Planning Commission’s Modified Expert Group Methodology (1997). III. NSSO Report on Employment – Unemployment for 53rd Round (Thin Sample). IV. Poverty Figures up to 1997 as estimated by S.P. Gupta (1999). V. Poverty Percentages for 1998 are based on a lecture delivered by S. P. Gupta at JNU.

34

The employment generation in post reform period in public sectors has fallen after 1990s and employment generation in agriculture is negligible where as employment in private sectors shows little increased from 7.7 million in 1991 to 8.5 million in 1996, indicating the increase of rate of growth from 1.3 per cent to 5.6 per cent2. The Table below shows the sorry state of affairs of employment in the post globalization period. TABLE 1.13 EMPLOYMENT DURING 1991 TO 1997

Year

Public sector

Private Sector

(In Million) Total

1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997

19.06 (1.5) 19.21 (0.8) 19.33 (0.6) 19.45 (0.6) 19.47 (0.1) 19.43 (-0.2) 19.25 (-0.3)

7.68 (1.3) 7.85 (2.2) 7.85 (0.1) 7.93 (1.0) 8.06 (1.6) 8.51 (5.6) 8.66 (1.8)

26.73 (1.4) 27.06 (1.2) 27.18 (0.4) 27.38 (0.7) 27.53 (0.5) 27.94 (1.5) 28.25 (1.1)

Note: Figures in brackets indicate annual growth rate (%) Source: RBI, Report on Currency and Finance, 1997-98 cited by Ruddar Datt(2001)

Trends in Poverty (SC) With the estimation of poverty during 1999-2000, there are serious differences of opinion about magnitude of decline in the rural and urban poverty in India during 1990-2000. The estimate based on consumption expenditure from employment survey revealed few points. It is indicated that about 43 % of SCs persons were below the poverty line both in Rural and urban area in 2000, which is higher as compared to 23 % among others (Non SC / ST/ OBC). While rural poverty among SC has

35

declined by 9 % point during 1980s, it was only by 5 % point during the 1990s (i.e. 1999-2000). This indicates that the decline in poverty of SCS has been much lower in 1990s as compared to the 1980s. Which means rate of decline of poverty for the scheduled caste has been slowed down significantly during 1990s. 56 Education and Health The government’s apathy towards the important social sectors like education and health is reflected in its low budgetary allocation on these vitally important sectors of development. The total planned and Non- planned expenditure of the different states in pre-reform and post-reform period the also shows the clear declined. TABLE 1.14 EDUCATIONAL EXPENDITURE IN INDIA Year Total Expenditure on Gross Education Education and Training Domestic Expenditure Product as % of GDP 1951 64 9,445 0.68 1961 260 15,999 1.63 1971 1,011 41,957 2.41 1981 4,436 143,256 3.00 1982 5,736 158,761 3.47 1983 6,229 185,779 3.35 1994 7,456 207,109 3.60 1985 8,713 232,370 3.75 1986 9,479 258,225 3.67 1987 11,789 292,232 4.04 1988 14,070 349,021 4.03 1989 17,950 408,662 4.39 1990 20,491 477,814 4.29 1991 22,349 552,768 4.05 1992 25,030 630,772 3.97 1993 28,280 732,874 3.86 1994 32,606 868,019 3.76 1995 38,178 1,006,286 3.79 1996(RE) 44,695 1,149,215 3.89 1997(BE) 51,683 1,426,670 3.62 Sources: I. From 1951 through 1988 Budgetary Resources for Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development, 1991, New Delhi. 36

II.

From 1989 through 1997: (i) Analysis of Budgeted Expenditure on Education, MHRD, and (ii) Economic Survey, 1997-98, Ministry of Finance; Selected educational Statistics, MHRD, 2000, New Delhi, cited in ‘Second Generation Reforms: Need for Changing Growth Strategy,’ by Ruddar Datt. Page, 18

TABLE 1.15 AVERAGE ANNUAL GROWTH RATE OF PER PUPIL EXPENDITURE IN EDUCATION Education Per-reform Period Reform Period (1985-90)

(1990-96)

