Sitespecific Water Management for. Sustainable Agriculture. Anil Kumar 1 , Anil K. Choudhary 2 , V.K. Suri 3 , R.S. Bana 2 , Vijay Pooniya 2 and. Ummed Singh 4.
Water Management in Agriculture, Pages 327–336 Edited by : M.S. Meena, K.M. Singh and B.P. Bhatt Copyright © 2013, Jaya Publishing House
Chapter 21 Sitespecific Water Management for Sustainable Agriculture Anil Kumar 1 , Anil K. Choudhary 2 , V.K. Suri 3 , R.S. Bana 2 , Vijay Pooniya 2 and Ummed Singh 4
Abstract. Under changing scenario, water related issues concerning physical, technological, economic, ecological, environmental and institutional aspects assume great dimensions. Adoption of suitable strategies to reduce water demands and to augment water supplies is highly imperative. Basic problem of water shortage in India is mainly due to lack of proper policies and mechanisms for augmentation, conservation, distribution and efficient use of water. In agricultural sector, water demand can be reduced by adopting drip/sprinkler irrigation, efficient tillage and leveling, growing low water requiring cropping patterns and synergic waternutrient interactions. Sitespecific strategies to increase water supplies are ‘insitu’ rainwater conservation, reducing various types of water losses, tapping flash floods, recycling wastewaters, desalinizing salty water, skimming fresh water floating over saline groundwater and diverting surplus water to deficit areas. Various technological interventions on water management especially sitespecific water management, precision water management and recommendations designed by experts are presented in this chapter.
Keywords: Sitespecific water management, precision water management, water losses, insitu rainwater conservation, irrigation.
Introduction Water is most essential requisite to sustain life for plants, animals and humans. Hence, it is considered ‘Elixir of Life’. In fact, land and water are the two basic important natural resources, which play an important role in agriculture production. India is endowed with vast water resources, which are not distributed uniformly. Besides, many regions of the country have been passing through periodic droughts, erratic rainfall and depleting water resources. The requirement of water for different sectors in the country by 2025 is estimated to be 105 M ham, but the share of water for agriculture is expected to get 1 Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, Guru Kashi University, Talwandi 2 Division of Agronomy, Indian Agricultural Research Institute,
Sabo, Punjab, India.
New Delhi, India.
3 Former ViceChancellor, CSA University of Agriculture & Technology, Kanpur, India. 4 Indian
Institute of Pulse Research, Kanpur, India.
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reduced from the present level of 84 to 69 per cent. On the other hand, the demand for water for agricultural purposes is estimated to increase from 470 BCM in 1985 to 740 BCM in 2025. During the same period, the demand for nonagricultural use of water will also increase by fourfold from, 70 BCM. It is expected that 335 million people will face the water stress situation (Feldmann, 1993). Contrarily, agriculture is the major user of water in most countries. It also faces the enormous challenge of producing almost 50% more food by 2030 and doubling production by 2050. This will likely need to be achieved with less water, mainly because of growing pressures from urbanization, industrialization and climate change. In this context, it will be important in future for farmers to receive the right signals to increase water use efficiency and improve agricultural water management, while preserving aquatic ecosystems. Moreover, sustainable management of water in agriculture is critical to increase agricultural production, ensure water can be shared with other users and maintain the environmental and social benefits of water systems. In above background, there is dire need for “efficient and precise use of available water” to meet the requirement of ever increasing population.
