Computer Applications 1 Computer Applications in ...

Computer Applications Computer Applications in Programs for Young Children With Disabilities: Current Status and Future Directions

Sharon Lesar Judge University of Tennessee at Knoxville

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In the last decade, computer technology has taken a giant leap forward in helping young children with disabilities achieve developmental goals. The use of computer technology can enable young children with disabilities to more successfully explore the world around them, to communicate their needs to others, and to make choices about their world. Computer applications can serve as an equalizer for a child with disabilities so that he or she can function in the same settings and in similar activities engaged in by typical young children (Hutinger, 1996). Young children who are just beginning to find out about the world can use the computer as a tool to experience the consequences of their actions. Technology– used thoughtfully and creatively rather than as a teaching machine– can engender and support educational environments that will empower children to flourish in the 21st century. Computer-based learning appears to have a positive impact on young children, both those typically developing and those with disabilities. Research results suggest the impact of technology in classrooms depends on: (a) the quality of the software, (b) the attitude of the teachers, (c) the physical and social arrangement, and (d) the accessibility of the technology (Buckleitner, 1996; Haugland, 1992; Haugland & Shade, 1990; Kristeller, 1996; Shade & Watson, 1990). Research evidence indicates that there are positive outcomes between young children with disabilities (a) having frequent encounters with computers and their emergent reading and writing skills (Hutinger et al., 1997), (b) their language development (McCormick, 1987; O’Connor & Schery, 1986), (c) their development of prosocial behaviors (Howard, Greyrose, Kehr, Espinosa, & Beckwith, 1996; Hutinger & Johanson, 1998; Spiegel-McGill, Zippiroli, & Mistrett, 1989), and (d) their development of higher order thinking skills (Hutinger, 1987; Hutinger & Ward, 1988). Computers provide the tools to make inclusion possible and easier. Appropriate technology applications and adaptations can provide many children with disabilities a means of opening the door to an array of learning opportunities that was previously unavailable to them.

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Given these emerging views and research findings, the use of computers in early childhood special education classrooms is rapidly increasing. Recent studies have indicated that approximately 70% of preschool special education teachers reported having computers in their classrooms or easy access to technology (Macro International, 1999; Lesar, 1998). However, descriptions of how computers are actually used in early education classrooms are less clear than if computers are being used at all. Generally, investigation of computer use as a means of facilitating learning of young children with disabilities has been very limited (Kinsley & Langone, 1995). While other assistive technology applications may positively impact a child’s development, this study focused on computer applications since the majority of early childhood special education teachers have access to computers in their classrooms. In spite of the tremendous positive impact that has been reported in regard to the use of computer technology with young children with disabilities, most professionals use these technologies in traditional ways, including drills in basic skills and instructional games, especially for lower functioning children (Fallon & Wann, 1994; Haugland, 1999). It now seems apparent that the extent to which computers are used to enrich the learning experiences of young children with disabilities depends on the computer knowledge, skills, and attitudes of the professionals who serve them (Haugland & Wright, 1997; Hohmann, 1994; Parette & Judge, 1998). Several conditions are necessary to ensure successful technology outcomes for young children with disabilities (Hutinger, 1996; Judge & Parette, 1998). These include appropriate goals for computer use, sufficient staff training, and appropriate software selection. For computers to have an impact on children’s learning, computer activities need to mesh with children’s educational goals. When computers are integrated into the curriculum, young children with disabilities are provided a set of tools to assist them in achieving developmental goals across integrated content areas. Given the vast array of adaptive devices, any child can use a computer. Through the use of computer technology, young children with disabilities may be able to participate independently in activities such as reading a story, working puzzles, drawing, or making music. Best practices in early childhood education stress that appropriate technology be integrated