Elementary Education

6.9

1.2

Secondary Education

5.0

0.0

University Education

0.2

-4.4

Source: Economic and Political Weekly, March 4-10, 2000, p. 839, cited in ‘second Generation Reforms: Need for Changing Growth Strategy’ by Ruddar Datt. Page, 19

TABLE 1.16 RURAL PRIMARY HEALTHCARE INFRASTRUCTURE Category of Requirement Functioning Gap Centers Sub-Centers

for 1991

as on 30.06 .1996

1,34,108

1,32,730

1,378

Primary Health 22,349 21,854 495 centers Community 5,587 2,424 3,163 Health Centers Source: Ninth Five Year Plan (Draft) 1997-2002, Planning Commission, GOI, cited by S K Pant and Alok Pandy in ‘Social Sector in Liberalised Era’ in Second Generation Reforms in India. Edited by Ruddar Datt page 175 Dalit /Neobuddhist Capitalist? The Dalit response to the globalization has remained varied. There are opponents and proponents of globalization even within Dalits and neobuddhist. Some of them like Dr. Narendra Jadhav welcome these

37

policies where as Dr. Teltumde Aanad 57 sees a class project behind those policies. One thing is cleared that the capitalism has failed to address the question of caste in India. Caste is a based of capitalism in India and unless the caste is eradicated the fruits of globalization can not reach to Dalits in general and Neo-Buddhist in particular. The possibility of the emergence of Dalit capitalism seems to be rare possibility as pointed out by a well known Dalit intellectual and writer Mr. Chandra Bhan Prasad.58 1.9 RATIONAL AND SCOPE OF THE STUDY

Dalits / Neo-Buddhist in India is one of the most oppressed and marginalized

section of Indian society. They have been constantly subjected to

socio-economic discrimination on the name of their caste or religion.

The

problems of Dalits with respect to their development have been debated quite extensively at various floras. But despites of the Government Initiatives and proDalits policies, the Dalits in India in general and Dalits in Maharashtra in particular have remained backward –socially, economically and educationally. Fifty years of Developmental planning in India along with our constitutional obligations to uplift the Dalits/Neo-Buddhist and bring them out of their poverty situations has helped few Dalits. But with the commencement of New economic policy (July 1991) many academicians and scholars argued that globalization has worked against the interest of the poor and it has led further widening the disparities and inequalities in various Africans, Latin and Asians countries. According to Joseph Stliglitz,59 “On the name of globalization various policy decisions of Indians Government has directly or indirectly hit the Dalits population in India.

The increasing numbers of suicides committed by the

marginal farmers in rural part of Vidarbha region in Maharashtra and elsewhere in India during the post reform period raised the serious concern about the policies pertaining to globalization. The employment in all sectors has either remained stagnant or it has been decreased.”

38

In the lights of above discussion, it is quite obvious that policy of Globalization is a matter of great concern for the intellectuals and researchers. But very few have attempted to under take a field based study of this phenomenon and estimate its impacts on Dalits or poor section of society. The study after examining the pros and cons an impact of globalization will come out with concrete suggestions to make the globalization work for every section of the society especially the poorest of the poor. 1.10 GEOGRAPHIC LOCALE OF THE STUDY The present study has been conducted in the Akola district of Vidarbha region of Mahar ashtra. Vidarbha is considered to be developmentally backward aea of the state Akola is one of the least urbanized and underdeveloped parts of Vidarbha. The district ranks 13th in term of population and in case of agricultural laborer the district ranks 3rd in the State. (Census, 1991) The Akola district is located between 19-51 and 21-16 north latitude and 76-38 and 77-44 east longitudes. Amrawati surrounds it in the north and northeast, Yavatmal district in the Southeast. Parbhani District in the South and Buldhana district in the west.(For details see the profile of Akola district-Appendix. 3 Page No. XLIII and Map of Akola district-Appendix 4 Page No.XLVII ) Conclusions Globalization as it is perceived and viewed today is a complex, dynamic and multidimensional phenomenon. The worldwide talk about globalization does not lead to any common view point. It is a contested concept. The opponents and the proponents of the globalization provide their own stastics and figures to substantiate their view points. But, most of their arguments are based on the secondary data and field based inquires are still lacking.

