Collapse or Continuity ? Environment and Development of Bronze Age Human Landscapes edited by
Jutta Kneisel, Wiebke Kirleis, Marta Dal Corso, Nicole Taylor and Verena Tiedtke
Offprint Immo Heske and Magdalena Wieckowska The Bronze Age Settlement Chamber on the Hill Heeseberg, Lower Saxony – An Ecoregion in Transition between the Únětice and the House-Urn Culture
Kiel archaeology
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Universitätsforschungen zur prähistorischen Archäologie Band 205
Aus der Graduiertenschule “Human Development in Landscapes” der Universität Kiel
2012 Verlag Dr. Rudolf Habelt GmbH, Bonn
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Collapse or Continuity ? Environment and Development of Bronze Age Human Landscapes Proceedings of the International Workshop “Socio-Environmental Dynamics over the Last 12,000 Years: The Creation of Landscapes II (14th –18th March 2011)” in Kiel Volume 1 edited by
Jutta Kneisel, Wiebke Kirleis, Marta Dal Corso, Nicole Taylor and Verena Tiedtke
2012 Verlag Dr. Rudolf Habelt GmbH, Bonn
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Gedruckt mit Unterstützung der Deutschen Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG)
Redaktion: Joachim von Freeden, Frankfurt a. M. Englisches Korrektorat: Giles Shephard, Berlin
ISBN 978-3-7749-3763-5 Die Deutsche Nationalbibliothek verzeichnet diese Publikation in der Deutschen Nationalbibliografie. Detaillierte bibliografische Daten sind im Internet über abrufbar. Umschlagfoto: Jutta Kneisel, Bruszczewo Umschlaggestaltung: Holger Dieterich, Kiel Layout und Satz: www.wisa-print.de 2012 Verlag Dr. Rudolf Habelt GmbH, Bonn
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Contents
9 Preface
10
13 Foreword
The Kiel Graduate School “Human Development in Landscapes”
SouthEastern Mediterranean
17 Girolamo Fiorentino, Valentina Caracuta, Gianluca Quarta, Lucio Calcagnile and Daniele Morandi Bonacossi Palaeoprecipitation Trends and Cultural Changes in Syrian Protohistoric Communities: the Contribution of δ13C in Ancient and Modern Vegetation 35 Sabine Beckmann Bronze Age Landscape and Resilience: 4,000 Years of Tradition?
Northern Italy and Circum-alpine region
55 Michele Cupitò, Elisa Dalla Longa, Valentina Donadel and Giovanni Leonardi Resistances to the 12th Century bc Crisis in the Veneto Region: the Case Studies of Fondo Paviani and Montebello Vicentino 71 Marta Dal Corso, Marco Marchesini, Giovanni Leonardi and Wiebke Kirleis Environmental Changes and Human Impact during the Bronze Age in Northern Italy: On-site Palynological Investigation at Fondo Paviani, Verona 85 Benjamin Jennings When the Going Gets Tough…? Climatic or Cultural Influences for the LBA Abandonment of Circum-Alpine Lake-Dwellings
SouthEastern Central Europe and the Balkans
103 Mario Gavranović Ore Exploitation and Settlement Dynamics during the Late Bronze Age in Central Bosnia 111 Jozef Bátora, Anja Behrens, Julia Gresky, Mariya Ivanova, Knut Rassmann, Peter Tóth and Kay Winkelmann The Rise and Decline of the Early Bronze Age Settlement Fidvár near Vráble, Slovakia
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Contents
Northern Germany
133 Immo Heske and Magdalena Wieckowska The Bronze Age Settlement Chamber on the Hill Heeseberg, Lower Saxony – An Ecoregion in Transition between the Únětice and the HouseUrn Culture 153 Heiko Scholz Hoard Find Places in the Context of Climatic and Environmental Changes
Eastern Germany
171 Ralf Lehmphul Final Neolithic to Early Iron Age Settlement Stratigraphy at Altgaul, Brandenburg. A Preliminary Report 185 Jonas Beran Burnt Village Buried under Blown Sand at the Beginning of Urn Field Period in Potsdam, Brandenburg 197 Jonas Beran and Nicola Hensel The Chief and his Poor Ancestors – Middle Bronze Age Burials under an Early Younger Bronze Age Grave Mound at Brieselang, Brandenburg 201 Verena Tiedtke To Be Continued – a Long Term Cemetery in Müllrose, Brandenburg
Eastern Central Europe
209 Jutta Kneisel The Problem of the Middle Bronze Age Inception in Northeast Europe – or: Did the Únětice Society Collapse? 235 Mateusz Cwaliński and Jakub Niebieszczański The Tumulus Culture Burial Mounds in Southwestern Poland. Construction of the Barrows and their Place in the Landscape 257
Johannes Müller Changes in the Bronze Age: Social, Economical and / or Ecological Causes ?