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into the daily routine of classroom activity and be used as one of many options to support children’s learning (National Association for the Education of Young Children, 1996). In spite of increased access to computer technology, a number of educators view technology as an alternative way to develop isolated skills rather than as a tool to be integrated into daily activities (Hutinger, Johanson, & Stoneburner, 1996). Another important factor in effective use of computers is staff training and technology support. Teacher familiarity, confidence, and skill in choosing software and integrating technology into the curriculum are dependent upon teacher training and time for self-directed exploration and learning. Lack of technology training and support services has been reported as a major barrier to utilizing computer technology (Behrmann, 1995; Hutinger et al., 1996; Lesar, 1998). Thus, it appears that the rapidly accelerating investments in computer hardware and software have not always been matched with the support and training needed by the professionals expected to improve the educational experiences of young children with disabilities. In addition to appropriate goals for computer use and sufficient staff training, beneficial use of computers is dependent upon appropriate software selection. The largest area of growth in software recently has been in new titles and companies serving the early childhood educational market (National Association for the Education of Young Children, 1996). With the proliferation of software for young children, the early childhood special education (ECSE) teacher has a difficult choice to make regarding the selection of appropriate software. Choosing good software from the vast array that is available depends upon the salient features of the software, the goals planned for computer use, and the children who will be using it. Research has demonstrated that the kind of software children use provides vastly different educational outcomes (Clements, 1994; Haugland, 1992). Using open-ended, developmentally appropriate software has been shown to provide significant gains in intelligence, nonverbal skills, long-term memory, manual dexterity, and selfesteem for young children. In contrast, drill-and-practice software has been shown to have negative results in educational settings with young children (Haugland, 1992).

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Integrating computer technology into early childhood activities enjoys increasing attention among ECSE professionals (Hutinger & Johanson, 1998). Unfortunately, there still appears to be a paucity of empirical research regarding the use of computer technological intervention with young children who have disabilities. This study was designed to survey the current status of computer integration in preschool special education programs. Specifically, data were gathered to: (a) assess what teachers view as important characteristics when selecting software for young children with disabilities, (b) examine the extent of computer technology use and the purpose for using it, and (c) identify teachers’ attitudes about computer technology, availability, and supports. Method Sampling Procedures A systematic sampling procedure was used to obtain a sample of preschool special education teachers located in Tennessee. To identify these individuals, we contacted the special education program coordinators from each of the 140 public school districts listed in the 1993-94 Directory of Public Schools (State Department of Education, 1994) for Tennessee. Of the 140 special education program coordinators contacted, 96 (68%) provided a list identifying 255 preschool special education personnel in their district-operated programs. All 255 preschool special education personnel were sent a packet that included an introductory letter explaining the purpose of the study, a questionnaire, and an addressed and stamped return envelope. An individual identification number was included on each questionnaire and specified the respondent and geographic region. Follow-up letters were sent to those not responding after 3 weeks. Two months after the original mailing, another survey packet was mailed to participants who had not returned their questionnaire. This second packet contained a new letter of introduction, another copy of the questionnaire, and an addressed and stamped return envelope. Of a total of 255 questionnaires that were mailed, 106 (42%) were returned; and 91 (38%) were considered usable and were coded. Fifteen (6%) of the questionnaires were unusable; that is, they were returned undelivered or the respondents did not have a computer or did not work with young children.

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Instrument Development A 30-item questionnaire focusing on: (a) software selection, (b) computer technology integration, (c) computer technology use, and (d) concerns about using computer technology was designed for data collection. An initial draft of the questionnaire was reviewed by several professionals who are knowledgeable about computer technology for young children with disabilities. The questionnaire was redrafted using their feedback. To verify instrument and survey procedures, the questionnaire was also pilot tested with 20 professionals who were providing services to preschool-aged children with disabilities. Feedback from pilot-test respondents resulted in minor revisions in organization and format; however, no revisions were suggested regarding any of the individual items. The first section of the questionnaire consisted of demographic data in which respondents provided descriptive background information, including extent of computer experience, number and type of computers available, and other types of technology used with computers. Part I consisted of three open-ended questions focused on computer software selection. Part II asked respondents nine forced-choice questions about different ways to use computer technology across their program (e.g., free choice time, large group activity). If respondents answered yes to any of the questions, they were then asked to provide an example of how they used computer technology in that particular situation. In addition, two open-ended questions addressed variables that might affect opportunities to effectively integrate computer technology successfully with young children. Part III asked respondents to rate on a 5-point Likert-type scale (1 = strongly agree; 5 = strongly disagree) their attitudes about access to computer technology, support for technology use, and other computer technology integration issues. Part IV consisted of an open-ended question asking respondents to specify their most significant concern in effectively using computer technology with young children. Results