In India, this

phenomenon has a unique feature and that is ‘globalization in our country was ‘crisis driven’, and without any preparatory work. The logic given by the proglobalist to support it is based on trickled down theory which is not evident in the countries where these policies are in forced for past many years. Hence, it will be

39

futile to hope that it will really work for all the sections of the society, unless certain changes are made keeping in mind the history, culture and geography of a particular country in general and India in particular.

References: 1.

Stiglitz Joseph (2001), ‘Globalization and Its Discontents’, The Penguin Press, London.

2.

Roy Narain Ash (1999), ‘The Third World in the Age of Globalization: Requiem or New Agenda?’, Zed Books Publications, London and New York, US.

3.

Ibid.

4.

Mandar Harsh (2004), ‘The Ripped Chest: Pubic Policy to the Poor in India,’ Books For Change, Action Aid, Karnataka.

5.

Singer Peter, (2004)’ ‘One World: The Ethics Of Globalization,’ Second edition, Orient Longman Private Ltd, Hyderabad, India.

6.

Acharya Shankar (2006), ‘Economic Growths: Some Reflections,’ EPW, Nov. 4-10, Vol. XLI, Nos. 43 and 44, P. 4573-4578.

7.

Anil Dutta Mishra (2004), ‘Globalization: Concept and Nature’, in Anil Dutta Mishra and Govind Prasad (ed.), ‘Globalization: Myth and Reality’, Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi.

8.

Michel Chossudousky@http://www.heise.de/tp/english/special/eco/6099/1.html

9.

Ibid

10.

Mandar Harsh (2004), op.cit

11.

Michel Chossudousky op. cit.

12.

Acharya Shankar (2006), ‘Economic Growths: Some Reflections,’ EPW, Nov. 4-10, Vol. XLI, Nos. 43 and 44, P. 4573-4578.

40

13.

Muralivallabhan T. V. (2004), ‘Economic Prospects and Environmental Problem of Globalisation ,’ in ‘Globalization: Myth and Reality,’ edited by Govind Prasad and Anil Dutta Mishra, op.cit.

14.

Ibid.

15.

Hammond Allen (2006), ‘Which World? Scenarios for the 21st Century: Global Destinies, Regional choices’, Earthscan Publications Ltd, London, UK.

16.

Radhakrishnan P. (2004), ‘Religion under Globalization,’ EPW, March 27 April 2, pp. 1403-1409.

17.

Held David and Mcgrew Anthony, (ed.), (2000), ‘The Global Transformations Reader’, Polity press, London. UK.

18.

Singh Arun Kumar (2004), ‘Globalization Sovereignty and Human Rights: A Perspective’, in ‘Globalization: Myth and Reality’, edited by Govind Prasad and Anil Dutta Mishra, op. cit. p..134

19.

Bharadwaj Prem (2003), ‘Globalization: Politics of U. S. Hegemony And Democratic Processes in Developing Countries,’ in Man And Development, Vol. 15, No. 4, Dec, Centre For Research And Industrial Development, Chandigarh, India.

20.

Mishra Anil Dutta (2004), ‘Globalization: Concept and Nature’, in Anil Dutta Mishra and Govind Prasad (ed.), ‘Globalization: Myth and Reality’, op. cit., p.3

21.

Ibid. pp. 5-6

22.

Rayon F. William (2001), “Globalization, Religion and New Promising Role of NGOs,’ in Stan D’ Souza (ed.), ‘Population and Poverty Issues at the Dawn of the 21st Century’, Indian Social Institute,

New Delhi. pp.

371-382. 23.

Mishra Anil Dutta (2004), ‘Globalization: Concept and Nature’, in Anil Dutta Mishra and Govind Prasad (ed.), ‘Globalization: Myth and Reality’, op. cit.,

41

24.

Ibid. p. 13

25.

Radhakrishnan P. (2004), “Religion under Globalization,” EPW, op.cit

26.

Singh Arun Kumar (2004), ‘Globalization, Sovereignty and Human Rights: A Perspective”, in ‘Globalization: Myth and Reality’, ed. by Govind Prasad and Anil Dutta Mishra, op. cit. p. 145

27.

