Civil Engineering

ISSN 2036 – 9913 Vol. 3 N. 3 May 2012

International Review of

Civil Engineering

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(IRECE)

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Contents:

218

Experimental Study on Bubble Deck Slabs by Muyasser Mohammed Jomaa’h, Alaa Tawfiq Ahmed

224

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Shear Strengthening of Reinforced Concrete Beams Using External Anchored and Internal Bonded Steel Bars by Zaki I. Mahmoud, Eltony M. Eltony

234

Removal of Fecal Coliforms in Pond Systems with Different Configurations and Screens by Facundo Cortés Martínez, Alberto Diosdado Salazar, Arnulfo Luévanos Rojas, Ramón Luévanos Rojas, Armando Cesar Uranga Sifuentes

240

Laboratory Experiments on Levee Breach and Inundation in Low-land with Particular Reference to Relative Height of River Bed to Floodplain by M. S. Islam, T. Tashiro, T. Tsujimoto

251

Impact of Safety Edge on Pavement to Prevent Crashes by Tamara Chowdhury, Darian Robinson

259

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Taking Into Account the Harmfulness of the Seismic Signal in Assessing the Seismic Performance of Buildings Self-Stable by Kahil Amar, Hamizi Mohand, Hannachi Nacer Eddine

Incorporating Palm Oil Fuel Ash with Slag in Geopolymer Technology: a Review by Moslih Amer Salih, Ramazan Demirbogaa, Abang Abdullah Abang Ali

266

Numerical Simulation of Thermal Behavior Airflow Facades Building in Arid Zone by A. Missoum, A. Slimani, B. Draoui, R. Khelfaoui, M. Bouanini, R. Belarbi

273

Regression Analysis of Error Models Used for Engineering Project Management by Jamal M. Assbeihat

283

Bearing Capacity of Strip Footings Near Reinforced Sand Slopes by Fathi M. Abdrabbo, Hassan M. Abouseeda, Khaled E. Gaaver, Enas A. Omer

288 (continued on outside back cover)

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International Review of Civil Engineering (I.RE.C.E.), Vol. 3, N. 3 ISSN 2036 - 9913 May 2012

Experimental and Numerical Study of Distiller Solar: Influence of Parameters Daha Ould Yahdhih1,2, Cheikh Mbow2, Abdel Kader Ould Mahmoud1,3, Aboubaker Chedikh Beye2

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Abstract – In this paper, we give the results of measurements carried out on a greenhouse-type distiller to determine the key factors impacting water production and to validate the operation of the distiller. The discussion focuses on the correlations used to model internal transfers, particularly in the numbers of thermal and mass Grashof and the Rayleigh number. These numbers were determined experimentally for this type of distiller. The phenomena of thermal conversion were also discussed to better understand the energy balances and validate the theoretical part. This experiment is carried out in the presence of specific meteorological parameters of the production system of water (distilled). Copyright © 2012 Praise Worthy Prize S.r.l. - All rights reserved.

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Keywords: Distiller, Numerical Modeling, Transfers, Efficiency, Solar Energy, Modelling and Simulations

Introduction

The coefficients c and n depend respectively on the geometry and nature of the transfers. By comparing their results with those proposed by Dunkle, they show that the correlation of the latter is only for moderate operating temperatures (the temperature of the absorber is less than 50 °C).

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I.

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Since the first distiller of Swedish Charles Wilson built in 1872, much work has been done in this field. The pioneers in this field are undoubtedly Löf, Baum and Bairamov, Cooper and Dunkle. G. O. G. Löf [1] has focused his research on understanding the distillation process to reduce heat loss. However, the first fundamental study of the greenhousetype distillers is the work of R. V. Dunkle [2]. In 1961, he gave a famous formula relating the coefficient of internal exchange of mass and heat transfer to the temperatures and saturation pressures of the water film and the glass. His correlation remains the most widely used model when it comes to internal trade in a solar distiller. Following Dunkle, Baum and Bairamov [3] have, in 1963, showed that in a greenhouse-type distiller, there is a buffer layer of constant temperature (equal to the temperature of the air-vapor mixture in the middle of room) occupying almost the entire volume of the distillation chamber and not involved in the transfer of heat and mass between brine and glass. Following these authors, P.I. Cooper [4] studied the influence of certain parameters, such as the height between the film and the glass of water, wind speed, insulation of the device, the slope cover, etc ... on the performance of the distillers. S. Aggarwal and G.N. Tiwari [5] have established a relationship between the numbers of Nusselt, Grashof . and Prandlt with the formula ·

II.

