Coastal Wetlands and the Neanderthal Settlement of

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Coastal Wetlands and the Neanderthal Settlement of Portuguese Estremadura Jonathan A. Haws,1, * Michael M. Benedetti,2 Caroline L. Funk,3 Nuno F. Bicho,4 J. Michael Daniels,5 Patrick A. Hesp,6 Thomas A. Minckley,7 Steven L. Forman,8 Marjeta Jeraj,9 Juan F. Gibaja,4 and Bryan S. Hockett10 1

Department of Anthropology, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY 40292 Department of Geography and Geology, University of North Carolina–Wilmington, Wilmington, NC 28403-5944 3 733 W. Delavan Ave #2 Buffalo, NY 14222 4 FCHS, Campus de Gambelas, Universidade do Algarve, 8005-139 Faro, Portugal 5 Department of Geography, University of Denver, Denver, CO 80208 6 Department of Geography and Anthropology, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803 7 Department of Botany, University of Wyoming, Laramie, WY 82071 8 Luminescence Dating Research Laboratory and Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Illinois–Chicago, Chicago, IL 60607 9 Department of Botany, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, WI 53706 10 U.S. Bureau of Land Management, Elko, NV 89801 2

Coastal wetlands are ecotone settings that offer diverse sets of resources for human exploitation, yet evidence for Pleistocene occupation rarely preserves due to recent postglacial sea-level rise. During an ongoing geoarchaeological survey of Portuguese Estremadura we identified uplifted Pleistocene sediments that record coastal features including raised beaches, tidal channels, muds, peat, and coastal dunes. Stratified concentrations of Middle Paleolithic artifacts were found at Mira Nascente and Praia Rei Cortiço, two new sites in coastal wetland settings. The Mira Nascente locality yielded a chert-dominated lithic assemblage in a tidal flat setting dated to MIS 3. The raw material economy differs markedly from sites found in other landscape settings. Praia Rei Cortiço is located near a thick peat deposit that formed in a freshwater coastal swamp and marsh likely dated to the Last Interglacial. These two sites represent a novel expression of Neanderthal land use strategies in Portugal. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

The riparian origin of mankind is most probable whether by the side of fresh or salt water. —Carl O. Sauer (1962: 47)

*Corresponding author; E-mail: [email protected]. Geoarchaeology: An International Journal, Vol. 25, No. 6, 709–744 (2010 ) © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Published online in Wiley Online Library (www.wileyonlinelibrary.com). DOI:10.1002/gea.20330

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INTRODUCTION Wetlands and springs are critical sources of freshwater for plants and animals and as such, they are also well-known locations for human settlement. Modern human hunter-gatherers in the ethnographic present favor wetlands and springs, especially in arid and semi-arid regions where surface water is limited (Nicholas, 1998). Hunter-gatherers in places like South America, southern Africa, and Australia often become tethered to these freshwater sources (e.g., Lee, 1979; Kelly, 1995; Pintar, 2008; Veth, 2005). Freshwater availability is thus a key variable in predictive models for archaeological surveys, especially those for prehistoric hunter-gatherer sites. Climate and environmental changes often alter the nature of freshwater sources, forcing people to shift settlement accordingly. For instance, paleolandscape reconstructions at Olduvai Gorge show that hominins in the Early Pleistocene often focused activities near wetlands and springs and shifted their location in accordance with climatic fluctuations between wet and dry periods (Ashley, 2001; Ashley, Tactikos, & Owen, 2009). In Europe, open-air sites like Bilzingsleben, where Homo heidelbergensis left an impressive record of activity, demonstrate the importance of freshwater wetlands and springs during the Middle Pleistocene (Mania & Mania, 2005). Ashton et al. (2006) have identified river edge, lake edge, and coastal/estuarine habitat types for the Lower Paleolithic in southern England. The lack of stratigraphic integrity of lake edge sites, low frequency of coastal sites and association of artifacts with fluvial deposits (e.g., Swanscombe) implies a settlement preference for river edges during the Hoxnian interglacial or MIS 11 (Ashton et al., 2006). Several of the occupations associated with lake edges (e.g., Hoxne) may have taken place during transitions from lacustrine to fluvial conditions. Lower Paleolithic sites across much of Europe also appear to occur in fluvial settings (Bridgland et al., 2006). While Neanderthal occupations in Europe are well known from caves and rockshelters, open-air ones probably played a far greater role in land-use, especially during interglacials. The spread of dense forests in the interior of northern Europe may have led to a settlement focus along rivers and near lakes and springs (Adler & Conard, 2005; Roebroeks & Truffeau, 1999). Open-air Neanderthal sites are often found in fluvial deposits such as stream terraces or channels (e.g., Swanscombe, Maasrticht-Belvédère, Biache-St.-Vaast) or colluvium (e.g., Molodova). Palimpsest data from fluvial settings in southern England demonstrate the significance of this landscape for Neanderthal ecology (Hosfield, 2005). Neanderthal sites from the Last Interglacial (MIS 5) are generally associated with open wetlands in northwestern Europe (e.g., Wallertheim). In Greece, the terra rosa, or “red beds,” that derive from weathered limestone are often redeposited in ancient karstic wetlands that form in poljes and loutses (van Andel, 1998). Middle Paleolithic artifacts are frequently found in these sediments and suggest a Neanderthal preference for wetland environments (van Andel & Runnels, 2005). Coastal wetlands are especially important locales as they may include fresh, brackish, and salt water. These landscape settings are ecotones where distinct biomes converge to form rich, diverse plant and animal communities. Ecotones offer attractive

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sets of resources in constrained spaces that humans can readily exploit. While freshwater is critical for survival, brackish and saltwater provide habitats for estuarine and marine plants and animals that humans utilize for food. Coastal wetlands are rarely found in Pleistocene sediments due to postglacial sea-level rise that flooded or destroyed the deposits (Bailey & Parkington, 1988). In exceptional situations, archaeological sites may be found in coastal wetland contexts. For example, Boxgrove, a Middle Pleistocene Homo heidelbergensis site located on the West Sussex coastal plain, has multiple occupations in marine/ estuarine and freshwater environments (Roberts & Parfitt, 1999). GTP-13 was preserved in a low-energy lagoonal or tidal flat setting during an interglacial sea-level highstand. Artifacts at Q1/B were deposited on a paleolandscape characterized by freshwater spring-fed stream and lake deposits. At the West Thurrock locality, Schreve et al. (2006) report undisturbed Levallois knapping debris from estuarine deposits laid down during MIS 7. Here we present the archaeology and landscape setting of two new Middle Paleolithic sites in Portuguese Estremadura. Mira Nascente and Praia Rei Cortiço were both found in uplifted coastal deposits during an archaeological survey. The project team tested Mira Nascente in 2005 and returned for more extensive excavations in 2006. The occupation took place in a tidal flat setting dated to around 40,000–42,000 years ago and represents a novel locale for a Neanderthal site in Portugal. Refitting analyses and stratigraphic position of the artifacts indicate a set of brief knapping events followed by rapid use, discard, and burial. The technological expression and lithic raw material economy shows important distinctions from the typical Neanderthal pattern in Portugal. The team encountered another deposit further south at Praia Rei Cortiço that contained fewer artifacts but in a similar context and dated much earlier ⬃100,000 ya. These two sites add a new landscape setting to Middle Paleolithic settlement patterns in the region and strengthen the archaeological record of a coastal wetland Neanderthal eco-niche.

PORTUGUESE ESTREMADURA Portuguese Estremadura is a broad-scale ecotone where a rich marine ecosystem meets a series of productive terrestrial Mediterranean bioclimatic zones. The natural vegetation and fauna are a mix of Thermo- and Meso-Mediterranean species (Quézel, 1985). This coastal region is approximately 8700 km2, located between 40° and 38°30⬘N, bounded to the north by the Mondego River and to the south by the Setúbal peninsula (Figure 1). On the eastern boundary lie the Serra da Estrela, a schist and granite mountain rising up to 2000 m. Estremadura is interspersed with montane islands surrounded by plains and valleys with sandy fills of Miocene and Quaternary age. Much of Estremadura is a Jurassic limestone massif, rising up to 650 m, with mata vegetation and karstic caves (Zilhão, 2000). The geology of the study area is strongly influenced by several salt diapirs, active faults, and other neotectonic features. Along the coastal cliffs of northern Estremadura, a recent Holocene dunefield covers Pleistocene raised beaches that are etched into siliciclastic Miocene


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go nde Mo

R.

A

Praia de Pedrógão

R

São Pedro de Muel Mira Nascente

U

Lapa dos Furos

D

Praia Rei Cortiço Lagoa de Óbidos Furninha Peniche Columbeira

Vilas Ruivas

A

n

Vale do Forno R.