Consequences Arising from Poor Water Management The average annual rainfall in India is 1100 mm as against world’s average of 1700 mm. Despite this favourable endowment, serious water shortage is experienced in many parts of the country due to erratic and uncertain rainfall, long dry spell and lack of water conservation measures. Due to absence of proper rainwater conservation, especially in rainfed regions, bulk of rainwater is either wasted or flows into the sea resulting in acute drought with adverse impact on crop production, livestock husbandry, fisheries and the environment. Majority of the farmers, who totally depend on rainwater for growing paddy often incur huge crop losses. Capturing maximum water in ponds, tanks and other systems helps to avoid castrotrophic consequences of frequent and long droughts. The annual withdrawals of water are the greatest in Asia, where agriculture accounts for 86% of total withdrawals. In Asia, irrigated rice occupying 75% of total Asian rice production consumes 50% of total amount of freshwater diverted for irrigation. Since, the rainfall in the monsoon season is seizing year after year into small spells which is not able to meet out the water requirement of irrigated as well as rainfed paddy agroecosystems. This is alarming us to shift the paddy cultivation from the prior irrigated areas to the rainfed areas where the rainfall is still appropriate enough to meet out the water requirements of the paddy to some extent. These pockets of high rainfall are only available in the NorthWestern and NorthEastern Himalayan region besides Western Ghats. Groundwater is the most preferred source in various user sectors in India on account of its near universal availability, dependability and relatively low capital cost. The increasing dependence on groundwater as a reliable source of water has resulted into indiscriminate extraction in various parts of the country without due regard to the recharging capacities of aquifers and other environmental factors. On the other hand, there are areas in the country, where groundwater development is suboptimal inspite of the availability of sufficient resources and canal command areas suffering from problems of water logging and soil
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salinity due to the gradual rise in ground water levels. Although, groundwater use for irrigation is termed as minor irrigation, in reality, it accounts for about 7080% of irrigation, serving more than twice the area supported by canals in India (IASRI, 2006). Such a situation is more prominent in the intensively cultivated areas under ricewheat or sugarcane based cropping systems especially in the IndoGangetic plains. The aquifers are exploited much faster than being replenished, implying that the production systems are surviving because of borrowing from the future. In India, about 250 km 3 of groundwater is extracted against replacement of only about 150 km 3 . This has resulted into a sharp decline in water table. Excessive water application could contribute to surface water runoff and/or leaching of nutrients and chemicals to groundwater (Eutrophication). Inefficient water application causes reductions in yield quantity and quality, inefficient use of fertilizer and other inputs, and lower overall water use efficiency.
Precision Water Management Water is a vital component of agricultural production. It is essential to maximize both yield and quality. Water has to be applied in the right amounts at the right time in order to achieve right crop result. At the same time, application of water should avoid waste of a valuable resource and be in sympathy with the environment as a whole. Understanding, measuring and assessing how water flows around the farm, and recognizing how farming practices affect flows, will help farmers to manage water efficiently and reduce pollution risks. A new management concept for sustainable utility of agricultural inputs, known as precision agriculture or sitespecific management has started to receive a great interest since nineties. Under Conventional management, farm managers tend to treat a field as a single unit and manage it to optimise the average production as a whole. Under Precision agriculture, the objective is to break the field into several subunits and treat them independently to manage the field variability and therefore improve and optimize the production of each unit rather treating the entire plot on an average (Maohua, 2001). Previously, main focus was on sitespecific crop management and has being tested for fertilisers and chemical applications through variablerate technology. Water need varies spatially in many fields because of soil spatial variability. Interest in sitespecific irrigation management has emerged over the past decade in response to successful commercialization of other sitespecific application technologies in irrigated agriculture. This interest is due partially to the desire to improve water use efficiency as well as to complement sitespecific management of other crop inputs such as nitrogen for groundwater protection. A holistic approach to sitespecific crop management in irrigated agriculture includes water as one of the primary inputs. Extension of the site specific crop management concept to irrigation follows from the fact that excessive and deficient water availability greatly impacts crop yield and quality. Improving water management in agriculture requires an improvement in soil moisture conservation measures and a reduction in wastage of irrigation water. Reduction in water