Conclusions 267 Jutta Kneisel, Wiebke Kirleis, Marta Dal Corso and Nicole Taylor Collapse or Continuity ? Concluding Remarks on the Environment and Development of Bronze Age Human Landscapes
I. Heske and M. Wieckowska, The Bronze Age Settlement Chamber on the Hill Heeseberg
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The Bronze Age Settlement Chamber on the Hill Heeseberg, Lower Saxony – An Ecoregion in Transition between the Únětice and the House-Urn Culture Immo Heske and Magdalena Wieckowska
Introduction The Harz Mountains (Lower Saxony, Germany) are the northernmost mountain ridge of the Central European highlands (Fig. 1). On their northern slopes a rich archaeological landscape, beginning with linear pottery, is situated. The border of the loess soil on the line Magdeburg-Brunswick-Hanover divides the region in two parts: a highly fertile rich loess soil in the south and the sandy soils in the north (Meibeyer 1997, fig. 1) (Fig. 2). In many periods of the prehistory, this natural border also was a cultural border, for example during the time of the Únětice Culture and the “Saalemündungsgruppe” (Fig. 3a – b). The hill Heeseberg is a part of this fertile region and with a height of 200 m a.s.l. it is decisive for the microclimate. Two kilometres south of the hill Großes Bruch is situated, which was a wide wet area in ancient times. This depression is traversed by the creek Großer Graben. Today it forms the border between Lower Saxony and Saxony-Anhalt (Fig. 4). In the 1950s, the area was drained and subsequently used intensively for agriculture. Before that, it was a cattle watering and feeding place. From the wet depression of Großes Bruch a fen peat core was investigated palynologically in 2008. The investigation site was located some 4 km southeast of the Heeseberg hill (Fig. 4). The deposits of the core consisted of fen peat and included two layers with an accumulation of shells of molluscs (Table 1). The pollen record provides an important source of information on small-scale vegetation changes and allows interferring information on changes in the palaeo-environment. Pollen, spores and other microfossils (non-pollen palynomorphs: NPP) have In: J. Kneisel / W. Kirleis / M. Dal Corso / N. Taylor / V. Tiedtke, Collapse or Continuity? Environment and Development of Bronze Age Human Landscapes [Proceedings of the International Workshop “Socio‐Environmental Dynamics over the Last 12,000 Years: The Creation of Landscapes II (14th – 18th March 2011)” in Kiel] (Bonn 2012) 133 – 152.
been used to reveal anthropogenic impact as well as fluctuations of the water table of the creek Großer Graben. The pollen analytical study focuses on the environmental reconstruction in the environs of the Heeseberg hill during the Late Neolithic and the Bronze Age. Currently observed climate change strengthens the interest in studies of both climate variability and land-use history. Climate has been recognized as one of the main factors behind the development of the cultural landscape (e. g. Maise 1998; Berglund 2003; Zolitschka et al. 2003; Voigt et al. 2008). Moreover, climate events were identified as one possible cause of people’s migration or collapsing cultures in other parts of the northern hemisphere (e. g. Meltzer 1999; Yu et al. 2000; Hoelzmann et al. 2001; Magny 2004; Dressler et al. 2006; Schlütz / Lehmkuhl 2007). Following this debate, the palynological studies try to estimate the influence of naturally occurring environmental changes on human settlement activities in the foreland of the northern Harz Mountains. Based on major changes in pollen proportions, the pollen diagram of Großes Bruch (Fig. 5a – c) was divided into local pollen assemblage zones (PAZ 1 – 9). Its chronology is based on four AMS radiocarbon dates (Table 2). PAZ 4 (3,090 – 2,670 cal bc) dates back to the Late Neolithic period. PAZ 5 (2,670 – 1,750 cal bc) comprises the end of the Neolithic period and the Early Bronze Age. The Middle Bronze Age is tangible in PAZ 6 (1,750 – 1,550 cal bc) and PAZ 7 (1,550 – 1,340 cal bc). Derived by the biostratigraphical criteria according to Firbas (1949), the transition from PAZ 7 to PAZ 8 represents an abrupt change from the Subboreal (VIIIb) to the mid Subatlantic (IXb) pollen spectrum. According to this, the pollen
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Fig. 1. View from the northeast towards some small hills of the Harz and its highest elevation, the Brocken, with some buildings on the summit (photo A. Grüttemann, Braunschweig).
Depth (cm) 0 – 104
Lithology Fen peat
104 – 122
Mixture of fen peat and mollusc shells
122 – 140
Fen peat
140 – 148
Mixture of fen peat and mollusc shells
148 – 214
Fen peat
214 – 310
Clay
Table 1. Sediment description of the Großes Bruch core.
Lab. code
Depth (cm)
Material dated
C (mg)
Age bp
Cal bc (1σ range)
KIA44134
127 – 130
Peat bulk
4.7
3235 ± 25
1525 – 1491
KIA38517
145 – 150
Peat bulk
1.5
3320 ± 30
1593 – 1532
KIA38518
160 – 165
Peat bulk
0.1
3700 ± 170
2346 – 1883
KIA38519
170 – 175
Peat bulk
0.9
4065 ± 40
2637 – 2565
Table 2. Radiocarbon dates of the Großes Bruch core (calibration: OxCal 4.1 © Chr. Bronk Ramsey, 2010). The calibration results as used for the pollen diagram are given as mean values of the calibrated ages (cal years bc / ad) within the 1σ range.