S T R E M

A

a tl

c ti

Foz do Enxiarrique

Santa Cita Almonda

c

e

a

n

Nazaré

O

Tag

us

Elevation

Santo Antão do Tojal

Lisbon 0

50 km

0-200 m 200-400 m

Salemas

⫹400 m Conceição

E

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Setúbal

municipality cave site open site

Figueira Brava

inset

Figure 1. Map of Portuguese Estremadura with selected sites mentioned in the text.

and Oligocene bedrock. The southern part of this area has a thin mantle of Quaternary fluvial, eolian and beach sands, and gravels lying on Mesozoic bedrock platforms or filling incised paleovalleys. The varied bioclimatic and geologic setting leads to a broad diversity in coastal landforms (barrier beaches, steep cliffs, bays, and estuaries) 712


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and pericoastal soil/weathering features (sandy podzols, soils with argillic horizons, carbonates). This variety is well expressed in stratigraphic evidence of the paleogeography of the coastal zone, as well as in the modern geography. Late Pleistocene settlement locations include the beach, near-shore tidal flats, coastal bogs, streams, and dunefields. These landscape settings define a coastal ecotone of approximately 10 km bounded by a limestone massif. Because ecotone settings are well documented as preferred locations for ethnographically known foragers, we should expect to find evidence for intensive settlement in these settings (Lee & Daly, 1999; Westley & Dix, 2006). Thacker (2001) linked Paleolithic settlement in the Rio Maior valley with ecotones, and we found a similar pattern in the Nazaré area during the 2005–2008 survey. LATE PLEISTOCENE PALEOENVIRONMENTS IN THE COASTAL ZONE Very little is known about the coastal Pleistocene vegetation of Portugal. Extrapolations of Late Pleistocene terrestrial vegetation from deep-sea cores off Portugal have been made for broader regional-scale models but are not sufficient for fine-grained paleovegetation reconstructions (Roucoux et al., 2001; Sanchez-Goñi et al., 2000, 2002). The MIS 5 record from core MD95-2042 indicates warm, humid conditions with a mix of Eurosiberian and Mediterranean species. There is a continuous presence of pine and Ericaceae and relatively high percentages of deciduous oak throughout the period. Mediterranean-type evergreen oak and olive communities peak in 5e, 5c, and 5a. Steppic vegetation (Artemisia and Ericaceae) indicates drier and cooler temperatures during the stadials. From MIS 5a, there is a marked decline in deciduous oak forest and increase in steppic vegetation with the onset of MIS 4. The cores MD95-2042 and Su81-18 show high percentages of arboreal vegetation in early MIS 4 followed by a gradual and sustained decrease (Sanchez-Goñi et al., 2008). The MIS 3 arboreal pollen frequency ranges between 5% and 25% with peaks and valleys roughly corresponding to Heinrich and Dansgaard-Oeschger events (Roucoux et al., 2001; Sanchez-Goñi et al., 2002, 2008). During the cold events, steppic herbs and shrubs dominated, while trees occurred in low percentages (Sanchez-Goñi et al., 2002). Peaks in Mediterranean forest correspond to D-O warm phases throughout the MIS 5-2 sequence from core MD95-2042 and Su81-18 off Portugal. Terrestrial correlations for the Late Pleistocene are limited by the absence of dated pollen records. Diniz (2003) has reported pollen analyses from a series of organic deposits estimated to be 35,000–45,000 years old along the coast south of Praia Rei Cortiço. This estimate is based on a single radiocarbon date of 38,000 ⫾ 1700 1400 B.P.; however, these deposits may in fact be much older if they correspond to the peat deposit at Praia Rei Cortiço. Unfortunately, the detailed analyses are unpublished, but some general observations can be made. Arboreal species are present in low frequencies. Diniz (2003) concluded that the coastal areas were covered by heath characteristic of a damp, foggy climate. In sheltered areas oak-scrub Mediterranean taxa found refugia. In summarizing the MIS 3 vegetation, Mateus and Queiroz suggest a deciduous oak forest may characterize the arboreal spectrum (Mateus & Queiroz, 1993). A mixed heath dominated by Ericaceae and Calluna with maritime pine and GEOARCHAEOLOGY: AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL, VOL. 25, NO. 6

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juniper covered the interfluves (Mateus & Queiroz, 1993). In the nearby limestone massif Callapez (1999) reported terrestrial gastropod frequencies that suggest warm, humid oak woodland around 34,000 B.P., based on radiocarbon-dated shell. NEANDERTHAL SETTLEMENT IN PORTUGUESE ESTREMADURA In Estremadura, Middle Paleolithic sites are found in caves and open-air fluvial settings. Zilhão (2001) has noted the typical pattern: In caves, Mousterian occupations always seem to represent palimpsests of functionally repetitive residential occupations alternating with episodes of large carnivore denning. In the open, sites tend to appear, archaeologically, as extensive, often quite spread out, occupation surfaces where discrete activity areas cannot be identified, suggesting a similar pattern of redundancy. It cannot be excluded, however, that this may well have resulted from the action of geological processes affecting the formation of the sites, which tend to be contained in riverside deposits. (Zilhão, 2001: 606).

Most of what is known about Late Pleistocene human settlement in Portugal comes from the inland portion of Portuguese Estremadura, where sparse occupation during the Lower and Middle Paleolithic took place. Few Middle Paleolithic sites have reliably accurate radiometric dates (Table I). The recently excavated Galeria Pesada, located near the head of the karstic spring feeding the Rio Almonda, dates to ⬃200 ka (Marks et al., 2002). The open-air site of Vale do Forno, situated in the fluvial gravels of the Tagus River, may date to the beginning of MIS 5, but the error ranges are infinite (Mozzi et al., 2000). Both of these sites display a late Acheulean character and a Micoquian affinity with their frequency of handaxes. This tradition is thought to last until just after the Last Interglacial (Vega Toscano, Raposo, & Santonja, 1999). Praia Rei Cortiço, with a Middle Paleolithic assemblage discussed below, likely dates to the Last Interglacial, MIS 5. A few caves, such as Furninha and Almonda (Mousterian Cone and Oliveira), and open-air sites found in Tagus River terrace deposits, Santa Antão do Tojal and Vilas Ruivas, date to MIS 4 (Table I) (Cardoso, 1995; Zilhão, 1997, 2001). Marks (2000) argued that Late Middle and Early Upper Paleolithic population densities were very low, based on the rarity of sites in central Portugal. The paucity of paleoenvironmental data for MIS 3 and early MIS 2 makes it difficult to determine whether geomorphic processes are responsible for the lack of sites or if this reflects human settlement patterns. A few Late Mousterian sites date near the end of MIS 3. These include Foz do Enxarrique, Conceição, Lapa dos Furos, Pedreira de Salemas, Gruta Nova de Columbeira, Figueira Brava, and Oliveira (Table I) (Zilhão, 2000). Foz do Enxiarrique, an open-air site in a fluvial deposit along the Tagus River, contains over 10,000 lithic artifacts, more than 90% of which were made on immediately available quartzite and quartz cobbles from the river terraces (Brugal & Raposo, 1999). Gaspar and Aldeias (2005) have reported a salvage excavation of Arneiro Cortiço, a Middle Paleolithic site containing more than 97% quartzite artifacts on a Quaternary terrace of the Tagus River. The assemblage is mostly flakes and few retouched pieces. Conceição is one of several Middle Paleolithic occupations on lower Tagus River terraces near Lisbon dated to MIS 3. The lithic assemblages are 714


K top K base K top K C E Test 3a, 90–100 Test 3a, 80–90 Test 3a, 60–70 2 2 2

Gruta do Caldeirão

Gruta da Figueira Brava

Gruta do Escoural

AMS 14C AMS 14C AMS 14C AMS 14C OSL OSL U-Th U-Th U-Th AMS 14C U-Th U-Th

U-Th AMS 14C AMS 14C AMS 14C AMS 14C AMS 14C AMS 14C AMS 14C AMS 14C AMS 14C AMS 14C AMS 14C AMS 14C AMS 14C U-Th

Method SMU-231E1 GrA-10200 OxA-867 Beta-111967 GrA-9760 OxA-8672 OxA-9379 GrA-24408 GrA-24410 GrA-22024 OxA-13137 Beta-183537 GrA-24407 GrA-29385 SMU-308-247E2 SMU-247E1 OxA-5541 OxA-5521 OxA-1941 OxA-8670 QTLS-CNC11 QTLS-CNC12 SMU-248 SMU-249 SMU-250 ICEN-387 SMU-232E1 SMU-233E2

Lab Reference

30,930 ⫾ 700

18,060 ⫾ 140 23,040 ⫾ 340 27,600 ⫾ 600 25,200 ⫾ 200

31,900 ⫾ 200 32,740 ⫾ 420 40,420 ⫾ 1220 38,390 ⫾ 480 42,900 ⫾ 1200 ⬎25,850 ⫾ 550 26,940 ⫹ 270/250 39,540 ⫹ 490/410 42,800 ⫹ 2300/1800 27,850 ⫾ 550 40,900 ⫾ 1100 37,520 ⫹ 380/330 37,120 ⫹ 380/ 330

C Age (yr B.P.)

14

(Continued )

35,000 ⫾ 2000 35,929 ⫾ 348 37,241 ⫾ 773 44,154 ⫾ 1074 42,877 ⫾ 606 46,596 ⫾ 1638 — 31,682 ⫾ 227 43,310 ⫾ 490 46,350 ⫾ 2050 32,490 ⫾ 499 44,475 ⫾ 1100 42,160 ⫾ 340 41,960 ⫾ 330 53,000 ⫹ 5600/5300 70,250 ⫾ 9000 21,793 ⫾ 383 27,594 ⫾ 515 32,314 ⫾ 522 30,095 ⫾ 271 27,200 ⫾ 2500 74,500 ⫹ 11,600/10,400 26,400 ⫹ 11,000/10,000 39,800 ⫹ 10,000/9000 48,900 ⫹ 5800/5500 35,174 ⫾ 661 30,561 ⫹ 11,579/10,725 44,806 ⫹ 15,889/13,598

Calendar Age (cal. yr)d

7:30 PM

bone bone sediment bone sediment sediment tooth enamel tooth enamel tooth enamel marine shell tooth enamel tooth enamel

tooth enamel burnt bone burnt bone burnt bone burnt bone burnt bone burnt bone charcoal charcoal charcoal charcoal charcoal charcoal charcoal tooth enamel

Sample

9/30/10

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EVS Cone 8 8 9 9 11 11 12 13 14 14 14 15 18 Mousterian Cone

Level

Almonda, EVS Almonda, Gruta da Oliveiraa

Site

Table I. Dates for select Middle Paleolithic sites in central Portugal. Adapted from Zilhão (2006) and references therein.