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wastage also brings about additional benefits in terms of reducing losses of applied nutrients, water erosion and pollution of surface and ground water. An accurate measurement of soil moisture content and water removal by soil evaporation and plant transpiration processes is therefore essential to establish the optimal soil water balance for crop sowing, fertilizer application and irrigation scheduling under different irrigation technologies, climatic conditions and farm management systems that aim to minimize soil evaporation and increase water accessibility for plant roots. The soil moisture neutron probe and stable isotopic techniques can contribute such information. Rice and wheat are the two principal food crops in the region that contribute 80%, in the food pool of the region. These crops are grown in sequence on 13.5 million hectares of the Indo Gangetic Plains. The total water requirement for rice wheat system is estimated to vary between 1382 mm to 1838 mm in the IndoGangetic Plains, accounting to more than 80% for the rice growing season. Thus to save on water, saving must be effected during rice growing season, the major water user in ricewheat system. Future food security in this region is severely threatened by unsustainable groundwater use and inappropriate water management practices. For the ricewheat system several water saving technologies for watershort irrigated environments which besides the development of irrigation schedules and frequency, crop choices and their appropriate cultivars also included the technology known as precision land levelling. In irrigated and rainfed environments, precision land levelling improves uniform application of water, betters the crop stands and helps reduce abiotic stress intensities, enhancing survival of young seedlings and robustness of the crop to withstand stress and stabilize yields.
Management Strategies for Conservation and Efficient use of Agricultural Water The use of precision farming for irrigation water management/scheduling is known as precision irrigation, in order to apply water in the right place with the right amount at the right time, is still in the development stages and requires a lot of experimental works to determine its feasibility and applicability. It is important now to shift toward and concentrate on maximization of the net profit from this water through applying it in the appropriate place and quantity. It is possible to take the advantages of some existing technologies to be adapted for precision irrigation, such as speedcontrol systems, which are still used for constant speed along the whole field, although it can be used for different speeds. Other option is to take advantage of pulse concept to control single sprinkler (Frassie et al., 1995), single span or small segments along each span (Omary et al., 1997; Camp et al., 1998), through solenoid valves. Microirrigation has emerged as a tool for effective management of water resources, which saves fertilizer and also energy. Microirrigation ensures higher wateruseefficiency, water productivity and in turn water economy. Microirrigation comprising “drip and sprinkler” has become a pivotal element of integrated water use system with many agro ecological, socioeconomic and environmental advantages. It is ecofriendly irrigation system saving more than 60 per cent water and increase in the yield to the extent of 3040 per cent over present methods (Sezen et al., 2006; Kumar et al., 2007). Sprinkler irrigation
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method is unique in contrast to surface methods in that it is independent of soil uniformity and topography in its adaptability. It is also compatible to even a small steady stream of water when surface irrigation performs better with large flow. Drip irrigation through the trickle supply of water drops continuously keeping the soil moist in the rhizosphere, has opened new vistas in the agricultural scenario especially for the wide spaced crops. To avoid moisture stress in shallow soil depth, irrigation through drip system is quite feasible as it is applied very frequently and remained in shallow depth. (Rajput and Patel, 2006; Yuan et al., 2006). Efficient use of fertilizers and water is highly critical to sustained agricultural production, more particularly in the context of declining per capita land and water availability and increasing cost of fertilizers. Under these circumstances, fertigation, which is a sophisticated and efficient means of applying fertilizer through irrigation system as a carrier and distributor of crop nutrients, holds bright promise (Soumya et al., 2009). Due to absence of proper rainwater conservation, especially in rainfed regions, bulk of rainwater is either wasted or flows into the sea resulting in acute drought with adverse impact on crop production, livestock husbandry, fisheries and the environment. Capturing maximum water in ponds, tanks and other systems helps to avoid castrotrophic consequences of frequent and long droughts. Rainwater harvesting helps in recharging groundwater. In this context, water harvesting (Fig. 1) has been assigned high priority in the rainfed areas through integrated water management programmes to promote intensified and diversified agriculture and also to safeguard against risks of frequent droughts, encountered in the arid and semiarid regions. The rainfall data indicate that the most of the rains are received during midJune to midSeptember.
