Child social exclusion: an updated index from the

National Centre for Social and Economic Modelling • University of Canberra •

Child social exclusion: an updated index from the 2006 Census

Justine McNamara, Ann Harding, Anne Daly and Robert Tanton

Paper for presentation at the 10th Australian Institute of Family Studies Conference, Melbourne, July 9-11, 2008

!"o$t&'!()E+& The %ational Centre .or /o0ial an1 20ono3i0 4o1elling 6as esta8lishe1 on 9 :anuary 9==>? an1 su@@orts its a0tivities through resear0h grants? 0o33issione1 resear0h an1 longer ter3 0ontra0ts .or 3o1el 3aintenan0e an1 1evelo@3ent 6ith a range o. .e1eral an1 state 1e@art3entsBB %CT/24 ai3s to 8e a Dey 0ontri8utor to so0ial an1 e0ono3i0 @oli0y 1e8ate an1 analysis 8y 1evelo@ing 3o1els o. the highest Euality? un1ertaDing in1e@en1ent an1 i3@artial resear0h? an1 su@@lying value1 0onsultan0y servi0esB Foli0y 0hanges o.ten have to 8e 3a1e 6ithout su..i0ient in.or3ation a8out either the 0urrent environ3ent or the 0onseEuen0es o. 0hangeB %CT/24 s@e0ialises in analysing 1ata an1 @ro1u0ing 3o1els so that 1e0ision 3aDers have the 8est @ossi8le Euantitative in.or3ation on 6hi0h to 8ase their 1e0isionsB %CT/24 has an international re@utation as a 0entre o. eG0ellen0e .or analysing 3i0ro1ata an1 0onstru0ting 3i0rosi3ulation 3o1elsB /u0h 1ata an1 3o1els 0o33en0e 6ith the re0or1s o. real H8ut uni1enti.ia8leI CustraliansB Cnalysis ty@i0ally 8egins 8y looDing at either the 0hara0teristi0s or the i3@a0t o. a @oli0y 0hange on an in1ivi1ual househol1? 8uil1ing u@ to the 8igger @i0ture 8y looDing at 3any in1ivi1ual 0ases through the use o. large 1atasetsB It 3ust 8e e3@hasise1 that %CT/24 1oes not have vie6s on @oli0yB Cll o@inions are the authorsK o6n an1 are not ne0essarily share1 8y %CT/24B Dire0torM Cnn Har1ing O %CT/24? Pniversity o. Can8erra QRRS %ational Centre .or /o0ial an1 20ono3i0 4o1elling Pniversity o. Can8erra CCT QTR9 Custralia 170 Haydon Drive Bruce ACT 2617 Phone + 61 2 6201 2780 Fax + 61 2 6201 2751 Email [email protected] Website www.natsem.canberra.edu.au


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Abstract 4u0h resear0h a8out 0hil1 @overty an1 1isa1vantage @rovi1es national esti3ates o. 0hil1 6ell8eing? 1ue to the rea1y availa8ility o. 3i0ro1ata at the national levelB Ho6ever? an in0reasing 8o1y o. evi1en0e suggests that there 0an 8e 3aUor 1i..eren0es in 6ellV8eing 8et6een 0hil1ren living in 1i..erent geogra@hi0 areasB In a11ition? 3u0h re0ent 1e8ate has .o0usse1 on 3oving 8eyon1 in0o3e @overty to 8roa1er 3easures o. so0ial eG0lusionB This arti0le 1es0ri8es the 1evelo@3ent o. a 0o3@osite in1eG o. 0hil1 so0ial eG0lusion risD .or Custralian s3all areas? using re0ently availa8le QRRT Custralian Wureau o. /tatisti0s Census 1ata? an1 8uil1ing on earlier 6orD 8ase1 on QRR9 Census 1ataB Xaria8les in0lu1e1 in the in1eG are 8ase1 on 0hara0teristi0s o. 0hil1renKs @arents? .a3ilies an1 househol1s? an1 in0lu1e 1ata a8out @arental @artnershi@ status? e3@loy3ent an1 volunteeris3? .a3ily e1u0ational attain3ent an1 o00u@ation? househol1 in0o3e? housing? trans@ort an1 internet 0onne0tionB Yesults sho6 that there are @ronoun0e1 s@atial 1i..eren0es in the risD o. 0hil1 so0ial eG0lusion? 6ith areas o. high so0ial eG0lusion risD 0o33on in CustraliaKs rural an1 regional 8alan0e? an1 in 0lusters o. outer areas in 3ost o. CustraliaKs 0a@ital 0itiesB

Author note :ustine 40%a3ara is a /enior Yesear0h Zello6 at the %ational Centre .or /o0ial an1 20ono3i0 4o1elling H%CT/24I at the Pniversity o. Can8erraB Cnn Har1ing is Fro.essor o. C@@lie1 20ono3i0s an1 /o0ial Foli0y? Pniversity o. Can8erra an1 Dire0tor o. %CT/24B Cnne Daly is an Csso0iate Fro.essor in e0ono3i0s at the Pniversity o. Can8erra an1 Yo8ert Tanton is a Frin0i@al Yesear0h Zello6 at %CT/24B

iv


Acknowledgments This stu1y 6as .un1e1 8y a [inDage \rant H[F]]^>=TI .ro3 the Custralian Yesear0h Coun0il HCYCIB _ur resear0h @artners on the linDage grant are the %/` De@art3ent o. Co33unity /ervi0esa the Custralian Wureau o. /tatisti0sa the CCT Chie. 4inisterKs De@art3enta the bueenslan1 De@art3ent o. the Fre3ier an1 Ca8ineta bueenslan1 Treasurya an1 the Xi0torian De@art3ents o. 21u0ation an1 2arly Chil1hoo1 an1 Flanning an1 Co33unity Develo@3entB è 6oul1 liDe to grate.ully a0Dno6le1ge the su@@ort @rovi1e1 8y these agen0iesB The authors 6oul1 liDe @arti0ularly to thanD the Custralian Wureau o. /tatisti0s .or su@@lying 1ata .or this stu1y an1 Yo8ert /ti3son .ro3 the Pniversity o. bueenslan1 .or his a1vi0e on aggregation o. /tatisti0al [o0al CreasB The 3etho1ology use1 in this stu1y 6as initially 1evelo@e1 un1er an earlier CYC Dis0overy \rant HDF ^TR9=QI an1 6e 6oul1 liDe to thanD the CYC .or this .un1ing su@@ortB The .in1ings in this @a@er 3ust not 8e inter@rete1 as %e6 /outh àles? Xi0torian? bueenslan1? Custralian Ca@ital Territory or CW/ @oli0y vie6s or en1orse3ents regar1ing 3etho1ology or resultsB In a11ition? the 0hil1 so0ial eG0lusion in1eG is the su8Ue0t o. ongoing resear0h 1evelo@3entB The use o. 1i..erent s@atial 1ivisions? the .urther 1evelo@3ent o. 3etho1ology? an1cor the intro1u0tion o. a11itional varia8les 0oul1 @otentially 0hange the results @resente1 in this @a@erB


1

9

Introduction

4any re0ent stu1ies o. @overty a3ong 0hil1ren an1 .a3ilies in Custralia have ten1e1 to 8e 8ase1 on in0o3e? o.ten 0on0entrating on 0hanges in the level o. national in0o3e @overty over ti3e Hsee? .or eGa3@le? Wra18ury QRR>a Har1ing an1 /duDalsDa QRRRa Har1ing? [loy1 an1 \reen6ell QRR9a /aun1ers an1 Wra18ury? QRRTa /aun1ers et al QRRSIB C li3ite1 nu38er o. Custralian stu1ies have eGa3ine1 the dynamics o. in0o3eV8ase1 0hil1 @overty HC8ello an1 Har1ing QRRTa Hea1ey et al QRRÎ? an1 so3e have in0lu1e1 a11itional in1i0ators o. 1isa1vantage? su0h as su8Ue0tive 1e@rivation H.or eGa3@le? 4arDs QRR]IB There has 8een strong e3@hasis in re0ent @oli0y an1 resear0h in 2uro@e on so0ial eG0lusion Helasen? 9==SI? an1 enor3ous re0ent @oli0y interest in so0ial in0lusion in Custralia sin0e the ele0tion o. the ne6 [a8or govern3entB Ho6ever? relatively .e6 Custralian stu1ies have as yet a1o@te1 this 8roa1er 1e.inition o. 1isa1vantage to looD [email protected] at 0hil1ren Hsee /aun1ers an1 %ai1oo QRRS .or re0ent Custralian 6orD in this areaI an1? a@art .ro3 our earlier 6orD HDaly et al QRR]I? none have analyse1 0hil1 so0ial eG0lusion at a s3all area levelB The 3ulti1i3ensional nature o. 0hil1 1isa1vantage has 8een 1is0usse1 8y a nu38er o. authors in an Custralian 0onteGt? in relation to the 0auses an1 0orrelates o. in0o3e @overty Hsee? .or eGa3@le? Wra18ury? QRR>I? an1 the negative e..e0ts o. 0hil1 1isa1vantage throughout the li.e0ourse are 6i1ely a0Dno6le1ge1 H/aun1ers et al QRR]IB The nee1 to in0or@orate 6i1er 1i3ensions o. 1isa1vantage has 8e0o3e in0reasingly a00e@te1 f an1 the 0on0e@t o. so0ial eG0lusion has 8e0o3e one 6i1ely re0ognise1 .ra3e6orD .or un1erstan1ing? 3easuring an1 a11ressing @overty an1 1isa1vantage at this 3ulti1i3ensional levelB In @arti0ular? re0ent 6orD 8y the /o0ial Foli0y Yesear0h Centre H/FYCI has use1 0o33unity surveys an1 .o0us grou@s to 1evelo@ a 3ore nuan0e1 un1erstan1ing o. 6hat @overty? 1e@rivation an1 so0ial eG0lusion 3ean .or Custralians g 8oth those 6ith lo6 in0o3e an1 those .ro3 the 6i1er 0o33unity H/aun1ers et al QRR]I f an1 to 1evelo@ a set o. in1i0ators relate1 to these 0on0e@tsB The /FYC survey results? 8ase1 on a1ult res@onses a8out 0hil1ren? have also 8een use1 to 1evelo@ nine in1i0ators o. so0ial eG0lusion .or Custralian 0hil1renB9 The authors esti3ate that one in siG 0hil1ren Ha8out SRR?RRR 0hil1renI live

9 The nine in1i0ators 6ere g no 6eeDKs holi1ay a6ay .ro3 ho3e ea0h year? 0hil1ren 1o not

@arti0i@ate in s0hool a0tivities an1 outings? no ho88y or leisure a0tivity .or 0hil1ren? no 3e1i0al treat3ent i. nee1e1? no a00ess to a lo0al 1o0tor or hos@ital? no a00ess to a 8ulDV 8illing 1o0tor? 1oes not have h^RR in e3ergen0y savings? 0oul1 not raise hQ?RRR in a 6eeD in an e3ergen0y an1 lives in a Uo8less househol1B

Q


in househol1s eG@erien0ing so0ial eG0lusion? 1e.ine1 here as eG@erien0ing .our o. the nine in1i0ators liste1 in the .ootnote 8elo6 H/aun1ers an1 %ai1oo QRRSIB There is a very su8stantial 8o1y o. international literature relating to the 1e.inition an1 3easure3ent o. so0ial eG0lusion an1 relate1 0on0e@ts Hrevie6e1 in Daly? QRRTIB There is no single 1e.inition o. so0ial eG0lusion? 8ut 6e are a1o@ting here the .ollo6ing 1e.inition use1 8y the Writish /o0ial 2G0lusion PnitM i/o0ial eG0lusion ha@@ens 6hen @eo@le or @la0es su..er .ro3 a series o. @ro8le3s su0h as une3@loy3ent? 1is0ri3ination? @oor sDills? lo6 in0o3es? @oor housing? high 0ri3e? ill health an1 .a3ily 8reaD1o6nB `hen su0h @ro8le3s 0o38ine they 0an 0reate a vi0ious 0y0leBK H/2P? _..i0e o. the De@uty Fri3e 4inister?I