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2 VF01 VF02 VF05 VF06 B B

4 1

terrestrial shell bone bone bone sediment sediment sediment sediment sediment sediment

tooth enamel tooth enamel tooth enamel tooth enamel carbonaceous earth tooth enamel tooth enamel carbonaceous earth tooth enamel

b

Dates from Angelucci and Zilhão (2009). Dates from Raposo (2000). c Dates from Mozzi et al. (2000). d Calibration curve: CalPal2007_HULU (Weninger & Jöris, 2008).

a

Vilas Ruivasb

Lapa dos Furos Pedreira de Salemas Gruta de Salemas Santo Antão do Tojalb Vale do Forno (VF8)c

16 (⫽7) 7 7 20 (⫽8) 8

C C C

Sample

14

C C 14 C U-Th TL TL TL TL TL TL

14

U-Th U-Th U-Th U-Th 14 C U-Th U-Th 14 C U-Th

Method

BM-VRU1 BM-VRU2

ICEN-473 ICEN-366 ICEN-379 SMU-305

Gif-2703 SMU-235E1 SMU-238E1 Gif-2704 SMU-236E1

SMU-225 SMU-226 SMU-224

Lab Reference

34,580 ⫹ 1160/1010 29,890 ⫹ 1130/980 24,820 ⫾ 550

28,900 ⫾ 950

26,400 ⫾ 700

C Age (yr B.P.)

14

32,938 ⫾ 1,055 34,088 ⫾ 800 34,093 ⫾ 920 80,880 ⫹ 42,420/31,260 31,135 ⫾ 589 35,876 ⫹ 27,299/35,583 54,365 ⫹ 22,240/27,525 33,252 ⫾ 818 60,927 ⫹ 27,405/35,522 101,487 ⫹ 38,406/55,919 39,990 34,650 29,577 ⫾ 701 81,900 ⫹ 4000/3800 127,000 ⫹ infinite/26,000 119,000 ⫹ infinite/32,000 117,000 ⫹ infinite/26,000 ⬎124,000 51,000 ⫹ 13,000/12,000 68,000 ⫹ 35,000/ 26,000

Calendar Age (cal. yr)d

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Furninhab Gruta Nova de Columbeira

Foz do Enxiarrique

Level

9/30/10

Site

Table I. (Continued)

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dominated by local quartz and quartzite with a few finished tools on chert brought from elsewhere. Gruta de Columbeira is a cave located in a narrow valley that opens into the southern end of the Caldas da Rainha diapiric valley. The quartz, quartzite, and chert in roughly similar percentages comprise the large lithic assemblage (Raposo, 2000). The Gruta de Oliveira, also located at the karstic spring of Almonda, has mostly quartzite with some quartz and chert (Marks, Monigal, & Zilhão, 2001; Angelucci & Zilhão, 2009). Lapa dos Furos and Salemas produced only a few diagnostic Middle Paleolithic artifacts and little can be said about them (Zilhão, 2006). Many of the Middle Paleolithic cave and open-air sites are located near springs or fluvial settings. The lithic assemblages of the Middle Paleolithic in general are based on Levallois and non-Levallois techniques utilizing flint, quartzite, and quartz in varying frequencies depending on site location and distance to raw material sources. Both Zilhão (2000, 2001) and Raposo (2000) have suggested that Middle Paleolithic people were highly mobile and predominately utilized locally available raw material, especially quartz and quartzite. Middle Paleolithic Coastal Settlement Along the Portuguese coast there are numerous raised bedrock platforms, described in the Quaternary Map of Portugal (Zbyszewski, 1971) as having “polygenetic marine and continental origins.” These platforms were provisionally dated in Estremadura by correlation with Mediterranean glacial sequences (Sicilian, Milazzian, Tyrrenhian, and Grimaldian). Breuil and Zbyszewski (1945) recorded numerous openair Acheulean and Mousterian localities on these coastal platforms between Lisbon and Peniche. Breuil, Vaultier, and Zbyszewski (1942) suggested that differences in technology between the coastal assemblages and the interior ones may have been related to shellfish collection at these sites. Unfortunately, no faunal preservation exists, most of the material appears wind- or water-polished, and there are no radiometric dates for any of them. Until now, the only other dated site in a littoral setting is a cave, Figueira Brava, with unreliable U-Th dates and a radiocarbon date on shell of ⬃30,000 B.P. (Antunes & Cardoso, 2000). The faunal assemblage shows evidence for Neanderthal use of marine and estuarine resources (Callapez, 2000). Most of the stone tools were manufactured on local quartz. The few chert tools were brought in as heavily worked tools made elsewhere. THE PALEOLITHIC LANDSCAPES AND SEASCAPES OF PORTUGUESE ESTREMADURA PROJECT In 2005, we began a multidisciplinary archaeological survey and testing program supported by two successive National Science Foundation grants (BCS 0455145 and 0715279). The ongoing project goal is to study flexibility in human adaptation to changing coastal and pericoastal landscapes in the Late Pleistocene of Portuguese Estremadura. We use a landscape approach to answer questions regarding the antiquity of coastal settlement, diachronic patterns in the use of coastal landscapes by GEOARCHAEOLOGY: AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL, VOL. 25, NO. 6

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Pleistocene humans, and the organizational properties of technology, settlement, and subsistence in the coastal context. The 2005–2008 field research documented a series of tectonically raised Pleistocene coastal sediments dating to MIS 2–6, exposed in eroding coastal bluffs in the Nazaré region (Table II) (see also Benedetti et al., 2009). The geology of uplifted deposits at São Pedro de Muel, Polvoeira, Mira Nascente, and Praia Rei Cortiço represent a diverse range of paleocoastal landforms including sandy foreshore ramps, sandy to gravelly beaches and berms, and lowenergy tidal flats. These stratigraphic sections record significant sea-level variations and show that tidal flats conducive to the formation of abundant shellfish beds existed in back-barrier and estuarine environments during the Middle and Upper Paleolithic. Archaeological deposits at Mira Nascente and Praia Rei Cortiço demonstrate that Neanderthals regularly occupied these coastal wetlands. Sea Level, Neotectonics, and Raised Pleistocene Coastal Deposits in Estremadura Although it has sometimes been portrayed as a simple passive margin, recent studies show that neotectonic activity along the Portuguese margin is fairly intense. Evidence of tectonism includes deformation of Pleistocene strata and historical seismicity (Cabral & Ribeiro, 1989; Ferreira, 1991; Granja et al. 1999; Maldonado & Nelson, 1999; Zitellini et al., 2004; Abrantes et al., 2005; Cunha et al., 2008). Numerous examples of uplifted Pleistocene coastal deposits have recently been described along the Atlantic margin to the north or south of the study area, with evidence for localized uplift rates of up to 3 mm yr⫺1 (Granja & de Groot, 1996; Zazo et al., 2003; Soares de Carvalho et al., 2006; Alonso & Pagés, 2007; Gracia et al., 2008; Granja, de Groot, & Costa, 2008). These features are mostly related to the tectonic evolution of the coast from passive to active margin, which is being forced by the convergence of North Africa with Iberia (Rasmussen et al., 1998). Northwestward motion of Africa has been estimated at 4–5 mm yr⫺1, leading to crustal deformation and uplift along the margins of the Iberian plate (Cloetingh et al., 2005; Cunha et al., 2005). The tectonic evolution of the study area is governed by a complex set of strikeslip faults, thrust faults, and salt diapirs. Most of these formed in association with the Mesozoic rifting of the Atlantic basin, and have been reactivated under a new stress regime created by convergence with Africa. The dominant feature in the area is the Nazaré fault, a major transfer fault aligned with an offshore submarine canyon (Pinheiro et al., 1996; Azeredo, Wright, & Ramalho, 2002). Transpression along this fault is partly responsible for the high relief and coastal bluffs near Nazaré. The tectonic setting is complicated by numerous salt diapirs in the area that originated with massive evaporite deposition in the Lusitanian Basin during the Mesozoic (Rasmussen et al., 1998; Alves et al., 2003). The diapirs form localized domes of rapid uplift that are cross-cut by faults. The largest of these is the Caldas da Rainha structure, a valley running parallel to the coast that was produced by unroofing along the axis of the diapir. A smaller diapir has uplifted the coast between Polvoeira and São Pedro Muel, and at least 10 others are mapped in the area (Pinheiro et al., 1996).

