Communication Science - An Alternative Paradigm for Technical Communication Donald Zimmerman Colorado State University
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Abstract We provide a review of communication science, identify selected lessons learned that are applicable to technical communication research and then elaborate on the importance of crossing disciplines, deriving research questions and hypotheses from theory, using experimental designs and testing hypotheses, developing relevant theoretical perspectives, and using diverse research methodologies. We then focus on the relevancy and value to technical communicators on the job. Key Words: Technical communication research, communication science, research methodologies
Linda Stapel Colorado State University
[email protected]
disciplines that explored early communication research in several disciplines.[3,4] Schramm began his academic career as an English professor and taught at the University of Iowa during the Depression and authored magazine articles for a variety of general circulation magazines. In reviewing his career, Schramm reported that he explored diverse academic fields to learn more about a problem that afflicted him.[5] He stuttered. Schramm first explored psychological literature to develop a better understanding on how to overcome stuttering. He soon recognized that the social science disciplines could provide insights into developing a better understanding of all human communication.
Introduction Recently, we received an instructor’s manual for one of the leading technical communication textbooks designed for technical writing and service courses. The textbook author began by arguing that technical communication has the same theoretical foundation as composition—i.e., rhetoric. He pointed out how composition instructors should use rhetoric to guide their teaching of technical communication. An alternative paradigm—communication science— can also guide technical communication from both a pedagogical and research approach In this article, we will build on earlier articles and argue how communication science can advance technical communication research.[1,2] Communication science emerged as a discipline in the early 1950s. In one of the classic books, The Process and Effects of Mass Communication, Wilbur Schramm collected articles from diverse
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In the opening chapter to his classic Process and Effects of Mass Communication, Schramm pointed out that communication is not a form unto itself but a field that crosses many academic disciplines.[3,4] By the mid 1970s, faculty at selected journalism, speech, and communication departments began embracing what is now considered communication science, an emerging academic paradigm. They had their doctoral students take courses in quantitative and qualitative empirical social sciences--such as psychology, sociology, education, and linguistics— as well as statistics and experimental design. The field expanded with researchers investigating a wide range of areas of human communication Berger and Chaffee defined Communication Science: Communication science seeks to understand the production, processing, and effects of symbol and signal systems by developing testable theories, containing lawful generalizations, that explain
phenomena associated with production, processing, and effects.[6] Simply, researchers using the communication science paradigm develop testable hypotheses about the production of communications, dissemination of communications, interactions with communications, and the effects of communication--i.e., changes in information levels, attitudes, and behaviors. Lessons from Communication Science Over the last 60 years, communication science researchers had used a variety of experimental designs, methodologies, and data analyses strategies. Stepping back from their research, several lessons emerge. Foremost of the lessons learned applicable to technical communication research are the following: 1. Cross disciplines to find relevant research methods and theory 2. Derive research questions and hypotheses from theory 3. Use experimental designs and testing hypothesis 4. Develop theoretical perspectives relevant to the production, transmission, interaction with communication, and effectives of communication 5. Use diverse research methodologies
Crossing Disciplines Historically, the foundations of communication science emerged from the empirical social sciences and related disciplines that provided insights to how people communicate. First, consider two examples. First, Shannon and Weaver proposed one of the earlier “human communication models” from electrical engineering, but human communication researchers soon learned that the basic model was too simplistic to explain the complexities of human communications.[7] Second, health communication has emerged as a specialized area of communication science. Researchers investigating health communications use persuasion literature. [8,9,10,11]
Key to the approach of crossing disciplines is to explore the evolving electronic databases available in most academic libraries. To illustrate, about four years ago, Ms. Jane Kapler Smith, an ecologist with the United States Department of Agriculture’s US Forest Service contacted the first author of this article seeking help with a basic communication problem. The Forest Service researchers and managers wanted to know if adding visualizations to a Power Point Presentation explaining a complex mathematical model of forest management would enable the Forest Service staff to do a better job of explaining forest management practices to the agency’s stakeholders. They are those publics with primary interest in the Forest Service’s forest management practices. In discussing visualizations with the Forest Service staff, we learned that the staff was talking about adding slides containing animations and line art representing forest characteristics to a Power Point presentation. In earlier literature reviews of empirical research on data presentation the first author of this article had reviewed literature on data presentation in education, psychology, communication, and other relevant topics.[12] To prepare for the research, we conducted a literature review using the electronic databases provided by our library. We sought empirical studies on the effectiveness of animations and presentation software in communicating technical and scientific topics to diverse audiences. The education literature provided key articles reporting empirical assessment on the effects of animations in multimedia and Web sites. We found only one study assessing presentation software (See Zimmerman et al. for an extended discussion of our literature review).[13] Today, our library has more than 200 electronic databases of diverse databases, and the library staff reviews and adds new databases periodically. We have found the following databases helpful in exploring a wide range of theoretical approaches and research methods relevant to technical and scientific communication: Communication & Mass Media Complete, EBSOC’s Academic Premier, ERIC, Ingenta, MedLine, PsycINFO, and Web of Science. In some cases we search databases specific to
technical and scientific disciplines, such as ACM Digital Library, IEEE Xplore, and MedLine.