I. Heske and M. Wieckowska, The Bronze Age Settlement Chamber on the Hill Heeseberg
Border of the high fertile loess-region mostly wooded mountain ranges Hünenburg near Watenstedt
Fig. 2. Northern Harz area with the Elm and the Heeseberg. The border of the high fertile loess area runs north of the Heeseberg near the cities of Magdeburg and Bruns wick (after Meibeyer 1997, fig. 1; changed by H. Marx, Göttingen).
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the erection of a stone front was used continuously until the 7th century bc. The environs of this hillfort are characterized by the presence of further archaeological sites comprising graves, hoards and areas of surface finds. In the associated area, different surveys, excavations and environmental studies have been carried out in the past few years. Of great interest was an outer settlement (“Außensiedlung”) situated just outside the rampart, which was discovered in 2005 within the framework of the new project “The Hünenburg near Watenstedt, Kr. Helmstedt – A hillfort in the contact zone between the Lusatian Culture and the Nordic Bronze Age”. Analysis of the stray finds from an area south of the hillfort, geophysical surveys and first excavations allowed the identification and investigation of an open settlement of about 15 ha (Heske 2006, 24; Heske et al. 2010). Places of metal workers with crucibles, bifurcate headers and casting moulds were found as well as places of ritual depositions. According to the ceramic chronology and the radiocarbon-data series, the outer settlement was inhabited over a period of over 500 years, beginning in the 12th century bc. Are these changes in the archaeological record also visible in the pollen record? What happened before the establishment of the hillfort in the Late Bronze Age and the fall of the dynasty in the Early Iron Age?
The development of the settlement record of PAZ 8 is probably disturbed by a hiatus in peat accumulation and cannot be definitely linked to the settlement of the following Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age. Since 1998, excavations have been carried out at the Late Bronze Age / Early Iron Age hillfort on the western plateau of the Heeseberg (Fig. 6). Before, it was unclear in which period the construction of the rampart was initiated. After finishing the project “The Hünenburg near Watenstedt, Kr. Helmstedt – A prehistoric hillfort and its associated area”, the building history of the rampart and the use of the interior space could be described (Heske 2006). The oldest fortification dates back to the late 12th / early 11th century bc. Before it, a Bronze Age layer with little bronze finds was dated between the mid of the 13th and the 12th century bc. A single older dating of 1,415 to 1,315 cal bc (1 σ) has no connection with the other measurements in the wall. The fortification rampart with some renewal construction phases and
Late Neolithic The region of Heeseberg was a part of the Corded Ware Culture (Matthias 1968, Karte; Steinmetz 2003, 347 fig. 8), although excavations near the city of Schöningen have revealed features rather attributable to the Bell Beaker period (Thieme et al. 1987; Maier 1995, 162). During the excavations at the site near Beierstedt, where a Late Bronze Age / Early Iron Age cemetery is situated, a crouched burial on the left side underneath an Early Iron Age stone cist was documented (Heske 2010a, 106). The radiocarbondating of 2,399 – 2,206 cal bc (1 σ) and a flint arrowhead in the vertebral column are indications for a Late Neolithic burial (Fig. 7). But this is not the only evidence of activity in this period. During the excavations in the outer settlement of the Hünenburg, some potsherds are temporally close to the Late Neolithic as well. Furthermore, a partially complete vessel with connections to the Corded Ware Culture
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Nordic Bronze Age Northnetherland group
Lüneburger group
Saalemündung group
Northwestern group Lowerhessian group
UntermainischSchwäbische group RhineSwissEastfrench group
Nordic Early Bronze Age Northeast Alpine Early Bronze Age Northwest Alpine Early Bronze Age
Elb-Havelgroup
Unstrut group
Northeastbavarian group
Lusatian Culture
KnovizMilavca group
Urnfieldculture
Únetice Culture Northwest German Beaker Culture
Fig. 3. Distribution of the Early Bronze Age Únětice Culture and the Late Bronze Age “Saalemündungsgruppe”. The borders north of the Harz (marked by a square) show in a small-scale comparison approximately identical distribution limits in the region (after von Freeden / von Schnurbein 2003, fig. 299b; Weber 1992, fig. 134).
was laid down in a small settlement pit. These records are a good example of brisk settlement activities in the Late Neolithic. The beginning of PAZ 4 (around 2,970 cal bc) is characterized by high proportion of grasses (Poa ceae) (Fig. 5b). There also are several indicators of pasture farming with Rumex acetosa- (common sorrel), Plantago lanceolata- (ribwort plantain) and Plantago major / media-type (greater / hoary plantain). The total amount of arboreal pollen is relatively low at 35 %. These are all indications that the forest was already strongly opened and pasture farming was prevailing. Grazing by cattle seems to have been so intensive that there was no possibility for the forest to recover. This is indicated by the absence of succession stages and is reflected by low values of Betula (birch) and Corylus (hazel) in the pollen diagram (Fig. 5a). Due to the strong grazing more resistant shrubs such as juniper (Juniperus) dominate.
