A f r i c a n J o u r n a l of R e s e a r c h a n d S u s t a i n a b l e D e v e l o p m e n t , V o l u m e 5, N u m b e r 3, 2 0 1 2 ISSN: 2856 -2111 ©McEvans Publishing Company
COMMUNICATION CHANGE I N HEALTH BEHAVIOUR OF RESIDENCE OF SELECTED WATERFRONTS I N PORT HARCOURT METROPOLIS Amadi, Richard Nlemanya Department of Mass communication, Rivers State University of Science and Technology, Nkpolu-Oroworukwo, Port Harcourt, Rivers State, Nigeria Email:
[email protected].
ABSTRACT This stud'/ examined how communication change could be utilized to the health behaviour of the residence of selected waterfronts in Port Harcourt, the Rivers State Capital. The primary objective was to determine if health related campaigns by successive government were accepted and patronized by the residence of waterfronts and slums in Port Harcourt. The survey method of research was adopted, data were gathered with structured questionnaire and analysed with the aid of frequency table and simple percentage. The findings showed that the various campaigns by the government in Rivers State on health related matters have no significant impact on them as majority of the residence of the waterfronts do not adhere to the messages. It is recommended that government at all levels should re-strategies their techniques in health campaigns/ massages to attain the targeted Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) of the United Nations which Nigeria is a signatory. Keywords: Residence, slums, water-fronts, behaviours, communication, campaign, influence. INTRODUCTION Successive governments over the years in Nigeria have for decades evolved measures aimed at stamping out diseases, hunger, poverty, endemic political corruption and instability etc with a view to improving the quality of life of the people. Some of these measures includes the establishment of the National Programme on Immunization (NPI), Control of Diarrhea Diseases (CDD), Role Back Malaria, Population and Family Planning, Reproductive Health, Key Household Practices (KHP), Condom Social Marketing etc in consonance with the goals and objectives of the national health care programme. For instance, in 1987 the Federal Government launched the "Bamako Initiative", a comprehensive health care delivery system geared towards promoting community-based methods of increasing accessibility of drugs and health services to the citizenry, (http://enwikiDedia.orQ/wiki/niaeria. Also 2005, the Nigerian government strategized the achievement of a comprehensive plan for attainment of the countries Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) set out by the United Nations Organizations (UNO). The plan according to Anlbueze, (2008), was geared towards sustaining the process of fundamental change in regulating, financing and providing quality health and institutional arrangements in order to improve performance of the health care system towards attaining a better status for the Nigerian population, strengthening the national health system and its management; as well as improving consumer's awareness and involvement of the people. In spite of the foregoing laudable programmes and efforts by the government to reduce the tide of prevalent diseases in Nigeria such as HIV/AIDS, cholera, and other killer diseases, some Nigerians are yet to adhere to basic prevention strategy to eradicate the scourge. According to a Daily Sun Newspaper (2006) report, the World Health Organization (WHO) and Its partners were quoted as saying that: 7
Communication Change in Health Behaviour of Residence of Selected Waterfronts in Port Harcourt Metropolis Nigeria remains one of the most dangerous countries in the world where babies are born; with half of the number of them die yearly in the first 28 days of life. The WHO's report contends that Nigeria's health care is poor. It ranked life expectancy at 47 years. The report further maintained that half of the population of Nigerians have no access to potable water, appropriate sanitation, and infant mortality rate at 97.1 deaths per 1000 live birth. This urgly trend probably instigated Prof. Adenike Grenge, a one time Minister of Health in 2008 to specifically identify Pneumonia and Meningitis as most devastating and under recognized diseases facing Nigeria children. According to Prof. Grenge "pneumonia alone, kills' two million children in Nigeria a year and causes more infant deaths than AIDS and malaria combined". An evaluation, of these programmes initiated and proudly launched, however, reveals that they did not enjoy maximum acceptance, support and full utilization, consequently did not achieve the targeted objectives set for them. (Adeniyi (1972), Otit (1981). Imoh (1991) regretted that even though public awareness of the existence and efficacy of these national health programme is relatively high, some people will not utilize the health service providers even if they are given free of charge. Presumably, the residence of the waterfronts and slums in African cry wolf; following government deliberate neglect to their plights. This is because they lack basic social, economic