There has 8een li3ite1 e3@iri0al 6orD using the 0on0e@t o. so0ial eG0lusion in CustraliaB The earlier 6orD on 6hi0h the 0urrent stu1y 8uil1s use1 nine varia8les .ro3 the QRR9 Census to 1evelo@ a s3all area in1i0ator o. 0hil1 so0ial eG0lusion HDaly et al QRR]IB In a11ition to the re0ent 6orD .ro3 the /o0ial Foli0y Yesear0h Centre 1es0ri8e1 a8ove? /aun1ers HQRR>I use1 1ata .ro3 the 9==Sc== Househol1 2G@en1iture /urvey HH2/I to 3aDe so3e @reli3inary 0al0ulations o. the level o. so0ial eG0lusion a3ong househol1s in Custralia f an1 su8seEuently eGten1e1 this 6orD to 0o3@are out0o3es in Custralia 6ith those in Writain H/aun1ers an1 C1el3an QRRÎB They .oun1 that @overty 6as higher in Writain than in Custralia? 8ut that levels o. 3aterial 1e@rivation an1 so0ial eG0lusion 6ere higher in CustraliaB Wray HQRR9I also use1 1ata .ro3 the H2/ 9==Sc== to looD at the in0i1en0e o. .inan0ial har1shi@ in CustraliaB He 0on0lu1e1 that so3e .inan0ial 1e@rivation 6as 0o33on a3ong Custralian househol1s 8ut a relatively s3all @ro@ortion o. househol1s? >B9 @er 0ent? .a0e1 3ulti@le har1shi@s H1e.ine1 as having t6o or 3ore har1shi@ res@onsesM 8eing una8le to a..or1 heating or 3eals? or @a6ning an1 selling @ossessions? or asDing .or assistan0e .ro3 0o33unity organisationsIB He argue1 that 3ulti@le har1shi@s 6ere @arti0ularly i3@ortant .or 0hil1ren un1er 9^ yearsB The Custralian Wureau o. /tatisti0s is in0reasingly 0olle0ting an1 re@orting on 1ata 6hi0h re.le0ts 0on0erns 6ith 3easures o. 6ellV8eing an1 1isa1vantage that go 8eyon1 tra1itional e0ono3i0 3easures Hsee? .or eGa3@le? CW/ QRRTa? 8IB There have 8een a range o. stu1ies o. 1isa1vantage1 0hil1ren in Custralia an1 the i3@a0t o. @overty on in1i0ators in0lu1ing their e1u0ation an1 health? an1 the so0ial an1 e0ono3i0 i3@li0ations o. @overty H/ee the Co33on6ealth o. Custralia /enate Co33unity C..airs Ye.eren0e Co33ittee HQRRjI .or a surveyIB These stu1ies are o.ten [email protected] to @arti0ular .iel1s an1 have not 8een 0on1u0te1 6ithin the 8roa1 .ra3e6orD o. so0ial eG0lusion esta8lishe1 in the literatureB Ho6ever? a s3all nu38er o. stu1ies have 8een lo0ate1 6ithin a 8roa1er 3ulti1i3ensional @ers@e0tive? in0lu1ing 6orD 8y Daly an1 /3ith HQRRÎ 6hi0h @resents in1i0ators o. risD o. so0ial eG0lusion .or In1igenous 0hil1renB Wase1 on 1ata .ro3 the QRR9 0ensus? they .oun1 that Custralian In1igenous 0hil1ren 6ere 3ore liDely than their nonVIn1igenous


>

0ounter@arts to live in lone @arent .a3ilies or 6ith relatives other than their 8iologi0al @arents? an1 in househol1s 6ith lo6 in0o3es in 6hi0h the a1ults 6ere less liDely to 8e e3@loye1B The househol1s 6ere 3ore reliant on 6el.are an1 their @arents ha1 lo6er levels o. e1u0ational attain3ent than a3ong other CustraliansB Ye0ent 6orD 8y /0utella an1 /3yth HQRRÎ also @resents national in1i0ators o. 0hil1 6ellV8eing a0ross a nu38er o. 1i3ensions? using the 0a@a8ilities .ra3e6orD initially 1evelo@e1 8y C3artya /enB The a8ove stu1ies? ho6ever? la0D a s@atial 1i3ensionB Yegional 1i..eren0es in 1isa1vantage? ho6 these 1evelo@? an1 6hat 0an 8e 1one to over0o3e the3? have 8e0o3e an in0reasingly i3@ortant @art o. resear0h an1 @oli0y in re0ent yearsB There is 0onsi1era8le international literature a8out the e..e0ts o. neigh8ourhoo1 on 8oth 0hil1ren an1 a1ults Hsee Wra1sha6 et al QRRja Durlau. QRR9IB In an Custralian 0onteGt? :ensen an1 /eltder HQRRRI eGa3ine1 neigh8ourhoo1 e..e0ts on e1u0ational out0o3es an1 .oun1 that the neigh8ourhoo1 une3@loy3ent rate? in0o3e an1 e1u0ation an1 o00u@ational 3iG in.luen0e1 1e0isions a8out 0ontinuing in @ostVse0on1ary e1u0ationB Hunter an1 \regory use1 1ata .ro3 the 9=]T an1 9==9 @o@ulation 0ensuses to sho6 that in0o3e an1 e3@loy3ent in the @oorest Census Colle0tion Distri0ts 1e0line1 over this @erio1 H\regory an1 Hunter QRR9a Hunter 9==â Hunter QRR>IB Hunter HQRR>I also .oun1 evi1en0e o. in0reasing 1i..erentiation 8et6een neigh8ourhoo1s over ti3e .ro3 9=SRcS9 to 9==Rc=9 in Custralia? Cana1a an1 the P/B Cnother stu1y 0overing the later @erio1 8et6een 9==T an1 QRR9 .oun1 that higher in0reases in gross househol1 in0o3e ha1 8een eG@erien0e1 8y the 3ore a..luent hal. o. @ost0o1es HHar1ing et al? QRRjIB These an1 a range o. other stu1ies have @rovi1e1 a3@le evi1en0e that the geogra@hy o. 1isa1vantage is @ronoun0e1 an1 3ay even 8e 8e0o3ing greater in Custralia HWi11le et al QRRQa Wray QRR>a [loy1 et al QRRRIB I3@ortant here has 8een the se3inal 6orD 8y Xinson HQRR9? QRRj? QRR]I? 6ho use1 the @ost0o1e as the unit o. analysis an1? using in1i0ators s@anning a 8roa1 range o. 1i3ensions su0h as e1u0ation? health? in0o3e? une3@loy3ent an1 0ri3e? argue1 that a s3all nu38er o. @ost0o1e areas 0ontain signi.i0ant 0on0entrations o. negative in1i0atorsB The Custralian Wureau o. /tatisti0s HQRR>I has .or 3any years .a0ilitate1 s@atial analysis 8y 0onstru0ting so0ioVe0ono3i0 in1eGes .or s3all areas .ro3 the Census 1ata f 6ith their /o0ioV20ono3i0 In1eGes .or Creas H/2IZC in1eGesI 8eing very 6i1ely use1? .or eGa3@le? in analysis o. the relationshi@s 8et6een so0ioVe0ono3i0 status an1 servi0e usage Hsee? .or eGa3@le? \lover et al 9===IB Ho6ever? the CW/ /2IZC in1eGes are not [email protected] .o0usse1 on 0hil1ren f so? .or eGa3@le? an area 3ay have a lo6 /2IZC s0ore 8e0ause it is largely @o@ulate1 8y ol1er Custralians on lo6 in0o3es rather than 8e0ause it 0ontains 1isa1vantage1 0hil1renB

j


_verall? there.ore? Custralia has until very re0ently la0De1 a s3all area 3easure o. 0hil1 1isa1vantage? in0lu1ing one e38ra0ing a 8roa1er set o. in1i0ators than .a3ily in0o3e aloneB Zor @lanners an1 @oli0y 3aDers reEuiring 1ata a8out geogra@hi0 @atterns o. 1isa1vantage a3ong 0hil1ren an1 the 3ost e..e0tive @la0e3ent o. 0hil1V relate1 servi0es? this has 8een a serious .la6B To .ill this ga@ in the literature? the 0urrent authors 1evelo@e1 an in1eG o. 0hil1 so0ial eG0lusion .or CustraliaKs s3all areas? f 6hile also highlighting a @ossi8le 3etho1 .or using Census 1ata .or @oli0y 3aDers 6ithin other 0ountries 6ho seeD to ans6er the sa3e Euestions a8out 0hil1 1isa1vantage an1 servi0e 1elivery HDaly et al QRR]? QRRSIB This @a@er re@orts our latest resear0h? u@1ating the QRR9 in1eG an1 in0or@orating ne6ly availa8le QRRT Census varia8lesB

2

Data and Method

This @roUe0t u@1ates si3ilar 6orD un1ertaDen 8y %CT/24 6hi0h use1 the QRR9 0ensus 1ataB The release last year o. QRRT Census 1ata has allo6e1 us to @ro1u0e an u@1ate1 in1eG? an1 also to analyse the geogra@hi0al 1istri8ution o. the 0hara0teristi0s that 3aDe u@ the in1eG 6ith the latest availa8le 1ataB In a11ition? the QRRT 0ensus has in0or@orate1 several ne6 varia8les relevant to the 3easure3ent o. 0hil1 so0ial eG0lusion 6hi0h 6ere not availa8le in @revious 0ensusesB It is i3@ortant to note that the results @resente1 in this @a@er 0annot 8e 1ire0tly 0o3@are1 to @reviously @u8lishe1 results 8ase1 on the QRR9 1ataB Xaria8les in0lu1e1 in the in1eG have 0hange1? as have /[C 8oun1aries? an1 so3e as@e0ts o. our 3etho1ologyBQ

2.1 Data source and spatial unit This @roUe0t uses 1ata .ro3 the Custralian QRRT Census o. Fo@ulation an1 HousingB This is a 0ensus o. all @eo@le in Custralia? 0olle0ting in.or3ation on @ersonal? househol1 an1 .a3ily 0hara0teristi0sB It is 0on1u0te1 8y the Custralian Wureau o. /tatisti0s HCW/I on0e every .ive yearsB The 0ensus is the only sour0e o. 1ata availa8le .or the 6hole o. Custralia 6hi0h @rovi1es a1eEuate in.or3ation a8out in1i0ators o. so0ial eG0lusion at a small area level. Ho6ever? using the 0ensus 0reates nu3erous 0hallenges .or resear0hers? in0lu1ing i3@ortant li3itations in ter3s o. the level o. 1etail an1 0overage o. issues availa8le through this sour0eB

Q Cn analysis 0o3@aring the QRR9 an1 QRRT Chil1 /o0ial 2G0lusion In1eG results 6ill 8e

@resente1 at an international 0on.eren0e in Cugust H40%a3ara et al? QRRSIB The QRRT results in this @a@er have 8een a1Uuste1 to 3aDe the3 0o3@ara8le 6ith the earlier year HeBgB 3easures have 8een taDen to a1Uust .or 0hanging statisti0al lo0al area 8oun1ariesIB