718


SP2 SP3b SP3d SP3f PV2c PV4 MN2 MN2 MN3b MN3c MN4 MN5 PC2b PC4

São Pedro de Muel São Pedro de Muel São Pedro de Muel São Pedro de Muel Polvoeira Polvoeira Mira Nascente Mira Nascente Mira Nascente Mira Nascente Mira Nascente Mira Nascente Praia Rei Cortiço Praia Rei Cortiço

UIC-2069 UIC-2066 UIC-2068 UIC-2067 UIC-2070 UIC-2071 UIC-1875 UIC-1863 UIC-1864 UIC-1923 UIC-1868 UIC-2065 UIC-2399 UIC-2398

Lab Reference Ur (ppm)b 0.5 ⫾ 0.1 0.9 ⫾ 0.1 0.7 ⫾ 0.1 0.8 ⫾ 0.1 0.6 ⫾ 0.1 0.7 ⫾ 0.1 0.6 ⫾ 0.1 0.6 ⫾ 0.1 0.8 ⫾ 0.1 2.0 ⫾ 0.1 0.6 ⫾ 0.1 0.6 ⫾ 0.1 1.0 ⫾ 0.1 0.9 ⫾ 0.1

Equivalent Dose (Grays)a 41.66 ⫾ 0.74 62.52 ⫾ 0.11 56.08 ⫾ 0.50 71.51 ⫾ 0.83 62.69 ⫾ 0.45 57.40 ⫾ 1.38 50.10 ⫾ 0.16 61.79 ⫾ 0.15 50.22 ⫾ 0.05 47.89 ⫾ 1.00 ⬎140.08 ⫾ 0.08 139.69 ⫾ 0.68 33.58 ⫾ 0.27 71.63 ⫾ 2.58

1.5 ⫾ 0.1 2.9 ⫾ 0.1 2.2 ⫾ 0.1 2.2 ⫾ 0.1 1.5 ⫾ 0.1 1.9 ⫾ 0.1 1.4 ⫾ 0.1 1.2 ⫾ 0.1 1.5 ⫾ 0.1 2.7 ⫾ 0.1 1.2 ⫾ 0.1 1.8 ⫾ 0.1 5.6 ⫾ 0.1 1.4 ⫾ 0.1

Th (ppm)b 1.13 ⫾ 0.01 1.63 ⫾ 0.01 1.32 ⫾ 0.01 1.50 ⫾ 0.01 1.77 ⫾ 0.01 0.75 ⫾ 0.01 1.36 ⫾ 0.01 1.91 ⫾ 0.02 1.14 ⫾ 0.01 1.09 ⫾ 0.01 1.25 ⫾ 0.01 0.85 ⫾ 0.01 1.70 ⫾ 0.01 0.47 ⫾ 0.01

K2O (%)b 10 ⫾ 3 10 ⫾ 3 10 ⫾ 3 10 ⫾ 3 10 ⫾ 3 10 ⫾ 3 10 ⫾ 3 10 ⫾ 3 10 ⫾ 3 20 ⫾ 5 10 ⫾ 3 15 ⫾ 3 10 ⫾ 3 10 ⫾ 3

H2O (%)c 0.016 ⫾ 0.002 0.016 ⫾ 0.002 0.015 ⫾ 0.001 0.015 ⫾ 0.002 0.015 ⫾ 0.002 0.014 ⫾ 0.001 0.028 ⫾ 0.003 0.016 ⫾ 0.002 0.016 ⫾ 0.002 0.015 ⫾ 0.002 0.015 ⫾ 0.002 0.012 ⫾ 0.001 0.16 ⫾ 0.02 0.028 ⫾ 0.003

Cosmic Dose (mGrays/yr)d 1.17 ⫾ 0.07 1.77 ⫾ 0.08 1.42 ⫾ 0.07 1.54 ⫾ 0.07 1.73 ⫾ 0.08 0.92 ⫾ 0.05 1.39 ⫾ 0.07 1.82 ⫾ 0.09 1.24 ⫾ 0.07 1.39 ⫾ 0.07 1.27 ⫾ 0.07 0.93 ⫾ 0.08 2.23 ⫾ 0.12 0.71 ⫾ 0.04

Total Dose (mGrays/yr)

35,530 ⫾ 2785 35,260 ⫾ 2590 39,450 ⫾ 2980 46,660 ⫾ 3570 36,250 ⫾ 2840 62,220 ⫾ 4660 36,035 ⫾ 2750 33,905 ⫾ 2690 40,450 ⫾ 2980 34,300 ⫾ 2630 ⬎110,050 ⫾ 8460 150,920 ⫾ 12,575 15,060 ⫾ 980 101,010 ⫾ 7870

OSL Age (yr)e

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a Equivalent dose determined by the multiple aliquot regenerative dose method under green (514 nm) or blue (470 nm) excitation (Jain, Botter-Jensen, & Singhvi, 2003). Blue emissions are measured with 3-mm-thick Schott BG-39 and one 3-mm-thick Corning 7-59 glass filters that block ⬎90% luminescence emitted below 390 nm and above 490 nm in front of the photomultiplier tube. The coarse-grained (150–250 mm) quartz fraction is analyzed. b U, Th, and K2O determined by ICP-MS at Activation Laboratory Ltd., Ontario. c Average water content estimated from particle size characteristics assuming periodic wetting in the vadose zone. d Cosmic dose rate component from Prescott and Hutton (1994) based on latitude, longitude, elevation, and burial depth of samples. e All errors are at one sigma and ages are calculated from A.D. 2000. Analyses preformed by Luminescence Dating Research Laboratory, Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Illinois–Chicago.

Unit ID

Site

Table II. Sample data for optically stimulated luminescence ages in this study.

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Neotectonics and diapirism have been instrumental in uplifting and preserving Pleistocene raised beaches and archaeological sites in the study area (Benedetti et al., 2009). Uplifted Pleistocene deposits between São Pedro Muel and Nazaré were first reported by França and Zbyszewski (1963) and investigated by Firtion and Soares de Carvalho (1952). Recently, a series of raised beachface and intertidal deposits has been identified in the vicinity of Nazaré at elevations of 35–50 m above sea level (ASL) and dated to MIS 3–5 (Benedetti et al., 2009). Three MIS 3 raised beach complexes are preserved at multiple sites with optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) and radiocarbon ages that cluster around 35 ka, 41 ka, and 62 ka (see Table II for details; Benedetti et al., 2009). This discovery confirms that the paleoshoreline has been uplifted at a rate that outpaced post-glacial sea level rise in places along the coast. The ages of the raised beaches suggest that they reflect fluctuations in eustatic sea level during MIS 3, which are related to the dynamic response of ice sheets to climate change (Siddal et al., 2008). Assuming sea-level highstands during MIS 3 were in a range between –20 and –60 m relative to modern, the uplift rate has for these sites has been a fairly rapid 1–2 mm yr⫺1 (Benedetti et al., 2009). Although the structural dynamics of this area are not fully understood, the uplifted Estremadura sections seem to be located along the edges of the active Caldas da Rainha and São Pedro de Muel diapiric anticlines. This and other evidence of localized rapid uplift along the Portuguese margin contradicts previous sea level curves that largely discounted tectonics and placed the glacial shorelines 5–10 km offshore (Araújo, 2002; de Groot & Granja, 1995; contra, Dias, Rodrigues, & Magalhães, 1997; Dias et al., 2000; Rodrigues, Magalhães, & Dias, 1991; Rodrigues, Dias, & Ribeiro, 2000).

NEANDERTHAL OCCUPATION OF COASTAL WETLANDS IN ESTREMADURA Mira Nascente Located in a coastal cliff about 10 km north of Nazaré, the Mira Nascente locality yielded a collection of flint tools, cores, and chipping debris in a discrete stratigraphic level immediately above a layer of smoothed quartz and quartzite beach pebbles. The site was first mapped and tested in 2005. Surface collection from the eroded edge of the deposit yielded a small collection of lithic artifacts. Subsequent testing recovered in situ artifacts. In 2006, an extensive area approximately 30 m2 was excavated according to the natural stratigraphy (Figures 2, 3). Project team members plotted many of the artifacts in three dimensions using a transit and level. The team sieved the excavated sediments through 4- and 2-mm mesh screen. The sole artifact-bearing layer lies at the base of a 1-m-thick deposit of massive white sand exposed in a horizontal position in the cliff. The artifacts are restricted to a 2-cm-thick layer near the base of the massive white sand deposit. The context of the artifacts and the extraordinary condition of the flake edges suggests a very wellpreserved occupation where spatially organized activities took place. The presence of Levallois flakes and centripetal or discoidal cores indicates a Middle Paleolithic occupation (Figure 4). 720


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100 Centimeters unexcavated site area

N

unexcavated site area

Number of Lithics Per Unit

cliff edge

0

30–39

1–9

40–49

10 –19

50–59

20–29

60–65

Mapped Lithics chert, core

chert, tool

chert, cortical flake

quartz, cortical flake

chert, flake

quartzite, tool

Figure 2. Excavation plan of Mira Nascente.

Figure 3. Excavations at Mira Nascente.


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Figure 4. Levallois flakes (a–c) and centripetal cores (d–e) from Mira Nascente.