Furthermore, increased evidence of cereals points to grain cultivation around the Heeseberg. The areas of the wet depression along the Großes Bruch seem not to have been used for agricultural purposes at that time. High amounts of ash (Fraxinus) parallel to low values of the elements of wet meadow (Fig. 5c) show unaffected carr forests. The further course of PAZ 4 (c. 2,870 – 2,720 cal bc) is characterized by a distinctive rise in arboreal pollen and may be interpreted as an indication of a gradual closure of the forests. At the same time, the pollen diagram shows a drop in both arable land and pasture indicators suggesting a reduced settlement activity. The beginning of PAZ 5 initially displays a largely closed woodland. However, shortly thereafter the representatives of pastoral economy occur again, displaying a recurrent settlement activity. Clear evidence of cattle grazing is provided by coprophilous
I. Heske and M. Wieckowska, The Bronze Age Settlement Chamber on the Hill Heeseberg
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Fig. 4. Heeseberg and the surrounding area. The Großes Bruch divides the area into a northern part in Lower Saxony and a southern one in Saxony-Anhalt. The different colours show the distribution of finds and features from the Early Bronze Age to the Early Iron Age (TK 1 : 25 000 – Blatt 3931. LGN-Landesvermessung und Geobasisinformation Niedersachsen – D9787. Changed by I. Heske u. H. Marx, Göttingen).
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a
b
c
Fig. 5. Großes Bruch, district of Helmstedt, Lower Saxony. Simplified percentage pollen diagram with local pollen zones PAZ 1 – 9. a) Arboreal pollen and shrubs; b) anthropogenic indicators; c) telmatophyte, helophyte and hydrophyte. The calculation is based on a total of terrestrial pollen of approx. 600 pollen grains (M. Wieckowska, Kiel).
I. Heske and M. Wieckowska, The Bronze Age Settlement Chamber on the Hill Heeseberg
Fig. 6. Hünenburg and the outer settlement. View of the hilltop enclosure from the northeast (photo I. Heske, Göttingen). Fig. 7. Beierstedt, Late Neolithic crouched burial. A flint arrowhead was found in the vertebral column (photo University of Göttingen).
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Fig. 8. Beierstedt, grave finds from excavations in 1894. These finds were the first indication of the Únětice Culture in the Heeseberg area (after Steinmetz 1999, 53).
fungal spores that grow on animal dung (van Geel et al. 2003). The decreasing values of grasses and ash with a simultaneous increase in sedges (Cyperaceae) point to the relocation of pastures to the wet areas along the Großes Bruch at c. 2,480 cal bc. The only slight presence of pollen of cereals indicates that arable farming played a more minor role than livestock husbandry. A radiocarbon-dating of 2,600 cal bc places the onset of this zone in the Corded Ware period. At this time, the occurrence and / or higher proportions of several representatives of reed beds (Sparganium- and Typha latifolia-type) and green algae (Pediastrum, Botryoccocus, Mougeotia) points to somewhat wetter conditions than in PAZ 4. In the record of Lake Jues in the southwestern Harz Mountains, summers were dry and very warm between 3,300 and 2,820 cal bc. During the following 200 years, until 2,600 cal bc, summers continued to be warm, but the climate become more humid causing a rise in the lake level (Voigt et al. 2008).
Early Bronze Age After the first studies on the Únětice Culture in the southern region of the city of Brunswick several bronze objects and ceramics are well known (Voges 1894, 576; Krone 1931, 74). The region is a part of 1
the “circum-Harz” group with its depositions and graves (Zich 1987, 71 fig. 1; Zich 1996, 253 Beil. 12). And it forms its own “domain” within this group (Zich 2010). Krone (1931, 71) shows a well preserved flagon from the area of Hünenburg, and years earlier A. Vasel excavated a small burial ground of the Únětice Culture with some graves near Beierstedt (Zich 1996, Kat.-Nr. 4 – 7; Steinmetz 1999, 54) (Fig. 8). Stray finds are well known from the southern slope of the western plateau of the Heeseberg. Not only pottery was identified. Remains of metalwork, like a tuyère, are known too. (Jockenhövel 1985, 196; Heske 2006, 56 fig. 20). The current excavations have documented more than storage vessels and fragments of typical Únětice pottery. There also are some features of a part of an Únětice settlement. However, after the massive building activities at the end of the Bronze Age most of the small features were destroyed. The old excavations of 1894 provided not the only burials from this period. The current ones have delivered burials more different from the familiar Únětice burials. They give a glimpse of the wide spread of Early Bronze Age burial practices (Heske / Grefen-Peters forthcoming). In 2008/2009 a number of graves were found. One child and one adult man were buried in a “normal” direction and as a crouched burial. The only grave goods were ceramics. The other burials are collective graves with five or about 17 individuals, respectively (Figs. 9; 10). The individuals were disturbed after death and laid down as a fractional burial in anatomically partially complete classification or only with scattered single bones. A significant role can be observed for the skull and the lower limbs. A series of radiocarbon dates give indications for the 19th and 18th centuries bc1. But this is not the place to speak about the wide dispersal of Únětice burial practices and its parallels with the features from Schalkenburg near Quenstedt (Behrens / Schröter 1980, fig. 1; Müller 2001, fig. 21). For the Early Bronze Age we have to suppose an intensive settlement activity with several burials. The middle of PAZ 5 denotes a change in the landscape. An increase of pollards forming species such as elm (Ulmus) and lime (Tilia) (Fig. 5a) indicates coppicing for fodder or for wood. In pollards forming species, removal of the main apical stems causes the growth of many dormant buds under the bark on the lower part of the tree. Fodder pollards produced “pollard hay”, which was used as livestock feed.