System Description

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In this work we first describe the distiller's CRAER made under the Project Eau-Mauri, which was born in the National School of Geology (ENSG) University of Nancy. The system (see Fig. 1) is a distiller of hot box type greenhouse simple consisting of: - Basin made from galvanized inox steel 0.001 m thick. It has a trapezoidal cross section with the inside painted black acting as an absorber. The base area has a surface of 4.34 m². The upper part of the basin is topped by a cover forming a roof tilted 30 degrees to the horizontal plane and attached to the edges of the basin with silicone sealant. - Rear and side insulation polyurethane foam that is 0.035m thick. - Transparent cover that is an ordinary glass 0.004 m. - Vulcanized rubber gaskets providing a seal. - Set of pipes and valves allowing connection of the distiller to the tank and alimentation and a valve used for emptying and cleaning. The set is encased in a thick wooden structure 0.02 m thick using protective case and is based on a reinforced concrete slab.

Manuscript received and revised April 2012, accepted May 2012

Copyright © 2012 Praise Worthy Prize S.r.l. - All rights reserved

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Daha Ould Yahdhih et al.

Tv: thermocouple to measure the temperature of the glass Tz: Thermocouple to measure the temperature of the buffer zone Tb: Thermocouple to measure the temperature of the basin absorbent Teau: thermocouple to measure the temperature of the brine Tiso: Thermocouple to measure the temperature of the insulation.

III. Experimental Results

Fig. 3. The measurement platform at CRAER

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III.2. Results

III.2.1. Study of Site Data

The recorded values of wind speed are average values in urban areas and are less than 4m / s. They are given in meters per second by anemometers located on the experimental platform. The average ambient temperature of the site is about 30 degrees.

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The experiments were conducted at the Research Center for Applied Renewable Energy (CRAER). The measurement campaign is spread over the first three days of October 2009 without interruption (72 hours nonstop) in order to quantify the production during the day as well as at night. During these 72 hours, we followed the evolution of various parameters such as the solar flux, flow rates, temperatures of the various components of the distiller, etc. The data collected simultaneously every 60 minutes (every hour) during each experiment are: - The global solar radiation on a horizontal plane measured by the shadow ring CM121b and a pyranometer of Eppley (Fig. 3) - Wind speed which is given by an anemometer of type AIRFLOW TA2 (Fig. 3) - Ambient temperature, temperature of water, temperature of air-vapor mixture (buffer zone), temperature of the glass and insulation. These temperatures are measured with thermocouples of type VALEX (Fig. 2). The production of fresh water of the distiller is taken using a graduated cylinder. The salt deposit is drained at the end of each experiment.

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III.1. Experiment

III.2.2. Experimental Results

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Changes in temperature and sunshine Records of sunlight and ambient temperature that are made during the three days have shown that the curves of solar radiation are in the form of a bell. The three days are characterized by: - An ambient temperature reaching extreme values on 3/10/09 ( Ta = 23 °C minimum at 6h30, Ta maximum = 40 °C at 14h30) (Fig. 4).

Fig. 1. The design of solar distiller used in the experiment of CRAER

Fig. 4. Changes in ambient temperature during the period from 10/01/2009 to 10/03/2009

Fig. 2. Location of the thermocouples


This period of the year has the longest daily sunshine and has generally a clear sky. It should be noted, however, that there was an exception on 10/02/2009

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where there was a passage of clouds, which created a discontinuity on the interval between 14h00 and 16h00 impacting the solar intensity during this time period.

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conditions. However, these contributions are small compared to the heat supplied by the absorber. The low temperature of the glass is mostly related to convective losses due the wind effect and radiative losses due the fact that the sky has a lower thermal potential. The temperature of the glass which is the commandment of 38ºC (average) allows water vapor to condense on the inside of the glass. The buffer zone is the area of saturated steam, where the temperature is high enough (maximum value reached is 61ºC within three days).

Fig. 5 gives the variations of solar radiation received by 1 m² surface inclined 30 degrees depending on the day of the experiment. It shows that the sunniest day (10/02/2009) has a maximum value at 13h50 with a solar flux density in the order of 892w/m2. These three days show that the site is fairly sunny compared to Gst, which is 1000 W per square meter.