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Description of Respondents and Respondents’ Programs The respondents were all women who ranged in age from 24 to 62 years, with a mean age of 40 years (SD = 9.2). On average, respondents had been working as ECSE providers for 8.8 years (SD = 6.1) and had been employed in the target preschool program for 7 years (SD = 5.8). The majority of respondents (93%) used computers with young children. Years of computer experience ranged from 2 to 20 years, with a mean of 6.9 years (SD = 4.1). Forty-three percent of the teachers held bachelor’s degrees, 53% master’s degrees, 3% doctoral degrees, and 1% educational specialist’s degrees. The primary degree area for the majority of respondents was special education (50.5%) followed by early childhood special education (19.9%), speech/language pathology (11%), elementary education/early childhood education (11%), administration (4.4%), or some other type of related field (3.3%). The vast majority of respondents were preschool special education teachers (87%). The remainder were speech and language therapists (10%) and related services specialists (3%). Respondents were located in either rural (40%), small town/city (40%), or large town/city (20%) areas. Contextual data about the programs in which the respondents were working were also collected. On average, programs had 1.9 computers (SD = .94) in their classrooms. Over 54% of the programs used only Macintosh computers. Twenty-seven percent of the programs used only IBM or IBM compatible computers while 19% of the programs used both types of computers. The teachers served a total of 1,258 children in programs that represented a diverse sample with regard to ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and disabilities. The majority of the children (69%) who utilized these computers were 3- to 5-year-olds, 22% were 3- to 8-year-olds, and 9% were 3- to 12-yearolds. Table 1 shows the percentage of adaptive computer devices used with the computer. Printers and touch screens are the predominant types of specialized technology used with the computer. Table 1

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Specialized Technology Used With Computer Types of Devices

Percent (%)

Printer

85.4

Touch Screen

66.3

Switches

43.8

Alternative Keyboard

34.8

Digital Camera

23.6

Scanner

11.2

Speech Synthesizer

11.2

Other

7.9

Joystick

3.4

Speech Recognition

2.2

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Software Selection Respondents were asked to name their favorite computer software program. Responses varied tremendously. The favorite was Living Books series (1992), selected by 19% of the professionals. Jumpstart Preschool (1995) program was selected by 14%, while Reader Rabbit Series (1995) and Millie’s Math House (1992) were both selected by 10% of the respondents. The remainder of the software programs selected were chosen by 2% or less of the respondents and thus are not reported. Respondents were asked what three characteristics they thought were most important in selecting software. The majority of the characteristics identified by respondents could be categorized into eight major categories: (a) ease of use, (b) fun and interesting, (c) colorful graphics and reinforcing sound, (d) developmentally appropriate, (e) expanding complexity, (f) adaptable, (g) educational value, and (h) graphics and sound not overly stimulating. Ease of use, or the software being user-friendly with clear directions, was the characteristic mentioned most frequently, by 46% of respondents. Colorful graphics and reinforcing sound (realistic speech and music) was mentioned by nearly one third of the respondents (32%). Other characteristics identified were: (a) fun, motivating, and high interest (30%), (b) developmentally and age appropriate (23%), and (c) expanding complexity of software that meets different students’ developmental levels (21%). The percentages of how adaptable the software was in terms of input devices, the educational value of the software, and graphics and sound not being overly stimulating and distracting were mentioned by 10%, 9%, and 8% of respondents, respectively. Computer Technology Use and Integration Table 2 summarizes the results of descriptive analyses of the types and examples of ways respondents used computer technology across their programs. Using the computer as a personal tool and using software to reinforce a concept were the most frequent types of computer use reported by respondents. Using the computer during free choice time and having a computer center in the classroom followed. Respondents predominately used computer technology during center or free choice time to reinforce concepts.