In feature 6 (Fig. 9) for the two right lower limbs (femur) of the men the 14C-dates are 1944 – 1885 cal bc (KIA-40655) and 1942 – 1885 cal bc (KIA-40656) 1σ (Heske / Grefen-Peters forthcoming).
I. Heske and M. Wieckowska, The Bronze Age Settlement Chamber on the Hill Heeseberg
Fig. 9. Watenstedt. A detail from the grave row of Early Bronze Age burials in “typical” orientation and an “atypical” disrupted one (graphic I. Heske u. H. Marx, Göttingen).
Fig. 10. Watenstedt. View from the north towards the stone setting with the crouched burial inside and the partially disturbed individuals (photo University of Göttingen).
Fig. 11. Heeseberg, top. Sword from a grave. Scale 1 : 2 (after Fröhlich x 1983, Taf. 86 B).
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Rising proportions of grasses (Fig. 5b) and finds of juniper also suggest woodland destruction by browsing cattle. This led to the opening of the forest, in which the light-demanding hazel was favoured. The strong increase in oak (Quercus) suggests the use of acorns for feeding animals. Simultaneously, the settlement indicators increase, showing an expansion of the settlement areas. This phase dates back to c. 2,240 to 2,140 cal bc, corresponding with the Únětice Culture. High proportions of coprophilous fungal spores at the end of the PAZ 5 at c. 1,790 cal bc show a temporary relocation of the grazing areas to the wet depression of the Großes Bruch, as they are indicators of a strict local occurrence of animal dung (van Geel et al. 2003). This displays a new change in the economy away from the forest pasture towards wetland farming. Another indication for the expansion of wetlands is the simultaneous increase of wetland plants (Ranunculus acris-type, Solanum dulcamaratype, Cyperaceae) in the pollen diagram (Fig. 5c). At the same time cereal pollen grains increase and may be indicative of the extension of the arable land. The proportion of the woodland is relatively low. Thus, in summary it can be concluded that PAZ 5 reflects a fairly intensive settlement of the Early Bronze Age.
Middle Bronze Age The period of the Middle Bronze Age does not show a hiatus but we record a drop in the archaeological sources. Not only in the Heeseberg region, but for the whole Brunswick area we observe an absence of the many and rich burial mounds. Some burials are known from Emmerstedt and the Pfingstberg near the city of Helmstedt (Fröhlich 1983, 162 Kat.Nr. 276; 185 Kat-Nr. 485; Heske 2006, 165). Indications for lower activity between Watenstedt and Beierstedt were also provided by a cultural layer and a small ditch located underneath the Late Bronze Age rampart of the Hünenburg (1,260 – 1,130 cal bc [1 σ]; Heske 2006, 40). Some burials were discovered on the top of the Heeseberg during quarrying activities in the late 19th and early 20th century. The grave goods of one of the better documented burials present pottery and a Period III sword (Fig. 11). Swords of Period II to III are mostly absent in the region of Brunswick. Thus, the Heeseberg sword may be representative of a local chieftain (Heske 2010b, 293). Ritual activities at the end of Period III are recognizable by a bronze bracelet sacrificed in the waterlogged area of the creek Soltau (Fig. 4). At the beginning of PAZ 6 at c. 1610 cal bc there are some indications of a significant disruption of
the local environmental conditions. This is reflected in the pollen diagram by the strong decrease in the mixed oak forest (Quercus, Tilia, Ulmus) and the maximum value of the microscopic charcoal particles as well as the local fire indicator Neurospora crassa (van Geel / Aptroot 2006) (Fig. 5a – b). Records of chlamydospores of Glomus, which increased to its maximum value of the pollen diagram, indicate erosion of surrounding soils (van Geel et al. 2003). Simultaneously, the pollen of long distance transported pine (Pinus) and spruce (Picea) is overrepresented in the pollen diagram due to the now open local vegetation. These factors suggest that there was a strong clearing of the forest by fire activity. However, the relatively low anthropogenic indicators display decreased human impact. The small share of arboreal pollen and the very high proportions of charcoal together with low anthropogenic indicators indicate that the clearing of the forest had no artificial causes. Probably, natural fires are responsible for the destruction of the woodland. This phase of PAZ 6, radiocarbon-dated to 1,610 cal bc, falls into one of the warmest Holocene climate optima in the northern hemisphere (Schönwiese 1995; Dansgaard / Johnsen 1969). This is indicated by low lake levels in the Jura Mountains (Magny 2004) and in southern Sweden (Digerfeldt 1988) and by retreating glaciers in the Alps (Hormes et al. 2001). After 1,550 cal bc (Magny 2004) or after 1,250 cal bc (Digerfeldt 1988), respectively, the climate became cooler and / or wetter. At the end of PAZ 6 several indicators of increasingly wetter conditions occur (Fig. 5c), such as the representatives of swamp plants, sedges, bulrush (Typha latifolia-type) and bur-reed (Sparganiumtype). The green alga Pediastrum appears parallel to the stratigraphically tangible “mollusc layer I”. Evidently, increased precipitation led to an elevated water level of the creek Großer Graben, which burst its banks. This favoured the expansion of both green algae and mollusc fauna in the flooded areas. Thus, the “mollusc layer” is most likely representative of inundation events and could be a sign of climatic change. For this time around a pronounced climatic deterioration the “Löbben-cold phase” is documented in Switzerland by glacier advances at about 1,550 and 1,150 cal bc (e. g. Wipf 2001). Simultaneously with this event a gradual closure of the forest canopy took place. Obviously, PAZ 6 reflects unstable climatic conditions, which probably had a negative effect on the colonization of the Heeseberg area. With the end of the “mollusc layer I” at the beginning of PAZ 7 the settlement activity increases again,
I. Heske and M. Wieckowska, The Bronze Age Settlement Chamber on the Hill Heeseberg
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Fig. 12. Hünenburg bei Watenstedt. The profile after the excavations of 1998 – 2000. Phases 4 and 5 date back to the Late Bronze Age, phase 6 to the Early Iron Age (graphic I. Heske, Göttingen).