and political amenities to improve quality of life and property. Several factors may be responsible; such as lack of exposure to the mass media, effective and efficient communication between the policy and decision makers in health implementers, involvement and participation of the consumers of the health services during conception and implementation stage of the programmes. The premise, however, instigated this study, which sought to ascertain whether the residence of waterfronts in Port Harcourt adheres to health campaigns/massages and investigate factors likely to be responsible to the perceived non acceptance and utilization of the health facilities by the residence. Statement of the Problem Owing to the fact that the government of the federation is making frantic efforts to exterminate killer diseases that pervade the nooks and crannies of the country, the need to complement the gesture by adhering to the various health massages to improve the quality of life of the people becomes imperative. Therefore, how has these health related massages (campaigns) of the government have changed the health behaviour of the residence of the selected waterfronts in Port Harcourt becomes the focus of the study. Objective of the Study This research work was designed to ascertain the reaction of the residence of waterfronts and slums in Port Harcourt towards the adoption of health campaigns/messages by the government in the areas, therefore, at the end of the study: 1. It is expected that the various reactions by different persons will be reviewed in a way to understand their position towards health massages. 2. To identify the pattern of information flow from the Federal, State and Local Government where health facilities are located. 3. To identify communication channels used to evolve the people at the various levels of health care implementations, and 4. Identify Inherent factors which, hitherto, prevented the people from acting on messages received during health care campaigns. 8
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Scope of the Study The study was restricted to four (4) waterfronts in Port Harcourt for the sake of specificity and in line with the research topic. It is believed that it would make better contextualization of the data and results for generalization. However, due to paucity of time, resources, only catchments areas and few responses were considered. Significance of the Study There is nothing more significant to consider a vital issue of discourse akin to Nigeria health policies. Therefore, it might be of interest to know that since the creation of man, he has been exposed to various degrees of diseases which, hitherto, led to their death, hence affected development of this nation. The major significance of this study, therefore, is to bring to bare the mixed reactions on how these health policies actually changed peoples predisposition, harmonize them and made projection in form of recommendations and conclusion. Similarly, a. proper analysis of postulates that viewed the policies as a welcome development, how they were received and how they positively changed their behaviour. These are the various ways that make the significance of this research design. Theoretical Framework Therefore, these theories are relevant because they enable the researcher ascertain how residence of the waterfronts in Port Harcourt speedily adopted health related massages in the areas. Two theories help sharpen this work; specifically the Diffusion of Innovations Theory and the Health Belief Model/Theory. Diffusion of Innovations Theory The diffusion of Innovations is a theory that seeks to explain how, why and at what rate new ideas and technology spread through cultures. The theory developed by Everett Rogers in 1962 explains the collective human behaviour and responsiveness of members of a community over time when new policies, programmes, technologies, behaviours and attitudes are introduced in health, agriculture, politics or social life. It is also a process in which eventual adopters pass through five stages; knowledge, persuasion, decision, implementation and confirmation. When innovation is adopted, it spreads through communication channels. According to Imoh, (1972), diffusion of innovations theory acknowledges the mandatory role of the opinion leaders, the influence of mass media and interpersonal reinforcement of the mass media massage in the individual adoption decision process. Health Belief Model (HBM) The Health Belief Model (HBM) is a psychological model that attempts to explain and predict health behaviours. This is done by focusing on the attitudes and beliefs of individuals. This theory or model was developed in 1950 by Houchbaum, Rosenstock and Kegels due to the failure of a tuberculosis (TB) health screening programme. The theory proposes that beliefs in causes, prevention and cure of illness, acting together with people's perception of vulnerability to health problem form a set of related elements which can Influence health behaviour on Individuals. Basic Assumption The HBM is based on the understanding that a person will take a health - related action (le, use condoms) If that person: > Feels that a negative health condition (le, HIV) can be avoided 9