Saxena Ashish (2006), ‘Quest or Subsistence of Dalits in the Era of Globalization: Some critical Reflections,’ in ‘Dalits in India: Past and Present’, Ed. by Sarkar R. M., Serials Publications, Delhi, .p.27

28.

Mishra Anil Dutta (2004), op. cit. p. 4

29.

Malcolm Waters (1995), ‘Globalization’, Routledge Publication, London and New York.

30.

Sheth D. C. (2004), ‘Globalization and New Politics of Micro-Movements’, EPW Jan 2004, P.45-56.

31.

Tomlinson, John (1996), ‘Cultural Globalization: Placing and displacing the West,’ European Journal of Development Research, 8,2 Dec. cited by Rajkumar in ‘ Globalization and Dalit culture’, in ‘New Economic Policy and Dalits’, edited. by P. G. Jogdand (2000), Rawat Publication, New Delhi, p.85

32.

http: llen wikipedia-org/wiki/globalization

33.

Beck Ulrich (2001), ‘What is Globalization’, Polity press, U.K

34.

Ibid.

35.

Bharadwaj Prem, (2003), op. cit. p.604

36.

http : // www. globalizacija . com / doc-en / e 00139 . htm

37.

Synder Karolyn@ http : // itproj . utv. min . se / wing span / annref . lasso ? ID = WSA 10028

38.

Sinha Manoj (2004), ‘Globalization and Consumerism : A study of its Impact’, in Anil Datta Mishra and Govind Prasad(ed.), ‘Globalization : Myth and Reality,’ op.cit., pp. 188-189

42

39.

Bishat Pushpa (2004), ‘India under Globalization: Facing an Unequal World’, in

Anil Datta Mishra and Govind Prasad (ed.), ‘Globalization

Myth and Reality,’ op.cit.. 40.

Singh Arun Kumar (2004), ‘Globalization Sovereignty and Human Rights: A Perspective”, in ‘Globalization: Myth and Reality’, edited. by Govind Prasad and Anil Dutta Mishra, op.cit.

41.

Sinha Manoj (2004), ‘Globalization and Consumerism: A study of its Impact’ p. 189.op.cit.

42.

Ibid. 193

43.

Gupta K.L and Kaur Harvinder, (2006), ‘New Indian Economy And Reform,’ Deep and Deep Publication PVT Ltd,” Delhi.

44.

Thorat S. K. (2002), ‘Dr.Ambedkar’s Economic Ideas and liberalization: Emerging Challenges before Dalits,’ Report of the Seminar held on -- on, “100 Years of Reservations: An Appraisal and Assessment,” Under the Aegis of Republican Party of India, Hyderabad (A. P. )

45.

Gupta K.L and Kaur Harvinder(2006) op. cit.

46.

Kirtiraj D. C (2007), ‘Globalization and Social Justice: Dr. Ambedkar’s View Point,’ a paper presented in a National Seminar on. ‘Problems of SC/STs and Development Discourses in India,’ organized by Tilak Maharashtra Viddhyapeeth, Gultekadi, Pune, on 23rd March,2007

47.

Gupta K. L. and Kaur Harvinder (2006) op. cit.

48.

Ibid.

49.

Census 2001

50.

Johannes BeltZ, (2005), ‘Mahar, Buddhist and Dalit: Religious Conversion and Socio-Political Emancipation,’ Manohar Publications, New Delhi.

51.

Ibid. P. 89

52.

Ibid.

53.

Ibid

54.

Ibid P. 90

43

55.

Mohanty Mritunjoy(2006), ‘Social Inequality, labor Market Dynamics and Reservation,’ EPW, Sep. 2-8, Vol. XLI. No. 35, Pp. 3777-3789.

56.

Thorat S. K.(2002), ‘Ambedkar’s Economic Ideas and liberalization : Emerging Challenges before Dalits,’ op.cit.

57.

Teltumbde Anand (2000),”Impact of New Economic Reforms on Dalits” in ‘New Economic Policy and Dalits ed. by Jogdand P. G., Rawat Publications, New Delhi.

58.

Prasad Chandra Bhan, ‘In Search of Dalit Bougoisie- lessons to be learnt from Black Empowerment in US,’ in Times of India, 9th August ,2005

59.

Stiglitz Joseph(2001), op. cit.

*****

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