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Table 2. Types and Examples of Computer Technology Use Type of computer activity

%

Examples

Tool for Teacher

94.4

Reinforce a Concept

94.4

Free Choice Time

90.8

Computer Center

78.3

Supplement a Curricular Theme

67.0

Support Other Activities

37.6

Large Group

36.8

Introduce a Concept

35.6

Story Writing

18.2

Email, Internet, parent letters, reports, lesson plans, newsletters communication pictures, Individual Education Plans (IEP) Colors, shapes, numbers, letters, matching, positions, songs, vocabulary, literacy, body parts, animal sounds Free play and center choice, reward, after or between other activities, after work is completed Center time choice, rotated in as a center Use story software that matches theme, look up ideas on Internet, use digital camera, use software that reinforces themes (e.g., animals, nutrition, body awareness, seasons) Science, math, making labels, language enrichment, switch activated toys, voice output devices, use digital camera to take pictures of concepts, small group and individual activities Teach how to use a program, sing songs, teach new games, use story software to read book, nursery rhymes software Circle time demonstration, use story software to introduce a theme, shapes, colors, patterns, number recognition, unit vocabulary Print stories children write, illustrate a story, explore letters and words

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The last section of Part II asked respondents to describe three ways they integrated computer technology into their programs. Responses to this open-ended question were unitized on the basis of specific activities that integrate computer technology expressed by respondents. Onehalf of these statements were selected at random and categorized, using the constant-comparative methods described by Glaser and Strauss (1967). This process yielded five categories of ways teachers integrated computer technology. The exhaustiveness of these categories was then assessed by attempting to group the remaining statements into one of the categories. Over 96% of the statements fit into one of the existing categories. Some statements were unable to be categorized due to their ambiguity, to their reference to general technology use rather than integration of technology (e.g., “Friday work” or “It is not on a regular schedule.”), or both. These statements were omitted from further analysis. The most prevalent category reflected use of the computer for developing or reinforcing skills and concepts (e.g., cognitive, language, fine motor). This was usually accomplished by either individual or small group instruction. Many of the respondents used the computer with instructional software during a structured time to develop computer and academic skills or part of a therapy activity. In contrast, a smaller number of respondents used the computer interactively for creating stories and poems or using encyclopedia to show pictures and small movies of animals or other concepts the students were working on. Thus it appeared that computer software was used to develop isolated skills rather than as a tool to be integrated across the curriculum. The second major way respondents integrated computers is through the use of computer centers or as a free choice activity during playtime. Teachers frequently wrote that the computer was one of the selections for free time or a center a child chould choose. Often the software used by the children was preselected by the teacher for specific academic activities (e.g., language and math activities during centers or to reinforce a concept introduced during circle time).

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A third category expressed by respondents was using the computer as a reward. Computer time was used as a reward for good behavior, a reward after a task was completed, or part of a classroom reward system. Thus, the computer often was used for extrinsic purposes. Using the computer as a tool for the teacher emerged as the fourth category. Even though this category was not directly related to children using the computer, teachers used the computer to support the curriculum. For example, teachers used the computer to develop activities, make classroom materials, create picture symbols, print pictures, and communicate to parents. As one professional stated, “I get the letter of the week from cute programs on the Internet.” Another noted, “We also get activity sheets from Internet.” Teachers indicated other types of technology they used with the computer to enhance their curriculum, such as digital and video cameras. A fifth category that characterized the use of computer technology was during large group or circle time. Computers were used during this time for reading stories, singing songs, reciting nursery rhymes, doing fingerplays, or introducing a theme. During this time, teachers also demonstrated use of new software. Opinions about Computer’s Benefits, Availability, and Supports Part III asked respondents to indicate: (a) their opinions of computer technology in the early childhood curriculum, (b) how comfortable they are with computers, (c) the availability of software, and (d) training and technical assistance in using computers. The majority of respondents (86%) felt comfortable using current computer technologies with their students. Even though professionals felt comfortable using computers, nearly 39% felt that they did not receive sufficient training in the use and integration of computer technology. Lack of time might have been another reason why so many professionals felt that sufficient training was not provided. Sixty percent reported that they did not have time to increase their technology-related knowledge and skills. In addition, nearly onehalf of respondents were uncertain how to obtain information about computer technologies. Similarly, 40% of respondents thought that technical assistance was not readily available in their schools. However, 72% reported that their school district had a technology specialist who could assist them in using and integrating computers in their classroom.

