The website also shows opportunities for ESD in national curriculum subjects, ... are being made to develop objectives and content themes, and teaching, ... knowledge that best provides understanding of complex bio-physical and social.
CITIZENSHIP EDUCATION FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN INITIAL TEACHER TRAINING John Huckle
Pupils should acquire basic knowledge and understanding of particular aspects of society with which citizenship is concerned. One of five aspects listed is environmental and sustainable development. Education for Citizenship and the teaching of democracy in schools, QCA, 1998, para. 6.8.4 Our education service has an essential role to play in sustainable development, not only in operating in an environmentally sustainable way, but also by teaching about it. This ties in with another of our roles; to teach people to think about and appreciate their role as world citizens. Charles Clarke, Secretary of State for Education, The Teacher, Jan/Feb 2004, p. 20 In 2003 the Department for Education and Skills (DfES) published an action plan for education for sustainable development (ESD). In promoting this plan the Secretary of State emphasised the links between ESD and education for global citizenship. This article explores these links in the context of the ITT citizenship education curriculum and begins by setting the action plan in the context of recent history and the reconfiguration of political power. Unsustainable development in a changing world order The years after 1945 saw an increase in the extent and intensity of environmental problems and their spread across national borders. Resource intensive economic growth was associated with waste, pollution, and the loss of wildlife habitats and biodiversity. Industrialisation spread to much of the world and human population and consumption increased. There were advances in environmental science and risk assessment, and new environmental movements organised transnationally to campaign on joint concerns. New international institutions, regimes and conventions were established to tackle environmental problems but they generally lacked the political power, domestic support, and international authority to do more than ameliorate the worst symptoms (Held et al, 2000, Huckle & Martin, 2001). In the same period continuing poverty or underdevelopment was a related problem in many parts of the world, prompting similar political responses. While the consumption of the rich impacted upon the environment, many of the poor had to degrade their environment simply to stay alive. Prevailing patterns of development and underdevelopment threatened the ecological foundations of human societies and
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were therefore unsustainable in the longer term. In 2001 the Secretary General of the UN described sustainable development as the biggest challenge of the new century. In the closing decades of the 20C commentators increasingly linked underdevelopment and environmental degradation to the workings of the global system: networks of economic, political and cultural power that shape flows of energy, materials and information across national borders. While interregional and global competition shaped the fortunes of states, peoples and environments, in changing global divisions of labour, trans-border problems increasingly challenged the powers of national governments. An expansion of governance at regional and global levels sought to tackle such problems and there was more debate about globalisation, the world order it was creating, and the interests it served. Much of the debate focussed on effective regulation of the global system, associated models of global democracy and citizenship, and the ways in which these might ensure more sustainable forms of development (Held & McGrew, 2002). Not all environment and development issues are global in the sense that their causes and/or effects spread across national borders. Many local manifestations of such issues (for example of global warming, access to fresh water, deforestation, HIV Aids, refugees, women’s rights) are however shaped by structures and processes beyond the control of nation states. The political community of fate can no longer be meaningfully located solely within the boundaries of a single state. National fortunes are intermeshed, and forms of political organisation now involve a complex deterritorialisation and reterritorialisation of political authority. The roles and functions of nation states continue to be rearticulated, reconstituted, and re-embedded within regional and global networks and systems of power. The power of states does not necessarily decline, but their sovereignty and legitimacy is challenged for they must now exercise that power within the expanding jurisdiction of institutions of regional and international governance, and cannot deliver fundamental goods and services to their citizens without international co-operation. Thus European and international agreements on sustainable development were influential in prompting the DfES to draw up an action plan for ESD. The shift from government to global governance, from the modern state to a multilayered system of power and authority, brings an expanded capacity and scope for political activity and the exercise of political authority. Globalisation is not beyond regulation and control yet apart from a global elite, and supporters of some social movements, there is little evidence of a widespread pluralisation of political identities. Held and McGrew remark that: the central paradox is that governance is becoming increasingly a multilevel, intricately institutionalised and spatially diverse activity, while representation, loyalty and identity remain stubbornly rooted in traditional ethnic, regional and national communities. P. 121
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There is however a sense of global identification amongst many young people growing up in an increasingly global youth culture, with some older school students identifying with social movements seeking a more just and democratic world order. An ESD that develops global citizenship can answer pupils’ needs to make sense of their world and form plural political identities that acknowledge their membership of nested political communities from the local to the global. Elements of citizenship education for sustainable development in ITT After a reminder of relevant statutory and non-statutory curriculum guidance that links citizenship education with education for sustainable development (ESD), this article now explores key elements of the ITT citizenship education curriculum. It recommends that all beginning teachers (BTs) of citizenship should be aware of the background to current policies designed to promote sustainable development and ESD; consider sustainability as a frame of mind; explore the ethics and politics of sustainable development; understand evolving theories of environmental and ecological citizenship; engage with community initiatives to realise sustainability; develop relevant skills in curriculum planning and pedagogy; and learn of the wide range of resources and services available to support citizenship education for sustainable development (CESD). There is a wealth such resources and services to assist tutors and hyperlinks in this article provide those who are reading it while online with direct access to the most significant of these. Curriculum guidance The QCA ESD website should perhaps be the starting point for the tutor and BTs. Here they will find definitions of sustainable development and ESD; lists of the key elements and characteristics of ESD; help with curriculum planning; case studies of good practice; and professional development activities. ESD has been much influenced by the Governments’ Sustainable Development Education Panel that met from 1998 until 2003 and its report on the schools sector (Sterling, 1998). This suggested seven key concepts (interdependence; citizenship and stewardship; needs and rights of future generations; diversity; quality of life; sustainable change; uncertainty and precaution) and outlined progression in the teaching of these across key stages. They are included on the QCA site along with six other elements of curriculum content. Citizenship and stewardship (recognising that we have rights and responsibilities to participate in decision-making and that everyone should have a say in what happens in the future) points to direct links to citizenship education as do other elements of suggested content including personal and social development, the global dimension, range of viewpoints and opinions, and futures.