Fig. 6. Different temperatures versus time, respectively (01.02 and 03.10.2009)

Water production It is important to note that the production of water in the distiller is mainly impacted by two factors: - Ambient temperature. - Temperature of the brine. Fig. 7 shows the amount of the distillate over time. For three days, it is increasing until it reaches its peak between 17h30 and 18h30 for the three days, for example a 790ml at 17h30 on 03/10/09. Production corresponds among other things to the difference between the temperature of the glass and the temperature of the absorber and the wind speed. Production must be at a maximum when the temperature (Tv ) is at a minimum. Temperature increase of the glass

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Fig. 5. Comparison of solar flux variations with time for days 01, 02 and 10/03/2009

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Evolution of different temperatures of the solar distiller Note that the three days studied were generally clear except the disturbance which occurred during the second day of the interval between 14h00 and 16h00, which is explained by a passage of clouds (see Fig. 6). The evolution curves for the three days in Fig. 6 are performed for different temperatures: - Ambient temperature (Ta ) ,

- Temperature of the brackish water (Te ) , - Temperature of the insula, - Temperature of the buffer zone (Tzonne tempo ) ,

results in a decrease in production. The system acts as a regulator. It scans throughout the day the temperature Tv

- Temperature of the glass (Tv ) , - Temperature of the absorber (Tabsorber ) .

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(optimized) versus the temperature Ta . The water production system is linked and reacts to the greenhouse condensation.

These temperatures are changing with time. The maximum values are reached simultaneously (e.g., the ambient temperature and the temperature of the absorber reach the maximum value almost the same instant.) Due to its physical characteristics, the temperature of the absorber reached a maximum of 70ºC (10/02/2009), which explains why we chose a black paint with a high absorption coefficient. We also note that the water temperature is close to that of the absorber with a maximum value of around 55ºC (10/02/2009). The water is heated by the pool mainly through an exchange by natural convection with the absorber. However, we must not forget that it absorbs some sunlight and shines with the glass under certain

Fig. 7. The amount of distillate over time, respectively (01/02 and 10/03/2009)



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Fig. 10. Variations of Carnot efficiency over time for the day 01/10/2009

So to maximize the operation of the distiller it is better to operate not only during the sunshine period but especially during the night to take advantage of the relatively large thermal inertia of the water versus coverage. The curves of Figs. 11 and 12 show the variation of the Carnot efficiency calculated by taking hot and cold sources the absorber and the glass, respectively. The maximum yield is greater than that found by taking water as a heat source. If we define the Carnot efficiency in this way, the shape of the curve shows the effects of inertia and night contributions are ignored. Indeed the curve is following the shape of the sunshine during the day.

Carnot efficiency Our distiller operates between two sources: the evaporation surface temperature Te considered as a hot

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source and the condensing surface temperature Tv considered as a cold surface. We then have the

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The time at which condensation is the highest corresponds to a maximum production of the distiller. The production increases as the temperature rises and the brine temperature of the glass decreases. However, this increase in production is related to several other factors.

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Fig. 8. Changes in cumulative production over time respectively (01/02 and 03/10/2009)

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efficiency of the Carnot engine equal to the quotient of the mechanical energy provided by the thermal energy it receives. This relationship is identical to that of the absolute temperatures:

ηcarnot = 1 −

Tv Te

Fig. 11. Variations of Carnot efficiency over time for the period 01-03/10/2009

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The Carnot efficiency is a valuable tool for developing methods to optimize our process because it takes into account the amount of useful energy needed to produce the distilled water. Fig. 9 and Fig. 10 give the variations of the Carnot efficiency during the three days. Note that during the nights, the Carnot efficiency is higher because the water temperature continues to increase while that of the glass decreases. Thus, the decrease in performance during the first moments of the day is compensated for during the night.

Fig. 12. Variations of Carnot efficiency over time for the day 01/10/2009

IV.