validity, the basic idea is, “Are you observing what you think you’re observing?”
Deriving Research Questions and Hypotheses from Theory When possible, derive research questions and hypotheses from theory. In the social science context, theory is a set of generalize principles that explain phenomena. And theory can be viewed as a systematic way of explaining the world around us and our observations.
Campbell and Stanley summarized experimental and quasi-experiment basic experimental designs and presented more than eight internal threats to validity and four external threats to validity.[14] Threats to validity can be thought of as alternative explanations to what you observe—i.e., something else is the causative factor(s). An in-depth discussion of validity and threats to validity is beyond the scope of our paper; for further discussion see Campbell & Stanley and Cook & Campbell.[14,15]
Research questions are often more general questions—often exploratory while hypotheses propose predictions to test. For example, for our research on the visualization of the Power Point presentation, we used research questions rather that hypotheses because we consider the study exploratory and we set out to compare the effect of two Power Point presentations: one with visualization (animations) and one without visualizations. Our first and second research questions were: “RQ1.Were there significant differences between participants who viewed the Power Point Presentation with visualizations compared to participants who viewed the Power Point Presentation without visualizations? RQ2. Were there significant differences in knowledge scores between the groups studied [mountain residents, town residents (not in mountains), and students.” See Zimmerman et al. for the literature review and rationale leading to the research questions.[13] In the case of communication science, hypotheses are statements, derived from theory, to be tested empirically that predict or explain communication behaviors or effects. Hypotheses tend to be directional—i.e., researchers speculate that the results of the study should come out in a particular way. Using Experimental Designs and Testing Hypothesis To draw conclusion on the effectiveness of communication—i.e., making cause and effect inferences requires setting up an experiment to control the threats to validity. While researchers have conceptualizations of different kinds of
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Researchers use experimental designs—usually a combination of control and treatment groups— to control for as many threats to validity as possible.[16,14,17,15] To provide a simple example, consider our Forest Service project we ran three experiments: (1) one with mountain residents, (2) one with town residents, and (3) one with students. Briefly, in each experiment, we had two groups--one group viewed a Power Point with visualizations (animations) and the other group viewed a Power Point without visualizations. We then compared their responses to some 30 questions about the content of the presentation as well as asking a series of questions about their backgrounds income levels, and experiences with conservation, biology, the USDA Forest Service, forest fires, and other factors (variables) that might have been threats to the validity.[13] Developing Relevant Theoretical Perspectives A wide variety of theoretical perspectives can help guide technical communication research. Researchers can capitalize on earlier research in diverse empirical scientific disciplines--some in the social sciences and others in the biological sciences and other disciplines. Risk communication is one area of communication research. Several different theoretical approaches are being developed to guide research into communicating the risks to different audiences. Two theoretical approaches are the theory of reasoned action and the extended processing model. The theory of reasoned action takes into account the person’s belief systems, attitudes, perception of
subjective norms, and intention as predictors of behavior.[18] Several researchers have explored using the theory of reasoned action for risk communication and health communication.[19,20,21] The Extended Parallel Process Model suggests that individuals either control their fears or they control the risk.[22] The model is based, in part, on selfefficacy. In experiments, communication researchers have focused on providing information with various levels of risk messages.[22,23,24] Using Diverse Research Methodologies The empirical social sciences provide a wide range of methodologies for collecting data; both qualitative and quantitative research methodologies are potentially useful: online surveys, mail surveys, personal surveys, in-depth interviewing, focus groups, Nominal Group Technique, Delphi Technique, direct observation, content analysis, readability scoring, case studies, mining existing data, protocol analysis (talk aloud), participant observation, and more. The key to using each methodology requires developing a detailed understanding of it as well as its strengths and limitations. Handled properly many methodologies provide useful and insightful data that can enhance technical communication research. Misused, they can produce faulty data and lead to invalid conclusions. Vital to using each methodology is a careful review of the in-depth treatment by respective experts in the respective discipline. For example, technical communication researchers often conduct usability testing which includes protocol analysis (verbal talk aloud methodology). Reviewing Ericsson and Simon’s classic article and subsequent books provides additional insights into the talk aloud methodology and its strengths and weaknesses.[25,26,27] As cognitive psychologists, Ericsson and Simon developed the talk aloud protocol to study the problem-solving strategies of novices and experts.