Communication Change In Health Behaviour of Residence of Selected Waterfronts in Port Harcourt Metropolis " > >
Has a positive, expectation that by taking a recommended action, he or she will avoid a negative health condition (ie. Using condoms will be effective at preventing HIV), and Believes that he/she can successfully take a recommended health action (ie,' he/she use condoms comfortably and with confidence). " J "
The model has four major components. i. A health motivator ii. Value of illness threat reduction iii. Probability that complaint behaviour will reduce the threat and iv. Locus of control. Brief History of Waterfronts in Port Harcourt The history of waterfronts in Port Harcourt is as old as Nigeria. Before the advent of the European explorers to the Niger Delta, fisherman from different tribes (Ijaws, Okrikas, Ogonies, Andonies, Kalahari's, etc had anchored at different parts of waterfronts In Port Harcourt for business with their Ikwerre counterparts. These fishermen and women exchanged their products (fish) with the Ikwerres (Rebisl people) who had In large quantity - yam, meat, cloths, garri, fufu etc as in tradeby-barter. The business continued until when the Rebisl people (Ikwerre) magnanously allocated the areas to them "free of charge" where these fishermen settled and lived till date. The period witnessed serious brotherly relationship which led to inter-tribal marriages, wrestling contexts, active participation in yam and fishing festivals among others between the riverine people and Rebisi, (Ikwerre counterparts). These waterfronts were chronicled according to the tribes that carried out fishing business therefrom, as in Nembe waterfront, Okrika waterfront, Andoni waterfront, Bile waterfronts, Elechi-Beach waterfront, Amadi-Ama waterfront, to mention but few. These waterfronts are densly populated but lack basic social amenities as health facilities, portable drinking water, motorable roads, absence of electricity, unhygienic and poor sanitary environment. Majority of the residence engage in casual sex, suffer incidents of teenage pregnancy, use harps in the treatment of ailments, worships different deities, to mention but a few. Alcohol, herein, cocaine and other dangerous spirits takes center stage during social activities in the areas and above all, serve as escape routes for abductors/kidnappers to various camps. They are predominantly fishermen, traders and craftmen. Concept of Communication Communication plays pertinent role in the interactions among individuals and nations alike. Since people react rationally in order to make decisions about their environment and others, there exists the tall need for an accurate and adequate information, which comes mainly in the form of news from the media. Based on the foregoing, man realizes the importance of communication, which has shifted from general issues to specific ones that concerns his environment. Akpan (1987) states that "communication is the most important human survival skills and that human needs communication to maintain contact with the external world. It is most difficult to find any household that does not benefit or at least expose itself to the Mass Media (Newspaper, Magazine, Radio, Television, internet etc). According to Umechukwu and Uwakwe, (2004), communication has been serving humanity even from prehistoric times. From the stone age, to computer and satellite age, communication has been addressing many problems of humanity. According to Ekweli and Okonkwo (1983), "at one time man depended on the tom-tom, the iron or wooden gong, the town crier and the 'runner* or courier for the exchange of vital news and 10
A f r i c a n Journal of R e s e a r c h a n d S u s t a i n a b l e D e v e l o p m e n t , V o l u m e 5, N u m b e r 3, 2012 ISSN: 2856 -2111 ©McEvans Publishing Company
information." Those methods, though a bit cumbersome in modern age-since they could not meet the needs of a widely dispersed large audience still complemented the modern media. The presumption is that since effective communication constitutes the life wire of human endevour, it becomes also a veritable instrument to disseminate important issues in influencing the health behaviour of the people through the use of the mass media such as the radio, television, newspaper, magazine, telecommunication, internets etc and interpersonal communication such, the town-hall meetings. The Use of Mass Media The mass media according to Defleur and Dennis (1991) is a process in which professional communicator use to disseminate massages widely, rapidly, and continuously to arouse intended meanings to large and diverse audience in attempt to influence them in a variety of ways. The mass media of communication basically informs, educates and entertains the audience. From the specific point of view, they help in mobilizing people for a wide range of development campaigns such as the health massage. Okunna (1999) notes that the mass media