Comparison of Experimental and Numerical Results

To validate our mathematical model, we compare in this part the temporal variations in temperature of the components of the distiller, the hourly condensed mass

Fig. 9. Variations of the Carnot efficiency over time for the period 01-03/10/2009



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and the accumulated condensed mass obtained from numerical simulations with those from experimental tests for the day of 01/10/09. In our numerical modeling we started the calculation from t = 8h00mn (our initial time) and set the stop time to 18h00mn. The reference exchange chosen for the comparisons is:

⎡ ⎛ t 2 ⎞⎤ Ta ( t ) = 24 + 12 ⋅ sin ⎢π ⎜ − ⎟ ⎥ 12 3 ⎠⎦ ⎣ ⎝

Comparison of temperature profiles The curves of Fig. 6 and Figs. 13 show that the profiles of temperatures determined using our model are identical to those from the experiment. Note that the values of the temperature of the glass are in good agreement with those measured. However, it is clear that the maximum theoretical values of temperature of the absorber and water are higher than those obtained by experiments.

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hr = 700 W m-2 K -1

(a)

(b)

Figs. 13. Variations of different temperatures with time -2

∆T =12, hr = 700W m K

-1

-1

(a) V = 3m s ; (b) V = 4m s

-1

Comparison of the condensed masses Analysis of the curves in Fig. 14 and Fig. 7 which give the theoretical variations of the condensed mass per unit area over time shows that our model describes the exchange by phase change. The maximum condensate is in the order of 180 mL. m-2 is obtained almost at the same moment (around 17h30) and the theoretical curve exhibits much lower condensed mass between 9h30 minutes and 11h. The mean relative error on the masses of distillate is less than 4%. Nevertheless, it should be noted that the theoretical condensed masses are slightly higher than the experimental values.

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Our theoretical model gives us profiles of temperature and condensed mass that are identical to those obtained by experiments during the first day of 01 October 2009. The observed differences (mostly the temperatures of the absorber and the film) between experimental values and those from the simulations are due to several factors. A possible factor responsible to the differences is the physical characteristics of the components of the distiller involved in the theoretical modeling and in particular those of the absorber. In the theoretical study, we used the theoretical properties of the absorber as physical quantities of reference and therefore any inaccuracy in its characterization will affect the results. Numerical simulations have shown that the exchange coefficient of reference hr that has been defined as the ratio of the thermal conductivity and thickness of the absorber is one of the most influential factors on the operation of the distiller. So for a better comparison, we must know with high accuracy the physical properties of the absorber so as to have a theoretical value of hr that is close to its exact value. Another source of error may be related to the properties of brackish water. In our calculations we have assimilated the physical characteristics of the latter to those of pure water. However, the most likely causes of differences between the temperatures of the absorber and water determine using the theoretical model and the experimental ones are to be found in the correlations used to model internal transfers, particularly in the mass and thermal Grashof numbers and the Rayleigh number.

(2)

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IV.1. Comparison with Results Obtained by Fixing the Dimensionless Numbers (Rayleigh = 10+7, Mass and Therma Grashof=10+4) We estimated the temporal variations of solar flux density along the following equation (sinusoidal):

⎡ ⎛ t 2 ⎞⎤ − ⎟⎥ ⎣ ⎝ 12 3 ⎠ ⎦

φinci ( t ) = 50 + 850 ⋅ sin ⎢π ⎜

(1)

By analyzing the curves in Figure 5 we see that during the day on 01/10/09, our equation (1) approaches the direct solar flux incident with very good accuracy. Indeed, the mean relative error between theoretical and experimental values is less than 2%. The profile of the temperature of our theoretical model is given by the following sine wave:

Fig. 14. Changes in the condensed mass per unit area over time ∆T =12, hr = 700 W m-2 K-1 , V = 4 m s-1 et V = 3 m s-1

IV.2. Tests to Determine the True Values of the Rayleigh and Grashof Numbers In this section, it was found that when the Rayleigh



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number decreases until it reaches the value of 10+4, the maximum temperature of water increases from 365 K (Ra = 10+7) to 330 K (Ra = 10+4) which is practically what we have measured for water (see Figs. 15 to 17). However we note that the temperature of the absorber is not very sensitive to changes in the Rayleigh number and also to variations of Grashof numbers (thermal mass). This finding leads us therefore to take a critical look at the accuracy of the measured temperature of the absorber.

V.

