Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 109(3), Sept-Dec 2012 CHEMICAL RESTRAINT OF LEOPARDS
153-157
CHEMICAL IMMOBILIZATION OF LEOPARD PANTHERA PARDUS IN THE WILD FOR COLLARING IN MAHARASHTRA, INDIA KARABI DEKA1, VIDYA ATHREYA2, MORTEN ODDEN3 AND JOHN LINNELL4 Naharani Path, PO Assam Sachivalaya, Guwahati 781 006, Assam, India. Email:
[email protected] Kaati Trust, DSK – Raanwara, Bavdhan, Pune 411 021, Maharashtra, India. Email:
[email protected] 3 Hedmark University College, Laererskolealleen 1, 2418 Elverum, Norway. Email:
[email protected] 4 Norwegian Institute for Nature Research, NO-7485 Trondheim, Norway. Email:
[email protected] 1 2
Four leopards (Panthera pardus fusca (Meyer 1794)) were tranquilised as part of a leopard ecology project at Maharashtra, India, to develop a database from which conservation plans could be developed to manage human leopard conflict. A mixture of Ketamine hydrochloride and Xylazine hydrochloride, at a dose rate of 5 mg and 1.5 mg per kg respectively, were used to tranquilise the leopards for radio collaring. Vectronics GPS plus collars were fitted on the animals. Overall, induction time was within 3–6 minutes, down time 6–15 minutes, lateral recumbency 65–90 minutes, and recovery time was 70–100 minutes when antidote was not used. Yohimbine was used in 2 cases at the rate of 0.14–0.17 mg/ kg body, after which the recovery time was reduced to 35–55 minutes. Temperature, respiration, and heart rate were normal during the procedure. Microchip was fitted for permanent tagging of the leopards. We found that the Ketamine-Xylazine anaesthesia for immobilisation was effective and that Yohimbine can be used to hasten recovery from anaesthesia in leopards. Further studies using more leopards may prove helpful and important in determining better drug dosage and handling methods. Key words: Tranquilisation, Ketamine hydrochloride, Xylazine hydrochloride, restraint, Yohimbine, drug dosage
INTRODUCTION The Leopard Panthera pardus is the most widely distributed wild cat, and occupies a broad variety of habitats, ranging from rainforests to deserts and from the fringes of urban areas to remote mountain ranges (Kitchener 1991; Nowell and Jackson 1996). The Indian subspecies, Panthera pardus fusca (Meyer 1794), is found all across India, absent only in the arid deserts and above the timberline in the Himalaya (Prater 1980). Although the leopard is accorded the highest protection under The Wildlife (Protection) Act (1972), India, it is still severely threatened due to poaching (Athreya and Belsare 2005). Many studies on leopards have been carried out in other parts of its global range, mainly in Protected Areas (Bailey 1993; Bothma et al. 1997; McDougal 1988). There has been only one long-term ecological study of leopards in India (Edgaonkar 2008), which was also conducted in a Protected Area. In India, most of the human-leopard conflict occurs in human dominated landscapes outside Protected Areas (Athreya and Belsare 2006). Developing suitable management strategies outside Protected Areas could be a key factor in the future conservation of leopards (Marker and Dickman 2005; Marker and Sivamani 2009). Not only are detailed ecological studies absent from protected areas, even information from chronically affected conflict areas is lacking. Most of the studies have been restricted to population estimations (Chauhan et al. 2005; Edgaonkar 2008; Harihar J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 109(3), Sept-Dec 2012
et al. 2009), diet analysis (Edgaonkar 2008; Karanth and Sunquist 1995), and habitat occupancy (Edgaonkar 2008). There is a serious lack of robust ecological information on this species. This is particularly necessary in potential conflict prone areas as proactive mitigation strategies can be devised only with information on the biology of the species. Our project involved monitoring of leopards that live in potential conflict zones in human dominated landscapes in Maharashtra, western India. As leopards use human dominated landscapes in many areas of Maharashtra (as in other parts of India), four leopards were captured in Ahmednagar and Nashik districts of Maharashtra for collaring with GPS GSM collars to understand their ranging pattern, habitat usage, and diet. In this paper, we report our protocol for immobilising the leopards for collaring and their findings. STUDY AREA Ahmednagar is a city of Ahmednagar district situated in the central part of Maharashtra, while Nashik is in the northwest part of the state. The climate is characterised by dryness except during the south-west monsoon season. Three physical divisions namely, Western Hilly Region, Central Plateau Region, and the region of northern and southern plains describe the geography of Ahmednagar district. The entire Nashik district is underlain by the basaltic lava flows, which give rise to tableland type of topography also known as plateau. The total geographical area of Ahmednagar district 153
CHEMICAL RESTRAINT OF LEOPARDS