encourages and ginger people to achieve the goals of the society by promoting such goals in the media and stimulating the aspirations and activities of people towards achieving such goals. Research evidence has shown that the mass media, especially the broadcast media, i.e radio is very effective in reaching and positively influencing rural and urban audience in Africa and elsewhere. According to Nwuneli (1985). After a decades of research on the relationship between various media of mass communication and socio-economic variables, it is now a generally held belief among development communication scholars that broadcasting particularly radio, could be the most effective media for transferring information on various social change programmes from the government and other institutions to the masses living in the developing nations, 103-110. The positive and far reaching role of the mass media in fostering development is in no doubt., a veritable instrument in actualizing communication goals for sustainable and longevity of the life of the people in Nigeria. According to Opubo (1985) "people are more responsive if they are involved in decisions and have a stake in the new projects". What is required now is a decentralized process capable of mobilizing targets of development, no matter their positions to be voluntary actors in the processes. Therefore, for any programme to have effect and achieve targeted objectives, planners must disseminate the massage through an appropriate medium of communication and ensure that consumers of such massage participated from the conception, implementation and evaluation stage. This, will no doubt, ensure credibility and sustainability of such programme. Method of the Study The survey method of research was employed, the survey research method help sharpen our Inquiry. It is the most appropriate procedure capable of eliciting responses required in finding solutions to the problem. As Wimrner and Dominlck (1987) puts it, Survey research is in use "in all areas of life" among them business, advertising, public relations, administration, politics and policy making. The advantages are enormous. In the words of Osuala (1987) U
Communication Change in Health Behaviour of Residence of Selected Waterfronts in Port Harcourt Metropolis "Sample survey attempt to determine the Incidence distribution and Interrelations among sociological and psychological variables. Survey research focuses on people, the vital part of people and their beliefs, opinions, attitudes, motivations and behaviours." Osuala, (1987) et-al opines that survey do more than merely uncovering data. He contended that they interpret, synthesize and integrate data and point to implications and Interrelationship. Wimmer and Dominick (op-cit) corroborates the inherent advantages of the procedure when they posits that "these instruments can be used to investigate problems in realistic (natural) settings". Therefore, survey research method became Imperative for this study. Research Design/ Instrument In designing the research instrument, cognizance was taken in respect of the demographic and psychographic variables of the population. Most members of the population in this study were either literate or semi-illiterates. Therefore, both questionnaire and oral interview were utilize to collect desired data and information from the respondents. To attain desired objective of the study, some of the questions followed the close-ended patterns with series of possible answers. The last question was open-ended. It gave the respondents the freedom to give their personal views after due consideration of the caliber of people constituting the universe. Questionnaires were administered personally due to a number of reasons. Among them are the short period of this investigation, delay that might occur as a result of the level of education, inefficiency of our postal system to ensure high response rate, to lesson bias and give personal touch to the respondents. According to Peil, Margaret (1982) "personal touch sometimes overcome resistance if questionnaires are handed out individually, respondent can be encouraged to participate, when they are collected, and they can be checked to ensure that all of the questions have been answered". Besides, it is commonly believed that personal contact helps the researcher to personally appraise the attitudes of the respondents by discussing with them after they had filled the questionnaire. Population of the Study The population of the study ideally is the entire citizens of this country. But with the insufficiency of the needed resources, this study was limited to four waterfronts, that is Nembe waterfront, Andoni waterfront, Elechi-beach waterfront and Okrika waterfront respectively in Port Harcourt, the Rivers State capital. The reason for the choice of these waterfronts was predicated on their geographical locations, deplorable state and economic dispositions. Table indicating the Four Waterfronts under Investigation S/N
NAME
LOCATION
1.
Nembc waterfront
Town
2.
Andoni waterfront
Borikiri
3.
Elechi-beach waterfront
Diobu
4.