^

Zirst? so3e as@e0ts o. so0ial eG0lusion? su0h as health? are not 0overe1 at all 8y the 0ensus? an1 so 0annot 8e 0a@ture1 6ithin our so0ial eG0lusion in1eGB> /e0on1? so3e 0on0e@ts are 0overe1 at a lo6er level o. 1etail than 6oul1 8e i1ealB Zor eGa3@le? 6hile so3e in1i0ators o. e1u0ation are availa8le through the 0ensus Hhighest e1u0ational a0hieve3ent o. 0hil1Ks .a3ilyI? other varia8les 6hi0h 3ight 0a@ture 3ore 1etaile1 as@e0ts o. the 0hil1Ks e1u0ational eG@erien0e Hlitera0y an1 nu3era0y? .or eGa3@leI are not availa8leB è 0hose /tatisti0al [o0al Creas H/[CsI as our 8ase s@atial unit .or this stu1yB /[Cs are @art o. the CW/ Custralian /tan1ar1 \eogra@hi0 Classi.i0ation HC/\CI? so 1ata .or the3 0an easily 8e eGtra0te1 .ro3 the QRRT 0ensusB The 9jQT /[Cs 6hi0h 6ere @art o. the C/\C in QRRT 6ere use1 .or this analysis 8e0ause o. @ro8le3s 6ith the CW/ 0on.i1entialising s3all 0ell 0ounts in ta8les .or s3aller areas Hsu0h as Census Colle0tion Distri0tsI? an1 8e0ause /[Cs 0over the 6hole o. Custralia Has o@@ose1 to [o0al \overn3ent Creas 6hi0h 1o not 0over areas 6ith no lo0al govern3entI an1 0over 0ontiguous areas HunliDe so3e @ost0o1esIB /o the /[C is the s3allest unit in the C/\C 6hi0h 1oes not @resent @ro8le3s 6ith 0on.i1entiality an1 that 0overs the 6hole o. Custralia 6ithout 8eing nonV0ontiguousB The /[C 1oes? ho6ever? @resent t6o Dey @ro8le3s .or stu1ies su0h as oursB The .irst is that the @o@ulations 0overe1 8y ea0h /[C 0an vary greatly in sideB The se0on1 is Dno6n as the i3o1i.ia8le areal unitK @ro8le3B [arge /[Cs are 3ore liDely to 0over heterogeneous @o@ulations? so that s3aller @o0Dets o. 1isa1vantage 6ithin the /[C 3ay 8e i6ashe1 outK in the results 8y their 3ore a..luent neigh8oursB This is @arti0ularly a @ro8le3 6ithin the Custralian Ca@ital Territory an1 Wris8ane? 6here the /[Cs are 0o3@aratively s3all an1 their @o@ulations reasona8ly ho3ogeneousB è atte3@te1 to over0o3e @otential @ro8le3s 6ith the variation in @o@ulation Han1 6ithinVarea heterogeneityI through t6o te0hniEuesB Zirst? 6e aggregate1 u@ /[Cs in Wris8ane an1 the CCT Hthe t6o lo0ations 6ith the largest 0on0entrations o. very s3all /[CsI to larger areas? so that their @o@ulations an1 relative heterogeneity 6oul1 3ore 0losely 3at0h those in /[Cs a0ross the re3ain1er o. Custralia? using a 3etho1ology 1evelo@e1 an1 teste1 8y Wau3 et al HQRRÎBj Thus? in Wris8ane? 6e > The QRRT 0ensus .or the .irst ti3e has in0lu1e1 Euestions a8out 1isa8ility? .o0using on the

nee1 .or assistan0e 6ith a0tivities o. 1aily livingB `hile 3u0h valua8le in.or3ation a8out @hysi0al 1isa8ility 0an 8e gaine1 .ro3 this 1ata? it 1oes not atte3@t to 0a@ture 8roa1er 0on0e@ts o. health? an1 6e have 1e0i1e1 not to in0lu1e this 1ata in our in1eGB j Clternative 3etho1s .or a11ressing the 3o1i.ia8le areal unit @ro8le3 0oul1 in0lu1e

1isaggregating Hor s@litting u@I /[Cs in other 0a@ital 0ities? rather than aggregating u@ those in Wris8ane an1 Can8erraB Ho6ever? this 6oul1 reEuire 0o3@leG 1e0isions a8out ho6 to 0onstru0t s3aller areas 6ith so0ial 8oun1aries that the /[C 1ivisions in Wris8ane an1 Can8erra H6hi0h align to su8ur8sI inherently in0or@orateB

T


aggregate1 /[Cs u@ to [o0al Coun0il 2le0toral àr1s? an1 in the CCT? 6e aggregate1 u@ to /tatisti0al /u81ivisionsB /e0on1? 6e @resent all our analysis as Euintiles weighted by the child population in ea0h area? so that the uneven 1istri8ution o. @o@ulations 8et6een /[Cs an1 8et6een states is 0ontrolle1 .orB It shoul1 8e note1 that? 8y aggregating u@ s3all areas to larger ones? 1etails a8out @o0Dets o. 1isa1vantage 6ithin these larger areas 3ay 8e lostB Zor eGa3@le? in the CCT? other resear0h 0on1u0te1 at a higher level o. s@atial 1isaggregation sho6s variations in the 1egree o. 1isa1vantage a0ross s3all areas that 1o not a@@ear 6ith the larger s@atial units use1 in this stu1y are use1 Hsee? .or eGa3@le? Cassells et al QRR]IB `hile the @ossi8le s3oothing o. 6ithinVarea 1i..eren0es is a @arti0ular @ro8le3 .or larger s@atial units? geogra@hi0ally 8ase1 resear0h su0h as that @resente1 here 1oes not @i0D u@ 1isa1vantage even in s3aller s@atial units i. it o00urs a3ong s3all @ro@ortions o. in1ivi1uals or househol1s Hso3eti3es those 6ith @arti0ular 1e3ogra@hi0 0hara0teristi0s? .or instan0e? In1igenous @ersons g see eenne1y an1 Zir3an HQRRjII 6ithin areasB Thus results .ro3 s@atiallyVoriente1 resear0h shoul1 al6ays 8e use1 along 6ith Dno6le1ge gaine1 .ro3 @o@ulationV8ase1 stu1ies 6hi0h 3ay .o0us on 1isa1vantage a3ong @arti0ular @o@ulation grou@s? rather than on geogra@hi0 1i..eren0esB Chil1ren are 1e.ine1 in this stu1y as all 1e@en1ent 0hil1ren age1 less than 9T years on 0ensus nightB _nly those 0hil1ren living in their usual resi1en0e 6ere in0lu1e1 in our stu1y? as our varia8les 0a@ture the 0hara0teristi0s o. 0hil1renKs .a3ilies an1 househol1s? an1 it 6as i3@ortant that these 0hara0teristi0s 6ere those o. the situations in 6hi0h they usually live1? an1 not those in 6hi0h they 3ight have 8een te3@orarily resi1ent on 0ensus nightB è have 0reate1 three se@arate in1eGes g one .or 0hil1ren R g j years? one .or 0hil1ren ^ g 9^ years? an1 one .or all 1e@en1ent 0hil1ren age1 R g 9^ yearsB

2.2 Definition and measurement issues In trying to 1e.ine 0hil1 so0ial eG0lusion? 6e 6ere .un1a3entally li3ite1 8y the so3e6hat restri0te1 list o. varia8les 0olle0te1 in the 0ensus f an1 6e .o0us in this stu1y on 0a@turing the 0hara0teristi0s o. 0hil1renKs @arents? .a3ilies? househol1s an1 16ellingsB `hen 0onstru0ting @otential in1i0ators o. 0hil1 so0ial eG0lusion? 6e 1re6 on international resear0h that has i1enti.ie1 .our 1i3ensions o. so0ial eG0lusion Hsee


]

Wur0har1t? [e \ran1 an1 Fia0hau1 QRRQIB^ The .irst is 0onsu3@tion? 6here in1ivi1uals 1o not have the 0a@a0ity to @ur0hase goo1s an1 servi0esB This is @artly 0a@ture1 6ithin our stu1y through househol1 in0o3eB Tenan0y in @u8li0 housing also a0ts as a @roGy .or lo6 in0o3eB This is not a @er.e0t 3easure o. 0a@a0ity to @ur0hase goo1s an1 servi0es? sin0e so3e @eo@le 6ith lo6 in0o3e 3ay have high 6ealth? so their @otential 0onsu3@tion is higher than their in0o3e 3ight suggestB Ho6ever? generally @eo@le 6ith lo6 in0o3e 6ill also have a li3ite1 0a@a0ity to @ur0hase goo1s an1 servi0esB The se0on1 1i3ension is @ro1u0tion? 6here in1ivi1uals are una8le to .in1 e3@loy3entB This is 0a@ture1 in our analysis through @arental la8our .or0e status an1 o00u@ationB The thir1 is involve3ent in lo0al an1 national @oliti0s an1 organisationsB This 6as 1i..i0ult to 0a@ture given the li3ite1 set o. varia8les 6e ha1 availa8le to us? 8ut e1u0ation 3ay 8e a @artial @roGy .or this involve3entB Yesear0h in the P/ suggests that those 6ho invest in hu3an 0a@ital also invest in so0ial 0a@ital Hsee Wro6n an1 Zerris QRRja \laeser? [ai8son an1 /a0er1ote QRRQIB In @arti0ular? \laeser et al HQRRQI .oun1 3e38ershi@ in grou@s 6as @ositively asso0iate1 6ith e1u0ational attain3entB Clso? a ne6 QRRT Census varia8le? 6hi0h 0a@tures volunteer e..ort in the t6elve 3onths @rior to the 0ensus? also @artially 0a@tures involve3ent in organisations f an1 6e have use1 this to 3easure 6hether or not 0hil1renKs @arents 6ere involve1 in volunteer 6orDB The .ourth is so0ial intera0tion an1 .a3ily su@@ortB These are also 1i..i0ult to a00urately 0a@ture 6ith 0ensus 1ata? 8ut are @roGie1 in our stu1y through housing tenure? ho3e internet 0onne0tion? .a3ily ty@e? @arental volunteer 6orD an1 3otor vehi0le availa8ilityB Cll the varia8les 6e have are @roGies .or so0ial eG0lusion 1i3ensionsB The QRRT 0ensus gives eG0ellent regional 1ata? 8ut at the 0ost o. 1etailB Cs a result? 6e have ha1 to .it the .ra3e6orD aroun1 the 1ata 6e have availa8leB `hile 6e re.er throughout the @a@er to the in1eG as a 3easure o. 0hil1 so0ial eG0lusion? the li3itations inherent in the 1ata on 6hi0h the in1eG is 8ase1 shoul1 8e De@t in 3in1 6hen inter@reting the resultsB It shoul1 also 8e note1 that the in1ivi1ual 0hara0teristi0s that have 8een 0o38ine1 in the in1eG 1o not 8y the3selves 3easure so0ial eG0lusion 8ut are 3erely risD .a0tors 6hi0h? 6hen taDen as a 6hole? 0an 8e use1 to 0a@ture the 0on0e@t o. so0ial eG0lusionB It shoul1 also 8e e3@hasise1 that our so0ial eG0lusion 3easure is an ^ `hile these 1i3ensions are not [email protected] relate1 to 0hil1ren? they 1o 0over as@e0ts o. so0ial eG0lusion 0o33on to 8oth a1ults an1 0hil1renB 4ore [email protected] 1e.initions o. so0ial eG0lusion Hsee? .or eGa3@le? C1el3an an1 4i11leton? QRR>a /aun1ers an1 %ai1oo? QRRSI? 6hile in0or@orating 3any o. the sa3e 0on0e@ts as the ones suggeste1 8y Wur0har1t et al? also in0lu1e eGa3@les that are 3ore 0losely 0hil1Vrelate1? su0h as @arti0i@ation in so0ial a0tivities an1 a00ess to 0hil1renKs servi0es an1 other [email protected] 3easures 1i..i0ult to 0a@ture 6ith 0ensus 1ataB