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Most respondents (82%) held that there was sufficient software available for promoting development of skills for young children and that children of all developmental levels could use software (88%). In contrast, fewer respondents (56%) believed sufficient developmentally appropriate software was available for young children. Besides describing an inadequate supply of developmentally appropriate software, 35% of the respondents also observed that it was difficult to adapt software to meet their students’ needs. In spite of the research that has shown that there is a higher level of social interaction when children are working with computers than during other activities (Clements, Nastasi, & Swaminathan, 1993), only 45% of the respondents believed that social interaction had increased due to computer use. This finding was rather surprising since 89% of the respondents encourage children to work in pairs or small groups when using the computer. Nearly three-fourths (73%) of the teachers believed that the computer was an important part of the daily routine in their classroom. In addition, over half (52%) of the teachers had students using the computer as a tool for drawing and painting. Fewer (48%) had children use props or items that represented what they saw on the computer screen to teach about the real world. Concerns About Effectively Using Computer Technology Responses to this open-ended question were typed as they appeared on the questionnaires. Next, three categories of general concerns about effectively using computer technology with young children were identified. A second researcher independently read each comment and verified the concern categories. These included the following: (a) availability and funding of hardware and software, (b) training and technical assistance, and (c) time constraints. Availability and funding of hardware and software. A critical component of providing computer technologies is obtaining funding for purchasing, maintaining, and updating computers, software, and peripherals. In addition, respondents were concerned about the lack of appropriate software for the different developmental levels of their children. One preschool special educator wrote, "Not enough computers for all of my children and lack of appropriate software to meet the needs of all of my children.” Another teacher’s fear is expressed in the comment, “They get bored

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with the same software. Who’s going to pay for new software?” Others suggested that being able to try out” a program before purchasing it would be helpful. One teacher commented, “I have ordered programs that sound great in the catalog but are worthless when they come in. I wish we could get free trials or samples.” Related to this, teachers also noted concerns about limited software titles for children who need switch-accessible software. Training and technical assistance. A second major category reflected concerns about additional training and technical assistance. For example, respondents expressed concerns that they did not have enough training in how to use technology with young children as well as how to integrate the computer into the curriculum. As one teacher stated, “We need assistance and training in teaching and adapting the software for the children.” Another one noted that “My computer skills are limited. It would be nice to have some help in using my resources to their full potential.” Others expressed a desire to have more experience in integrating the computer into daily lesson plans and more training in the use of adaptive equipment. Time constraints. Related to training and technical assistance is the lack of time for both teachers and children to learn how to use the computer and explore new software programs. Finding the time to keep abreast of the rapid growth of computer technologies and effective strategies to use them was mentioned frequently by teachers. The newer computer products are more complex and sophisticated and often require more time for teachers to use them effectively. For example, one teacher noted, “I need time to explore programs myself.” Discussion This study provides important insights into computer and software use in early childhood special education classrooms. Overall, a large majority of preschool special education teachers use computers with young children. Because computer interactions are significantly affected by software selection, we assessed teachers’ preference for software. Five programs were selected most frequently by more than half of the respondents. Using Hutinger and Johanson’s (1998) five levels of interactivity, these five programs have software characteristics in the midrange of interactivity. This finding indicates that teachers prefer software programs in which the child has