Fig. 1. Rain water harvesting structures.
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Winter rains are meager and erratic. During September to December and again from March to June, the evaporation exceeds rainfall which depletes soil of its moisture reserves. These periods coincide with sowing of rainfed Kharif and Rabi crops respectively. Quite often, the frequent light showers are not sufficient for the preparation of seed bed as the evaporation during above period is quite high. If these showers are conserved and carried over a few days in the seed zone, then, it is possible to get Kharif crop germinated without any presowing irrigation. Similarly, the soil profile is wet at the recede of monsoon, but it continuously loses moisture till the sowing of succeeding wheat crop. If right from the recede of monsoon (mid of September), soil moisture is conserved insitu, then, it is possible to germinate the succeeding wheat crop well in time (midOctober to November). Also, following the rainfall, the surface soil dries out very rapidly due to its poor moisture retention characteristics. It hinders seed germination and root growth processes, even though the layers below seed zone remain wet. The harvested water should not be used for irrigation through wild flooding; instead hightech irrigation systems, such as microsprinklers (Fig. 2) or drip irrigation, should be practiced. The water may also be used through pitcher irrigation technology. In all these systems, irrigation efficiency is as high as 9095%.
Fig. 2. Micro Sprinkler system
The surface runoff into paddy fields in hill regions of Himalayas act as rain water harvesting structures besides imparting intangible benefits like ecorestoration and downstream flood mitigation etc. These microwatersheds have ample benefits of water resource conservation, mitigating the effect of floods and droughts and ground water augmentation. The farming systems in hills which include paddy in crop rotation under irrigated situation has great contribution in soil conservation by way of avoiding sheet and rill erosion and reducing gully erosion by means of avoiding rain splash impact (due to continuous soil coverage with water) and runoff on the soil surface (i.e. water flows on the top layer of standing water). This is because of farmer’s traditional practice (by default) of leveled fields and excess water is allowed to drain through specialized outlets (i.e. placing extended flat stone or slate). As well as there is practice of pitching of all holes and mending the bunds in order to prevent bund damage and terrace base slides (Choudhary et al., 2013).
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The technologies and tools used in precision farming system (PFS) in industrialized countries are beyond the reach of resource poor farmers in developing countries. So, a new concept of rice integrated crop management (RICM) has been developed by FAO and selected member countries in Asia and Latin America for Asian and African countries, which is equally applicable for other developing countries. The concept of the RICM system Rice farmers carry out numerous cultural operations during the growing season. These activities, separately and collectively, impact all the phases of crop development and all the yield components that ultimately determine yield. The development of RICM systems must focus on areas of crop management with potentially immediate and significant impacts on yield and efficiency of input application. The five steps are suggested under RICM system (Tran and Nguyen, 2001): 1) Identify key management areas 2) Quantify good management practices of progressive farmers 3) Review available technology and knowledge 4) Develop interim good management practices, and 5) Evaluate good management practices. Minimum tillage for wheat has been found useful for conservation and carryover of residual moisture for sowing of wheat on time, apart from saving of energy, labour and time. Presoaking of wheat seed before sowing is another technology that has proved to be a good alternative for efficient utilization of soil moisture before its depletion. It also accelerates preemergence of seeds (Sandal, 1992). Improvement in water retention capacity of soils through build up in soil carbon content enhances soil moisture conservation. Studies have shown that 1% increase in soil organic carbon increases field capacity by 2.2%, permanent wilting point by 1% and available water capacity by 1.5% (Hudson, 2006; Brady and Weil, 2002). Soil incorporation of organic materials such as FYM, compost, green manures, waste plant residues improve soil, organic carbon and soil water retention. Nutrient supply in appropriate amounts and at appropriate times plays an important role for early establishment of crop especially roots which may go deeper and extract water from deeper depths. Himachal Pradesh has an abundance of wildly growing bushes like wild sage (Lantana camara), kali basuti (Eupatorium adenophorum), etc. Their biomass could be used as mulching material for conservation and carryover of soil moisture particularly under the minimum tillage practice. The use of certain biofertilizers, such as AM fungi has been found to enhance water use efficiency (1124%) in rainfed crops (Kumar, 2012). Apart from enhancing overall nutrient use efficiencies particularly phosphorus, a technology involved is rather simple, very convenient, inexpensive and ecofriendly. The AM fungi do so by extending root system into the soil through ramifying hyphae thereby increasing its exploratory area for harnessing water from deeper layers. However, there is a dire need to conduct further researches in this area and generate data base.