S


areaV8ase1 3easure? 6hi0h is use1 to su33arise the general risD o. so0ial eG0lusion .a0e1 8y all 0hil1ren living 6ithin that areaB _8viously? even in an area 6ith a @arti0ularly high risD o. so0ial eG0lusion? so3e 0hil1ren living in that s3all area 6ill 0o3e .ro3 a1vantage1 .a3ilies an1 not .a0e these high risDs Han1 vi0e versaIB Zinally? the in1eG results @resente1 in this @a@er result .ro3 0o38ining the varia8les 6e have 1es0ri8e1 a8oveB The in0lusion o. 1i..erent or a11itional varia8les 0oul1 @otentially 0hange the geogra@hi0 1istri8ution o. 0hil1 so0ial eG0lusion risD @resente1 hereB Zor eGa3@le? the Custralian Ca@ital TerritoryKs HCCTI relatively high rates o. internet 0onne0tion an1 lo6 @ro@ortions o. 8lue 0ollar 6orDers 6ill 8e 0ontri8uting to the results sho6n .or the CCT? an1 the in0lusion o. a11itional or alternative 3easures o. 1isa1vantage in the in1eG 3ight result in a 1i..erent s@atial @i0ture o. 0hil1 so0ial eG0lusion risD 6ithin the CCT e3ergingB

2.3 Limitations of income data C nu38er o. issues relate1 to the Euality o. in0o3e 1ata availa8le on the QRRT 0ensus nee1 to 8e note1 in relation to our 0hil1 so0ial eG0lusion in1i0atorB In0o3e is only availa8le on the 0ensus in ranges o. gross in0o3e? 6ith @eo@le 6ho 1i1 not res@on1 to the in0o3e Euestion 0lassi.ie1 se@arately as knot state1lB Cs a result? the 8est in0o3e 3easure that 6e 0oul1 1erive 6as eEuivalent gross .a3ily in0o3e Hrather than the disposable .a3ily in0o3e 3easure tra1itionally use1 8y @overty resear0hersIB `here a .a3ily ha1 any @erson in it 6ith a knot state1l in0o3e? the 6hole .a3ily 6as 0onsi1ere1 as having a knot state1l .a3ily in0o3eB Xali1 gross .a3ily in0o3es 6ere then eEuivalise1 8y the CW/ using the 3o1i.ie1 _2CD eEuivalen0e s0ale Hsee \reen6ell et al QRR9? .or .urther in.or3ation a8out eEuivalen0e s0alesIB The .irst a1ult 6as given a 6eight o. 9? ea0h a11itional @erson age1 9^ years or over 6as given a 6eight o. RB^ an1 0hil1ren age1 un1er 9^ 6ere given a 6eight o. RB>B In0o3e Euintiles 6ere then 0al0ulate1 .ro3 these eEuivalise1 gross .a3ily in0o3esBT

2.4 Social exclusion measures The in1i0ators o. so0ial eG0lusion 0hosen .or use in this stu1y are sho6n in Ta8le 9B Cs note1 in the ta8le? .or so3e varia8les? the highest value .or the .a3ily 6as taDenB T The in0o3e Euintiles 6ere 0al0ulate1 8y the CW/ .or all Custralian .a3ilies Hin0lu1ing 8oth single @erson .a3ilies an1 those 6ithout 0hil1renI? 8ut a.ter re3oving .a3ilies 6ith at least one @erson having a knot state1l in0o3eB This 3eans that they are 0al0ulate1 .or the 6hole Custralian @o@ulation? 6ith the 8otto3 Euintile re@resenting the 8otto3 QR @er 0ent o. all Custralian .a3ilies an1 singles 6ith vali1 in0o3e 1ataB


This 6as 8e0ause having so3eone in the .a3ily 6ith 8etter 0ir0u3stan0es 3ight re1u0e the 0hil1Ks risD o. so0ial eG0lusionB Zor eGa3@le? the @resen0e in the .a3ily o. an ol1er si8ling 6ith @ostVs0hool Euali.i0ations? even i. the 0hil1Ks @arent 3ay not have su0h Euali.i0ations? 0reates the @ossi8ility o. @rovi1ing a 0hil1 6ith a11itional assistan0e 6ith s0hool 6orD? an1 an e1u0ational role 3o1el? 8oth o. 6hi0h 3ay @ro3ote the 0hil1Ks o6n 0han0es o. staying in s0hool? an1 @ursuing @ostVs0hool stu1iesB Zor other varia8les H.or eGa3@le? la8our .or0e status an1 volunteer 6orDI? only the status o. the @arents 6as 0onsi1ere1B Zor all varia8les? the knot state1l 0lassi.i0ation 6as i1enti.ie1 se@aratelyB `here a 0hil1Ks .a3ily Hor @arents 1e@en1ing on the varia8leI ha1 any @erson 6ith a knot state1l res@onse on a varia8le? that 0hil1 6as re3ove1 .ro3 the analysis o. that varia8le onlyB The total nu38er o. 0hil1ren a..e0te1 8y this varies 8y varia8le an1 /[C 8ut? on average a0ross Custralia? .or ea0h varia8le 8et6een 9 @er 0ent an1 ^ @er 0ent o. 0hil1ren are in .a3ilies 6ith knot state1l 0lassi.i0ations on varia8les other than in0o3eB The in0o3e varia8le has the highest rate o. knot state1l res@onses? at al3ost 9Q @er 0entB In or1er to 0al0ulate the in1eG? all varia8les 6ere 0onverte1 to @ro@ortions using the total 0hil1 @o@ulation 6ith vali1 1ata .or that varia8le in that /[C as the 1eno3inatorB /o? .or eGa3@le? the varia8le 3easuring 0hil1ren living in househol1s 6ith no 3otor vehi0le 6as 0al0ulate1 .or in0lusion in the in1eG 8y 1ivi1ing the nu38er o. 0hil1ren in househol1s 6ith no 3otor vehi0le in ea0h /[C 8y the total nu38er o. 0hil1ren 6ith a vali1 res@onse on the 3otor vehi0le 0ensus Euestion in that /[CB

=

9R


Table 1 List of social exclusion variables used Variable in Census

Social Exclusion Measure Developed

Family Type

Proportion of children aged 0 – 15 in single parent family

Education in family

Proportion of children aged 0 – 15 with no-one in the family having completed Year 12

Occupation in family

Proportion of children aged 0 – 15 with highest occupation in family blue collar worker

Housing tenure

Proportion of children aged 0 – 15 in public housing

Labour force status of parents

Proportion of children aged 0 – 15 in family where no parent working

Internet connection

Proportion of children aged 0 – 15 living in dwellings with no internet connection

Motor Vehicle

Proportion of children aged 0 – 15 in household with no motor vehicle

Volunteering

Proportion of children aged 0 – 15 in family where no parent did voluntary work over the past 12 months

Income

Proportion of children aged 0 – 15 in household with income in bottom quintile of equivalent gross household income for all households in Australia

Note: Occupation proportions are calculated using only those families in which at least one person was working. The public housing definition used includes community housing. Data source: ABS Census of Population and Housing 2006

2.5 Removing questionable SLAs To i3@rove the a00ura0y o. our esti3ates? the .inal ste@ 8e.ore 0reating the in1eG 6as to re3ove any /[Cs that ha1 lo6 0ell 0ounts or ha1 a very high nonVres@onse rate in the 0ensusB [o6 0ell 0ounts 3ean that even a very s3all 0hange in the 1ata 0an 3ean a large @er0entage 0hange Hso one eGtra 0hil1 at risD o. so0ial eG0lusion 3ay re@resent a >> @er 0ent in0rease i. there are only > 0hil1ren in the /[CIB To 1eal 6ith the issue o. lo6 0ell 0ounts? 6e eG0lu1e1 .ro3 the analysis /[Cs 6ith .e6er than >R 0hil1ren in either the RVj or ^V9^ age grou@B This 0utVo.. 6as 8ase1 on the total 0hil1 @o@ulation in the /[C? not the nu38er o. 0hil1ren at risD o. a @arti0ular as@e0t o. so0ial eG0lusionB /o? .or eGa3@le? there 3ay 8e only ^ 0hil1ren 6ith 8oth @arents not 6orDing an1 on a lo6 in0o3e in a @arti0ular /[C 8ut? as long as the total nu38er o. 0hil1ren in that /[C is greater than >R? 6e in0lu1e that /[C in the analysisB


99

High nonVres@onse .or a @arti0ular varia8le 3eans 6e 1o not have a relia8le esti3ate o. the value .or that varia8le in that /[CB Cny /[C 6ith an SR @er 0ent or higher nonV res@onse rate .or any varia8le in0lu1e1 in the so0ial eG0lusion in1eG 6as re3ove1 .ro3 the analysisB There 6ere a total o. ]> /[Cs eG0lu1e1 1ue to lo6 0hil1 @o@ulation? another > /[Cs eG0lu1e1 1ue to high nonVres@onse? an1 = that ha1 8oth lo6 @o@ulation an1 high nonVres@onseB This le.t a total o. 9R^Q s3all areas .or use in our in1eG 0reation H6ith those /[Cs in the CCT an1 Wris8ane having 8een aggregate1 u@ to larger areas? as 1es0ri8e1 a8oveIB 4any o. those /[Cs 6hi0h 6ere eG0lu1e1 .ro3 our analysis 6ere in the re3ote areas o. northern an1 0entral CustraliaB The eG0lusion o. a reasona8ly large nu38er o. very re3ote /[Cs in a nu38er o. states an1 territories 3eans that 3any re3ote In1igenous 0o33unities are not in0lu1e1 in our analysis o. so0ial eG0lusionB In essen0e? 1es@ite the high levels o. 1isa1vantage un1ou8te1ly eG@erien0e1 8y 3any In1igenous 0hil1ren? the s3all nu38ers living in re3ote In1igenous 0o33unities? allie1 6ith high rates o. nonV0o3@letion or @artial 0o3@letion o. the Census Euestionnaire? 3eans that an /[CV8ase1 Census in1eG su0h as that 6e have 0reate1 here is not an a@@ro@riate 6ay to 3easure 1isa1vantage a3ong In1igenous 0hil1ren f an1 thus that other 3etho1s an1 1ata sour0es 3ust 8e .oun1 to a11ress this [email protected] issue Heenne1y an1 Zir3an QRRjIB Des@ite these eG0lusions .or0e1 8y 1e.i0ien0ies in the 0overage o. the Census 1ata or 8y s3all side? it 3ust 8e e3@hasise1 that less than BR9 @er 0ent o. all Custralian 0hil1ren live in the S^ eG0lu1e1 /[CsB

2.6 Statistical analysis De8ates a8out the 8est in1i0ators o. so0ial eG0lusion H.or 8oth 0hil1ren an1 a1ultsI a8oun1 Hsee? .or eGa3@le? CtDinson et al QRRQa 4oore 9==]I? in0lu1ing the relative 3erits o. 0o3@osite 3easures an1 [email protected] in1i0atorsB The use o. a 0o3@osite 3easure has the a1vantage o. su33arising a range o. [email protected] in1i0ators an1 8eing easier to 0o33uni0ate to the 6i1er @u8li0 through a ihea1line 3easureK H4i0Dle6right QRR9a Warnes QRR9IB C 0o3@osite in1eG .a0ilitates 0o3@arisons 8et6een 0ountries or regions that 3ight @er.or3 Euite 1i..erently on ea0h 0o3@onent o. the in1eGB It 0an also 8e use1 to highlight in1ivi1uals at risD o. .a0ing @arti0ular 1isa1vantages 8ase1 on earlier evi1en0eB _ne 1ra68a0D o. a 0o3@osite in1eG is that? 8y su33arising a nu38er o. 0o3@onents? it 3ight o8s0ure signi.i0ant results f es@e0ially i. there are su8stantial 1i..eren0es in the level o. @er.or3an0e on ea0h o. the 0o3@onentsB C .urther 1isa1vantage o. a 0o3@osite in1eG is that the .inal result 6ill re.le0t the 0hoi0e o. in@uts an1 the 3etho1 o. 0onstru0tion? 6hi0h are 8y ne0essity ar8itrary H4i0Dle6right QRR9IB _n 8alan0e there are argu3ents .or 3aDing 8oth the .inal 0o3@osite in1eG an1 the 0o3@onent varia8les availa8le? an1 this is the a@@roa0h 6e have taDen in this stu1yB