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The website also shows opportunities for ESD in national curriculum subjects, DfES/QCA schemes of work, and GSCE, GCE, and VCE examinations. Under citizenship/PSHE two requirements of the national curriculum are listed: KS3/Ii Knowledge and understanding about becoming informed citizens i) the world as a global community, and the political, economic, environmental and social implications of this, and the role of the European Union, the Commonwealth and the United Nations KS4/1j j) the wider issues and challenges of global interdependence and responsibility, including sustainable development and Local Agenda 21 Seven of the units in the DfES/QCA schemes of work for citizenship are highlighted as having significant ESD content and there are suggestions for enhancing such content in four other units. BTs might review several of these units as initial orientation to the scope for ESD within citizenship education. The other nations within the United Kingdom have their own guidance on ESD (download Wales; download Scotland (Citizenship); access Northern Ireland curriculum). The background: sustainable development and ESD The term sustainable development first gained widespread attention in the run up to the UN conference on the environment and development (UNCED), held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. It seeks to reconcile economic development with environmental protection and was thus a means of avoiding the tensions between rich and poor nations that blighted an earlier UN conference in 1972. Sustainable development has been defined in many ways. The most familiar definition remains that given in the Brundtland Commission report, Our Common Future (WCED, 1987): sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. The Sustainable Development Commission offers an alternative definition: sustainable development provides a framework for redefining progress and redirecting our economies to enable people to meet their basic needs and improve their quality of life, while ensuring that the natural systems, resources and diversity upon which they depend are maintained and enhanced both for their benefit and for that of future generations (SDC, 2004, p. 37). Sustainable development takes different forms in different societies and environments and is the process whereby societies realise that state of dynamic equilibrium between bio-physical and social systems, termed sustainability (Reid, 1995, Capra, 2003).
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The aim of sustainable development was endorsed by 149 countries, including the UK, at UNCED in 1992. This conference agreed Agenda 21 (UN, 1993) a global action plan for sustainable development that required governments to draw up their own agendas in consultation with business and civil society. The European Union, the UK Government, the Scottish Executive, the Welsh Assembly and local authorities such as Nottinghamshire subsequently produced agendas or strategies for sustainable development. At the Earth Summit 2002 in Johannesburg the emphasis was on the implementation of such agendas. Agenda 21 suggests the content, process and tools of sustainable development, and seeks the active involvement of citizens through consultation, participation and empowerment. It places particular emphasis on local partnerships and capacity building and recognises education as a key tool. Chaper 36 on Education, Awareness and Training states: Education is critical for achieving environmental and ethical awareness, values and attitudes and behaviour consistent with sustainable development and for effective public participation in decision-making. Both formal and non-formal education are indispensable to sustainable development. The chapter calls on governments, international agencies, business and civil society groups to make environmental and development education available to people of all ages and integrate environmental and development concepts into all educational programmes. As the manager for Chapter 36, UNESCO monitors and coordinates efforts towards these goals and in re-visioning education it now emphasises the strong links between ESD and citizenship education. Since Rio, there has been increasing recognition that a curriculum oriented towards sustainability would place the notion of citizenship among its primary objectives. Many existing curricula are being revised along these lines. Efforts are being made to develop objectives and content themes, and teaching, learning and assessment processes that emphasize values, ethical motivation and ability to work with others to help build a sustainable future. Increased attention is being given to the humanities and social sciences in the curriculum. From UNESCO web page The United Nations has designated 2005 – 2014 as the Decade of Education for Sustainable Development with UNESCO as the lead agency. The Council of Europe will support the Decade as part of its programme to improve and increase global education in Europe. The UK Government’s Strategy for sustainable development, A Better Quality of Life, was published in 1999. It publishes annual reports on sustainable development and is currently (Spring 2004) consulting on a revision of the strategy. The title of the Sustainable Development Commission’s assessment of the Government’s reported progress sums up its conclusions: Shows promise. But must try harder (SDC, 2004). The House of Commons Environmental Audit Committee was established to monitor how far the Government was succeeding in its undertaking to put the environment, and more broadly sustainable development, at the heart of policy and operations. In
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2003 it conducted an inquiry into ESD and published its report Learning the Sustainability Lesson (download) in July 2003. The Department for Education and Skills subsequently published an action plan, Sustainable Development Action Plan for Education and Skills (SDAPES download). In his foreword, the Secretary of State sets out his vision which includes making sure that children, young people and adult learners are aware that what they do in their day to day lives has huge implications for everyone in this country and in the world at large . . . ensuring that people engaged in learning are given the inspiration to think about and really appreciate their role as world citizens (SDAPES, pp. 2 –3). The first objective of the plan is that all learners should develop the skills, knowledge and value base to be active citizens in creating a more sustainable society. Paragraph 1.3 of SDAPES is on improving content and engagement with schools. The Department is exploring whole school approaches to ESD, identifying models of good practice, and strengthening links with subjects, particularly citizenship, design/technology, geography, and science. Sustainability as a frame of mind While there is no shortage of strategies and policies for sustainable development, there is no consensus on the nature of such development. Further examination reveals a lack of agreement on what is to be sustained, at what levels, over what spatial and temporal scales. Sustainability as policy is fraught with semantic, ethical and epistemological problems. Advocates disagree on the meaning of the term; the ethics that should guide relations between human and non-human nature; and the kind of knowledge that best provides understanding of complex bio-physical and social systems, their interactions, and foundations for policy. BTs should clearly be aware of these problems and the ways they are reflected in everyday political debate over such issues as wind power, sustainable communities, or world trade. Bonnett (1999, 2002) argues that the root causes of unsustainable development are prevailing values, and social (economic, political, cultural) arrangements. Modern beliefs and institutions mean that sustainability as policy is generally so pervaded by instrumental rationality that it overlooks the above problems; precludes recognition of the diversity and complexity of meanings and values placed on nature; and fails to question an attitude of mind that sanctions the continued exploitation and oppression of human and non-human nature. Rather than viewing sustainability as policy designed to achieve a certain state of affairs, he suggests that teachers should conceive of sustainability as a frame of mind that involves respect for human and non-human nature seeking their own fulfilment through a process of co-evolution. People can encourage this with appropriate technology (tools, institutions and ideas, including institutions of governance). BTs should consider whether ESD should primarily seek to develop such a frame of mind rather than develop ‘positive’ attitudes and behaviour, realise sustainability indicators, and deliver ‘relevant’ knowledge as set down in policy documents. Developing sustainability as a frame of mind, rather than as an aspect of policy, requires teachers and learners to be open and engaged with the complexity and meaning of things in the manner of great art or literature; attuned to harmony and
