O'Raheny. Dr. S. Krasnow Parrish. L. Perkins. and Dr. M. St. Claire. REFERENCES. Erwin, J., Bloomsmith, M., Boysen, S.T., Hof, P.R., Holloway, R., Lowenstine, ...
-.-
,'-
,', --,
-
"-.-",;
In All Apes Great and Small B.M. Galdikas, N.E. Briggs, Sheeran, G.L. Shapiro, and J. Goodall (Eds.). Kluwer/ Plenum Publishers, New York pp
0
201~,206
Chapter 14 AN INTERNATIONAL DATABASE FOR THE STUDY OF DIABETES, OBESITY, AND AGING IN GREAT APES AND OTHER NONHUMAN PRIMA TES
R. Martens 1, R. Couch", B. Hansen). C. Howard4, J. Kemnitz5, D.P. Perl6, and J.M. Erwin I IDivision of Neurobiology, Behal'lOr, and Cmelies, Drive, Rockville, MD 20850
2CousilOn Foundallon,
JUniversiry of Maryland
"UniveTsilV (!/Northern
'Universit'>' ofWiswnsin
Alamogordo,
BIOQUAL,
Center
.VM
Schoo! ofAft:dieine,
Colorado Rneareh
Baliimore,
Curporaliun,
MD
Cree!e.,>" CO
Reguma! Primall! Rl!sl!areh Coller,
bNeuropallw!ug.l: Division and Arthur At. Fishberg Rewareh Sinm Sehoul of Medicine, New York, .vI'
1.
Ine" 9600 Medical
Madisun,
W!
Cmlerfor
Neurobiology.
Moun!
INTRODUCTION
The project described here grew out of our personal experiences and conversations with zoo curators. primate keepers. primate veterinarians, and
201
-'"
":
L.K. 2001
L
:- ,'>~'~:' -'-:',.~' ;,\:"
,
-, ;-.."
. ~,.,-.;c;-.,:
~.~
~'~'"
". '0.
,.'
202
'.'y.
'.' "":.';""'-
,:' .",";.::::';:~:..~'.'\~:"
~- ,"!:;'
':i;::'"
; ~:;~',:"-\"":\:?>~::'(':~'~::;:""..
?'
:'~,~~.;.~~:>.:",.:-~.,,~:,.,.;'..~
R. .\far/ens, R. COIICh.B. Hallsell. C. Howard. J. Kemnitz. D. Peri. & J. Erwill
diabetes researchers regarding spontaneously occurring diabetes in great apes and other primates. It involves the convergence of several lines of inquiry concerning the health and well being of nonhuman primates and human public health. These include: 1. reports of clinical diabetes in great apes and concerns about managing the disease (chimpanzee. Rosenblum, et ai., 1981; orangutan. Kemnitz, et ai., 1994); 2. studies of spontaneous diabetes in macaques (e.g., Sulawesi crested macaque. Howard, 1972; and rhesus, Hansen, 1995) and collaborative field studies of populations and diabetes risk in nonhuman primates (e.g., Sulawesi macaques. Howard, et ai.. 1999; Sugardjiro. et aI.. 1989). The fundamenral premise of this effort is that the causes and consequences of diabetes are identical or very similar in humans and other primates. All the available evidence supports this view. A fuller understanding of diabetes. along with improved methods of prevention, diagnosis, and management of this disease, is in the best interests of all who may be affected by it. A systematic study of clinical cases of diabetes (and prediabetes) in the great apes and other primates should prove beneficial for human public health, and it is also in the best interests of the focal nonhuman individuals and populations. All too often. diabetes is not diagnosed until it is so advanced that a clinical crisis occurs and some of the damaging consequences of diabetes are beyond reversal. The complications of diabetes can be severe and debilitating and may invol ve damage to a variety of organ systems. Diabetes-associated disorders include cardiovascular disease. kidney disease. arthritis, neuropathy, and ocular complications such as retinopathy, glaucoma, and cataracts. The incidence of diabetes in nonhuman primates is not yet known, but it is one of the most common diseases in humans. It occurs in about 16 million Americans (about 6% of the population); however, only about half of the existing cases have been diagnosed. The others are progressing without diagnosis (Miller. 1998). Interestingly, two diagnostic studies of great apes in which glucose tolerance tests were administered found as many previously undiagnosed cases as had already been diagnosed (Kemnitz, et al.. 1994; Rosenblum, et aI.. 1981). For example, Kemnitz, et al. (1994) found advanced diabetes in four out of nine orangutans tested, only two of which had been previously diagnosed. Several kinds of diabetes exist in humans. The two most common are called Type 1 (juvenile or insulin-dependent diabetes) and Type 2 (adultonset or noninsulin dependent diabetes). Both occur in the great apes, but, as in humans. most cases are Type 2. Despite the name "noninsulin dependent." Type 2 diabetes often progresses to a state in which insulin
"."
i
,. -".
-,'
"' -,- ".'