is 17,04,800 ha, of which 1,37,674 ha is under forests (c. 8% of the geographical area). Nashik district has an area of 15,53,000 ha, of which 3,20,668 ha area is under forests (c. 20.5% of the geographical area). Agriculture is the main source of earning and sugarcane is the main crop. The maximum temperature in summer is 42.5 °C and minimum temperature in winter is less than 5.0 °C. Relative humidity ranges from 43% to 62%. Rainfall varies from 500 to 2,000 mm per year. Approximately 80% of the human population is rural with farming of sugar cane, millets, and vegetables being the major source of livelihood. Ahmednagar has a human population density of 177 per sq. km, while Nashik has a population density of 393 inhabitants per sq. km (http://ahmednagar.nic.in/). Livestock play an important role in the agricultural economy of both the districts and constitutes one of the valuable possessions of the farmers and villagers. Most of the agricultural operations such as ploughing, harrowing, irrigation, and transport are carried out with the help of draught animals. The livestock population comprises around 18 lakhs (18,00,000), which includes 9 lakh bovines, 5 lakh goats, 3 lakh sheep, and around 1 lakh buffaloes (http:// cultural.maharashtra.gov.in/New_website/index.html). Data suggests that leopards subsist on livestock and domestic dogs in this region (Athreya et al. in press). All the leopards discussed in this manuscript were captured in human dominated landscapes consisting of rural habitations and crop fields with an average population density of 258 people per sq. km. METHODS Trapping: All the leopards were captured between May and June 2009. Cages available with the Forest Department with trap release doors at each end and a trigger plate in the middle (Marker and Dickman 2005) were used. The first leopard (M1) and the second (F1) were individuals rescued by the Forest Department from two different wells. The third leopard (M2) was trapped near a cropfield, while the fourth (F2) was captured in a trap placed at the entrance of the house she had entered earlier. M1, M2, and F2 were radio-collared after trapping. It was decided not to put a collar on F1 due to her young age and multiple injuries on her face and body. Tranquilisation: Silence was maintained as much as possible prior to the immobilisation and the cages were covered on all sides to reduce disturbances to the animals. Only two persons approached the animals to (visually) estimate the weight prior to tranquilisation and others joined only after the animal was completely sedated. Once the weight was estimated based on size, approximate age, and body 154
condition, the drug was prepared and loaded into a 10 ml projectile plastic dart syringe equipped with an 18-gauge needle and injected intramuscularly into the thigh using a blowpipe (http://www.protecwild.com/). During the delivery of the drug, the animal was distracted from one side of the cage and the drug was darted into the intramuscular region of the hindquarters from the opposite side of the cage. The animal was observed periodically by the veterinarian during induction of anaesthesia. We determined if the leopard was safe to handle after tranquilisation by observing its response on being tapped gently with a thin branch from a safe distance. Once tranquilised, the immobilised leopard was placed on a nylon stretcher and carried outside the cage. Care was taken to keep the tongue outside the mouth and to keep the head straightened (for easy respiration). The eyes were covered with a moist towel. Temperature, respiration, and heart rate were recorded every 10–15 minutes. Long acting Penicillin and Doramectin (1 ml intramuscular) were injected in all cases. Topicure spray was applied at the darting site and on any external injury sites on its body. A Trovan ID 100 microchip was inserted at the base of the tail for permanent tagging of the animal. Animals were weighed by a spring scale. Dentition and morphometry were also recorded. Age was estimated based on colour and wear of the tooth, gum recession, wear on pads, and body size and weight (Bailey 1993). Heart and respiratory rate were monitored by stethoscopic chest auscultation and by observing thoracic movements respectively. Temperature was recorded by a thermometer inserted in the rectum. Yohimbine was injected intravenously in two cases after completion of the handling of the animal for reversal of anaesthetic effect. Once the collaring procedure was completed, the animal was placed back into the cage with the rear end placed near the door so that we could continue monitoring of temperature. Chemical anaesthesia: We anaesthetised leopards with a combination of Ketamine hydrochloride (100 mg/ml) and Xylazine hydrochloride (100 mg/ml). The two drugs were administered intramuscularly at a dosage of 5 mg/kg and 1.5 mg/kg estimated body weight respectively. For each animal, we noted the time when the dose was administered, time of anaesthetic induction, time of complete anaesthesia, time of initial signs of recovery, and time of full recovery. We define induction as the time from injection of the drug until the first symptom, e.g., lip licking. Down time is defined as the duration between initial anaesthetic effects to complete head down. Recumbency period is the time of complete anaesthesia. Recovery time is defined as the time from head up to proper standing. We allowed immobilised leopards to recover in the protected environment inside the cages. When full recovery was observed (e.g., standing without swaying), the animal was released. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 109(3), Sept-Dec 2012