9Q


The 3etho1 6e use1 to su33arise the 0hosen varia8les into a single 3easure o. 0hil1 so0ial eG0lusion 6as @rin0i@al 0o3@onents analysis? 6hi0h has 8een use1 in Custralia an1 overseas to 0reate su33ary in1eGes .ro3 a nu38er o. 0orrelate1 varia8les Hsee CW/ QRR>a /al3on1 an1 Cra3@ton QRRQIB Frin0i@al 0o3@onents analysis is a 1ata su33ary te0hniEueB It trans.or3s a set o. 0orrelate1 1ata Hin this 0ase? the set o. varia8les 6e are using that serve as @roGies .or 1i..erent as@e0ts o. so0ial eG0lusionI into a s3aller set o. un0orrelate1 0o3@onents that 0a@ture 3ost o. the variation o. the original set o. varia8les HDunte3an 9=S=IB The ai3 o. the 3etho1 is to 3aGi3ise the 0orrelation 8et6een the 0o3@onents an1 the original varia8lesB `hile the @ro0e1ure @ro1u0es several ne6 @rin0i@al 0o3@onent varia8les? the .irst @rin0i@al 0o3@onent eG@lains the largest a3ount o. the variation in the original varia8les? an1 0an 8e use1 to 0a@ture the un1erlying 3eaning o. the original set o. varia8lesB This .irst @rin0i@al 0o3@onent thus 8e0o3es the in1eG f as is stan1ar1 @ra0ti0e 6hen 0reating su33ary in1eGesB The CW/ /2IZC in1eGes? an1 the %m In1eGes o. De@rivation 8oth use the .irst 0o3@onent only Hsee CW/ QRR>a /al3on1 an1 Cra3@ton QRRQIB Zurther 0o3@onents 0an give so3e a11itional insights into other as@e0ts o. so0ial eG0lusion 8ut? i. the ai3 o. the resear0h is to @ro1u0e a su33ary 3easure o. so0ial eG0lusion? then it is a@@ro@riate to use the .irst 0o3@onent as the in1eGB _n0e the .irst @rin0i@al 0o3@onents analysis 6as run? varia8le loa1ings 6ere eGa3ine1 so that any varia8les 6ith lo6 loa1ings 0oul1 8e eG0lu1e1 .ro3 the in1eGB The loa1ing is si3@ly the 0orrelation 8et6een the 0o3@onent an1 the varia8leB I. this is lo6? then the 0o3@onent is not highly 0orrelate1 6ith the varia8le? an1 the varia8le 0an 8e re3ove1 6ithout a..e0ting the 0o3@onentKs eG@lanatory @o6er 3u0hB %o varia8les 6ere re3ove1 in this 0ase? as all loa1ings 6ere relatively highB The .inal list o. varia8les? loa1ings an1 eigenvalues .or the 0hil1 so0ial eG0lusion in1eG HC/2 In1eGI are sho6n in Ta8le QB The eigenvalue sho6s the a3ount o. total varian0e in the original varia8les a00ounte1 .or 8y the .inal in1eG Hor .irst @rin0i@al 0o3@onentIB It is 3easure1 in ter3s o. units o. varian0eB It 0an then 8e eG@resse1 as a @er0ent 8y 1ivi1ing the eigenvalue 8y the nu38er o. varia8les use1 in the @rin0i@al 0o3@onents analysis an1 3ulti@lying 8y 9RRB Here? as sho6n in Ta8le Q? this 0al0ulation @ro1u0es a value o. T^BS @er 0ent .or the in1eG .or 0hil1ren age1 R g 9^ years? in1i0ating that T^BS @er 0ent o. the varian0e in the original varia8les is eG@laine1 8y the in1eGB This .igure is si3ilar HTTBRn an1 T>B]n res@e0tivelyI .or the in1eG .or 0hil1ren age1 R g j years an1 ^ g 9^ yearsB This is a goo1 result? an1 0o3@ares 6ell 6ith the CW/ /2IZC in1eGes .or QRRT? 6hi0h eG@lain 8et6een >= @er 0ent an1 ^Q @er 0ent o. the variation in the original 1ata HCW/ QRRSIB The highest loa1ings 6ere on the e1u0ation? internet 0onne0tion an1 in0o3e varia8lesB 21u0ation an1 in0o3e are 3entione1 in the literature as signi.i0ant 1rivers o. so0ial eG0lusion Hsee .or eGa3@le CW/ QRR>a 4arDs et al QRRRI? so this result 6as


9>

eG@e0te1B The high loa1ing on the internet 0onne0tion varia8le suggests that it 3ay 8e a0ting as a @roGy .or other so0ial eG0lusion varia8lesB & Table 2 index

Table of variables, loadings and eigenvalues for the Social Exclusion

Loadings All children 0- 15 years

Children 0 to 4 years

Children 5-15 years

Single parent

0.73

0.80

0.67

Education

0.90

0.93

0.86

Occupation

0.71

0.63

0.72

Tenure type

0.85

0.85

0.86

Labour force status

0.83

0.80

0.79

Internet connection

0.95

0.95

0.93

Motor vehicle

0.85

0.85

0.86

Volunteer work

0.46

0.46

0.48

Income

0.90

0.90

0.91

% variance explained

65.8

66.0

63.7

Data source: ABS Census of Population and Housing 2006; authors calculations

Cs note1 earlier? 6e use1 our ra6 1ata .ro3 the in1eG to 0reate 0hil1 @o@ulation 6eighte1 geogra@hi0 Euintiles o. so0ial eG0lusion risD? in or1er to 0ontrol .or the e..e0ts o. 1i..erent @o@ulation sides 6ithin /[CsB To 3at0h 6ith 0o33on @ra0ti0e 6hen using in0o3e Euintiles to 3easure relative e0ono3i0 6ell8eing H6here the 8otto3 Euintile is the Euintile that is relatively 6orst o..I? 6e ranDe1 all /[Cs 8y their so0ial eG0lusion in1eG value? an1 then 1ivi1e1 the3 into 0hil1V6eighte1 Euintiles o. so0ial eG0lusion? 6ith the lo6est Euintile in1i0ating the highest risD o. so0ial eG0lusion? an1 higher Euintiles re@resenting lo6er so0ial eG0lusionB _ur 8otto3 so0ial eG0lusion Euintile thus re@resents the QR @er 0ent o. 0hil1ren .a0ing the highest risDs o. 8eing so0ially eG0lu1e1B] ] We0ause ea0h /[C 6as assigne1 a single value o. the so0ial eG0lusion in1eG? 6hen

0onstru0ting the 0hil1V6eighte1 so0ial eG0lusion Euintiles 6e ha1 to allo0ate all the

9j


Cs the loa1ings suggest? there is a su8stantial 1egree o. overla@ 8et6een the in1eGes 6e 0reate .or the three age grou@s o. 0hil1ren? an1 this is su@@orte1 6hen 6e 0orrelate the 0hil1 @o@ulation 6eighte1 Euintiles @ro1u0e1 8y the three in1eGesB These results are sho6n in Ta8le >? an1 in1i0ate that the in1eG .or 0hil1ren ^ to 9^ years is very si3ilar to that .or all 0hil1ren R to 9^B The in1eG .or younger 0hil1ren 1oes 1iverge so3e6hat 3ore .ro3 the overall in1eG? 6ith a 0orrelation 8et6een the t6o 3easures o. B=j f an1 6ith the 0orrelation 8et6een the t6o se@arate age in1eGes 8eing slightly lo6er again? at BS=B In 3ost o. this @a@er? ho6ever? 6e 6ill .o0us on in1eG results .or the R g 9^ years age grou@B Table 3 Correlations between CSE indexes for children aged 0 to 15, 0 to 4 and 5 to 15, 2006 Children 0-15 quintiles

Children 0-4 quintiles



1.00

0.94

0.97


0.94

1.00

0.89

Children 5-15 quintiles 0.97 0.89 1.00 Note: Correlation coefficients are Spearman coefficients. Data source: ABS Census of Population and Housing 2006; authors calculations

3

Results

Cs note1 earlier? the results @resente1 8elo6 shoul1 8e inter@rete1 in the 0onteGt o. the @arti0ular 3etho1ology a1o@te1 in this stu1yB The 0hoi0e o. s@atial unit? the 0hoi0e an1 0onstru0tion o. in1eG varia8les? an1 the statisti0al analysis te0hniEues use1 all a..e0t the a@@arent geogra@hi0 1istri8ution o. 0hil1 so0ial eG0lusion risDB The in1eG 6e @resent here is the su8Ue0t o. ongoing 1evelo@3ent? an1 0hanges in s@atial unit sele0tion? varia8les an1 3etho1ology 0oul1 @otentially 0hange the results @resente1 in this @a@erB Farti0ular issues 6hi0h 6ere raise1 in the 3etho1ology se0tion in0lu1e the variations in 8oth @o@ulation side an1 liDely @o@ulation heterogeneity .or /[Cs? the aggregation o. /[Cs in so3e areas to larger s@atial units?

0hil1ren in one /[C to a single Euintile so that? on o00asion? very 3arginally 3ore or less than QR @er 0ent o. 0hil1ren 6ere allo0ate1 to ea0h so0ial eG0lusion Euintile H8e0ause 6e 0oul1 not s@lit an /[C into @ie0es to 0reate eGa0tly the right nu38er o. 0hil1renIB This 6as still 0onsi1ere1 a 8etter out0o3e than not 6eighting the Euintiles o. so0ial eG0lusion 8y the 0hil1 @o@ulationB&


9^

the li3itations o. the varia8les availa8le in the Census to 3easure 0hil1 so0ial eG0lusion? an1 the ina8ility o. geogra@hi0allyV8ase1 analysis to i1enti.y @o0Dets o. 1isa1vantage a3ong s3aller @o@ulation grou@s 6ithin /[Cs B

3.1 Where do Australian children at risk of social exclusion live? Zigure 9 sho6s the 1istri8ution o. 0hil1 so0ial eG0lusion 8y s3all area? .or the 6hole o. Custralia an1 .or ea0h o. the state an1 territory 0a@ital 0ities .or all 0hil1ren age1 R g 9^ yearsB Zigures Q an1 > sho6 the sa3e 1istri8ution .or 0hil1ren age1 R g j years HZigure QI an1 ^ g 9^ years HZigure >IB The 1arDest 0olour on the 3a@s re@resents the areas 6ith the highest risD o. so0ial eG0lusion Hthe 8otto3 EuintileI 6ith the lightest 0olour re@resenting areas 6ith the lo6est risD o. 0hil1 so0ial eG0lusionB Creas that are sti@@le1 on the 3a@ are those .or 6hi0h 1ata 6as not relia8le enough to 8e in0lu1e1 in our 0al0ulations Has eG@laine1 in the 3etho1ology se0tionIB Zro3 the national 3a@ .or R g 9^ year ol1s? so3e s@atial @atterns 0an 8e o8serve1B Zirst? areas 6ith high 0hil1 so0ial eG0lusion are so3e6hat 3ore liDely to 8e in rural than ur8an areas? 6ith relatively large nu38ers o. s3all areas a6ay .ro3 the @o@ulous an1 ur8anise1 0oastal areas .alling into the 8otto3 one or t6o so0ial eG0lusion EuintilesB /o3e o. the inlan1 areas in èstern Custralia an1 bueenslan1 6ith lo6er 0hil1 so0ial eG0lusion risD Hthe lighter areas on the 3a@I in0or@orate 3ining areas? 6hi0h? in 0o3@arison to other re3ote Custralian regions? 3ay have .e6er 0hil1ren living in the3? an1 3ay not 8e as 1isa1vantage1 in so0ioe0ono3i0 ter3s as nonV3ining re3ote areasB `hen vie6ing the 3a@? it is i3@ortant to note that so3e o. the rural s3all areas 6hi0h .all into the lo6est Euintile o. 0hil1 so0ial eG0lusion risD also have Euite lo6 @o@ulations f so that 6hile they re@resent large geogra@hi0al areas? they re@resent 3u0h s3aller @ro@ortions o. the total 0hil1 @o@ulation than so3e o. the geogra@hi0ally s3aller ur8an an1 0oastal s3all areasB The sna@shots o. the 0a@ital 0ities in Zigure 9 1e3onstrate su8stantial variation 6ithin an1 8et6een these 0ities in ter3s o. 0hil1 so0ial eG0lusion risDB Cll 0ities eG0e@t Can8erra have so3e areas 6hi0h .all into the 8otto3 t6o Euintiles o. 0hil1 so0ial eG0lusion risD? generally in su8ur8s to6ar1s the outer e1ges o. these 0itiesB Zor eGa3@le 0lusters o. areas in southV6est /y1ney? the northern an1 southern su8ur8s o. C1elai1e? an1 the .ar 6est an1 southVeast o. 4el8ourne all sho6 high 0on0entrations o. 0hil1 so0ial eG0lusion risDB These ty@es o. 1i..eren0es 6ithin 0ities? an1 the @resen0e? @arti0ularly in outlying su8ur8s? o. a reasona8ly large nu38er o. s3all areas in the 8otto3 Euintile o. the C/2 In1eG? 3aDe it 0lear that? 6hile so0ial eG0lusion risD is lo6er .or 0a@ital 0ity than other 0hil1ren? risDs are also su8stantial .or 0hil1ren in so3e 0a@ital 0ity areasB