':,'
,- .. .to ":':';';-;::-~',..:-,~;",,->.~,
"',':';""~
,','"
An /memational Database for the Study of Diabetes
~':'
';:~"'"i'~\:>\>:-':';'-;/~';::':'\'T~',:':~~-:'~;~:~'~::\';-'~"'':,~,;.,."".,
'.; ',' '."~:~'""".~;',"..:>~ :::"':-"':i~:"'-;
An International Database for the Study of Diabetes
~S~~.;.\,,;',:~;~::.~::,,;--;:.:~,~:;;.: 'I\';~,?~?,~;;,:>':':;-:,~:-:,::,~,:,;
205
that will contribute to the health and well-being of individual primates and other members of their species while providing information that is critically relevant to human public health. The first project of this series is entitled The Great Ape Aging Project (see Erwin et al., this volume). A six-month feasibility study and a two-year implementation grant for that project has been funded by the National Institute on Aging (NIA). That project includes partial support for the oldestcaptive great apes. The international nature of the diabetes project can contribute in several important ways. One of the problems in the past has been that few primate veterinarians have seen more than one or two cases of spontaneous diabetes in great apes or other primates. Reports of only a few cases have been published in the scientific and comparative medical literature. Creating a database that includes worldwide input can greatly expand awareness of diabetes and its consequences for great apes and humans. Medical management can become increasingly systematic and refined. and more primates will benefit from a more broad-based program. An understanding of diabetes. as it is expressed in a variety of species biologically similar to humans,can substantiallycontribute to human public health as well. Many of the concerns expressed about research involving great apes and other primates focus on the degree to which research is exploitative or painful. Designing research systems that integrate the interests of the great apes with those of humans addresses those reservations. Noninvasive or minimally invasive methods can be used to conduct studies that clearly benefit each great ape that participates as a research subject, as weIl as other members of the species in captivity. This presents an obligation and opportunity. The obligation is to provide for their health and weJ)being and to promote a good quality of life, The opportunity is to learn as much as possible from them land for them) within a context of committed consideration and respect.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors are especially grateful to Dr. Birute Galdikas. Dr. Gary Shapiro. and the Orangutan Foundation International for organizing and enabling our participation in the Great Apes of the World Conference. where a version of this paper was presented. We also appreciate consideration of the proposal for funding of this concept by the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK). Although our first proposal did not result in support. we will continue to seek support for this and related projects. The project emerged. in part, from work supported by a grant from the USPHSINIH National Institute on Aging (AG14308) to BIOQUAL. Inc..
, ,
"',
:-
'. ~: ',' .
.
~.
.,
"
.".,,"
~ ':'".'
".
206
' ',/;";
,!.'
. ."
;':>"'\;.:,",",;;,,
~~""1;";':';::'.,-';
~""'\".:.~.?::;:":"(:;~~~~'~i,/:,
;"',"~~>::~:S'y:,:;,-;:\:.:,
R. Mar/ens. R. Couch, B. Hansen, C. Howard, J. Kemnitz. D. Perl, & J. Erwin
J. Erwin. Principal Investigator. The following individuals provided valuable assistance and encouragement: Dr. N. Bodkin. Dr. F. Coulston, Dr. T. Griffin. J. Harbaugh, S, Harbaugh. Dr. J. Landon, K. Landon, Dr. R. Lee, Dr. N, Lerche. Dr. R. McManamon. Dr. T. Maple. Y. Muskita, M. O'Raheny. Dr. S. Krasnow Parrish. L. Perkins. and Dr. M. St. Claire.
REFERENCES Erwin, J., Bloomsmith, M., Boysen, S.T., Hof, P.R., Holloway, R., Lowenstine, L., McManamon, R., Perl, D.P., Young, W., Zihlman, A.. this volume. Hansen. B., 1995, Obesity, diabetes. and insulin resistance: Implications from molecular biology, epidemiology, and experimental studies in humans and animals, Diabetes Care 18, Suppl. 2: A2-A9. Howard, c., 1972, Spontaneous diabetes in Macaca nigra, Diabete~' 21: 1077 1090. Howard, c., Fang, T.Y., Southwick. c., Erwin. J., Sugardjito, J.. Supriatna. J., Kohlhaas, A., and Lerche, N., 1999, Islet-cell antibodies in Sulawesi macaques. Am. J. PrimalOl. 47: 223-229. Kemnitz, J., Baker, A., and Shellabarger, W.. 1994, Glucose tolerance and insulin levels of captive orangutans. Pp. 250-256 in: (Eds. J. Ogden, L. Perkins, and L. Sheeran). Proceedings Ii/the International Conference on Orangutan.\': The Neglected Ape, San Diego: Zoological Society of San Diego. Miller, S., 1998, Diabetes: Targeting an old adversary, Medical Laborawry Observer. 30(4): 30-41. Rosenblum, !.. Barbolt, T., and Howard, c., 1981, Diabetes mellitus in the chimpanzee (Pan troglodyte.I'), J. ulMed. Primat. 10: 93-101. Sugardjito, J., Southwick. c., Supriatna, J.. Kohlhaas, A., Baker, S.. Erwin, J., Froehlich, J., and Lerche. N., 1989, Population survey of macaques in northern Sulawesi, Am. J. Primawl. 18: 285-301.
All Apes Great alld Small Volume /: Africall Apes, Co-Edited by Galdikas, Erickson Briggs. Sheeran. Shapiro. & Goodall. Kluwer AcademiclPlenum Publishers. 2001
r
,";~";
ALL APES GREAT AND SMALL VOLUME 1: AFRICAN APES i' !.
."
..
Co-Edited by
Birnte M. F. Galdikas PresidellT
?
OrangUtan Foundlltion Imemationlll LOJ Angeles. ClIIifomia
Nancy Erickson Briggs C"liliJ/'/lia State Cnil'ersi[y lit Long Belli'll I.onl! Belli'h. C"I!fi"nili
Lori K. Sheeran C"lilinnill
State
Fullertol/,
C.difill'nill
CI/i\'ersif\'
1-.
tIf Fullerton
Gary L. Shapiro \ ice.Prl',I'ideJlt I Ir"n~ut(/Jl Foundlilioll IlItel'/l/Itionlil /.",1 ..\I/~e"'.I'. C"Iifi'l'/Ii"
and
Jane Goodall I')'{'\idel/t file
.JlIne Good,,11
II/"til/l[e
Kluwer Academic / Plenum Publishers ~ew York, Boston, Dordrecht. London, Moscow
:I 00
.
"