CHEMICAL RESTRAINT OF LEOPARDS Table 1: Overall results of chemical anaesthesia on the leopards Animal ID. Sex
M1 F1 M2 F2
M F M F
Approx Approx age body (years) weight 8 3 3 4
Drugs (mg) Xylazine
Ketamine
100 35 90 70
325 130 250 175
65 30 50 35
Supplementary Induction Down Reversal Lateral Recovery Ketamine time time (Yohimbine) recumbency time (mg) (min) (min) (mg) 30 -
Collaring procedure: Vectronics GPS plus collars were fitted on three of the four animals. After the tranquilised animal was removed from the cage and placed on the stretcher and being examined by the veterinary doctor, the other authors started the process of putting on the collar. The first was to measure the circumference of the neck at the narrowest place (close to the ear) and the circumference of the head (closest to the ear). These were noted and the collar was put around the neck of the animal. In all cases, we made sure that there was one finger space between the collar and the neck of the animal. In case of F2 and M2, we made sure that even our knuckles could get underneath the collar as these were relatively younger animals. Once the actual length of the collar was determined, it was removed from the animal, cut and then placed back and screwed on tight. Release process: Care was taken to cover the trap cages on both sides so that we were not visible to the leopards. The release was done only after making sure that the animal was completely awake. All releases were at night. A rope was tied to the trap door and taken over a pulley that was tied either to a vehicle or a tree, from where the rope was pulled to open the trap door. RESULTS We successfully tranquilised four leopards (2 males and 2 females) for the purpose of radio collaring. Immobilisation was indicated initially by moderate salivation, licking of lips, staggering movement, dilatation of pupils, and muscle rigidity. The induction was rapid and smooth in M1, M2, and F2, but Table 2: Temperature, respiration, and heart rate of the leopards Animal ID
M1 F1 M2 F2
Temperature (F)
103.7–103.9 104.2–106.9 104.1–104.4 101.1–101.7
Respiration (per min) 12–14 12–14 14–18 11–16
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 109(3), Sept-Dec 2012
Heart rate (per min) 62–78 75–85 70–72 78–80
3 6 3 5
6 15 7 8
8 5
1 hr 40 min 1 hr 30 min 1 hr 5 min 1 hr 20 min
1 hr 10 min 1 hr 40 min 35 min 55 min
was slightly prolonged in F1 due to administration of a slightly low dose, due to her small size. The down time was 6–8 minutes in M1, M2, and F2, and 15 minutes in F1. Overall, induction time was 3–6 minutes, down time was 6–15 minutes, lateral recumbency time was 1 hr 5 min to 1 hr 40 min, and recovery time was 1 hr 10 min to 1 hour 40 min without the use of Yohimbine (Table 1). Yohimbine was used in 2 cases at the rate of 0.14–0.17 mg/kg body weight and reversal took place in 3–5 minutes after the intravenous injection of Yohimbine. It took another half an hour for complete recovery of the leopards from the anaesthesia effect. No convulsion, hypersalivation or vomiting was noticed. We found that 5 mg Ketamine hydrochloride per kg body weight and 1.5 mg Xylazine hydrochloride per kg body weight was effective and safe for successful immobilisation of leopard for radio collaring. Early stages of recovery were indicated by ear-twisting and eye-blinking. They reacted to external stimuli by lifting the head and jerking their legs. Physiological values: The body temperature was high in F1; M1, M2, and F2 showed normal temperature (Table 2). Respiration and heart rate were normal (Deem and Karesh 2002; Kreeger 1996) (Table 2). General morphometry: M1 was the largest of all with a body length of 141 cm. F1 was the smallest with a body length of 103 cm (Table 3). DISCUSSION We found that Ketamine hydrochloride (@5 mg/kg body weight) and Xylazine hydrochloride (@1.5 mg/kg body weight) were effective and safe for the purpose of immobilisation of leopards for radio collaring studies. This drug combination has been used previously on leopards (Belsare and Athreya 2010; Jayaprakash et al. 2001), Mountain Lion Puma concolor (Logan et al. 1986), African Lion Panthera leo (Herbst et al. 1985), Tiger Panthera tigris (Goodrich et al. 2001; Seal et al. 1987), Snow Leopard Panthera (=Uncia) uncia (Oli 1997), Clouded Leopard Neofelis nebulosa, Leopard Cat Prionailurus bengalensis, and Asiatic Golden Cat Pardofelis temminckii (Grassman et al. 155