Geologic Setting and Age Pleistocene deposits between São Pedro de Muel and Mira Nascente sit on an uplifted wave-cut platform that is etched across dipping Jurassic limestone beds that are exposed at elevations of 10–20 m in the coastal bluffs. The extent of the uplifted platform coincides with the margins of an active salt diapir mapped by Rasmussen et al. (1998), which intersects the coastline. Other raised beach sections are found on similar wave-cut platforms along the flanks of the Caldas da Rainha diapir, south of the Óbidos lagoon. Stratigraphic sections atop these platforms contain a diversity of Pleistocene near-coastal deposits including foreshore, beachface, berm overwash, tidal flat, fluvial, and eolian facies (Benedetti et al., 2009). Microfossil indicators of marine origin are generally not present in uplifted coastal deposits along the Iberian Atlantic margin, as has been noted in previous studies (Ferreira, 1991; Zazo et al., 1999; Meireles & Texier, 2000; Alonso & Pagés, 2007). As a result, depositional environments in the study area have mainly been determined on the basis of sedimentary structures: Hummocky cross-stratification characterizes shoreface deposits, low-angle cross beds with moderate sorting characterize 722


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COASTAL WETLANDS AND THE NEANDERTHAL SETTLEMENT Table III. Sample data for AMS radiocarbon ages in this study. Calibrated ages given in parentheses are in disagreement with bracketing OSL ages and are likely contaminated with younger carbon, as discussed in the text. Site

Stratigraphic Unit

Mira Nascente Mira Nascente Mira Nascente Mira Nascente Mira Nascente Praia Rei Cortiço Praia Rei Cortiço Praia Rei Cortiço Praia Rei Cortiço Praia Rei Cortiço

MN3a MN3a MN3b MN3c MN3c PC2a PC5b PC5c PC5c PC5c

a b

Material charcoal soil organic matter charred stump charcoal charcoal peat charcoal charcoal charcoal charcoal

Lab Referencea Beta-234375 Beta-208223 Beta-208224 Beta-234376 Beta-208225 Beta-234368 UGAMS-3254 UGAMS-3255 UGAMS-3912 UGAMS-3913

Radiocarbon Calibrated Age Age (14C yr B.P.) (cal. yr B.P.)b 37,570 ⫾ 600 17,180 ⫾ 80 21,810 ⫾ 160 36,720 ⫾ 270 36,030 ⫾ 710 3,970 ⫾ 40 46,850 ⫾ 250 ⬎ 49,600 49,560 ⫾ 310 ⬎ 49,600

42,175 ⫾ 461 (20,628 ⫾ 292) (26,110 ⫾ 499) 41,717 ⫾ 311 40,744 ⫾ 1,025 4,448 ⫾ 56 (50,356 ⫾ 1,854) outside range (53,781 ⫾ 2,055) outside range

Beta: Beta Analytic, Inc., Miami, FL. UGAMS: Center for Applied Isotope Studies, University of Georgia, Athens, GA. Calibration curve: CalPal2007_HULU (Weninger & Jöris, 2008).

beach deposits, and chevron-bedded sands or wave-rippled muds characterize tidal flat deposits. Additional evidence supporting a marine origin for these deposits includes pollen assemblages that are dominated by coastal taxa (discussed below), particle size similarities with modern intertidal deposits, and very low values of magnetic susceptibility (Benedetti et al., 2009). The archaeological site at Mira Nascente is contained within a medium to fine white sand layer that is capped by a weak paleosol (unit MN3; Figure 5, Table IV). The artifacts were found in a 2-cm-thick layer near the base of MN3 (Figure 6). The white sand lies beneath a beachface deposit (MN2) of medium to coarse yellowishbrown sand with cross-laminated beds dipping gently oceanward. Beneath the white sand lies another beach deposit (MN4) of poorly sorted coarse sand with localized flaser bedding and lenses of gravel. The entire MN 2–3–4 sequence outcrops continuously in eroding coastal bluffs between Polvoeira and Vale Paredes. The sedimentology of the artifact-bearing white sand (MN3) strongly suggests a tidal flat. At Polvoeira, this same unit is capped by ripple-laminated mud with root traces extending into the underlying sand (Benedetti et al., 2009). The abundance of pebbles increases toward the base of the unit, in a fining-upward sequence that is consistent with tidal flow. About 50 m south of the archaeological site at Mira Nascente, the white sand deposit thickens and contains an organic-rich channel fill deposit (MN3c). The channel was filled by younger beach sand during the relative rise in sea level associated with unit MN2. The affiliation of wide–shallow paleochannels with intertidal and beach deposits suggests that the occupation at Mira Nascente took place near the shore where a small stream emptied into the sea. Radiometric dates for Mira Nascente were determined by OSL and AMS radiocarbon dating (see Tables II and III for details). The OSL age of 40,450 ⫾ 2980 yr (UIC-1864) for the artifact-bearing white sand (MN3) provides a secure age estimate GEOARCHAEOLOGY: AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL, VOL. 25, NO. 6

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soil / root traces luminescence-dated sample radiocarbon-dated sample radiocarbon sample (anomalous date) Paleolithic artifacts

60

50

MN1 40

Elevation (m asl)

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MN2 MN3 ab

30

3c

MN4

20

MN5 10

Jurassic outcrop 0 0

Beach

100

North

200

Distance (m)

300

South

Figure 5. Stratigraphic profile of the Mira Nascente locality.

Figure 6. Stratigraphic profile of artifact-bearing white sand layer (MN3b) and nearby channel fill (MN3c) at Mira Nascente.

for the Middle Paleolithic occupation (Tables II, IV, Figure 6). Two radiocarbon dates on charcoal provide further support for the OSL age of unit MN3: one from the paleosol at the top of unit MN3 (42,175 ⫾ 461 cal. B.P.) and another from the nearby channel fill deposit (41,717 ⫾ 311 cal. B P ) (Tables III, IV). A younger OSL age (34,300 ⫾ 2630 yr) from the channel fill likely derives from sand that later filled the channel. The OSL ages of 33–36 ka on the overlying sand of MN2 (PV2) give a minimum age 724


lt. yellow-brown (10YR6/4)

gray (10YR6/1)

white (10YR8/1)

dk. gray-brown (10YR4/2)

yellow-brown (10YR5/6)

light gray (10YR7/1)

MN2

MN3a

MN3b

MN3c

MN4

MN5

ms

muddy fs to gr cs

ms

poor; v. fine

mod to poor; v. coarse to fine

mod; fine

mod to well; sym

mod to well; sym

mod to well; sym to fine

well; sym

Sorting and Skewnessb

even parallel beds dipping 30 deg to SE; paleosol

gravelly and loamy lenses; hummocky cross-stratification; truncates dipping beds of MN5

faint even parallel laminations; lenses of coarse sand at base

structureless; many pebbles up to 20 mm diameter; Middle Paleolithic artifacts

structureless; darker color at top; faint root traces; clay lamellae

low-angle cross-laminations dipping landward and seaward; some troughs and rippled beds

structureless loose sand; modern roots; historical artifacts

Sedimentary Structures, Features

tidal flat or fluvial

gravel beach or colluvium

tidal channel

colluvial or cliff-front beach

tidal flat

beach face and berm

eolian

Depositional System

UIC-1864 Beta-208224 UIC-1923 Beta-208225 Beta-234376 UIC-1868

UIC-2065

OSL: 40,450 ⫾ 2,9801 4 C: 26,110 ⫾ 499 OSL: 34,300 ⫾ 2630 14 C: 40,744 ⫾ 1025 14 C: 41,717 ⫾ 311 OSL: ⬎110,050 ⫾ 8,460

OSL: 150,920 ⫾ 12 575

14

14

Beta-234375 Beta-208223

UIC-1875 UIC-1863

Lab Code

C: 42,175 ⫾ 461 C: 20,628 ⫾ 292

OSL: 36,035 ⫾ 2750 OSL: 33,905 ⫾ 2690

Sample Agesc

b

a

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sgr ms

ms

cs to sgr cs

ms

Particle Sizea

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Particle size class descriptors: sgr ⫽ slightly gravelly, gr ⫽ gravelly, fs ⫽ fine sand, ms ⫽ medium sand, cs ⫽ coarse sand. Logarithmic sorting and skewness measures (phi scale) determined by graphical method (Folk & Ward, 1957). Sorting: v. poor (2.0–4.0w), poor (1.01–2.0w), mod (0.71–1.0w), mod well (0.5–0.7w), well (⬍0.5w). Skewness: v. fine (⬎0.3), fine (0.3 to 0.11), sym (0.1 to –0.1), coarse (–0.11 to –0.3), v. coarse (⬍–0.3). c Optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) and calibrated radiocarbon (14C) ages given with ⫾1s error range. Full sample details are given in Tables II and III. Radiocarbon ages in italics are out of sequence with bracketing OSL ages, likely due to contamination by younger carbon, as discussed in the text.

v. pale brown (10YR7/3)

Munsell Color

MN1

Strat. Unit

Table IV. Sedimentological description for the Mira Nascente site. Stratigraphic units and location of dated samples are shown in Figures 5 and 6.

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for the white sand deposit (MN3). Underlying OSL ages of ⬎110 ka and 150 ka on MN4 and MN5, respectively, bracket the sequence. Two aberrant radiocarbon dates from MN3 are likely due to the sampling of soil organic matter contaminated by younger carbon, in the case of samples from a paleosol at the top of unit MN3 (17,180 B.P.), and organic sand filling a krotovina (21,810 B.P.). The date of 21,810 B.P. has no measured 13C/12C ratio and represents at best a minimum age. Thus, the radiocarbon and OSL ages strongly indicate the white sand layer, and thus the occupation, dates 40–42 ka. The dating of Mira Nascente places the occupation just prior to Heinrich Event 4, which is firmly dated to around 38.5–39 ka in Portugal (Hemming, 2004; Vautravers & Shackleton, 2006). Paleobotany The pollen spectrum from Mira Nascente reflects coastal heath vegetation with some Mediterranean tree stands in the vicinity (Table V). Species like Tuberaria guttata (rockrose; native to western and southern Europe) are indicators for dry, rocky sites close to the sea. They prefer bare patches with a sparse cover of grasses. In the Channel Islands (U.K.) they are surrounded by peaty areas with Calluna vulgaris and Erica cinerea (Proctor, 1960). Other localities of paleoecological importance exist along the coastal cliffs near Mira Nascente. At São Pedro de Muel, Firtion and Soares de Carvalho (1952) reported three clayey mud layers within sands exposed in a coastal cliff. Pollen analyses showed each layer dominated by Pinus pinaster with some Betula, Corylus, Rhus, Ericaceae (Rhododendron), and Compositae (Carduus). Our recent attempts to recover pollen from the mud layers failed to confirm these species. Instead, mud layer 1 contained Poaceae, mud layer 2 had Picea, Tilia, and Acer, and mud layer 3 had Poaceae, Plantago, and Pinus. OSL ages of 39,450 ⫾ 2980 ya and 46,660 ⫾ 3570 yr on sands bracketing Mud 4 suggest a similar age as Mira Nascente (Table II), and the species identified in this layer are also found at Mira Nascente (see Benedetti et al., 2009, for details on São Pedro de Muel stratigraphy). Archaeology The lithic assemblage is small but informative. The majority of the 432 stone artifacts recovered from the primary locality were made on reddish-brown chert that was transported to the site from elsewhere. Table VI shows raw material and artifact classes. Most of the lithics are reduction debris resulting from flake manufacture. There are only five cores, of which three are centripetal Levallois types (Figure 4). The excavation also recovered several Levallois flakes and points. Refitting analyses by Nancy Gallou of the Universitat Rovira i Virgili indicate a local reduction sequence. A total of 56 flakes have been refitted to one another or to specific cores. The refits link artifacts within and between most excavated units. The preliminary results of the refitting demonstrate that most if not all of the artifacts at Mira Nascente were deposited at the same time. Thus, the assemblage represents a unique, temporally high-resolution example of Neanderthal behavior in Portugal.