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discord in the world via a heightened sense of attachment; and capable of viewing nature in ways that are essentially poetic and non-manipulative. It requires BTs of citizenship to acknowledge the roles not only of science, geography and design/technology, but also those of the arts and humanities that can encourage learners to balance the economic or instrumental values that modern society places on (and extracts from) nature with ecological, aesthetic, scientific, existence and spiritual values. Along with citizenship education, religious education and PSHE, these subjects can also explore the virtue of sufficiency over excess and of sustaining things not in order to have something in hand for the future, but in order to let things be true to themselves, unalienated from their own essence and development. Having engaged with this debate, BTs may agree with Bonnett regarding the deeply subversive nature of ESD focussed on sustainability as a frame of mind: If we are to enable pupils to address the issues raised by sustainable development rather than preoccupy them with what are essentially symptoms masquerading as causes, we must engage them in those kinds of enquiry which reveal the underlying dominant motives that are in play in society; motives which are inherent in our most fundamental ways of thinking about ourselves and the world. That such a metaphysical investigation will be discomforting for many seems unavoidable, but it promises to be more productive in the long term than proceeding on the basis of easy assumptions about the goals of sustainable development as though it were a policy whose chief problems are of implementation rather than meaning. Bonnett, 2002, p. 19 The ethics of sustainable development Engaging in metaphysical investigation to question motives and clarify issues of meaning and value involves consideration of the ethics of sustainable development. BTs might begin by recognising that the human condition is contradictory in that we are both part of nature, yet apart from nature. People are part of ecological relations (members of a biological species, dependent on ecological resources and services to supply their needs) yet partly independent of such relations as part of social relations (they have powers of language and technology that enable them to transform their own nature and that which surrounds them). It follows from our contradictory position that we experience both the pull of nature, or the desire to live according to nature, and the pull of culture, or the desire to rise above the harsh realities of nature. In finding sustainable ways to live we have to balance these two attractions, exercising care or stewardship towards the rest of nature as we free ourselves from scarcity, disease and risk and create conditions for the continued co-evolution of nature and society. Appropriate values have to be translated into appropriate technologies including appropriate forms of citizenship and global governance. Texts on environmental politics or sustainable development generally include a chapter on philosophy and ethics (Connelly & Smith, 1999, Garner, 1996). BTs should consider the claims of ecocentrism and anthropocentrism, and consider whether a weak anthropocentrism is the most appropriate ethic to foster the mutual flourishing of human and non-human nature. It maintains that while humans are the only source of value, they are not the only bearers of value. An essential part of
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human consciousness is to recognise the value of the ‘other’ and so be capable of deep respect for things non-human, that are not perceived as serving primarily human purposes. Sustainable development guided by weak anthropocentrism can balance the five dimensions of sustainability (ecological, economic, social, cultural and personal) and the interests of present and future generations alongside those of the rest of nature, provided it is also guided by democratic values and processes. The Earth Charter, is the result of ‘a decade long, worldwide cross-cultural conversation about common goals and shared values’, and part of the unfinished business of the 1992 Rio summit. The final version, approved in 2000, is essentially a people’s treaty, shaped by both experts and representatives of civil society. Its ethical vision recognizes that environmental protection, human rights, equitable human development and peace are interdependent and indivisible. Its sixteen principles are grouped into four sections (respect and care for the community of life; ecological integrity; social and economic justice; and democracy, non-violence and peace) and provide a new framework for thinking about what constitutes a sustainable community and sustainable development. The Earth Charter Initiative seeks to promote the Charter as a sound ethical foundation for the emerging global society and its goals encourage and support the educational use of the Charter. Principle 14 seeks to integrate into formal education and life-long learning the knowledge, values, and skills needed for a sustainable way of life. In considering the moral and social responsibility strand of the citizenship curriculum, BTs should consider the claims of globalists regarding global citizenship, ethical discourse and the political good. The statement of values that underpins the national curriculum refers to the self, relationships, society, and the environment, and in introducing this curriculum NC Online outlines aims that make reference to sustainable development. BTs might debate whether the statement and aims provide them with the authority to instil such values as those found in the Earth Charter, the World Conservation Strategy Caring for the Earth (Chapter 2, Box 2, p.14) the Rio Declaration on the Environment and Development, or the United Nations Development Programme’s document on integrating human rights with sustainable development. The politics of sustainable development and the political good It is when the ethics, principles and dimensions of sustainable development are translated into political policies and programmes that the underlying semantic, ethical and epistemological problems become most apparent. Politicians, business leaders, community activists, non-governmental organisations and others seek to advance different values, ideas and policies in the name of sustainable development. For many advocates of economic growth, sustainability as a frame of mind supporting weak anthropocentrism and democratic values remains contentious and/or unacceptable. Four websites indicate something of the breath of viewpoints: those of the World Business Council for Sustainable Development, Redefining Progress, Envolve, and Greenpeace International. While risking simplification of the multiple meanings produced when sustainability finds expression within differing political ideologies and utopias, it is possible to suggest two contrasting meanings revealed in much political debate. The dominant or
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mainstream meaning of the term is reformist in orientation and seeks to balance economic growth with considerations of social welfare and environmental protection, The contesting meaning is radical and seeks to reshape the economy and society in ways that respect ecological limits and global justice. The two meanings express and conceal a range of discourses on the environment and development and can be expanded, as in Figure 1, where they are termed sustainability in the growth mode and sustainability in the development mode. By highlighting differences the figure acts as an heuristic devise that can stimulate engagement and prompt learning. It should be used with caution however since it necessarily simplifies complexity and overlooks the continuum of political beliefs that link and stretch beyond these positions. Figure 1
Sustainability in growth and development modes
Sustainability in the growth mode (reformist)
Sustainability in the development mode (radical)
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Does not require a radical restructuring of capitalist social relations. Human and nonhuman nature are viewed instrumentally and sustainability is one goal to be realised along with continued capital accumulation or economic growth.
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Seeks ecological and economic sustainability with less attention to social, cultural and personal sustainability. Develops ecological and manufactured capital at the expense of human, social and organisational capital. Is prepared to substitute critical ecological capital for other forms of capital and so promotes weak sustainability. Includes groups that promote global welfare through institutional reform and redistribution. Favours representative forms of democracy over direct democracy.
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Includes groups that promote ecological modernisation (a shift to more environmentally benign systems of production and consumption). Stresses the role of experts (eg. ecologists, engineers, economists, planners, lawyers) guided by normal science. Regards ecological limits as constraining. Emphasises efficiency. Values are strongly anthropocentric and technocentric Advocates forms of liberal democracy with passive citizenship. Allows and promotes the greening of capitalism.
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Stresses the role of local community development guided by citizens’ science.
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Regards ecological limits as enabling Emphasises sufficiency. Values are weakly anthropocentric and ecocentric Advocates forms of direct and cosmopolitan or ecological democracy with active citizenship. Allows and promotes the greening of socialism.
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Ensures that social development promotes the continued progressive evolution of human and non-human nature. It facilitates the redistribution of wealth from the rich to the poor and favours direct democracy as a means of allowing local communities to realise their own forms of sustainable livelihood. Recognises the value of ecological modernisation
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Based on Huckle & Martin, 2001, p. 235
Implies a radical democratisation of current social relations. New systems of global governance, involving cosmopolitan or ecological democracy, protect the well being of human and non-human nature while constraining the global economy within ecological limits. Seeks ecological, economic, social, cultural and personal sustainability by developing ecological, human, social and organisational, and manufactured capital using appropriate technology. Has high regard for critical ecological capital and promotes strong sustainability.