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Soil tillage such as minimum and conventional, are considered important soil management practices. These practices alter soil physical environment and affect the plant and root growth, thereby, water and nutrient uptake and crop yields. A surface mulch of plant residue/ biomass prevents the soils against beating action of raindrops and keeps the soil surface open, thus increasing infiltration over that of bare soil. Plant residue mulch controls soil erosion and conserves soil moisture. Thus, mulching is an important agricultural tool to conserve soil and maintain the quantity and quality of water running over the agricultural land. Checking percolation losses of water in rice fields is another strategy for site specific water management. In a study at the Directorate of Rice, Hyderabad, it is reported that out of the total water requirement of 1240 mm by transplanted rice, 200 700 mm water lost by its deep percolation, leaving only 5401040 mm for its consumptive use. Great economy in water requirement of wetland rice can therefore be made by reducing these percolation losses, which shall ultimately contribute to increased water use efficiency. In the first instance, soils with inherent high permeability rates should be avoided for paddy cultivation. Cross puddling of fields frequently adopted as part of land preparation for sowing or transplanting of rice, is very useful in compacting the soil by breaking severely aggregates. Intermittent wetting or cyclic submergence will further cut the water requirement of rice crops. System of Rice Intensification involves use of certain management practices which together provide better growing conditions for rice plants, particularly in the root zone, than those for plants grown under traditional practices. SRI is one of the important methods for increasing productivity of rice without using much external inputs and this method is best suited for small and marginal farmers. It reduces the water requirement by 25 to 50% per season. The soil moisture neutron probe (SMNP) is portable equipment for measuring periodically soil water content at different depths through access tubes installed in the soil profile. Data generated from this monitoring are used to calculate the soil water balance and estimate the total amount of soil water removed by both soil evaporation and plant transpiration (IAEA, 1996). The IAEA’s (International Atomic Energy Agency) activities through CRPs and technical cooperation projects have demonstrated that WUE by crops as measured by the SMNP can be increased by up to 50% by changing irrigation technologies (Kirda et al, 1999) and/or management practices (IAEA 2000) to improve groundcover and thus reduce evaporation from the soil surface.
Summary Under changing scenario, different water related issues concerning physical, technological, economic, ecological, environmental and institutional aspects assume great dimensions. Adoption of suitable strategies to reduce water demands on one hand and to augment water supplies on the other is highly imperative. The problem is not so much due to shortage of
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water, but much more so due to lack of proper policies and mechanism for augmentation, conservation, distribution and efficient use of water, based at reducing the demand on one hand and increasing water supplies on the other. Water demand can be reduced by adopting drip/sprinkler irrigation, efficient tillage and leveling, growing low water requiring cropping patterns and synergic waternutrient interactions. The strategies to increase water supplies are: insitu rainwater conservation, reducing various types of water losses, tapping flash floods, recycling wastewaters, desalinizing salty water, using marginal waters, skimming fresh water floating over saline groundwater and diverting surplus water to deficit areas. Hopefully, with the earnest adoption of all required precautions, measures recommendations and implementation of suitable programmes designed by experts and presented in this paper, the mother earth would be free from evils like water stress, pollution, hunger, malnutrition, poverty and our farmers shall soon become prosperous.
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