Relevancy to Technical Communicators on the Job In 1988, our department launched an MS in Technical Communication with a strong emphasis on communication science. It prepares our graduates for communication management positions in technical and scientific communication careers, public relations, and new media. All graduate students take a communication research methods course, a broad-based communications theory course, a communication management course, an advanced communication research course and produce either a thesis or evaluation project. If students have not had a basic statistics course, they complete one. Our students come from diverse backgrounds; some are in communication careers others are not. In all cases, the adviser and student review their writing, editing, and production skills. If students lack either professional communication experience and/or college level writing, editing, and production classes, we have them complete the needed writing, editing, and production skill classes to ensure that they have strong writing, editing and production skills upon entry into the workforce. We also encourage students to take a variety of communication courses so that they are skilled in handling both print and electronic media. Students concentrating in the technical and scientific communication, take additional courses about communicating scientific and technical communication, information design, communication role in technology transfer, and new media. Each course focuses on an in-depth review of the empirical research findings for the respective topic. Graduates of our program tell us the lessons they have learned enables them to provide research-based guidelines for enhancing their technical and scientific communications. In addition, our graduates report that the engineers, programmers, scientists and other technical and scientific specialists are more willing to accept recommendations because they explain the empirical research that supports their communication recommendations.
Over the last decade, many of the master’s degree graduates have taken positions with major high tech companies at the Society of Technical Communication’s national salary averages.
[5] W.L. Schramm, The beginnings of communication in America: A personal memoir S. Chaffee, and E. Rogers, Eds. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1997.
Conclusion--Lessons Learned for Technical Communication Researchers
[6] C.R. Berger, and S. Chaffee, Eds. Handbook of Communication Science. Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1987.
Based on the foregoing, we propose that technical communication researchers can use the lessons learned from communication science to further advance technical communication research. Chief among the recommendations are the following: 1. Cross disciplines—i.e., go outside of the technical communication literature to gain further insights into communication 2. Derive research questions and hypotheses from theory 3. Use experimental designs and test hypothesis 4. Develop relevant theoretical perspectives or theories 5. Use diverse research methodologies and data collections methods References [1] L. Grove, and D.E. Zimmerman, "Introduction: Bringing communication science to technical communication research. Special Issue," in IEEE Transactions on Professional Communication, vol. 40, no. 3, pp.157-167, 1997a. [2] L. Grove, and D.E. Zimmerman, Eds. "Bringing communication science to technical communication research. Special Issue," in IEEE Transactions on Professional Communication, vol. 40, no. 3, pp.157-234, 1997b. [3] W.L. Schramm, ed. The process and effects of mass communication. Rev. Ed.Urbana, Ill: University of Illinois Press, 1954. [4] W.L. Schramm, and D.L. Roberts, Eds. The process and effects of mass communication. Rev. Ed. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1971.