The figure suggests a key right/left conflict between those who seek sustainability through reform of industrialism and the global capitalist system and those who seek sustainability by moving beyond industrialism and radically democratising the global system. It reminds us that political debate about sustainability is closely linked to that about globalisation and the political good. While globalists maintain that globalisation is a real and profound transformative process at work in the world, sceptics suggest that their claims are highly exaggerated and distract us from confronting the real forces shaping societies and political choices (Held & McGrew, 2003). Globalists and sceptics are to be found on both sides of the sustainability divide (Figure 1) and BTs might be challenged to relate their diverse discourses (see page 13) to associated discourses on sustainable development. While sceptics continue to associate ethical discourse and what is right for citizens with the cultural, political and institutional roots, traditions and boundaries of a single political community or nation state, globalists maintain that the political good can only be disclosed by reflection on the diversity of communites of ‘fate’ to which individuals and groups belong, and the ways in which this diversity is reinforced by the political transformations of globalisation considered above. Since the political good is now entrenched in overlapping political communities and in an emergent transnational civil society and global polity, disputes about it should be disputes about the nature and proper form of the developing global order. Hence globalists generally associate sustainable development with new forms of global democracy and citizenship. These include their cosmopolitan and ecological forms. Global citizens have complex loyalties and multi-layered identities; exercise their citizenship partly through transnational movements, agencies, and legal/institutional structures; are aware of the increasing interconnectedness of political communities in diverse (ecological, economic, social, cultural) domains and their overlapping fortunes; recognize that collective interests require multilateral regulation and domestic adjustment; and accept that their rights, responsibilities and welfare need to be established not only in national constitutions, but in regional and global regimes, laws and institutions. They link ethical discourse and the political good to the global order and may support the Earth Charter initiative. Lynch (1992) and Oliver and Heater (1994) consider education for world/global citizenship. Environmental and ecological citizenship Dobson (2003) starts his discussion of citizenship and the environment by noting that asymmetrical nature of globalisation. Local acts with global consequences produce communities of obligation that are primarily communities of injustice. Cheap food in European supermarkets, for example, is often the result of exploited labour and land in Africa, and British consumers therefore have non-reciprocal duties to African farmers that should be discharged through redistributive acts. Advocates of cosmopolitan citizenship, such as Held (1995), focus on the human community and suggest that uncoerced dialogue and greater democracy will allow the realisation of universal values, such as those expressed in the Earth Charter. Dobson maintains that they focus on the wrong kind of community (the human community rather than communities of obligation); the wrong mode of operation (impartiality rather than partiality); and the wrong political objective (more dialogue and
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democracy rather than more justice and democracy). Rather than a thin and nonmaterial account of the ties that bind members of the cosmopolitan community (common humanity and a commitment to dialogue), Dobson offers a thickly material account linked to the production and reproduction of daily life in an unequal and globalising world. This prompts him to canvass the emergence of post-cosmopolitan citizenship, alongside liberal and civic-republican forms. Figure 2
Three types of citizenship (Dobson, 2003, p.39)
1 Liberal Rights/entitlements (contractual) Public sphere Virtue-free Territorial (discriminatory)
2 Civic republican Duties/responsibilities (contractual) Public sphere ‘Masculine’ virtue Territorial (discriminatory)
3 Post-cosmopolitan Duties/responsibilities (non-contractual) Public and private spheres ‘Feminine’ virtue Non-territorial (non-discriminatory)
In comparing citizenship in its liberal, civic republican, and post-cosmopolitan forms, Dobson focuses on four dimensions (rights/responsibilities; public/private; virtue/nonvirtue; and territorial/non-territorial), see Figure 2. It is the fact that citizens of globalising nations are ‘always already’ acting on others that requires postcosmopolitan citizenship to acknowledge non-reciprocal, non-contractual and unilateral duties. Since acts in the private sphere impact upon people and environments at a distance (have public implications), this sphere is properly a site for politics and the exercise of post-cosmopolitan citizenship. Such citizenship focuses on horizontal citizen-citizen relations rather than vertical citizen-state relations, and is committed to such ‘feminine’ virtues as care and compassion. It is non-territorial in that it spans borders and is associated with a global civil society as exemplified by the anti-globalisation movement. Both the major citizenship traditions, liberal and civic republican, can be fruitfully connected to the project of sustainability, but Dobson does not think that the project can be fully captured by these traditions, either together or in isolation. Green thinking on citizenship seeks to extend conceptions of rights (environmental rights); enlarge the scope of citizenship beyond the state (cosmopolitan, post-cosmopolitan, and global citizenship); and recognise citizens’ responsibilities to future generations and the rest of nature. The associated literature (Barry, 1999, Smith 1998, Doherty & de Geus, 1996) debates such issues as whether environmental rights are distinct from social rights and whether non-humans can properly have rights (be citizens) with humans speaking on their behalf. At the heart of the sustainability project’s tendency to overflow liberal and civic republican traditions is the non-territorial nature of sustainability as a social objective. Dobson maintains that this requires a variant of post-cosmopolitan citizenship that he terms ecological citizenship. Liberal theory leads to the following understanding of environmental citizenship: Environmental citizenship deals in the currency of environmental rights, that is conducted exclusively in the public sphere, whose principal virtues are the liberal ones of reasonableness and a willingness to accept the force of better argument and procedural legitimacy, and whose remit is bounded political configurations modelled
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on the nation-state. For the most rough-and-ready purposes, it can be taken that environmental citizenship here refers to attempts to extend the discourse and practice of rights-claiming into the environmental context. Dobson, 2003, P. 89 Environmental citizenship is then about the defining, enshrining and claiming of environmental rights and their incorporation into law, culture and politics. Related knowledge of environmental rights, and of rights to development, is a key element of the propositional and procedural knowledge that contributes to political literacy. BTs should therefore learn about such rights and the institutional arrangements for establishing and upholding related law. A comprehensive understanding of relevant UK, European, and international institutions and legislation is not to be expected, but BTs should study issues at a range of scales to gain an understanding of how such rights are established and defended. There is no shortage of relevant case studies from around the world (Alder & Wilkinson, 1999, Elliott, 1998, Kingsnorth, 2004) and BTs might study a local planning issue, national policy on renewable energy, European fisheries policy, and disputes over international trade, gaining knowledge from such sources as the Royal Town Planning Institute; the Association for the Conservation of Energy, EUROPA, and the Fairtrade Foundation. Ecological citizenship is a specifically ecological form of post-cosmopolitan citizenship. It recognises that as members of global society we are ‘always already’ obligated to others at a distance, a concept best expressed in the notion of ecological footprints. Such a footprint is a measure of the total amount of ecologically productive land and water supporting one’s lifestyle, and for the more affluent members of global society, much of this land and water is located far from their place of residence (Carley & Spapens, 1998, Wackernagel & Rees, 1996). As we consume more, our ecological footprints grow, and we are obligated to more strangers across space and time (to those at a distance and to those not yet born). The community of ecological citizenship is created by our material activities and obligates us to protect a healthy, complex and autonomously functioning ecological system for the benefit of present and future generations. Such obligation is encouraged by viewing sustainability as a frame of mind, and by adopting a weak anthropocentrism as outlined above. Ecological citizenship has international and intergenerational dimensions and its responsibilities are asymmetrical, falling on globalising rather than globalised individuals. Ecological citizens will want to ensure that their ecological footprints do not compromise or foreclose options for present and future generations and will be prepared to reduce them without expecting others to follow their example. Obligation ends when ecological space (resources and services) is fairly distributed but such fairness may require the righting of historical wrongs. Virtues normally associated with the private sphere, such as care and compassion, help ecological citizens meet their responsibilities, and this sphere will increasingly become a site of citizenship as they realise that by reducing household consumption they can reduce their ecological footprints (see Ecoteams initiative). Such politicisation of the private sphere is a challenge for liberals since it questions personal choice and subjects the idea of the ‘good life’ to political scrutiny. BTs might be introduced to ecological citizenship via websites on ecological footprints, policies to tackle global warming, or the agenda of the European Social Forum. These and other sites suggest that there is no agreement on what model of