between c. 1,530 and 1,410 cal bc. This is reflected in the drop in arboreal pollen (Fig. 5a) and the increases in grasses, cereals, some pasture land indicators (Plantago major / media- and Plantago lanceolata-type) and microscopic charcoal particles (Fig. 5b). At a depth of 125 cm microscopic charcoal particles reach an enormously high value of 960.2 %. Probably, the forest was cleared by fire due to an enormous settlement activity. Simultaneously, the indicators of moisture disappear pointing to drier conditions. This is in a good agreement with the record from Lake Jues. In the southwestern Harz Mountains a warmer and less humid period occurred between 1,500 and 900 cal bc (Voigt et al. 2008). According to Maise (1998) there was a warm phase lasting from 1,350 and 850 cal bc in central Europe.
Late Bronze Age With the end of Period III and the beginning of Period IV a change in the regional settlement system happens. The first rampart on the western plateau of the Heeseberg was built. At the same time, the outer settlement, which can be described as a proto-urban one, was planed and erected. The hilltop enclosure covers 2.5 ha. The eastern part of the enclosure was protected by a rampart. In the western area no remains of fortification were recorded. Here, a steep slope will have been used as a natural defence line.
Small excavations inside this area gave indications of a permanent settlement. However, its intensity is still unknown. The first rampart was a wooden construction with facing bricks outside. A series of radiocarbon datings (1,130 – 1,020 cal bc) (Heske 2006, 40) and the ceramics show good parallels to Period IV. After burning down in a conflict a reinforced rampart was erected (Fig. 12). The outer settlement was situated directly south of the rampart. Its ceramics are equal to the finds from the hilltop enclosure. At this time the outer settlement had an area of about 6 ha. Remains of casting moulds of stone and ceramics give an insight into a local metal handcraft (Fig. 13). Furthermore, a partially disrupted burial dates to the early period of the hillfort (1,122 – 1,030 cal bc) (Fig. 14). Analysis of settlement pits and archaeobotanical studies of macrofossils have revealed diversified agriculture with the cultivation of winter and summer cereals (Heske et al. 2010, 186). Ideas about the social structure of this community did not come from graves. Old stray finds of recent decades include a fragment of a sword with a ricasso (Heske 2006, 105) and a round shield of the “Nipperwiese” type (Heske 2004; Uckelmann forthcoming). The widespread connections of the bronze objects are discernible not only in Europe. For the mobility of people in an unknown direction a potsherd of a vessel of the “Süddeutsch-schweizerische Gruppe” of the Urnfield period is of great importance (Fig. 15).
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Collapse or Continuity ? · Northern Germany
Hünenburg settlement Magnetic 2001 - 2010
Hünenburg Plateau / Quarry Magnetic 2008
Beierstedt cemetery Magnetic 2006 - 2008
Fig. 13. Hünenburg and its surroundings, geophysical prospection. The outer settlement was confirmed west and south of the hillfort by excavations. To the east a prehistoric route and the urnfield of Beierstedt were detected (Posselt u. Zickgraf, Prospektionen).
I. Heske and M. Wieckowska, The Bronze Age Settlement Chamber on the Hill Heeseberg
Fig. 14. Hünenburg. A partially disrupted burial with a perimortally opened skull from the beginning of the hillfort and the outer settlement (photo University of Göttingen).
b
a
c
Fig. 15. Hünenburg, artefacts found by surveys and during excavations. a) Broken sword (scale 1 : 2), b) fragment of a vessel of the “süddeutsch-schweizerische Gruppe” of the Urnfield Culture (scale 1 : 3), c) shield fragment of the “Nipperwiese” type (scale 1 : 2) (graphic I. Heske, Göttingen, u. D. Klimanis, Wolfenbüttel).