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COASTAL WETLANDS AND THE NEANDERTHAL SETTLEMENT Table V. Pollen grains identified from an organic-rich channel fill (MN3c) within the white sand layer at Mira Nascente. Taxon

No. of Pollen Grains

Ericaceae (Calluna or Erica) Poaceae Cistaceae (Tuberaria guttata) Asteraceae, Anthemis (chamomile) type Plantago Pinus Quercus Acer Alnus cf. glutinosa

60 17 11 2 1 5 2 1 1

Table VI. Lithic artifacts from Mira Nascente.

Flakes Flake fragments Blades Bladelets Fragments Chips Cores Retouched tools Core trimming flakes Hammerstone TOTAL a

Chert

Quartz

Quartzite

61 15 6 3 1 281 4 1 2

5 1

1

374

1 44

1 52

1 3 1

6

Total 66a 17 6 4 2 328 5 1 2 1 432

There are a total of 5 cortical and 6 partially cortical flakes.

Use-wear analyses identified wear on several flakes, mainly consistent with soft tissue and some bone cutting (Figure 7). The soft tissue wear is most likely from processing fish. Most flakes exhibit no visible traces of use-wear, indicating that their use did not result in visible wear or many of the potential tools were lost in the sand by the maker. This is a further indicator of the relatively brief time of artifact manufacture, use, and discard at the locality. The source of the chert used at Mira Nascente is not known, but primary and secondary sources exist within 10 km of the site. These sources derive from Cretaceous limestone containing various colors of chert. The reddish-brown chert found at Mira Nascente appears as nodules or pebbles with a thin cortex similar to ones found in the immediate uplands near Cós, about 10 km southeast. Praia Rei Cortiço The site of Praia Rei Cortiço, 40 km south of Mira Nascente, is located at the base of a 30-m-high cliff approximately 300 m south of the mouth of the Lagoa de Óbidos. GEOARCHAEOLOGY: AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL, VOL. 25, NO. 6

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Figure 7. Numbers 1, 2, and 4 are tools used for soft matter, possibly fish. Number 3 was used for soft or semi-hard undetermined matter. Macroscopic photos at 40X and microscopic photos at 200X.

The Pleistocene section here is contained within a paleovalley that is deeply incised into Cretaceous bedrock (Figure 8). The archaeological site is located within a white and dark brown sand deposit (PC5a, b) that is sedimentologically similar to the white sand at Mira Nascente (Figure 9, Table VII). The overlying Pleistocene fill includes an eolian sand layer (PC4) dated by OSL to 101,010 ⫾ 7870 yr, a gravelly sand deposit with flaser bedding (PC3), and a gravelly fluvial deposit with clearly defined paleochannels (PC2) OSL-dated 15,060 ⫾ 980 yr. Given the position of the site at the base of a rapidly eroding coastal cliff, the project team undertook an emergency excavation of the site in 2008. The excavated area is very small owing to time constraints. The team mapped a 1 ⫻ 5 m trench along the exposure. A transit and level were used to establish vertical control for the artifacts. Nested sieves with 4-mm and 2-mm mesh were used to collect small flakes and chips. Numerous pieces of charcoal were recovered from PC5b in direct association with lithic artifacts. Although only a small number of artifacts were recovered, they are informative for understanding site formation processes, lithic technology, and raw material economy. Most of the flakes are quartzite and quartz, with a few burned chert flakes displaying fractures and potlids. The flakes were made from Levallois and discoidal or centripetal cores as at Mira Nascente. Several flakes have chapeau and multifaceted platforms typical of the Middle Paleolithic (Figure 10). The artifacts lack evidence for wind or water polishing and display sharply defined flake scars and edges, suggesting 728


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Figure 8. View of the eroding coastal bluff at Praia Rei Cortiço looking north. Quaternary sediments fill a paleovalley incised into bedrock. The base of the Quaternary section is noted with arrows. Rock outcrops on the beach and high cliff in the background are Cretaceous conglomerate. The mouth of the Lagoa de Óbidos is located just beyond the cliff at the far left of the photo. The left arrow points to the archaeological site. The other two arrows point to the lower peat outcrops.

50 soil/root traces luminescence-dated sample radiocarbon-dated sample radiocarbon sample (infinite/nearly infinite date) Paleolithic artifacts

Elevation (m asl)

40

30 PC1 PC2 a b

20

Cretaceous conglomerate

on cti d Se vere Co

10

PC3 Section Covered

PC4 a PC5 b

PC5c

Beach

0 0

100

200

300

400

North Distance (m)

500

600

South

Figure 9. Stratigraphic profile of the Praia Rei Cortiço locality.

a rapid burial by the overlying sand without lengthy exposure to the elements. The fact that two of the potlids were found in close association with the flakes indicates little if any post-depositional movement. Bulk sediment samples were taken from a dark brown fill (PC5b) that appears to be the edge of the peat deposit exposed to the south. These await sedimentological and micromorphological analyses. The fill contains burned artifacts and abundant charcoal. One piece gave an uncalibrated radiocarbon date of 46,850 ⫾ 250 B.P.; GEOARCHAEOLOGY: AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL, VOL. 25, NO. 6

729

dark brown (10YR3/3)

pale brown (10YR6/3)

brown (7.5YR5/4)

very pale brown (10YR7/4)

dk brown to white

dk brown

black

PC2

PC2b

PC3

PC4

PC5a

PC5b

PC5c

peat

si to fs

si to gr ms

ms

muddy ms to gr cs

—

poor; coarse

poor; very coarse

well; coarse

mod to mod well; sym

very poor; sym

very poor; sym to fine

well; sym

Sorting and Skewnessb

thick section of peat with charred pine bark and roots

ripple-laminated silt; thin sandy lenses; abundant charcoal and organic masses; Middle Paleolithic artifacts

ripple-laminated silt at top; root traces in pebbly sand below; subrounded pebbles up to 50 mm diameter

single tabular cross-bed dipping at about 30 deg SE

low-angle cross-laminations dipping seaward; muddy flaser bedding; lenses of subrounded gravels, imbricated, 50–350 mm diameter

many subrounded gravels, 50–300 mm, clast-supported at base; lower boundary incised into PC3

200-mm-thick peat bed at top; root traces extending into sand below; stratification obscured

structureless sand; modern roots; abrupt lower boundary

Sedimentary Structures, Features

freshwater bog

tidal flat; hearth?

tidal flat

eolian

cliff-front beach

fluvial

fluvial or estuarine

eolian

Depositional System

UGA-3913 UGA-???? UGA-3912

C: ⬎55,000 C: ⬎55,000 14 C: 53,781 ⫾ 2055 14

14

UGA-3254

UIC-2398

UIC-2399

Beta -234368

Lab Code

C: 50,356 ⫾ 1854 14

OSL: 101,010 ⫾ 7870

OSL: 15,060 ⫾ 980

C: 4448 ⫾ 56

14

Sample Agesc

b

a

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vgr cs

peat over sgr cs

ms

Particle Sizea

9/30/10

Particle size classes from samples in each unit: sgr ⫽ slightly gravelly, gr ⫽ gravelly, vgr ⫽ very gravelly, si ⫽ silt, fs ⫽ fine sand, ms ⫽ medium sand, cs ⫽ coarse sand. Logarithmic sorting and skewness measures determined by Folk and Ward (1957) graphical method. Sorting: v. poor (2.0–4.0w), poor (1.01–2.0w), mod (0.71–1.0w), mod well (0.5–0.7w), well (⬍0.5w). Skewness: v. fine (⬎0.3), fine (0.3 to 0.11), sym (0.1 to –0.1), coarse (–0.11 to –0.3), v. coarse (⬍–0.3). c All ages given with ⫾1s error range. Sample details given in Tables II and III. Ages in italics are close to or beyond analytical limits of radiocarbon dating.

very pale brown (10YR7/3)

Munsell Color

PC1

Strat. Unit

Table VII. Sedimentological description for the Praia Rei Cortiço site. Stratigraphic units and location of dated samples are shown in Figure 9.