9T


/i3ilar geogra@hi0al @atterns are evi1ent 6hen the in1eGes .or the t6o 1i..erent age grou@s o. 0hil1ren are 3a@@e1B Zigure > H^ g 9^ year ol1sI is very si3ilar to Zigure 9 Has eG@e0te1 .ro3 the 0orrelations 8et6een the in1eGes sho6n in Ta8le >I? 8ut 6hen Zigures Q an1 > HR Vj year ol1sI are 0o3@are1? so3e o. the 1i..eren0es 8et6een these in1eGes are evi1entB Zor eGa3@le? rural bueenslan1 s3all areas are so3e6hat 3ore liDely to .all into the lo6est Euintile .or the ^V9^ years in1eG than .or the in1eG .or younger 0hil1renB Zurther? Ho8art has so3e a11itional areas o. 3o1erate to high so0ial eG0lusion risD .or younger 0o3@are1 to ol1er 0hil1renB

Figure 1 Statistical local area distribution of child social exclusion risk, all children 0 – 15 years

Note: Quintiles are weighted by child populations. Data source: ABS Census of Population and Housing 2006, authors’ calculations.

9]

Figure 2

Statistical local area distribution of child social exclusion risk, children 0 – 4 years

Note: Quintiles are weighted by child populations. Data source: ABS Census of Population and Housing 2006, authors’ calculations.

Figure 3 Statistical local area distribution of child social exclusion risk, children 5-15 years

Note: Quintiles are weighted by child populations.. Data source: ABS Census of Population and Housing 2006, authors’ calculations.

9=

QR


3.2 State and Territory `hen 6e eGa3ine1 1i..eren0es 8y state .urther? 6e .oun1 reasona8ly su8stantial ga@s 8et6een states an1 territories in ter3s o. the @er0entage o. 0hil1ren .a0ing the greatest risD o. so0ial eG0lusionB Zigure j sho6s that a relatively high @er0entage o. 0hil1ren age1 R g 9^ in Tas3ania an1 the %orthern Territory .all into the 8otto3 Chil1 /o0ial 2G0lusion HC/2I Euintile f jTB> @er 0ent o. all Tas3anian 0hil1ren .all into the lo6est national C/2 Euintile? an1 j]B^ @er 0ent o. all %orthern Territory 0hil1renB In 0ontrast? the CCT? èstern Custralia an1 Xi0toria have relatively lo6 @er0entages o. their 0hil1 @o@ulation in the 8otto3 C/2 EuintileB The èstern Custralian .igure? ho6ever? shoul1 8e inter@rete1 in the light o. a nu38er o. re3ote èstern Custralian /[Cs 8eing eG0lu1e1 .ro3 our analysis Has sho6n 8y the sti@@le1 areas on the 3a@s a8oveIB Cn alternative 6ay o. looDing at s@atial 1is@arities in 0hil1 so0ial eG0lusion is to eGa3ine the @er0entage o. 0hil1ren in ea0h state an1 territory in the to@ C/2 Euintile f that is? the t6enty @er 0ent o. 0hil1ren living in the areas least at risk o. 0hil1 so0ial eG0lusionB These results are also in0lu1e1 in Zigure j? an1 sho6 that j9B] @er 0ent o. all those 0hil1ren living in the Custralian Ca@ital Territory live in areas that .all into the to@ C/2 Euintile? 6hile the to@ Euintile @er0entage .or bueenslan1 is only 99B] @er 0ent? an1 even lo6er .or Tas3ania an1 the %orthern TerritoryB The 1i..eren0es 8et6een the states an1 territories are striDing? an1 3aDe it 0lear that si3@ly taDing national averages 3asDs very su8stantial variation 8et6een 0hil1ren living 6ithin 1i..erent areas o. CustraliaB _n0e again? ho6ever? it shoul1 8e note1 that areas that .all into the to@ Euintiles o. C/2 risD 3ay nevertheless 0ontain 0hil1ren 6ho are 1isa1vantage1? Uust in s3aller @ro@ortions than in areas 6hi0h .all into Euintiles o. higher risDB Cn eEually interesting @ers@e0tive is to sho6 in 6hi0h state an1 territory the 0hil1ren .a0ing the greatest risDs o. so0ial eG0lusion live Hresults @resente1 in Zigure ÎB %e6 /outh àles? Tas3ania an1 %orthern Territory 0hil1ren are overV re@resente1 in the 8otto3 so0ial eG0lusion Euintile g .or eGa3@le? although only >> @er 0ent o. all RV9^ year ol1 0hil1ren in0lu1e1 in our 3o1elling live in %e6 /outh àles? 0hil1ren in this state 3aDe u@ jQB> @er 0ent o. all those 0hil1ren in the 8otto3 C/2 EuintileB Conversely? although Uust over Qj @er 0ent o. all 0hil1ren live in Xi0toria? only 9=B> @er 0ent o. 0hil1ren in the 8otto3 C/2 Euintile 0o3e .ro3 Xi0toriaB /u8stantial 1i..eren0es 8et6een states an1 territories 0an also 8e seen at the to@ en1 o. the Euintile 1istri8ution? 6ith 0hil1ren in %e6 /outh àles? Xi0toria? èstern Custralia an1 the Custralian Ca@ital Territory all 8eing overVre@resente1 in the to@ Hleast risDI 0hil1 so0ial eG0lusion EuintileB


Q9

% of all children within state in bottom/top quintiles

Figure 4 Percentage of 0 – 15 year old children within each state/territory in bottom and top CSE quintiles, 2006

60

46.3

50

47.5 41.7

40

25.8

30

21.5 15.8 23.1 17.9

20

23.9 20.6

22.9

11.7

10

7.3

7.5

9.4 0.0

0 NSW

VIC

QLD

SA

WA

Bottom CSE quintile

TAS

NT

ACT

Top CSE quintile

Note: The figure shows, for example, that 23.9 per cent of all children living in South Australia are in the bottom national CSE quintile. Data source: ABS Census of Population and Housing 2006, authors’ calculations

45 40 35

45

42.3

40

35.8

35 28.6

30 25

19.3

20 15

30 25

18.1 12.0

10

20 8.6 7.5

3.6

5

15

11.4 2.6 0.5

3.4 0.0

TAS

NT

ACT

0 NSW

VIC

QLD

Bottom CSE quintile

SA

WA

Top CSE quintile

10

5.6 0.9

5

% of child population (line)

% in bottom and top CSE 06 quintiles

Figure 5 Proportion of all children in bottom and top CSE quintiles and proportion of all 0-15 year old children, by state and territory, 2006

0

% of child population

Note: The figure shows, for example, that 8.6 per cent of all of the Australian children in the bottom CSE quintile live in South Australia. Data source: ABS Census of Population and Housing 2006, authors’ calculations.

QQ


3.3 Capital cities vs the balance Zurther investigation into the 1i..ering 1istri8ution o. 0hil1 so0ial eG0lusion risD a0ross ur8an an1 rural areas reveals? as sho6n in Zigure T? that TRBj @er 0ent o. all those 0hil1ren in the 8otto3 C/2 Euintile live in 0a@ital 0ities f 6hile the re3aining >=BT @er 0ent live in rural? regional an1 nonV0a@ital 0ity ur8an areasB \iven that TQB] @er 0ent o. all 0hil1ren RV9^ years o. age in0lu1e1 in our 3o1elling live in CustraliaKs 0a@ital 0ities? this result suggests that the liDelihoo1 o. 8eing so0ially eG0lu1e1 is slightly higher .or 0hil1ren living outsi1e the 0a@ital 0itiesB Zigure T also 1e3onstrates that the se0on1 C/2 Euintile sho6s su8stantial 1i..eren0es 8et6een 0a@ital 0ities an1 the 8alan0e o. CustraliaB Zor eGa3@le? only j9B9 @er 0ent o. 0hil1ren in the se0on1 C/2 Euintile live in 0a@ital 0ities? 6ith 6ell over hal. o. 0hil1ren in this Euintile 0o3ing .ro3 CustraliaKs rural an1 regional 8alan0eB 2ven larger 1i..eren0es 8et6een 0a@ital 0ities an1 regional areas are evi1ent at the a1vantage1 en1 o. the so0ial eG0lusion s@e0tru3? 6ith over = in every 9R 0hil1ren in the to@ C/2 Euintile living in 0a@ital 0itiesB Figure 6 Children ranked by CSE quintile, capital cities vs balance, 2006

% of children

100 80

72.9 60.4

58.9

60 40

41.1 39.6

48.2

91.1

51.8 27.1

20

8.9

0 Most excluded 20%

Quintile 2

Quintile 3

Quintile 4

Least excluded 20%

2006 Child Social Exclusion (CSE) quintile children 0-15 years Capital City Balance of state

Data source: ABS Census of Population and Housing 2006, authors’ calculations.