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The indications of both an intensive settlement in an area of about 8.5 ha and the communication between different regions in Europe point to a great number of inhabitants. Jockenhövel (1996, 214) argued for central Europe that the benchmark of inhabitants did not exceed 300 to 400 people. For the first period of the existence of the Hünenburg complex the number of inhabitants lay in this range. At the beginning of Period V the elevation of the hillfort enclosure and the proto-urban settlement to a very complex settlement system continues. The rampart was fitted out and acquired a massive facing of brick (Figs. 12; 16). The type of the construction shows knowledge of structural engineering. Abels (2002, 72) pointed out that the stone constructions are not only part of the defence. They also gave the hillfort enclosures an increase in prestige. This happens at the end of Period IV and the beginning of Period V (Heske 2006, 42). The proto-urban settlement outside the hillfort extended to about 15 ha (Fig. 13). Excavations showed an enlarged settled area in a southern direction. In the centre of the settlement the activities continued. Following Jockenhövel (1996, 214) and his ideas about the population at the hillforts, the Hünenburg complex could be an example of more than 400 inhabitants and a highly organized community (Heske 2010b, 298). The settlement system as a centre of knowledge and communication, ritual activities and high quality metalwork is clearly presented in the features and findings. Different offerings such as cattle with split skulls and partially disrupted after death and goat / sheep in connection to the cattle were deposited directly in the settlement area (GrefenPeters / Heske 2010, figs. 3 – 4). Selected fragments of human beings, like skulls and bones, were detected as well (Fig. 17) (Heske et al. 2010, 181). The metalwork shows a very high standard. Not only tools such as socketed axes and weaponry like lanceheads were produced. Different swords like “Griffzungenschwerter” and “Antennenschwerter” were manufactured as well as two of the rare Late Bronze Age objects: the hanging vessels, especially the cast bronze bowl (gegossenes Bronzebecken)! One of these hanging vessels was found in 1901 near the creek Soltau (Voges 1901; Voges 1913; Sprockhoff / Höckmann 1979). Its casting mould was found in 2008. During Period V the burial ground near Beierstedt, first excavated in 1891/92 by A. Vasel, was settled (Fuhse 1917; Heske 2008, 90 fig. 1). First results of the excavations in 2007/2008 confirmed that this place was mainly used in the following Period VI.
At that time, influences in the “Saalemündungsgruppe” create a new culture name for the same area: the House Urn culture. There are no indications for a break between these archaeological groups.
Early Iron Age During Period VI the settlement system continues. At this time the hillfort enclosure was remodelled. The facing brick was no more in use and a wooden palisade was built on the top of the wall. Pottery and an iron needle (Ha D1 – D2) prove the permanent settlement on the western plateau of the Heeseberg (Fig. 12). The same happens in the outer settlement. There is no evidence of a reduction of the settlement area (Fig. 13). Most of the cremation burials in Beierstedt date to the stage between the Hallstatt periods Ha C1 and Ha D1. The route between the outer settlement and the burial ground is well known by some ritual fire places (Fig. 18). The remodelling of the infrastructure is reflected by the corduroy road near the Großes Bruch (Schneider 1995, 43; Heske 2006, 173). Most of the timber planks used for the construction consisted of oak. One beech-post was also built into the structure. The large size of the annual rings of the oak-posts show good growth conditions (Fig. 19). The fall of the dynasty and the break-up of the huge settlement system cannot be attributable to military conflicts. There is no visible destruction horizon. In the Brunswick region the change to HaD2/3 coincides with the end of many burial grounds and the abandonment of many settlements around 550 cal bc (Steinmetz 2003, 358 fig. 13; 360 fig. 14) (Fig. 20). The PAZ 7 ends with the beginning of the “mollusc layer II” at c. 1,340 cal bc, the second flooding layer of the Großes Bruch profile. Simultaneously, reed bed taxa (Sparganium- and Typha latifolia-type) and aquatic plants (Myriophyllum verticilatum-type, Nuphar, Botryoccocus) are abundant with relatively high values (Fig. 5a). At the same time, the settlement indicators show low values, while the amount of arboreal pollen increases considerably, displaying a regeneration of the forest (Fig. 5a). The transition from PAZ 7 to PAZ 8 corresponds to the transition from Subboreal to Subatlantic, representing a sudden, strong shift from a relatively dry and warm climate to a humid and cool episode (van Geel et al. 2001). In this time span at the end of the Bronze Age to the Iron Age a pronounced climate deterioration with the lowest temperatures of the Holocene occurs (Blümel 2002). In the southwestern Harz Mountains
I. Heske and M. Wieckowska, The Bronze Age Settlement Chamber on the Hill Heeseberg
Fig. 16. Hünenburg. The stone front of the wall from late Period IV / early Period V (photos University of Göttingen).
Fig. 17. Hünenburg. One of over 60 fragments of human beings found in the settlement pits. Most of them show perimortal selections (graphic S. Grefen-Peters, Braun schweig).
Fig. 18. Watenstedt. The route with ritual fire places be- x tween the outer settlement and the urnfield near Beierstedt (graphic I. Heske u. H. Marx, Göttingen).
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Conclusions
Fig. 19. South of Beierstedt. One of the oak-posts of the construction from the corduroy road through the Großes Bruch. The oaks rings show very good growing conditions (photo University of Göttingen).
an increase in total precipitation is indicated for the time between 900 and 700 cal bc (Voigt et al. 2008). Generally, the century 850 to 750 cal bc is described as a cool phase with major consequences on the settlement structure of central Europe (e. g. Berglund 2001; Haas et al. 1998; Maise 1998; Tinner et al. 2003; Zolitschka et al. 2003). However, the pollen record of PAZ 8 is apparently disturbed by a hiatus in peat accumulation and cannot be definitely linked to the settlement of the Late Bronze Age and the Early Iron Age.