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COASTAL WETLANDS AND THE NEANDERTHAL SETTLEMENT (a)

(c)

(b)

(d)

(e)

Figure 10. Quartzite (a, b) and chert (c–e) artifacts from Praia Rei Cortiço. Flakes c and d have potlids that refit to their parent flake.

however, the OSL age of 101,010 ⫾ 7870 yr from the overlying sands suggests a Last Interglacial age or older (Table VII). Yellow and reddish bands within the fill indicate post-depositional weathering of minerals (Figure 11), typical of marsh and tidal flat soils in which redox reaction occurs as a result of wet/dry cycles (Wells, 2001). The amount of charcoal present suggests heat alteration by natural or cultural fires may have been partly responsible. The contact between the fill and the surrounding sand matrix has an orange discoloration consistent with heat alteration. About 150 m south of the archaeological site, a thick peat deposit (PC5c) was exposed at the base of the Quaternary sequence (Figure 12). The peat traces laterally toward the archaeological deposit but disappears under a thick slumped section of the cliff. Three radiocarbon dates from charcoal and a piece of preserved tree root returned dates at or beyond the limits of the technique (Tables III, VII). The peat deposit has a five-part vegetation sequence, indicating substantial time depth for its formation. The section was sampled at 1–2-cm contiguous intervals. Each sample was disaggregated and processed for pollen analysis using standard methodology (Faegri, Kaland, & Krzywinski, 1989). Pollen counts were made of at least 300 terrestrial pollen grains, inclusive of trees, shrubs, and forbs. The species identified in the lower part indicate a freshwater marsh environment with sedges and bog myrtle surrounded by open heath (Ericaceae). The marsh vegetation is replaced by deciduous hardwoods including Betula, Fagus, Corylus, Rosaceae, and other temperate and Mediterranean species. Pine woodlands with open heath abruptly


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Figure 11. Charcoal-rich dark brown fill (PC5b) at Praia Rei Cortiço.

Figure 12. Peat deposit (PC5c) near the Praia Rei Cortiço archaeological site.

replace this community in the third stage. Grasses and composites characteristic of steppe vegetation indicate drier conditions near the final stage of peat formation. Arboreal species return at the top. The record of environmental change suggests alterations of wet–dry cycles with significant changes in resource availability for Neanderthals. The geoarchaeological, palynological, and anthracological analyses for this site are incomplete, but preliminary observations point to a Middle Paleolithic site located near a coastal swamp or marsh, most likely a former arm of the Óbidos estuary. Contextualizing the Coastal Lithic Technology, Raw Material Economy Mira Nascente and Praia Rei Cortiço are among the few Middle Paleolithic sites together with Figueira Brava found in a near-paleoshore context in central Portugal. 732


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COASTAL WETLANDS AND THE NEANDERTHAL SETTLEMENT Table VIII. Raw material frequencies for select Late Middle Paleolithic sites in central Portugal.

Mira Nascente Praia Rei Cortiço Figueira Brava Oliveira 8 Oliveira 9 Conceição 1 Conceição 2 Conceição 3 a b

open open cave cave cave open open open

Quartzite

Quartz

Chert

N

12% 72% 3% 60% 49% 96% 90% 88%

1% 15% 90% 8% 13% 3% 10% 12%

87% 13% 5%a 32% 38% 1% — —

432 93 3948 89 (184)b 112 (279)b 647 20 51

Includes jasper; total excludes limestone flakes. Analysis excludes chips ⬍2. 5 cm.

Another site, Praia do Pedrógão, 20 km north of Mira Nascente, was found in a fluvial setting that may have been near the paleoshore during the time of deposition (Aubry, Cunha-Ribeiro, & Angelucci, 2005). No radiometric dates have been reported, but two archaeological horizons at Praia do Pedrógão exhibit the typical Middle Paleolithic pattern for fluvial sites: an older one with rolled and wind-polished quartzite flakes and a more recent one with quartzite and quartz Levallois centripetal cores and flakes. A small number of flakes derived from chert were procured and reduced elsewhere. Of the few hundred quartzite flakes, only a few are retouched. As noted above, Middle Paleolithic people were highly mobile and preferentially utilized quartz and quartzite found onsite or within 1–2 km (Raposo, 2000; Zilhão, 2001). Analyses of the Middle Paleolithic assemblages from the cave sites of Gruta de Columbeira, Oliveira, Figueira Brava, and open-air fluvial sites Conceição, Foz do Enxiarrique, and Santa Cita generally show a heavy reliance on locally available quartzite and quartz (Table VIII) (Bicho & Ferring, 1998; Raposo, 2000; Zilhão, 2001). At each of these sites, chert often occurs in the form of exhausted cores and heavily retouched and reused flake tools. This suggests a fair degree of chert tool curation, a practice not apparently exercised for quartz and quartzite. Furthermore, there does not appear to be any chronological or climatic pattern in raw material preference during the Middle Paleolithic in Portugal. The sites mentioned are not well dated and occur throughout MIS 4 and 3, periods of continuous climatic instability. The preferential use of quartz and quartzite versus chert at many Middle Paleolithic sites led some to suggest that the hardness of the former may have been desired by Neanderthal toolmakers (e.g., Raposo, 2000). Marks, Monigal, and Zilhão (2001) showed there were no real differences in manufacturing technique applied to quartzite and chert at Oliveira; thus, raw material preference was unrelated to tool making. This suggests raw material use was conditioned by other factors, possibly mobility patterns. As Kuhn (1995) noted, people tend to use locally available stone when occupations are unplanned and residential mobility is high. When residential mobility is lower and occupations are planned, people tend to provision sites with raw material from more distant sources, primarily as a result of increased logistical organization. The analyses of the Mira Nascente lithic assemblage indicate significant intersite differences in the organization of lithic technology during the Middle Paleolithic that GEOARCHAEOLOGY: AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL, VOL. 25, NO. 6

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relate to its landscape setting and raw material use. Quartz and quartzite were immediately available, yet people preferred to use chert brought from elsewhere. In contrast to most Middle Paleolithic sites, nonlocal chert, brought in as semi-prepared cores, dominates the lithic assemblage at Mira Nascente. This is remarkable since the known nearby sources containing the same chert type are at least 10 km away. In other Middle Paleolithic sites in Portugal, most of the chert was brought in as finished tools from sources or workshops 10 km or more away. The sole other exception is the recently reported site of Campo de Futebol de Santo Antão do Tojal, where Figueiredo, Carvalho, and Nobre (2005) found a high percentage (⬃80%) of chert manufacturing debris in a quartz and quartzite gravel matrix. The debitage analysis of the Mira Nascente assemblage holds clues to understanding the organization of technology and landscape setting. Tables VIII, IX, and X show raw material percentages, platform types, and dimensions of flakes and tools from Mira Nascente compared to other Late Middle Paleolithic sites in the region, including open-air fluvial localities and caves. The morphological attributes and the class distribution clearly indicate that cores were brought to the site in a semi-prepared form—the number of cortical or semi-cortical flakes is very low, as is the number of cortical platforms (Table IX). Table X shows manufacture of relatively long and thin flakes at the site. Also, the presence of a few core trimming flakes and the large number of chips suggest that core maintenance took place at Mira Nascente, probably to renew the flaking surface to obtain recurrent flakes and, thus, economize the use of chert. At Mira Nascente, many of the platforms are dihedral or multifaceted (Table IX). Kuhn (1995) has suggested that this method of preparation results in stronger and more uniform platforms that would allow for large flake production in relatively small cores. While not as small as his Pontinian sample, the Mira Nascente cores are small and extensively reduced. The deliberate maximization of flake size suggests a desire to economize raw material use. This may make sense when considering the distance to the nearest flint sources. The use of centripetal cores would imply that maximizing the amount of cutting edge per flake was desired outcome of core reduction. Although fewer flakes (and potential tools) could be made using this reduction strategy compared to others, the advantage of making long, thin flakes is that they can be reworked and used for longer periods. Also, they are ideal for transport, and these qualities probably explain the frequency of heavily reduced tools on exotic raw materials in many Middle Paleolithic sites in Portugal. At Mira Nascente, retouched tools are virtually absent at the site, with the exception of a small denticulate. The observed patterns (few retouched tools, manufacture of prepared platform cores, and raw material transport to the site in the form of prepared cores) might be consistent with the notion of provisioning of places rather than individuals. In the case of coastal Italy, provisioning of places was associated with prepared platform cores, minimal flake reduction and retouch, and low frequency of nonlocal raw material. Places that would be repeatedly used or occupied for relatively long durations could be provisioned with raw material to help plan predictable activities. Conversely, Levallois centripetal cores were more likely to be found with heavily reduced and

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Mira Nascente Figueira Brava Oliveira 8 Oliveira 9 Conceição 1 Conceição 2 Conceição 3

open cave cave cave open open open

2% 40% 19% 16% 43% 30% 35%

22% 10% 47% 35% 15% 40% 26%

24% 3% — — 3% 15% 10%

Dihedral 39% 8% 32% 43% 2% 10% 10%

Multifaceted 6% — 2% 6% — — —

Chapeau — 7% — — 15% 5% 4%

Punctiform

7% 32% — — 22% 0 14%

Other/Unknown

67 3948 89 112 653 20 51

N

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Table IX. Platform type percentages from select Late Middle Paleolithic sites in central Portugal.

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HAWS ET AL. Table X. Dimensional analysis of chert flakes and tools from Mira Nascente compared to values published by Marks, Monigal, and Zilhão (2001) from Oliveira. Quartzite flakes and tools were left out of the comparison due to the lack of quartzite flakes and tools from Mira Nascente.

Mira Nascente

Oliveira 8

Oliveira 9

Mean N St. dev. Mean N St. dev. Mean N St. dev.