Okirika
Trans-Amadi
Research Data, 2017 12
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On the whole, a total number of fifty (50) copies of the questionnaire were randomly administered on each of the inhabitants of the four waterfronts. That is fifty copies each for the four waterfronts. The total number of questionnaire administered, therefore, were 200. Data Collection and Analysis To attain set goal, data obtained were clearly sorted out and presented in descriptive statistical tools like percentages, averages and frequency distributions which formed data analysis. These, in addition to tables, constituted suitable means of breaking down statistical data with a view to relating them to the research problem and ensured that the objective of the work were achieved. Data/Analysis In other to obtain validated and acceptable answer towards respondents reactions, questionnaire were designed, distributed and retrieved. Of the distributed and retrieved questionnaire, a total of 138 copies were duly filled by the married, 52 copies by the single while 10 copies were filled by divorcee. The field work also recorded 120 fishermen and women who participated in the exercise, 70 traders and five (10) were students. Distribution of questionnaire according to geographical location of waterfronts in Port Harcourt Location
Quantity
Percentage
Neinbc waterfront
50
25%
Andoni waterfront
50
25%
Elechi-Beach waterfront
50
25%
Okirika waterfront
50
25%
Total
200
100%
Research Data, 2017 Table above shows the distribution of questionnaire among the four selected waterfronts in Port Harcourt. Data indicates that questionnaire were evenly distributed, i.e 50 copies distributed to each waterfronts. (Nembe, Andoni. Elechi-Beach, Okirika waterfronts) with 25% summing to 100 percent Distribution of questionnaire according to sex Sex
Location
Quantity
Percentage
Male Female Nembe waterfront
25
25
50
25
Andoni waterfront
25
25
50
25
Elechi-Beach
25
25
50
25
Okirika
25
25
50
25
Total
100
100
200
100%
Research Data, 2017
13
Communication Change in Health Behaviour of Residence of Selected Waterfronts in Port Harcourt Metropolis Table above shows the distribution of questionnaire according to sex of respondents. Data indicates that a total number of 200 copies of-the questionnaire showcasing equal participation of both sexes in the four waterfronts. Knowledge of the existence of diseases in the areas Response
Frequency of Distribution
Percentage
Yes
120
60
No
80
40
Neutral
0
0
200
100%
Total
Research Data, 2017 Table above indicates that majority of the residence of selected waterfronts in Port Harcourt acknowledged existence of various types of diseases in the area. This is as a result of the overwhelming number 120 or 60% of the responses who positively acknowledge while 80 or 40% of them pleaded ignorance of the existence of disease. Frequency of noticeable deaths in the areas Frequency of Distribution
Response
Percentage
Always
136
22
Monthly
44
22
Yearly
20
10
Total
200
100%
Research Data, 2017 The table above sought to ascertain the frequency of noticeable deaths in the areas. Data reveals that 136 or 68 percent of respondents disclosed that people die always, 44 or 22 percent maintained that people die monthly while 20 or 10 percent said yearly. From the responses, the rate at which people die in the areas were high and could be attributed to the non-challant attitudes of both health implemental and consumers in ensuring that they spread health related massages to all the nooks and crannies of the state. Similarly, the "care free attitude" of the residence of these waterfronts in accepting and adhering to health massages {campaigns} by the government was a contributing factor to the urgly situation. Participation in health campaigns in the areas Frequency of Distribution
Percentage
Yes
22
11
No
168
84
Neutral
10
5
200
100%
Response
Total
Research Data, 2017
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Results of the above table shows an overwhelming revelation that residence of the waterfronts do not participate actively in health campaigns as a total of 168 or 84 percent admitted or affirmed while, 22 or 11 percent said they participated and 10 or 5 percent were neutral. Sources of information on health issues Source
Number of Respondents
Percentage ( % )
Television Radio Newspaper Churches/ Mosque Poster Neigbour Health Center Other
18 70 16 20 48 12 10 6
9 35 8 10 24 6 5 3
Total
200
100
Research Data> 2017 The third objective ascertained the sources of health information preferred in the area. Result shows that 48 or 24% prefers Television, 70 or 35% radio, 16 or 8% Newspaper and 20 or 10% churches/mosque,. 48 or 24% poster, 12 or 6% neigbour, 10 or 5%. Health Center and 6(3%) others. The overwhelming choice of the radio could be attributed to its being cheap, powered by dry cell and instant massages. On factors that prevented the people from acting on massages during health campaigns. Evaluation of the data generated on the above table showed that: one hundred and eighty 180 or 90% respondents of the affected areas identified cultural values/beliefs, while 20 or 10% attributed government insensivity to their plight following non-provision of social amenities to the area. On how various degrees of ailments and diseases were treated by them in the areas, data shows that two hundred {200) or 100% of the respondents maintained they visited and patronized herbalists/native doctors {use of harps) in the treatment of illness. Accordingly, respondents claimed that hospitals situates far from their residence and "that they spent several hours before doctors attended to them". This urgly scenario could have been reduced if health centres were located near the waterfronts, they contended. Summary of Finding The main goal of the study is to ascertain how communication could be used to change health behaviour of residence of selected waterfronts in Port Harcourt. It is predicated on the fact that culture, tradition, believes, and other variables play prominent role in accepting certain ideas and Innovations. The study found that residents of the selected waterfronts do not adhere to health related campaigns/massages by the government at all levels as they still patronize witch doctors following non-establishment of health centres nearer to them. Similarly their beliefs in culture inhibit them from accepting government gesture. Also it was discovered that of the available media, the respondents utilize the radio mostly, probably because it Is cheap, immediacy and powered by battery, therefore do not Influence their behaviour In accepting healthcare campaigns in attending to the health needs.