CHEMICAL RESTRAINT OF LEOPARDS Table 3: Body measurements of the leopards Animal ID
M1 F1 M2 F2
Estimated body weight (kg) 65 30 50 35
Actual body weight (kg)
Body length (cm)
Tail length (cm)
Foreleg (cm)
Hind leg (cm)
Neck girth (cm)
63 27 46 35
141 103 121 114.5
86 75 89 77.5
80 59.5 70 64
28 23 27 23.5
48 32 39 36
2004) and captive felids (Sontakke et al. 2009). Oli (1997) immobilised Snow Leopard in Nepal using Ketamine HCl and Xylazine HCl (ratio of 6:1) at an average dose of 7.3 mg/ kg estimated body weight. Rettig and Divers (1986) advised using Xylazine at the dose of 1.1–2.2 mg per kg body weight for muscle relaxation along with ketamine at 11–12 mg/kg body weight. Logan et al. (1986) used a Ketamine-Xylazine mixture for immobilising wild Mountain Lion in cold climatic conditions for research purposes at the dose rate of 11 mg Ketamine and 1.8 mg Xylazine/kg estimated body weight. We found that the Ketamine-Xylazine drug combinations (ratio of 5:1.5) were satisfactory in inducing rapid and relatively smooth anaesthesia with reasonable recovery time in the leopards that we tranquilised. In our study, the induction time seen was 3–6 minutes. No convulsion, vomiting or hypersalivation took place during and after the immobilization procedure. Mudappa and Chellam (2001) captured Brown Palm Civet Paradoxurus jerdoni using Xylazine and Ketamine, and two individuals vomited while recovering. Emesis was observed in a large male African Lion (Logan et al. 1986) that had consumed an entire Mule Deer Odocoileus hemionus fawn the previous night of tranquilisation. In leopard F1, the high temperature found was probably due to stress and wounds on her body. Yohimbine was found to be effective in hastening the recovery from Ketamine-Xylazine anaesthesia in a dosedependent manner in this study. A speedy recovery is advantageous in wild felids, especially in free-ranging animals and for research purposes. Yohimbine is a known potent alphatwo adrenergic antagonist and has been used as an antagonist for Xylazine-induced sedation and also in Ketamine-Xylazine anaesthesia in wild ungulates (Jessup et al. 1983; Sontakke et al. 2007). Studies in the domestic cat (Hsu and Lu 1984) and the Bengal Tiger (Seal et al. 1987) suggested that Yohimbine could hasten the recovery of Ketamine-Xylazine induced anaesthesia. It was observed that the cages need to be immediately covered so that the animals do not see the humans. We used thin dark-coloured cotton bedsheets which were doused with water to keep the animal cool. We found that even while the cage was being moved by many people, the animal would 156
Chest girth (cm) 84 58 70 61
remain quiet if it did not see people, otherwise, it became aggressive. We also tried to reduce noise levels while near the un-sedated animal. Even when sedated, we tried to work fast and quietly as these drugs do not completely block off the external stimuli to the animal (Deem 2004). We concluded that the Ketamine and Xylazine anaesthesia @ 5 mg/kg and 1.5 mg/kg respectively was effective for proper immobilisation of leopards and that Yohimbine (0.14–0.17 mg/kg) can be used to hasten recovery from anaesthesia. We also found that it is relatively easier to deal with wild leopards if care is taken not to stress them with loud noises and visual stimulus of humans. Further studies using larger numbers of leopards may prove helpful and important in determining better drug dosage use in leopards. Athreya et al. (in press) have documented that different predators can survive in human dominated landscapes or rural areas such as discussed in our study area. However, there are conditions that need to be present in the landscapes of rural areas to support them. Athreya et al. (in press) suggest that leopards in such landscapes use the cover of sugar cane and other tall crops as habitat, and prey on domestic dogs and livestock. Radio collaring animals helps in generating information on such animals to aid in mitigation measures where the conflict level is high. The results of this study would help in chemical restraint of such animals and it is recommended that similar protocol is followed to ensure the safety of the animals. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work was carried out with the collaboration of the Maharashtra Forest Department. In the field, we worked closely with the Nashik, Ahmednagar, and Akola Forest Department staff. The Office of the Chief Wildlife Warden, Nagpur, provided a lot of encouragement and administrative support. The project obtained support from the Royal Norwegian Embassy to India, Asian Nature Conservation Foundation, Bengaluru, and Kaati Trust, Pune. Wildlife SOS, New Delhi, also provided timely help when needed. We would like to thank Eknath Ghule, Kiran Rahalkar, Raut, Jimmy Borah, and Girish Punjabi for help during the tranquilisation procedure. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 109(3), Sept-Dec 2012
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