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moderate control. Even though the intended purpose of the software must be factored into the degree of interaction that occurs between the child user and the software program, Lahm (1996) reported that young children with disabilities preferred programs with higher interaction opportunities. In this study, Lahm examined the type of interactive features preferred by young children with disabilities. It is interesting to note that a preference for creating, or being able to manipulate the software by a multiple-step action that is open-ended, over simply using software to construct a closed-ended response, was indicated. Therefore, it might be preferable to purchase software with the highest level of interactivity since it can be used in the greatest number of ways for the widest range of purposes. Teachers identified a number of important characteristics when selecting software for young children with disabilities. Ease of use, or the software being user-friendly, was the characteristic mentioned most frequently. This finding is highly consistent with those found by Haugland (1997). Other important characteristics include colorful graphics and reinforcing sound, fun and entertaining, and developmentally appropriate. It is noteworthy that when teachers evaluate programs, they are primarily searching for software that is developmentally appropriate. In fact, respondents indicated a desire for more developmentally appropriate software to be designed for young children with disabilities. Teachers used computers in a variety of activities across their program. However, the majority of the respondents used computer technology as an alternative way to develop and reinforce academic skills. Technology applications were often used in small group or individual activities that were often neither developmentally appropriate nor related to the ongoing daily activities in the classroom. For example, one teacher stated that she used computers “as a replacement for worksheets” while another teacher used the computer “as individual drill on specific skill areas.” This finding suggests that often teachers are using computers primarily for practice of didactic materials and electronic drill-and-practice worksheets rather than integrating technology throughout the day. This may be due to the lack of developmentally appropriate software respondents felt was available for young children with disabilities. Another possible

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explanation may center on the difficulty of adapting developmentally appropriate software for different children’s needs. Using the computer for direct instruction to address skill development is not an inappropriate use of the computer; however, when the computer is used only for this, it may fall far short of its promise. Furthermore, a significant number of respondents indicated they used the computer as a learning center or free choice activity. The focus of center activities is often on developing and reinforcing concepts. Using computer technology during center and free choice activities can enhance the play environments for young children with disabilities. However, it is unclear if respondents supplied a variety of interesting, developmentally appropriate software choices during center and free choice activity. This study also examined teachers’ attitudes about computer technology. In general, respondents felt comfortable using computer technology. Teachers identified a need for more computer technology training as well as more time to obtain knowledge, skills, and information about computers. This could be due to the fact that technical assistance often is not readily available at their schools. Even though many of the respondents reported that their school districts had a technology specialist to assist them, backlog of referrals, multiple tasks, and little follow-up due to time constraints may place limitations on the accessibility of the specialist. As one teacher reported, "When computers go down or software locks up when children are on the computer, there is no one available at this school to remedy the problem and this leads to frustration on our and the children’s part." Lack of time, training, and technical support can hinder efforts to advance computer technology applications for young children with disabilities. This finding replicates results from previous studies demonstrating that lack of computer technology training and support services are a major barrier for using computer applications (Behrmann, 1995; Hutinger et al., 1996; Lesar, 1998). In contrast to previous research on the social benefits of using the computer (Howard et al., 1996; Hutinger & Johanson, 1998; Spiegel-McGill et al., 1989), less than half of the respondents believed that computers facilitated social interaction. It could be that using drill and practice

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software that teaches isolated skills discourages social interaction. Another explanation is that children may be working on the computer alone because the type of software being used does not encourage social interactions. The results of this study identify some concerns of ECSE teachers in the area of computer technology. Specifically, it was found that additional training in computer technology, greater access to procuring equipment, and more time for training students and teachers to use computer technology is needed. This finding is consistent with previous research reported by Lesar (1998) and Derer, Polsgrove, and Rieth (1996). These concerns are not surprising when one considers that a majority of respondents indicated they needed more time and training in the use and integration of computer technology; however, these needs represent barriers that threaten opportunities for children to use computer applications. Concerns about additional training and technical assistance suggest that many teachers are unprepared in effectively integrating computer applications for young children with disabilities. A recent report reveals that only a few teachers in a relatively small number of schools have been trained to maximize technology use in classrooms (Gatewood & Conrad, 1997). Ongoing training and staff development is imperative in order for teachers to become and remain informed users of advancing technology. Equally important, training should include not only how to use the technology but how to effectively integrate these tools into the existing curriculum. Funding is a persistent problem in the area of computer technology, as data from both this survey and other studies (Lesar, 1998; Macro International, 1999) strongly support. Related to funding new equipment is the difficulty of repairing, maintaining, and upgrading existing equipment. Teachers should have access to demonstration try-out centers and loaner equipment to try computer applications in time frames and environments that would permit informed choices. Considering the rapid pace of new and changing technology, the use of demonstration try-out centers in which teachers can borrow software and hardware could help lower the cost of purchasing new equipment. Demonstration try-out centers could be implemented through partnerships with computer technology vendors and human service agencies.