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Communication Change In Health Behaviour of Residence of Selected Waterfronts in Port Harcourt Metropolis This findings conforms to numerous others which shows that mass media, especially the radio constitute the fastest means of disseminating information (health) to all strata of the society, Federal Ministry of Health (2004), Pate and Umar, (2003), Metre et al (2003), Onuora, N. (1982). RECOMMENDATIONS Based on the summary of the findings of this study, it is hereby recommended that; 1. The Revised National Health Policy in 2004 which enumerated a number of strategies amidst interventions targeted particularly to killer diseases in the country. It is observed that the policy is not yet being put into practice as such, government at various levels should, therefore, collaborate together with a view to Implement the good policy. 2. Health planners and implementers should re-strategies to penetrate into the nooks and crannies of this country, especially waterfronts and other slums in Nigeria to achieve the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) of the United Nations which Nigeria is a partner. 3. Government should regularly visit the waterfronts and slums, in Nigeria, and establish social amenities in other to better their living. 4. Government and Voluntary Organizations should intensify health related campaigns which will evolve the people at the conception stage and implementation in other to better the life of the citizens, 5. Residence of waterfronts and slums in Nigeria should as a matter of urgency patronize health centres and hospitals rather than the witch doctors in terms of treatment of diseases. CONCLUSION Having labouriously studied the communication change in health behaviour of selected waterfronts in Port Harcourt and findings, it is the candid appeal of the researcher that the government and well meaning individuals and organizations to encourage the citizens to appreciate, accept and adhere to campaigns geared towards improving the lots of the people. It is also hoped that the recommendations of this study will be accepted and accorded priority attention by the policy makers and implementers. REFERENCES ChttD://eitfwkioedia.ora/wiki/NiOeria-16~08-2007) Adeniyi, J. (1972), "Cholera Control: Problems of Beliefs and Attitudes." International Journal of Health Education Vol. 15.P. 138. Anibueze, S (2008), Mass Media, Population, Education and Nigeria's Health Concerns. The Nigerian Journal of Communication. Vol. 6 Nov 1& 2 P. 185. Defleur, M. and Dennis E. (1991), Understanding Mass Communication, 4th Ed. Boston: Houghton Miffin Company. P. 45. Ekwelie, S.A. and Okonkwo, R. (1983), "Communication in Transition: The Case of Igbo Land" Nigeria Magazine. 'No 44. Pp. 61-62. Federal Ministry of Health (2004), The Revised National Health Policy. Abuja. Federal Ministry of Health. Nwuneli, O.E. (1985) "Development News and Broadcasting in Nigeria: An Overview", In Nwuneli Onuora (ed). "Mass Communication in Nigeria: A Book of Reading". Enugu Fourth Dimension Publisher. Pp. 103-110. 16
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Okunna, C.S. (1999), "Introduction to Mass Communication" (2nd edition) Enugu: New Generation Books. P. 117. Opubo, Alfred E. (1985), Mass Communication and modern Development in Nigeria," in Nwuneli, Onuora E. (ed), "Mass Communication in Nigeria", A book of Reading, Enugu: Fourth Dimension Publishers. Pp 183-200. Osuala, E.G. (1982), Introduction to Research Methodology. Onitsha. African FEB Publishers Limited. P. 181. Otit, P.N. (1981), " Socio-cultural Constraints to Health Education in Nigeria Setting". A Paper presented at the 1st International All African Conference on Health Education, Lagos August 1981. Pate, U and Umar, M. (2003) "Enhancing Adolescent Reproductive Health Through Mass Media Campaign in Borno State."A paper presented at the 4th National Conference on Research Findings and Development in Nigeria by the League of Researchers in Nigeria. Rogers, E. (2002), The Diffusion of Innovation, New York. Free Press. ISBN 978-0-02-92665-2.
Umechukwu, P.OJ. and Uwakwe, O. "Telecommunication: An Overview". In Uwakwe, Onyeka (ed). Media Technology: Issues and Trends. Enugu: Afrika - Link Publishers. P.7. Wimmer, Roger D and Dominick Joseph E (1987). Mass Media Research: An Introduction. California, Wadsworth Publishing Company P. 102,
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