Di..eren0es in 0hil1 so0ial eG0lusion risD 8et6een 0a@ital 0ities an1 the 8alan0e o. Custralia are @resente1 in an alternative 6ay in Zigure ]? 6hi0h sho6s the @ro@ortion o. 0hil1ren in ea0h C/2 Euintile in ea0h o. the t6o 8roa1 regionsB /o 6hile Zigure T sho6e1 the 1istri8ution o. 0hil1ren in 0a@ital 0ity an1 8alan0e o. state within a quintile? Zigure ] sho6s the 1istri8ution o. 0hil1ren over all Euintiles 8y 0a@ital 0ity an1 8alan0e o. stateB This sho6s so3e 1i..eren0es? @arti0ularly i. 6e taDe into a00ount the se0on1 as 6ell as 8otto3 Euintile o. the C/2 In1eGB `hile the s@lit 8et6een 0a@ital 0ity an1 other areas is relatively even .or the 8otto3 Euintile o. risD


Q>

Halthough 0a@ital 0ity 0hil1ren sho6 so3e6hat lo6er risD than nonV0a@ital 0ity 0hil1renI? only 9>B9 @er 0ent o. 0hil1ren in 0a@ital 0ities .all into the se0on1 Euintile o. so0ial eG0lusion? 6hile >9B^ @er 0ent o. 0hil1ren living in CustraliaKs rural an1 regional 8alan0e .all into this EuintileB Xery shar@ 1i..eren0es are seen in the to@ Euintile? 6ith QSBS @er 0ent o. 0a@ital 0ity 0hil1ren .alling into the 3ost a1vantage1 Euintile? 0o3@are1 6ith only jB] @er 0ent o. those 0hil1ren living outsi1e the 0a@italsB

% of children

Figure 7 Proportion of children in CSE quintiles, capital cities vs balance, 2006 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

31.5

28.8

28.0 23.3

19.4 21.3 13.1

15.5

14.6 4.7

Most excluded 20%

Quintile 2

Quintile 3

Quintile 4

Least excluded 20%

2006 Child Social Exclusion (CSE) quintile children 0-15 years Capital City Balance of state


The @ro@ortions o. 0hil1ren 6ith [email protected] 0hara0teristi0s asso0iate1 6ith so0ial eG0lusion risD Hthat is? those .a0tors that 3aDe u@ the 0o3@osite in1eGI living in 0a@ital 0ities 0o3@are1 6ith the rest o. Custralia are @resente1 in Ta8le jB These results sho6 that the 1i..eren0es in 0a@ital 0ity an1 rural so0ial eG0lusion risD a@@ear to arise 3ore .ro3 so3e .a0tors than othersB The @ro@ortion o. 0hil1ren living in single @arent .a3ilies or in .a3ilies 6ith no 3otor 0ar? .or eGa3@le? sho6 relatively s3all 1i..eren0es 8et6een 0a@ital 0ity an1 regional areasB _ther .a0tors? ho6ever? sho6 3u0h 3ore 3arDe1 1i..eren0es f in @arti0ular? 3easures o. .a3ily e1u0ational attain3ent? @u8li0 housing tenan0y an1 internet 0onne0tionB The @ro@ortion o. 0hil1ren living in a .a3ily 6here no .a3ily 3e38er 0o3@lete1 oear 9Q is 3u0h higher in regional areas than in 0a@ital 0ity areasB `hile 9TB^ @er 0ent o. 0hil1ren living in 0a@ital 0ities have no .a3ily 3e38er 6ho has 0o3@lete1 oear 9Q? this @ro@ortion rises to Uust over oneVEuarter o. 0hil1ren in CustraliaKs regional 8alan0eB Interestingly? the @ro@ortion o. 0hil1ren living in a .a3ily 6here no @arent has 1one volunteer 6orD is so3e6hat lo6er in nonV0a@ital

Qj


0ity than 0a@ital 0ity areas g the only one o. the varia8les 6hi0h 3aDe u@ the 0o3@osite in1eG to 8e 1istri8ute1 in this 6ayB Table 4 Social exclusion characteristics by capital city/balance of Australia, 2006 Capital cities

Balance of Australia

% point difference

% difference

Child and family characteristics Mean proportion of children One parent family 18.2 21.6 3.4 18.4 Not Year 12 16.5 25.3 8.8 53.1 Blue collar 15.8 19.1 3.3 20.6 Rent -public 4.6 7.0 2.4 52.8 Parents not working 14.9 17.6 2.7 18.4 No internet connection 17.5 23.9 6.4 36.6 No motor vehicle 3.7 4.7 1.0 27.0 No parent volunteering 68.3 62.0 -6.3 -9.2 Bottom income quintile 17.1 22.1 5.0 29.4 Note: Occupation proportions are calculated using only those families in which at least one person was working. The public housing definition used includes community housing. Source: ABS Census of Population and Housing 2006; authors’ calculations.

3.4 Characteristics by CSE quintile Zigure S @rovi1es .urther insight into ho6 sele0te1 .a0tors un1er@inning the @rin0i@al 0o3@onents analysis vary a0ross C/2 Euintiles g na3ely? no one in the .a3ily 6ho 0o3@lete1 oear 9Q? no @arent 6orDing? no internet 0onne0tion? an1 single @arent statusB These results sho6 very su8stantial 1i..eren0es in 1isa1vantage .a0tors 8et6een 0hil1ren living in areas at 3ost an1 least risD o. so0ial eG0lusionB Zor eGa3@le? Q=B] @er 0ent o. those 0hil1ren in the 8otto3 C/2 Euintile live in a .a3ily 6here no one has 0o3@lete1 oear 9Q s0hooling an1 >9Bj @er 0ent live in a househol1 6ith no internet 0onne0tionB /hi.ting to the 3ost a1vantage1 0hil1ren at the other en1 o. the s@e0tru3? only ]B> @er 0ent o. all those 0hil1ren in the to@ C/2 Euintile live in a .a3ily 6here no one has 0o3@lete1 oear 9Q an1 only SBj @er 0ent live in a househol1 6ith no internet 0onne0tionB /i3ilarly? Zigure S sho6s that 0hil1ren .a0ing the greatest risDs o. so0ial eG0lusion are over three ti3es as liDely to live in a .a3ily 6here no @arent is 6orDing as 0hil1ren living in the to@ C/2 EuintileB `hile 1i..eren0es in the liDelihoo1 o. living in a single @arent .a3ily 8y so0ial eG0lusion Euintile are so3e6hat less strong than .or so3e other .a0tors? 0hil1ren in the 8otto3 Hhighest risDI Euintile are still 6ell over t6i0e as liDely to live 6ith a single @arent as 0hil1ren in the to@ C/2 EuintileB


Q^

% of children with characteristic

Figure 8 Proportion of children with specified characteristics, by CSE quintile, 2006 40 31.4 29.7 26.4

20

26.0 12.2 8.4 7.8 7.3

0 Most excluded 20%

Quintile 2 Quintile 3 Quintile 4 Child Social Exclusion (CSE) quintile

Least excluded 20%

Proportion no-one completed Year 12

Proportion no internet connection

Proportion no parent working

Proportion single parent families


3.5 Portrait of two worlds: highest and lowest risks It is evi1ent .ro3 the @revious se0tion that large 1i..eren0es eGist a0ross Custralia in the risD o. 0hil1 so0ial eG0lusionB The 3agnitu1e o. these 1i..eren0es? an1 the eGtent to 6hi0h they 0ut a0ross 3any 1i3ensions o. 0hil1renKs so0ial an1 e0ono3i0 environ3ent? is 3a1e 0learer 8y looDing in 1etail at the 0hara0teristi0s o. those s3all areas 6hi0h eG@erien0e 8oth the highest an1 the lo6est risD o. 0hil1 so0ial eG0lusionB In Ta8le ^ 6e @resent the 3ean @ro@ortion o. 0hil1ren 6ith a range o. so0ial eG0lusion risD .a0tors in the ^R /[Cs 6ith the highest levels o. 0hil1 so0ial eG0lusion Ha00or1ing to our C/2 In1eGI 0o3@are1 6ith these sa3e 0hara0teristi0s in the ^R /[Cs 6ith the lo6est levels o. 0hil1 so0ial eG0lusion risDB Dra3ati0 1i..eren0es in 0hil1 6ellV8eing in1i0ators eGist 8et6een the t6o grou@sB _ver TR @er 0ent o. 0hil1ren in the 3ost atVrisD areas 0o3e .ro3 a .a3ily 6here noV one has 0o3@lete1 oear 9Q? 0o3@are1 6ith Uust over j @er 0ent o. 0hil1ren in the least atVrisD areas? an1 over t6oVthir1s o. those 0hil1ren in the 3ost atVrisD /[Cs live in @u8li0 housingB C su8stantial @ro@ortion HjTBS @er 0entI o. 0hil1ren in the highestV risD areas live in ho3es 6ithout a 0ar? 0o3@are1 6ith only 9B> @er 0ent o. 0hil1ren in the lo6estVrisD areasB Xery large 1i..eren0es in in0o3e 1isa1vantage also eGistB \eogra@hi0al 1ivi1es 8et6een o00u@ational status? single @arent status? Uo8lessness an1 volunteeris3 are also strong? 8ut are so3e6hat less 3arDe1 .or these 0hara0teristi0sB

QT


Table 5 Comparison between SLAs most and least at risk of child social exclusion, 2006 Bottom 50 % point SLAs difference % difference Top 50 SLAs Mean Child and family proportion of Mean proportion characteristics children of children One parent family 36.4 10.0 -26.4 -72.6 Not Year 12 60.1 4.3 -55.8 -92.8 Blue collar 25.7 4.9 -20.8 -81.0 Rent -public 70.6 0.7 -69.9 -99.0 Parents not working 39.6 6.6 -33.0 -83.4 No internet connection 78.2 5.5 -72.7 -92.9 No motor vehicle 46.8 1.3 -45.4 -97.1 No parent volunteering 79.4 57.3 -22.0 -27.7 Bottom income quintile 58.6 6.7 -51.9 -88.5 Note: Occupation proportions are calculated using only those families in which at least one person was working. The public housing definition used includes community housing. Data source: ABS Census of Population and Housing 2006; authors’ calculations.

4

Conclusions

In re0ent years resear0hers in 3any 0ountries have 8e0o3e a00usto3e1 to the rea1y availa8ility o. 3i0ro1ata to ans6er Euestions a8out @overty an1 1isa1vantage? hel@e1 8y initiatives su0h as the [uGe38ourg In0o3e /tu1y H/3ee1ing? QRRQI an1 the Can8erra \rou@ HQRR9IB Cs a result? esti3ates o. @overty an1 ineEuality at the national level have 8e0o3e 3ore regular an1 6i1ely availa8leB Ho6ever? su0h 3i0ro1ata are o.ten o8taine1 .ro3 national sa3@le surveys in 6hi0h the geogra@hi0 lo0ation o. the res@on1ents has 8een su@@resse1 to @rote0t @riva0y an1cor the sa3@le side is not su..i0ient to allo6 1etaile1 analysis o. the geogra@hy o. 1isa1vantage f resulting in a 0o3@arative negle0t o. the s@atial 1i3ensions o. ineEualityB C se0on1 issue is that there has 8een a gro6ing international a@@re0iation that it is i3@ortant to looD 8eyon1 in0o3eV8ase1 3easures to 8roa1er 3easures o. so0ial eG0lusion an1 1isa1vantageB This @a@er a11resses 8oth o. these 1i3ensions? she11ing ne6 light on the geogra@hy o. 0hil1 so0ial eG0lusion in Custralia? an1 u@1ating earlier 6orD 8ase1 on the QRR9 0ensus? 8y using @rin0i@al 0o3@onents analysis an1 the QRRT 0ensus 1ata to 1evelo@ a single su33ary in1eG o. 0hil1 so0ial eG0lusion risD .or s3all areas 6ithin CustraliaB The results e3@hasise the i3@ortan0e o. the s@atial @ers@e0tive? 6hi0h 3ay 8e 3asDe1 6hen only national esti3ates are @ro1u0e1B The stu1y suggests that the liDelihoo1 o. 8eing in the 8otto3 Chil1 /o0ial 2G0lusion HC/2I Euintile varies greatly 8y the state or territory 6ithin 6hi0h 0hil1ren live 6ith? .or eGa3@le? al3ost one hal. o. 0hil1ren living in Tas3ania an1 the %orthern Territory living in areas 6hi0h .all into the 3ost 1isa1vantage1 C/2 Euintile 0o3@are1 6ith less than one


Q]