After a phase of dense population during the epoch of the Late Neolithic Corded Ware and the Early Bronze Age Únětice Culture, a decreased settlement activity is revealed by pollen analytical evidence during the early phase of the Middle Bronze Age. In this time span unstable climatic conditions are recorded, which probably had a negative effect on the colonization of the Heeseberg area. According the archaeological record the period of the Middle Bronze Age shows a drop in the archaeological sources. Judging from the palynological study the settlement activity increases again during the second half of the Middle Bronze Age. Several archaeological findings prove the permanent settlement on the Heeseberg during the Late Bronze Age. There is no evidence of a reduction of the settlement area during the Early Iron Age. A general decline of archaeological sources began at the transition to the Middle Iron Age. This phase is generally described as a cool phase with major consequences on the settlement structure of central Europe. Complementing the archaeological research the palynological study has identified parallel changes of environmental parameters and human activity during the Bronze Age. It is noticeable that in times of extreme environmental conditions, such as severe dryness or flooding, settlement activities were low. This indicates that possible climate change had consequences on the settlement structure and effected a change in the economic systems. The comparison of the present results with other data on climate history as recorded in central and northern Europe shows similar trends of changes. Local environmental disasters, such as fires or flooding events, may certainly have contributed to the demise of settlement areas. Extreme climate or abrupt climatic change could have had a negative influence on the economy, causing major crop failures. This may have affected the quality of life in the negative sense and led people to abandon their agricultural land and their settlements. Thus, the people had to find alternatives in order to cope with unexpected climatic conditions by changing their landuse strategy or living space.
I. Heske and M. Wieckowska, The Bronze Age Settlement Chamber on the Hill Heeseberg
border of Loess depressions estimated pollen catchment area 150
200
300 NN
Jastorf a - Culture Jastorf b/c - Culture Nienburg III - Culture Early Latène - Culture oldpaths
border of Loess depressions estimated pollen catchment area 150
200
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Ripdorf - and older Seedorf - Culture oldpaths
300 NN
Fig. 20. Distribution maps from the North-Harz-Brunswick region. Settlements and burial grounds decrease in number and show a change of location (after Steinmetz 2003, figs. 13 – 14).
Summaries summary The area around the hill Heeseberg in southeastern Lower Saxony is nowadays characterized by a notably arid microclimate. On particularly dry slopes, small areas with meadow-steppe vegetation occur. Another feature of the landscape is its fertile loess soil. These favourable natural conditions of the Heeseberg area attracted human settlers from the beginning as evidenced by numerous archaeological finds of settlements and graves. Within a radius of two kilometres, several settlement and / or grave finds from the Late Neolithic, the Únětice and the House-Urn culture can be verified. Settlement is particularly intense during the Late Bronze Age and the Early Iron Age. At this time, a fortification and so called “Aussensiedlung” (outer settlement) of an extent of at least 20 ha was built. This period of intensive settlement activity is followed by a significant hiatus. For different time slices the combination of archaeological findings, and geomagnetic and pal-
aeoecological examinations allows the extraction of significant information on the interplay between settlement activities and changing environment over a period of about 2,000 years. Pollen analytical studies also provide evidence that settlement activity declines probably due to climatic deteriorations, during the first half of the Middle Bronze Age amongst other periods.
zusammenfassung Das
Gebiet um den Heeseberg im südöstlichen Niedersachsen wird durch ein ausgesprochen arides Mikroklima charakterisiert. An besonders trockenen Hängen kommen sogar kleine Flächen der Wiesensteppe vor. Ein weiteres Kennzeichen der Landschaft sind ihre fruchtbaren Lössböden. Diese seit jeher günstigen naturräumlichen Gegebenheiten des Heesebergs zo-
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gen seit der Linearbandkeramik den Menschen an, was durch zahlreiche archäologische Siedlungs- und Grabfunde belegt ist. So lassen sich hier in einem Radius von zwei Kilometern Siedlungs- und / oder Grabfunde vom Endneolithikum über die Aunjetitzer Kultur bis zur Hausurnenkultur fassen. Von besonders hoher Intensität ist die Besiedlung während der Jüngeren Bronzezeit und der Frühen Eisenzeit, in der eine Befestigung mit zeitgleicher Außensiedlung von mindestens 20 ha Ausdehnung bestand. Hieran schließt sich ein deutlicher Hiatus an. In der Zusammenführung von archäologischen Befunden,
geomagnetischen Prospektionen und paläoökologischen Untersuchungen lassen sich in verschiedenen Zeitabschnitten aussagekräftige Hinweise auf ein Wechselspiel zwischen menschlichen Siedlungsaktivitäten und der Veränderung des Naturraumes über einen Zeitraum von ca. 2000 Jahren gewinnen. Pollenanalytische Untersuchungen liefern zudem Hinweise, dass abnehmende Siedlungstätigkeit, unter anderem in der frühen Phase der Mittleren Bronzezeit, auf Klimarückschläge zurückgeführt werden kann.
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