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global democracy would best facilitate environmental and ecological citizenship and so promote sustainable development. There is intense debate about whether, or how, to resist, contest, manage or adapt to global forces, and BTs should understand the main positions adopted by those who are for and against globalisation. While the former group contains neoliberals, liberal internationalists, and institutional reformers, the latter consists of global transformers, statists/protectionists, and radicals (Held & McGrew, 2003). Cosmopolitan social democracy draws support from liberal internationalists, institutional reformers, and global transformers. The latter, along with radicals, are influenced by Marxism and anti-capitalism (Saad-Filho, 2003). George Monbiot’s website and his manifesto for a new world order (Monbiot, 2004) provide one route to engaging BTs with these debates. Another is provided by current debates on the European constitution. Post-cosmopolitan democracy and citizenship feature less prominently than other forms in the literature, but there is no shortage of texts linking sustainability to politics and citizenship (Christie & Warburton, 2001, Doherty & de Geus, 1996, Mathews, 1996, Smith, 1998). BTs might go beyond Figure 1 (page 9) to consider the range of environmental discourses outlined by Dryzek (1997). They might evaluate his argument that the discourse of sustainable development is essentially reformist and will only contribute to the realisation of ecological democracy if given a more radical meaning through association with other discourses that he labels democratic pragmatism, ecological modernisation, and green rationalism. They might compare the case for the greening of capitalism as outlined by Turner (2001) with that for the greening of socialism as advanced by Dickenson (2003). Little (1998) includes a chapter on socialist citizenship in his book on post-industrial socialism. This seeks to revive citizens’ engagement with politics and the public sphere by providing them with new economic rights. Reduced working hours enabled by new technologies, together with a guaranteed wage for work in the formal and community sectors, are the preconditions for greater individual autonomy and collective self-determination. New economies of time and welfare free citizens from the treadmill of work and consumerism and allow them to establish more sustainable relations with one another and the rest of nature. Community involvement There are many opportunities for BTs to engage with communities that are learning their way to sustainability and so acquire the knowledge, skills and values that will enable them to foster active citizenship amongst pupils. Local and regional governments have statutory duties relating to sustainable development and may have policies on the nature and form of their support for ESD in schools (Selman, 1996). Following the publication of Agenda 21 many drew up Local Agenda 21s but these have now often given way to newer initiatives on community development or regeneration. The Local Government Association and Improvement and Development Agency are relevant sources of information. Many schools work with local and regional government officers, elected members, and community groups on such initiatives as children’s parliaments, ‘walking buses’ to school, food growing and recycling. The North West Regional Assembly illustrates how ESD is often part of such initiatives as healthy schools, education action zones, or urban regeneration, while ESD Bristol is one example of how curriculum guidance
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can be delivered in a local context. Further examples are provided by Worcestershire and Bolton. The International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives provides information on local government initiatives around the world. Hart (1997) and Adams and Ingham (1998) provide guides to encouraging children’s participation in environmental planning and community development. Sustainable development may be a focus of school-industry links and BTs should be introduced to the debates surrounding corporate social responsibility or corporate citizenship. Codes of corporate governance are relevant to environmental and ecological citizenship as are those corporate social responsibility campaigners who seek to ensure more widespread and honest reporting. Authentic Business provides a newsletter about ethically sound businesses; the Social Science Information Gateway lists internet resources relating to business, society and the environment; while the WorldWatch Institute monitors progress towards more sustainable forms of production and consumption. Ecological citizens will practice ethical consumerism and will also be aware of the efforts of trade unions and the International Labour Organisation to realise social and environmental justice. Agenda 21 seeks a partnership between government, business and community groups in realising sustainable development. Community groups or NGOs provide further opportunities for community involvement through their diverse projects to improve the sustainability of local and distant communities. Wildlife Trusts, Groundwork, Oxfam, Community Service Volunteers, and WWF are just five examples of NGOs that work with schools on ESD related projects and campaigns. Pointers to others are provided in the section on resources below. Curriculum planning and pedagogy In the final chapter of his book Dobson (2003) examines the potential of the citizenship curriculum to legitimately produce young citizens who will work for sustainability and sustainable development. He argues that the normative elements and guidelines in the Crick Report and the national curriculum allow teachers to raise key questions that lie at the heart of the sustainability debate: questions of ethics, spirituality, the kind of society pupils’ wish to live in, and what it means to be an ecological citizen. CESD fosters the moral development that underscores citizenship education; allows community campaigning (not community service) in the interests of social and environmental justice; and prompts links with distant strangers and global institutions through the study of real events and issues. After considering curriculum frameworks for the delivery of ESD, Dobson argues that the whole curriculum might be delivered through environmental and ecological citizenship ‘because practically every theme in the curriculum is importantly present in them’. And in reference to the citizenship curriculum he adds:
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In sum, then, the curriculum injunction to teach ‘education for sustainable development’ might profitably be regarded as a vehicle for teaching the citizenship curriculum as a whole Dobson, 2003, P. 195 The focus of Dobson’s chapter is whether a liberal educational system, committed to neutrality as far as ‘plans for life’ are concerned, can cope with the value-laden nature of sustainability questions? His arguments here support those of Bonnett (page 6) for he recognises that sustainability is always a discourse/practice under construction, rather than a truth or something settled, and the appropriate liberal commitment is not to offer some determinate account of it, but to ensure the conditions within which the widest range of opportunities for thinking and living sustainability are authentically available ( P. 198 ). In the context of environmental and ecological citizenship, bias is more likely by omission than by indoctrination. While CESD should embrace the ambiguities, tensions and contradictions in the sustainability debate, it should confront pupils with live examples of commitment: of individuals and groups who think and live differently. Guided reasoning about such examples develops their moral autonomy, political literacy, and commitment to sustainability as a frame of mind. Dobson’s chapter should be a key reading for BTs. With reference to the citizenship curriculum in schools, he concludes: All the elements of environmental citizenship are present in the curriculum . . . . All the elements of ecological citizenship are present in the curriculum too. The citizenship curriculum, in other words, offers a gift-wrapped opportunity to politicise the environment for young people. P. 206/7 Having explored the potential of the citizenship curriculum, BTs might return to the QCA’s ESD web pages (page 3) and review the help offered on curriculum planning. They should gain experience of planning curriculum units that incorporate ESD’s key concepts alongside those of political literacy, and should be aware of the suggested contributions of other subjects, particularly geography, science and design technology. The interdisciplinary nature of ESD requires them to consider an appropriate philosophy of knowledge, or philosophical framework. Clearly this should be able to integrate knowledge from the natural and social sciences, the arts and humanities, and should also be able to integrate formal or academic knowledge with the lay and tacit knowledge of everyday life. Dickens (1996) argues that academic divisions of labour (between for example the natural and social sciences) serve to alienate people from nature and hinder the transition to sustainable development. While he suggests that critical realism provides a framework for integrating academic knowledge and uniting it with lay and tacit knowledge, Sterling (2001) seeks to reorient education towards sustainable development using systems thinking (Capra, 2003). BTs with a background in social and political theory will be able to relate such debates to those over postmodernity and the rise of postmodern knowledge or citizen science (Irwin, 1995). They may regard debates over sustainable development and ecological citizenship as evidence of reflexive modernisation, the 15