Length

Width

Thickness

L/W

Th/W

36.30 74 14.90 37.29 23 9.13 43.46 40 14.00

28.90 74 7.70 28.31 25 8.50 35.34 40 9.10

5.30 74 2.90 6.97 25 3.32 8.82 41 3.67

1.28 74 0.44 1.42 23 0.57 1.30 39 0.46

0.18 74 0.08 0.25 25 0.08 0.25 40 0.07

retouched flakes and greater numbers of exotic artifacts. In this case, a strategy of provisioning of individuals implies greater mobility, with a greater need to reduce transport costs by carrying and rejuvenating artifacts rather than cores. Mira Nascente appears to lie in between the two strategies, with emphasis on centripetal Levallois core reduction that results in relatively larger flakes, usually more readily reduced and retouched, which is in fact associated with the most common raw material (which apparently is not local) and unmodified flakes. The Mira Nascente core technology, raw material use, and flake use would suggest abundant raw material from nearby sources, or at least easily accessible ones. This pattern would fit the general one of expedient use of local raw material, but the chert in question derives from sources at least 10 km away. Comparisons with Figueira Brava, Oliveira, and Conceição, three reasonably dated Late Middle Paleolithic sites, offer additional insights to the observed Mira Nascente lithic assemblage patterns. Table VIII shows that quartz and/or quartzite dominate each of the former sites, but Oliveira does have a relatively high proportion of chert. Both Figueira Brava and Conceição have high incidences of cortical flakes and platforms, indicating a reduction of immediately available raw material (Table IX). Mira Nascente and Oliveira have low cortical flake percentages, suggesting that cores were prepared elsewhere. There is also an emphasis on producing large flakes at Mira Nascente and Oliveira. Table X shows that Mira Nascente and Oliveira 8 have nearly equal-sized chert flakes in comparison. The chert flakes in Oliveira 9 are much larger. This size diminution corresponds to a decline in the frequency of multifaceted chert platforms. The quartzite flakes show a different pattern of increasing flake size and decreasing use of multifaceting through time, with a concomitant rise in cortical and plain preparations. DISCUSSION The archaeological record of Neanderthal coastal settlement is seriously impacted by preservation biases, yet remnants of these landscapes persist in certain locations along the Estremaduran coast where tectonic uplift has protected MIS 3 coastal 736


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deposits. In Estremadura, tectonic stresses have produced a diverse assemblage of rocky headlands, protected bays, fault-strike valleys, and uplifted bedrock platforms along the coast. Rapidly eroding coastal bluffs reach elevations between 20 and 150 m, depending on the tectonic setting. The sediments exposed in these bluffs contain stratigraphic evidence of sea-level change, neotectonic activity, raised beach, tidal flat and freshwater bog deposits, and human land use. Sea-level reconstructions for MIS 3 vary widely, but most agree on 3 or 4 highstands between 60–30 ka, reaching levels of –20 m to –80 m relative to modern. The uncertain level of MIS 3 eustatic sea-level highstands and the lack of information regarding isostatic adjustments in the study area limit high-resolution reconstructions. Raised Pleistocene beach and tidal flat deposits date to MIS 3, 4, and 5. The best-dated beach complexes have OSL ages centered at about 35 ka, 42 ka, and 62 ka (Benedetti et al., 2009). Due to a lack of fossil evidence, facies associations were determined by sedimentological indicators and supported by geomorphic evidence, including bedrock platforms and wavecut notches. Given the age of the deposits, uplift rates of about 1–2 mm yr⫺1 have prevailed along this coastline. The raised beaches dating to 35 ka and 42 ka are separated by the H4 event; the raised beach at 62 ka immediately precedes H6. These ages lend support to a model of ice sheet purging and sea level rise in phase with the timing of Heinrich Events (Hemming, 2004). The pollen analyses at Mira Nascente and São Pedro de Muel suggest humid conditions with a mix of coastal heath and herbaceous vegetation. Marsh habitats existed in the low-lying areas with nearby stands of temperate deciduous and Mediterranean evergreen trees and shrubs. The paleoenvironmental information from Mira Nascente and São Pedro de Muel confirms the deep-sea pollen record off NW Iberia showing this long-term pattern for MIS 3. The data may be too sparse to corroborate the centennial and millennial scale fluctuations in vegetation observed in core MD95-2039 (Roucoux et al., 2005). The presence of thermophilous trees, such as Alnus and Quercus, in the Mira Nascente channel fill deposits suggests a period of arboreal expansion consistent with interstadial conditions. The São Pedro de Muel muds also formed during warm, moist interstadials. At Praia Rei Cortiço, the preliminary pollen data tend to agree with the unpublished studies by Diniz (2003) that suggest a similar environment. Further dating is necessary to determine whether these deposits date to the Last Interglacial or earlier. The archaeological evidence associated with the tidal flat and freshwater swamp/marsh deposits suggests Neanderthals took advantage of coastal wetlands created by Late Pleistocene sea-level highstands. The paleolandscape contexts for Mira Nascente and Praia Rei Cortiço represent a novel expression of Neanderthal settlement in Portuguese Estremadura. Previously known sites occur in caves and open-air fluvial terraces. The emergent pattern of Paleolithic settlement in central Portugal is one of a continual, if poorly understood, coastal–inland movement of people in Estremadura. The massive white sand layer in which Mira Nascente exists is a continuous ribbon about 1 km long and 1 m thick exposed in the cliffs between Polvoeira and Vale Paredes. In 2006, a second locality with a Middle Paleolithic sidescraper was discovered in the same deposit (Figure 13). In 2008, the survey team systematically tested the white sand layer in this vicinity and found a large flake tool GEOARCHAEOLOGY: AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL, VOL. 25, NO. 6

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Polvoeira

MN3 Potenial MN3 surface

e

a

n

Artifact finds

c

GEA256_05_20330.qxd

A

tl

a

n

ti

c

O

Mira Nascente

150

Vale de Paredes

M

Figure 13. Extent of artifact-bearing deposits in MN3 and hypothesized buried landscape at Mira Nascente.

with a multifaceted platform and unidirectional flake removal scars on the dorsal surface. Based on these finds, there may have been multiple occupations of this locality in the Late Middle Paleolithic. Thus, the use of coastal wetlands was part of recurrent settlement pattern and not simply a rare occurrence. The Mira Nascente locality is the most precisely dated Middle Paleolithic site in Portugal and allows us to begin a more definitive understanding of Neanderthal behavior with regard to lithic technological organization. The technological expression of the Mira Nascente assemblage suggests differences from the traditional view of land use and raw material exploitation by Neanderthals in Portugal (Raposo, 2000; Zilhão, 2006). There appears to be a disparity in resource use between sites in the coastal wetland setting and those in fluvial and cave contexts. Mira Nascente is an outlier in its unusually high percentage of chert and provisioning of nonlocal raw material in the form of prepared cores rather than retouched tools. Presently, the coastal sites are, in general, much smaller, with fewer artifacts and very little evidence for retouch. This pattern matches the observed one for caves and fluvial sites where retouched pieces are proportionately underrepresented (Marks, Monigal, & Zilhão, 2001). Smaller groups of people occupied the coastal wetlands for brief periods, as opposed to fluvial settings like Conceição and Foz do Enxiarrique, where large areas 738


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with dense artifacts displaying more retouch imply longer stays by larger groups. The pattern may indicate the formation of cumulative palimpsests that reflect landscape stability and the time necessary to accumulate larger numbers of artifacts from greater numbers of occupations. If this is the case, then the use of coastal wetlands differs primarily in the raw material economy. The unusual preference for chert may ultimately relate to the specific tasks undertaken in the coastal wetlands. The desire for particular qualities in raw material is not expressed in core reduction techniques, but that does not necessarily mean that Neanderthals did not recognize differences in raw material quality. Perhaps chert was preferred for processing fish. Although we cannot say for sure whether Neanderthals at Mira Nascente butchered fish or marine mammals, given the lack of faunal preservation, the lithic use-wear evidence and site context are consistent with an estuarine or marine focus. Other direct evidence for Neanderthal exploitation of marine and/or estuarine resources is well documented from Figueira Brava in Portugal (Callapez, 2000) and Vanguard and Gorham’s Caves in Gibraltar (Barton, 2000). CONCLUSION Mira Nascente and Praia Rei Cortiço are significant because they represent a previously undocumented landscape setting for Neanderthals in Portugal. The use of wetlands, well documented in other areas of Europe, should now be considered an important component in Neanderthal settlement patterns in Iberia as well. That Neanderthals show a preference for settlement in or near coastal wetlands should not come as a surprise (Bailey, 2004). These are some of the richest environmental zones and offer a wide variety of plant and animal resources suitable for human exploitation. The occupation of coastal wetlands demonstrates that Neanderthals were capable of adopting diverse land-use strategies as an adaptation to climatic instability during the last full glacial cycle. This flexibility enabled them to survive a wide range of climates and environments for approximately 200,000 years. This material is based on work supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant Nos. 0455145 and 0715279 (Haws PI). Additional support came from the University of Louisville, Association of American Geographers Research Grant (Benedetti), and the University of North Carolina–Wilmington. Radiocarbon determinations were made by Beta Analytic Inc., Miami, FL, and the Center for Applied Isotope Studies at the University of Georgia. OSL ages were provided by the Luminescence Research Laboratory, University of Illinois–Chicago. The authors also thank John Wainwright and Mark Bateman, organizers of the Geoarchaeology 2009 meeting in Sheffield, for inviting us to participate. We also thank them for including our paper in this volume, and the anonymous reviewers who helped improve our work.

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