Euarter o. 0hil1ren in /outh CustraliaB Cs note1 earlier in the @a@er? ho6ever? areas o. lo6 so0ial eG0lusion risD 3ay still in0lu1e 0hil1ren living in 0ir0u3stan0es o. 1isa1vantage? Uust in relatively lo6 @ro@ortionsB Chil1ren living outsi1e the 0a@ital 0ities .a0e a slightly higher risD o. so0ial eG0lusion than those living 6ithin the 0a@ital 0ities? 6ith so3e Q9 @er 0ent o. all 0hil1ren living outsi1e 0a@ital 0ites .alling into the 8otto3 C/2 Euintile 0o3@are1 6ith aroun1 9= @er 0ent o. those insi1e 0a@ital 0itiesB There is also a 3u0h 8igger 1i..erential at the to@ en1 o. the 1isa1vantage 1istri8ution? 6ith over QS @er 0ent o. 0a@ital 0ity 0hil1ren .alling into the to@ Hleast eG0lusion risDI C/2 Euintile? 0o3@are1 6ith less than ^ @er 0ent o. 0hil1ren living in CustraliaKs rural an1 regional 8alan0eB These 1i..eren0es 8et6een 0hil1ren in CustraliaKs 0a@ital 0ities an1 in other areas are .urther 1e3onstrate1 6hen in1ivi1ual in1i0ators that 3aDe u@ the 0o3@osite in1eG are analyse1B These sho6? .or eGa3@le? that nonV0a@ital 0ity 0hil1ren are 3ore liDely than their 0a@ital 0ity 0ounter@arts to 8e living in single @arent .a3ilies? an1 in househol1s 6ith lo6 in0o3e? no internet 0onne0tion an1 relatively lo6 e1u0ational a0hieve3entB Conversely? 0a@ital 0ity 0hil1ren are 3ore liDely to 8e living in .a3ilies 6here @arents are not involve1 in volunteer 6orD Ha @roGy 3easure o. so0ial intera0tion an1 0o33unity involve3ent that 3ay @erha@s so3e6hat o..set so3e o. the other so0ioe0ono3i0 1isa1vantages eG@erien0e1 8y so3e 0hil1ren in rural an1 regional 0o33unitiesIB _ur s@atial analysis also sho6s that there are great 1i..eren0es 8et6een s3all areas in the .a3ily an1 househol1 0hara0teristi0s o. 0hil1ren living in regions 6ith high levels o. so0ial eG0lusion 0o3@are1 6ith those living in areas o. lo6er so0ial eG0lusionB Psing our C/2 Euintiles? 8otto3 Euintile 0hil1ren are su8stantially 3ore liDely to live in .a3ilies 6here noVone has 0o3@lete1 oear 9Q an1 in .a3ilies 6here no @arent is 6orDing than 0hil1ren in other C/2 EuintilesB Di..eren0es su0h as these are even 3ore 3arDe1 6hen only those areas at the eGtre3e en1s o. the so0ial eG0lusion 1istri8ution are eGa3ine1B Cs note1 earlier? the 0hil1 so0ial eG0lusion in1eG @resente1 in this @a@er is the su8Ue0t o. ongoing 1evelo@3ent? an1 the results @resente1 in this @a@er 0oul1 @otentially 0hange as the result o. .urther 3etho1ologi0al 1evelo@3ents? or the use o. 1i..erent s@atial 1ivisions or a11itional varia8lesB In a11ition? the s@atial results @resente1 in this @a@er @resent so0ial eG0lusion .ro3 a geogra@hi0 @ers@e0tive? an1 in.or3ation @rovi1e1 here shoul1 8e inter@rete1 in the 0onteGt o. a11itional @o@ulationV8ase1 stu1ies o. 1isa1vantage? 6hi0h 3ay highlight 1isa1vantage a3ong @o@ulation su8V grou@s that 0annot 8e a1eEuately i1enti.ie1 in this ty@e o. resear0hB

QS


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\reen6ell? HB? [loy1? YB an1 Har1ing? CB HQRR9IB iCn intro1u0tion to @overty 3easure3ent issuesKB %CT/24 Dis0ussion Fa@er %oB ^^B %ational Centre .or /o0ial an1 20ono3i0 4o1elling? Pniversity o. Can8erraB \regory? YB\B an1 Hunter? WB HB HQRR9I iThe \ro6th o. In0o3e an1 23@loy3ent IneEuality in Custralian CitiesK? in e1s \B òng an1 \B Fi0ot Working Time in Comparative Perspective, Volume 1: Patterns, Trends and the Policy Implications of Earnings Inequality and Unemployment? `B2B P@Uohn Institute .or 23@loy3ent Yesear0h? eala3adooB Har1ingB C an1 /duDalsDa? C HQRRRI iTren1s in Chil1 Foverty in Custralia? 9=SQ to 9==^V=TK Economic Record? Xol =T? %oB Q>j? /e@te38er? Q>TVQ^jB Har1ing? CB [loy1 YB an1 \reen6ell HB HQRR9I Financial Disadvantage in Australia 1990-2000: The persistence of poverty in a decade of growth? /3ith Za3ily Havaila8le .ro3 666Bnatse3B0an8erraBe1uBau un1er _ther Fu8li0ationg _F=IB Har1ing? C? oa@? 4 an1 [loy1? Y? HQRRjI? iTren1s in /@atial In0o3e IneEuality? 9==T to QRR9K? AMP. NATSEM Income and Wealth Report? Issue %o S? /e@te38er Havaila8le .ro3 666Ba3@B0o3Bauca3@natse3re@ortsI B Hea1ey? WB? 4arDs? \B an1 òo1en? 4B HQRRÎB iThe Dyna3i0s o. In0o3e Foverty in CustraliaKB Australian Journal of Social Issues, XolB jR? /u33er? ^j9V^^QB Hunter? WBHB H9==Î iThe /o0ial /tru0ture o. the Custralian Pr8an [a8our 4arDetM 9=]TV9==9K? Australian Economic Review? QK=^? T^V]=B VVVVVVVV HQRR>I iTren1s in %eigh8ourhoo1 IneEuality o. Custralian? Cana1ian an1 P/ Cities sin0e the 9=]RsK? The Australian Economic History Review? j>H9I? @@QQVjjB :ensen? WB an1 /eltder HQRRRI i%eigh8ourhoo1 an1 Za3ily 2..e0ts in 21u0ational FrogressK? The Australian Economic Review? XolB >>? %oB 9? 9]V>9B eenne1y? W an1 Zir3an? DB HQRRjI iIn1igneous /2IZC g revealing the e0ologi0al .alla0yKB Fa@er @resente1 at the Custralian Fo@ulation Csso0iation 9Qth Wiennial Con.eren0e? 9^V9] /e@te38er QRRj? Can8erra CustraliaB elasen? /te@han H9==SI Social Exclusion and Children in OECD Countries: Some Conceptual Issues, _2CD? FarisB [loy1? YB? Har1ing? CB an1 Hell6ig? _B? HQRRRI ? iYegional Divi1er C /tu1y o. In0o3es in Yegional CustraliaK? Australasian Journal of Regional Studies? XolBT? %oB >? Q]9VQ=QB 4arDs? \B HQRR]IB Income poverty, subjective poverty and financial stressB De@art3ent o. Za3ilies? Co33unity /ervi0es an1 In1igenous C..airs? /o0ial Foli0y Yesear0h Fa@er %o Q=B 4arDs? \B? 404illan? :B? :ones? ZB an1 Cinley? :B HQRRRI? The measurement of socio-economic status for the reporting of nationally comparable outcomes of schooling? Custralian Coun0il .or 21u0ation Yesear0hB 40%a3ara? :? Daly? CB? Har1ing? CB an1 Tanton? YB HQRRSI? iHas the YisD o. /o0ial 2G0lusion .or Custralian Chil1ren We0o3e 4ore \eogra@hi0ally Con0entrate1r M Fatterns .ro3


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QRR9 to QRRTK? Fa@er .or Fresentation at >Rth \eneral Con.eren0e o. the International Csso0iation .or Yesear0h in In0o3e an1 èalth? Cugust Qjth g >Rth QRRS? /lovenia 4i0Dle6right? :B HQRR9I i/houl1 the Pe \overn3ent 4easure Foverty an1 /o0ial 2G0lusion 6ith a Co3@osite In1eGr in Indicators of Progress: A discussion of approaches to monitor the Government’s strategy to tackle poverty and social exclusion? CC/2 re@ort 9>? Centre .or Cnalysis o. /o0ial 2G0lusion HCC/2I? [on1on /0hool o. 20ono3i0s? [on1on? Pe? availa8le on the 6e8 at htt@Mcc666Bsti0er1BlseBa0BuDc@u8li0ationsc0ase@a@ersBas@ 4oore? eB H9==]I iCriteria .or In1i0ators o. Chil1 èllV8eingK? in e1s YB Hauser? WB Wro6n an1 `B Frosser Indicators of Children’s Well-Being? Yussell /age Zoun1ation? %e6 oorDB /aun1ers? FB HQRR>I Can Social Exclusion Provide a New Framework for Measuring Poverty?? /FYC Dis0ussion Fa@er noB 9Q]? /o0ial Foli0y Yesear0h Centre? Pniversity o. %e6 /outh àles? availa8le on the 6e8 at 666Bs@r0Buns6Be1uBau /aun1ers? FB an1 C1el3an? [B HQRRÎ Income Poverty, Deprivation and Exclusion: A Comparative Study of Australia and Britain? /FYC Dis0ussion Fa@er noB 9j9? /o0ial Foli0y Yesear0h Centre? Pniversity o. %e6 /outh àles? availa8le on the 6e8 at 666Bs@r0Buns6Be1uBau /aun1ers? FB an1 Wra18ury? WB HQRRTI i4onitoring Tren1s in Foverty an1 In0o3e Distri8utionM Data? 4etho1ology an1 4easure3entK? Economic Record, SQ? %o Q^S? @@ >j9V>T^B /aun1ers? FB? Hill? TB an1 Wra18ury? WB HQRRSI Poverty in Australia: sensitivity analysis and recent trends. Ye@ort 0o33issione1 8y :o8s Custralia on 8ehal. o. the Custralian Coun0il o. /o0ial /ervi0e HCC_//I? /o0ial Foli0y Yesear0h Centre? Pniversity o. %e6 /outh àles? /FYC Ye@ort jcRSB /aun1ers? FB? %ai1oo? oB an1 \ri..iths? 4B HQRR]I Towards new indicators of disadvantage: deprivation and social exclusion in Australia. /o0ial Foli0y Yesear0h Centre? Pniversity o. %e6 /outh àlesB /aun1ers FB an1 %ai1oo? oB HQRRSI /o0ial eG0lusion an1 0hil1ren? Wulletin noB j? /FYC? P%/`? %ove38er? availa8le on the 6e8 at 666Bs@r0Buns6Be1uBau /al3on1? CB an1 Cra3@ton? FB HQRRQIB i%mDe@QRR9 In1eG o. De@rivationK? De@art3ent o. Fu8li0 Health? èllington /0hool o. 4e1i0ine an1 Health /0ien0es? èllingtonB /0utella? YB s /3yth? FB HQRR^) iThe Wrotherhoo1Ks /o0ial Waro3eterM 3onitoring 0hil1renKs 0han0esKB The Wrotherhoo1 o. /t [auren0e? Zitdroy? Xi0toriaB /3ee1ing? T HQRRQI i\lo8alisation? IneEuality an1 the Yi0h Countries o. the \VQRM 2vi1en0e .ro3 the [uGe38ourg In0o3e /tu1y H[I/IK? in e1s D \ruen? T _KWrien an1 : [a6son? Globalisation, Living Standards and Inequality? Yeserve WanD? /y1neyB /o0ial 2G0lusion Pnit H/2PI _..i0e o. the De@uty Fri3e 4inister? What is Social Exclusion? availa8le on the 6e8 at htt@Mcc666Bso0ialeG0lusionBgovBuDB

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Xinson? T HQRR9I Unequal in Life? The Distribution of Social Disadvantage in Victoria and NSW? :esuit /o0ial /ervi0es? Ignatius Centre .or /o0ial Foli0y an1 Yesear0h? 4el8ourneB Xinson? TB HQRRjIB Community adversity and resilience: the distribution of social disadvantage in Victoria and New South Wales and the mediating role of social cohesionB :esuit /o0ial /ervi0es? Yi0h3on1? Xi0toriaB Xinson? TB HQRR]I Dropping off the Edge: the distribution of disadvantage in Australia? :esuit /o0ial /ervi0es an1 Catholi0 /o0ial /ervi0es Custralia? Xi0toriaB