Conclusion

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We analyzed the influence of various climatic factors such as sunshine, ambient temperature, wind speed, etc. on water production in particular nightly production of a greenhouse-type distiller. Experimental results were used to validate a theoretical model. The results showed that the variations of solar flux during the first hours of operation of the distiller and the inertia effects have a great influence on hourly water production. In contrast to the water temperature, the temperatures of the absorber, the glass and the insulation quickly follow changes in solar flux because of their low thermal inertia. This explains why during the first moments of the day the water temperature is lower than that of the glass and therefore the steam does not condense. The results have also showed that the production of distillate is continuous even during the night indicating that the solar can function in the absence of solar radiation using the energy stored by the body of water during the day. The numerical simulations allowed us not only to show the parameters that mostly impact water production but to also to determine the numbers of Rayleigh and Grashof to be used for a theoretical model that most accurately reflects the operation of this type of distiller. Indeed, we have shown that for a Rayleigh number close to10+4 and Grashof numbers of heat and mass respectively of the order of 10+7 and 10+6 the results obtained with our model are in good agreement with the experimental results.

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Fig. 15. Variations of different temperatures with time ∆T =12, hr = 770 W m -2 K -1 , V = 4 m s-1 , Grth=10+7 ,Grm=10+6,Ra=10+5

receiving the solar flux transmitted through the glass but of the side that is in contact with the insulation. Under these conditions, the temperature must be drawn below the temperature resulting from our model calculated on the upper surface of the absorber.

Fig. 16. Variations of different temperatures with time ∆T =12, hr = 770 W m -2 K -1 , V = 4 m s -1 , Grth=10+7 ,Grm=10+6,Ra=10+4

References [1]

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[2] [3] [4] [5]

Fig. 17. Variations of different temperatures with time ∆T =12, hr = 700 W m -2 K -1 , V = 4 m s-1 , Grth=10+7 ,Grm=10+6,Ra=10+4

G. O. G. Löf fundamental problems in solar distillation. Vol 47 Proc N.A.S 1961 page 1279-1290 R.V., Dunkle. Solar water distillation: the roof type still and a multiple effect diffusion still. International developments in heat transfer, A.S.M.E , part V, section A, p.0 895. 1961 Baum et Bairamov Heat and mass transfer processus in solar stills of hot-box type. Krzhizhanovsky power Institute Moscow RUSS 1963 PI Cooper Digital simulation of transient solar still processes Solar Energy Volume 12, Issue 3, 1969, Pages 313-331 S.Aggarwal, G.N. Tiwari : Convective mass transfer in a doublecondensing chamber and a conventional solar still Centre for Energy Studies, Indian Institute of Technology, Hauz Khas, New Delhi 1 I0016, India 1998

Authors’ information 1

Centre de Recherche Appliquée aux Energies Renouvelables ‘CRAER’, Université de Nouakchott, Mauritanie

Indeed, the measured temperature of the absorber is not that of the side in contact with the water and



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2

Laboratoire de Mécanique des Fluides, d’Hydraulique et de Transferts, Faculté des Sciences et Techniques, Université Cheikh Anta DIOP de Dakar, Sénégal

3 Laboratoire des Semi-conducteurs et d’Energie Solaire ‘LASES’, Faculté des Sciences et Techniques, Université Cheikh Anta DIOP de Dakar, Sénégal

Daha Ould Yahdhih (Corresponding author) Present/Permanent adress: Laboratoire de Mécanique des Fluides, Hydraulique et Transferts, Faculté des Sciences et Technologies, Université Cheikh Anta Diop de Dakar, Sénégal. Tel : 0022222266227; E-mail: [email protected]

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Doctor Cheikh Mbow Present/Permanent adress : Laboratoire de Mécanique des Fluides, Hydraulique et Transferts, Faculté des Sciences et Technologies, Université Cheikh Anta Diop de Dakar, Sénégal. Tel : 00221 77 523 25 59 E-mail: [email protected]



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Abstracting and Indexing Information: Academic Search Complete - EBSCO Information Services Cambridge Scientific Abstracts - CSA/CIG Copernicus Autorizzazione del Tribunale di Napoli n. 22 del 26/02/2010

(continued from outside front cover) 297

Trend Analyses and BOD5 Removal Assessment of a Brewery Treatment Plant in Nigeria by Hilary I. Owamah, Augustine K. Asiagwu, Ify L. Nwaogazie, Austine Uwague

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Estimation of Ground Subsidence in Earthquake by Faroudja Meziani, Amar Kahil, Smail Gabi

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Experimental and Numerical Study of Distiller Solar: Influence of Parameters by Daha Ould Yahdhih, Cheikh Mbow, Abdel Kader Ould Mahmoud, Aboubaker Chedikh Beye

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A Long-Standing but Insufficiently Addressed Issue in the River Management of Japan by G. Huang

2036-9913(201205)3:3;1-0