rise of network society, and the increasing significance of culture, identity, and identity politics in the lives of young people (McGuigan, 1999). By drawing on the philosophy and sociology of education and the curriculum, tutors might also explore with BTs the way in which different discourses or ideologies of environment, development and education, shape different forms of ESD. Following Habermas’ theory of knowledge constitutive interests it is possible to recognise ESD as environmental science and management, ESD as values and behaviour change, and ESD as socially critical education (Huckle, 1996, 2003). Citizenship education is central to ESD as socially critical education since it is able to counter the positivism and idealism of the other two forms. Scott and Gough (2003) see such education somewhat differently: as an affront to the autonomy of learners and teachers that is ineffective and too radical to be accommodated in schools. ESD has understandably developed largely from roots in environmental and development education. BTs should be aware of the range of such ‘adjectival’ educations that grew out of the new social movements of the 1960s and 1970s (Dufour, 1990); their fate alongside cross-curricular themes in the 1990s; and the extent to which they may continue to represent a more relevant education for postmodern times. Such educations (for example human rights education, peace education, futures education) can also be seen as a response to the lack of coherent social education within the English school curriculum and BTs might consider the extent to which citizenship education should now become their vehicle. Practitioners of environmental and development education draw on a range of well established experiential teaching and learning activities. They regard students as researchers, seek democratic classrooms; and provide relevance by relating learning to the knowledge and concerns of communities near and far. BTs should examine some of the resources that support such activities (for sources see next section) and should develop and trial their own activities. They might consider the different orientation to learning outlined by Kemmis (1998), the extent to which his modern, late modern, and postmodern orientations are complementary or contesting, and whether CESD requires such orientations. Both late modern and postmodern orientations regard knowledge as socially constructed and acknowledge increased reflexivity whereby individuals become more aware of the diversity and fallibility of knowledge and the unintended consequences of its application. While late modern learning clings to the possibility of consensus yielding general truths that provide the foundation for critical pedagogy, postmodern learning accepts only partial truths, invites a wider concept of rationality, and is valued by new kinds of identity politics. Giroux develops the notions of border youth and border pedagogy to describe young people and teaching and learning styles caught between modernity and postmodernity. Border youth have little or no faith in modern narratives of work, progress and emancipation; recognize new or heightened risks such as unemployment, homelessness or HIV/Aids; and find their attention and understanding dislocated by
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popular culture and consumerism. Sustainable development can offer them a shared language of hope and possibility provided it keeps a wide range of options open. For indeterminancy rather than order should become the guiding principle of a pedagogy in which multiple views, possibilities and differences are opened up as part of an attempt to read the future contingently rather than from the perspective of a master narrative that assumes rather than problematises specific notions of work, progress, and agency (Giroux, 1999, p. 102). Furlong and Cartmel (1997) support Giroux’s argument for a border pedagogy that connects young people with social movements that offer alternative meanings and identities. They write of an ‘epistemological fallacy’ whereby postmodernity with its diversification of lifestyles, erosion of collectivist traditions, and intensification of individual values, increasingly obscures the structures and processes shaping pupils’ life chances and the environments in which they live. Unaccountable and undemocratic powers continue to deny them more sustainable ways of living, yet they are increasingly encouraged to regard the resulting risks, setbacks and anxieties as individual shortcomings that they must solve on a personal basis rather than through politics. CESD in schools can help pupils confront this fallacy if they are realistic about power and agency, acknowledge new forms of identity politics, and provide the real participation in decision making that many young people seek. Rushkoff (1997) offers a more optimistic view of young people, seeing them as pioneers in an ‘age of chaos’ in which the predictability and linearity of an organized, hierarchical civilization has been overwhelmed by a seemingly random and disjointed wave of change. Drawing concepts from postmodern science, he sees in children’s play and use of the new media, evidence that they adapting to the discontinuity of the postmodern experience. BTs clearly need to consider such arguments, understand changing youth culture, and reflect the importance of identity, consumerism and media for the young, in their curriculum planning and delivery. Quart (2003) provides insights into teenagers who are pioneering ecological citizenship by resisting the culture of brands, while the adbusters website and magazine are powerful resources for exploring consumerism. Future citizens should be able to constructively contest and transform advertising and the media (see for example the Media Awareness Network) so that they no longer has the power to render them passive, apolitical subjects who remain unaware of more sustainable and fulfilling ways of life. Resources and services The Council for Environmental Education (CEE ) is a national charity which is governed by its members. These include individual teachers and 80 national organisations with a shared belief in the value of education for sustainable development. Its website includes an information centre that allows searches for citizenship related resources dealing with specific topics such as climate change or poverty. CEE has a newsletter and an annual conference. The Development Education Association (DEA) works with key governmental and non-governmental educational bodies across the UK to provide guidance on how teachers can incorporate development issues and a global dimension into their
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teaching. Developing a global dimension in the school curriculum, was published, with DFID, DFEE, QCA and the Central Bureau, in 2000, and the Global Dimension website catalogues over 500 evaluated resources for teachers to use across the curriculum. The DEA is currently developing a series of guidance booklets with subject associations. Those published by summer 2004 relate to science and geography. The DEA works in partnership with teacher educators and published a charter for initial teacher education Training Teachers for Tomorrow in 1998. It has subsequently published a set of good practice case studies (Symons, 2004). At least two of these refer to citizenship. Development education centres around the country are members of DEA and several of these have curriculum development projects relating to ESD, Manchester has a sustainable cities project and Birmingham one on citizenship and sustainable development (DEC, 2002). DECs have also developed the global footprints project and information and activities about global and ethical issues for teachers and students of business studies and economics. The Department for International Development is currently funding the Enabling Effective Support network (DFID, 2003) that has officers in the regions co-ordinating the work of DECs and others. TeachGlobal is a website offering online professional development courses to teachers. There are a number of projects that schools seeking to demonstrate environmental and ecological citizenship might join. Eco Schools, which is managed by EnCams, involves the whole school together with members of the local community creating a shared understanding of what it takes to run a school in a way that respects the environment. Others include Learning through landscapes, healthy schools, and growing schools. WWF offers schools a development framework whereby they can reflect and act on their own interpretation of sustainability and engaged pupils in an online debate about the sustainable school of the future in autumn term 2004. The Office for Standards in Education (Ofsted) has published a report on effective ESD practice in schools: the result of a limited benchmarking exercise to aid the development of more detailed future work (download). By focussing on the quality of learning in 27 schools, it identifies factors which characterise the work of the most successful schools, and provides a checklist for school self-evaluation. Oxfam is a development, relief, and campaigning organisation dedicated to finding lasting solutions to poverty and suffering around the world. Its education programme is guided by A Curriculum for Global Citizenship (Oxfam, 1997 and see Grunsell, 2004) and its Cool Planet website provides an overview of its work with young people and schools. In advocating a curriculum for global citizenship, Oxfam seeks to combine EE and DE and regards ESD and global citizenship as essentially ‘the same thing, albeit coming from different starting points’. Its strategy regarding ITE continues to be focussed on a limited number of institutions where it seeks to establish ESD as part of the curriculum (Inman & Wade, 1997).