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[7] C. Shannon, and W. Weaver, The mathematical theory of communication. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1949. [8] R.E. Petty, and J.T. Cacioppo, Attitudes and persuasion: Classic and contemporary approaches. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1996. [9] A. Bandura, Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1977. [10] A. Bandura, Self-efficacy in changing societies. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995. [11] A. Bandura, Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York. W.H. Freeman, 1997. [12] D.E. Zimmerman, and D.G. Clark, The Random House guide to technical and scientific communication. New York: Random House, 1987. [13] D.E. Zimmerman, C.A. Akerelrea, J.K. Smith, and G. O’Keefe, "Communicating forest management science and practices through visualized and animated media approaches to community presentations," Science Communication vol. 27, no. 4, pp. 514-539, 2006. [14] D.T. Campbell, and J.C. Stanley, Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for research. Chicago, IL: Rand McNally, 1996. [15] T.D. Cook, and D.T. Campbell, QuasiExperimentation: Design & analysis issues for field settings. Boston, MA. Houghton Mifflin, 1979. [16] E. Babbie, The practice of social research. 8th Edition. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1998.
[17] C. Frankfort-Nachmias, and D. Nachimias, Research methods in the social sciences. 5th Edition. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1996.
[27] K.A. Ericsson, and H.A. Simon, Protocol analysis: verbal reports as data. 2nd Edition. Cambridge, MA, MIT Press, 1993.
[18] J. Ajzen, and M. Fishbein. Understanding attitudes and social behaviors. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1980.
About the Authors
[19] M. Fishbein, J.N. Cappella, "The role of theory in developing effective health communication," Journal of Communication, vol. 56, Supplement August, pp. S1-S17, 2006. [20] K.J. Silk, J. Weiner, and R.L. Parrott, "Gene cuisine or frankenfood? The theory of reasoned action as an audience segmentation strategy for messages about genetically modified foods," Journal of Health Communication, vol. 10, no. 8, pp. 751-767, 2005. [21] C.W. Trumbo, and G. O’Keefe, "Intention to conserve water: Environmental values, reasoned action, and information effects across time," Society & Natural Resources, vol 18. no. 6, pp. 573-585, 2005. [22] K. Witte, "Putting the fear back into fear appeals: The extended parallel process model," Communication Monographs, vol. 59, pp. 329-349, 1992. [23] K. Witte, and M. Allen, "A meta-analysis of fear appeals: Implications for health campaigns," Health Education and Behavior, vol. 27, no. 5, pp. 591-615, 2000. [24] K. Witte, J.M. Berkowitz, K.A. Cameron, and J.K. McKeon, "Preventing the spread of genital warts: Using fear appeals to promote selfprotective behaviors," vol. 25, no. 5, pp. 571-585, 1998. [25] K.A. Ericsson, and H.A. Simon, H.A. "Verbal reports as data," Psychological Review, vol. 87, pp. 215-251, 1980. [26] K.A. Ericsson, and H.A. Simon, H.A. Protocol analysis: verbal reports as data. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1984.
Don Zimmerman holds a Ph.D. in mass communication research and theory from the University of Wisconsin-Madison, an M.S. in Technical Journalism and a B.S. in Biology Sciences from Kansas State University. He provided lead roles in developing CSU's M.S. in technical communication and Center for Research on Communication and Technologies. He belongs to UPA, ICA, STC, and the IEEE Professional Communication Society. His research focuses on risk and health communication, Web site and interface design, usability testing, and adoption of information technologies; funding has come from The Environmental Protection Agency, Hewlett Packard, IBM, National Institute on Alcoholism and Addiction, National Cancer Institute, and USDA Forest Service. Don has authored, and co-authored produced research articles, books, book chapters, conference presentations, technical reports on his research. Linda Stapel has been a research associate on diverse health communication research projects funded by the National Cancer Institute and the National Institute on Alcohol Addiction and Abuse over the last five years. She holds a Master of Science in Technical Communication from Colorado State University and a BA in journalism from Metropolitan State College off Denver. The major emphasis of her MS was on communication theory and empirical social science research methodologies. Prior to turning to research, Linda worked in the telecommunications industry before turning her interests to communication research. Currently Don and Linda are conducting usability testing for a $2.1 million NIAAA funded research project investigating the effectiveness of using Web sites to communicate the dangers of binge drinking to colleges students and a $1.25+ million National Cancer funded research project investigating the effectiveness of Web sites to reduce smoking among 18-30 year-olds.