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ESD is an ongoing interest of many ITT tutors who specialise in environmental education and/or development education. The majority of these tutors also have a specialism related to a NC curriculum subject, often geography, science, or citizenship, but some approach ESD as professional studies specialists. The main networks for these tutors are facilitated by the Global Teacher Project (Steiner, 1996); the Centre for Research in Education and the Environment at the University of Bath; and the NFER which has a project on connecting research and practice in ESD (Rickinson, 2003, Rickinson et al, 2003). Such tutors are likely to publish in the DEA’s Development Education Journal or in Environmental Education Research. Subject associations may have working groups on ESD in which such tutors are active, for example the Geographical Association. A group of tutors at the Oxford University Department of Education is currently carrying out research into trainees’ and teachers’ understanding of ESD (Summers, Corney & Childs, 2003). A particularly significant initiative is a dedicated ITT website called Education for a Sustainable Future, jointly owned and managed by the Institute of Education at Manchester Metropolitan University (MMU) and the Moray House Faculty of Education of the University of Edinburgh. Developed from a Scottish ITT module and the EU funded SEEPS Project, which promotes school focussed programmes in ESD, it provides on-line supported self study materials, consisting of activities and resources linked to a study guide (Robinson & Shallcross, 1998, Shallcross, O’Loan & Hui, 2000). The SEEPS project is available separately on CD Rom (ISBN 1870355-13-X). Tutors and teachers seeking continuing professional development in ESD might consider the Education for Sustainability Programme at South Bank University that is delivered through distance learning and attracts many teachers throughout the world. The following texts provide insights into the current state of scholarship and research in the field: Corcoran & Wals, 2004,Gough, 2001, Jucker, 2002, Huckle & Sterling, 1996, Huckle, 2002, Plant, 1998, Scott & Gough, 2003, Stables & Scott, 2002, and Sterling, 2001. UNESCO has an extensive website devoted to ESD. In 1999 it established a Chair on Reorienting Teacher Education to Address Sustainability at York University in Toronto. Professor Charles Hopkins is undertaking research on different approaches to this task with an international network of around 35 teacher education institutions that includes Bath University. UNESCO has already developed Teaching and Learning for a Sustainable Future, a multimedia teacher education programme containing 25 modules divided into four sections: curriculum rationale; teaching about sustainability across the curriculum; interdisciplinary curriculum themes; and teaching and learning strategies. This material is available on the internet and as a CD. In 2002 UNESCO published Education for Sustainability, from Rio to Johannesburg (download) a report on the lessons learnt about ESD since UNCED 1992. There is an educational programme associated with the Earth Charter Initiative. 19
The Commission on Education and Communication of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature has several publications relating to ESD. Particularly significant is ESDebate (download) the record of an online discussion between international experts that took place in 2000. Educating for Sustainability reviews 90 European ESD projects and details associated publications. There are several teacher ESD initiatives in English speaking countries that provide valuable sources of ideas and activities. Amongst these are the Education for Sustainable Development Toolkit and Biodiversity Basics in the USA and Learning for Sustainability in South Africa. Responding to the challenge If, as Dobson claims, ESD can be regarded as a vehicle for teaching the citizenship curriculum as a whole, then it can similarly be argued that ESD might constitute the sole focus of one year course preparing graduates to teach citizenship in schools. While few tutors are likely to adopt such a strategy, this article suggests that CESD now has official recognition, a considerable body of theory and practice, and extensive resources. It deserves a significant place in such courses, for by training teachers in CESD, tutors will be helping the transition to a more just, democratic and sustainable world. References Adams, E. & Ingham, S. (1998) Changing Places, Children’s Participation in Environmental Planning, London, The Children’s Society Alder, J. & Wilkinson, D. (1999) Environmental Law and Ethics, Basingstoke, Macmillan Barry, J. (1999) Rethinking Green Politics, London, Sage Bonnett, M. (1999) ‘Development: a coherent philosophy for environmental education’, Cambridge Journal of Education, 29/3, pp. 313 - 324 Bonnett, M. (2002) ‘Education for Sustainability as a Frame of Mind’, Environmental Education Research, 8/1, pp. 9 - 20 Capra, F. (2003) The Hidden Connections, A Science of Sustainable Living, London, Flamingo Carley, M. & Spapens, P. (1998) Sharing the World, Sustainable Living and Global Equity in the 21st Century, London, Earthscan Christie, I. & Warburton, D. (2001) From Here to Sustainability, Politics in the Real World, London, Earthscan Connelly, J. & Smith, G. (1999) Politics and the Environment, London, Routledge DEC (Development Education Centre) (2002) Whose Citizenship? Report from West Midlands Commission on Global Citizenship, Birmingham, DEC Corcoran P. & Wals, A. (2004) Higher Education and the Challenge of Sustainability, Dordrecht, Kluwer DFID (Department for International Development) (2003) Enabling Effective Support, London, DFID Dickens, P. (1996) Reconstructing Nature, Alienation, Emancipation and the Division of Labour, London, Routledge 20
Dickenson, P. (2003) Planning Green Growth, a socialist contribution to the debate on environmental sustainability, London, Socialist Books Dobson, A. (2003) Citizenship and the Environment, Oxford, Oxford University Press Doherty, B. & de Geus, M. (eds.) (1996) Democracy and Green Political Thought, Sustainability, Rights and Citizenship, London, Routledge Dufour, B. (ed.) (1990) The New Social Curriculum: A guide to cross-curricular themes, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press Elliott, L. (1998) The Global Politics of the Environment, Basingstoke, Macmillan Fien, J. (2003) ‘Towards the UN decade: Looking backwards, looking forward’, The Development Education Journal, 9/3, pp. 3 – 6 Furlong, A. & Cartmel, F. (1997) Young People and Social Change, Individualisation and Risk in Late Modernity, Buckingham, Open University Press Garner, R. (1996) Environmental Politics, London, Prentice Hall Giroux, H. (1999) ‘Border Youth, Difference and Postmodern Education’ in M. Castells, R. Flecha, P. Freire, H. A. Giroux, D. Macedo, & P. Willis, Critical Education in the New Information Age, Oxford, Rowman & Littlefield, pp. 93 – 116 Gough, S. (ed.) (2001) ‘The Language of Sustainability’ special issue of Environmental Education Research, 7/2, May Grunsell, A. (2004) ‘Oxfam and Education for Global Citizenship: Learning for the Future’, The Development Education Journal, 10/2, pp. 12 – 14 Hart, R. (1997) Children’s Participation, the theory and practice of involving young citizens in community development and environmental care, London, Earthscan Held, D. (1995) Democracy and the Global Order: From the Modern State to Cosmopolitan Governance, Cambridge, Polity Held, D., McGrew, A., Goldblatt, D. & Perraton, J. (2000) Global Transformations, Politics, Economics, Culture, Cambridge, Polity Held, D. & McGrew, A. (2002) Globalization/Anti-Globalization, Cambridge, Polity Huckle, J. (1996) Chapter 7, Teacher Education, in J. Huckle & S. Sterling (eds), op. cit. Huckle, J. (2002) Educating for Sustainability, Birmingham, National Primary Trust (Burning Issues No. 5) Huckle, J. (2003) Education for Sustainability, a briefing paper for the Teacher Training Agency (an edited version of this paper will be published on the resources section of the TTA website in spring 2005) Huckle, J. & Martin, A. (2001) Environments in a Changing World, London, Prentice Hall Inman, S. & Wade, S. (eds.) (1997) Development Education within ITT: Shaping a better future, Oxford, Oxfam Irwin, A. (1995) Citizen Science, London, Routledge Jucker, R. (2002) Our Common Illiteracy: education as if the Earth and people really mattered, Frankfurt, Peter Lang Kemmis, S. (1998) ‘System and Lifeworld, and the Conditions of Learning in Late Modernity’, Curriculum Studies, 6/3, pp. 269 – 306 Kingsnorth, P. (2004) One No, Many Yeses: a journey to the heart of the global resistance movement, New York, Free Press Little, A. (1998) Post-industrial Socialism, London, Routledge Lynch, J. (1992) Education for Citizenship in a Multicultural Society, London, Cassell Matthews, F. (ed.) (1996) Ecology and Democracy, London, Frank Cass
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McGuigan, J. (1999) Modernity and Postmodern Culture, Buckingham, Open University Press Monbiot, G. (2004) The Age of Consent, A Manifesto for a New World Order, London, Harper Perennial Oliver, D. & Heater, D. (1994) The Foundations of Citizenship, London, Harvester Wheatsheaf Oxfam (1997) A Curriculum for Global Citizenship, London, Oxfam Education Unit Plant, M. (1998) Education for the Environment, stimulating practice, Dereham, Peter Francis Quart, A. (2003) Branded: the buying and selling of teenagers, London, Arrow Reid, D. (1995) Sustainable Development: an introductory guide, London, Earthscan Rickinson, M. (2003) What’s the use of research in environmental education, Slough, NFER Rickinson, M., Aspinall, C., Clark, A., Dawson, L., McLeod, S., Poulton, P., Rogers, J. & Sargent. J. (2003) Making Research Count in Education for Sustainable Development, Southwell, BERA Robinson, J. & Shallcross, T. (1998) ‘Social change and education for sustainable living’, Curriculum Studies, 6/1, pp. 69 - 84 Rushkoff, D. (1997) Children of Chaos, Surviving the End of the World as We Know It, London, Flamingo Said-Filho, A. (ed.) Anti-capitalism, a Marxist introduction, London, Pluto Scott, W. & Gough, S. (2003) Sustainable Development and Learning, Framing the issues, London, RoutledgeFalmer SDC (Sustainable Development Commission) (2004) Shows promise. But must try harder, London, SDC Selman, P. (1996) Local Sustainability, Managing and Planning Ecologically Sound Places, London, Paul Chapman Shallcross, T., O’Loan, K. & Hui, D. (2000) ‘Developing a School Focused Approach to Continuing Professional Development in Sustainability Education’, Environmental Education Research, 6/4, pp. 363 – 382 Smith, M. (1998) Ecologism, Towards Ecological Citizenship, Buckingham, Open University Press Stables, A. & Scott, W. (eds.) (2002) ‘On the Possibility for Education for Sustainable Development’, special issue of Environmental Education Research, 8/1, February Steiner, M. (ed.) Developing the Global Teacher, Theory and Practice in Initial Teacher Education, Stoke-on-Trent, Trentham Books Sterling, S. (2001) Sustainable Education, Re-visioning Learning and Change, Dartington, Green Books Summers, M., Corney, G. & Childs, A. (2003) ‘Teaching Sustainable Development in Primary Schools: and empirical study of issues for teachers’, Environmental Education Research, 9/3, pp. 327 – 346 Symons, G. (ed.) Global Perspectives and Teachers in Training, London, DEA Turner, A. (2002) Just Capital, The Liberal Economy, London, Pan Books UN (1993) Agenda 21: The United Nations Programme of Action from Rio, New York, United Nations Publications Wackernagel, M. & Rees, W. (1996) Our Ecological Footprint, Reducing Human Impact on the Earth, Gabriola Island, New Society Publishers WCED (World Commission on Environment and Development), (1997) Our Common Future , Oxford, Oxford University Press
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John Huckle is an ESD consultant who formerly taught at De Montfort and South Bank universities. In 2003 he wrote a briefing paper on ESD for the Teacher Training Agency on which this article is largely based. John can be contacted via his website at http://john.huckle.org.uk
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