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This study provides important considerations for practice, even though there are two potential limitations. Generalization of findings beyond this sample should be undertaken with caution for several reasons. First, the 38% return rate for teacher surveys is a low rate for survey research. The low return rate raises the possibility that the teachers who returned the survey represented a biased sample. Although teachers were randomly selected, it is possible that there is a self-selection bias based on respondents' experience and interest in computer technology and willingness to contribute to this effort, although a variety of other factors could also account for failure to respond. In addition, the sample size is small, thus limiting the generality of the findings. Similarly, the sample is based on a group of teachers from only one state. Second, the relation of self-report attitudinal data for this study’s respondents to their observed computer behavior was not investigated; and conclusions drawn and recommendations made from current study findings must be viewed with this limitation in mind Implications for Practice The findings in this study hold implications for both preservice and inservice preparation and for software developers. Although teachers may feel comfortable using computers, they want more training, specifically in the integration of computer technology into meaningful activities of interest and relevance to children. It is one thing to have children use computers at a learning center and an entirely different matter to integrate computer technology into a variety of early childhood curriculum content, including play, art, music, daily activities, and emergent literacy. This training need can be addressed through a number of ways. First, teacher preparation programs need to provide course content and hands-on experience with computers and adaptive devices. As part of the preservice teaching competencies, programs need to provide training in the areas of operating a computer system, selecting and integrating developmentally appropriate software and websites to the curriculum, using computer-based productivity tools, and arranging and managing the classroom environment to facilitate the use of computer technology. The Council for Exceptional Children (1998) has published a set of competencies for new teachers that includes instructional and assistive technology competencies. In addition, faculty need to model and use

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computer technology within the context of methods courses and involve students in creative uses of computer technology. Second, ongoing and effective inservice training and technical assistance should be provided to assist teachers to build skills, gain confidence, and learn strategies to integrate computers into the curriculum. Since only recent preservice training programs have the expertise or resources for appropriate technology training, there is an overwhelming need to develop inservice training models to teach early childhood special educators about computer technology. Effective inservice training should provide meaningful content, hands-on experience, ongoing supervision, and periodic follow up. Model demonstration classrooms in which teachers learn to use technology in context with real children and for real purposes is also a superior approach to inservice training. Time must be provided for teachers to use and experiment with computer technology and to learn, teach, and network with one another about how to integrate technology into their classroom. Administrators need to endorse and allow training time directly related to computer technology during school time or teachers should be compensated for spending out of school time to develop these skills. Peer support groups and peer coaching have been shown to be effective ways to provide follow-up and ongoing support (Haugland, 1999; Male, 1997). Coaching teams (e.g., two or three teachers) or mentors can provide support, affirmation, and new possibilities for using computers in their classrooms. The support groups can pool lesson plans, bring software to review, and discuss solutions to problems they have encountered. It is essential for the atmosphere to be accepting and trusting and for everyone to feel free to explore ideas, raise questions, and discuss concerns or problems. The findings in this study hold implications for the software industry. Clearly, respondents would like more developmentally appropriate software designed for young children with disabilities. An additional concern is the need for more software that has options for adaptive input and output methods. Early childhood special education teachers want software to: (a) be easy for children to operate, (b) expand so that children can be taught the important cognitive, language, critical thinking, and social skills, and (c) be engaging with colorful graphics, appropriate sounds,

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and interesting music. These characteristics expressed by respondents highlight critical areas of improvement for software manufacturers. Software should be designed so that children with and without disabilities can use it. Off-the-shelf software should be accessible to young children with disabilities. Early childhood special education teachers are asking that software reflect the developmental needs of young children with disabilities. Computers are increasingly becoming a part of early education programs, allowing young children to learn how to operate and use computer applications in their learning. While having a computer available in a classroom means accessibility, it does not guarantee appropriate use. The findings from this study have provided a first step in understanding how early childhood special education teachers use computer applications in their classrooms. Research studies in this area need to be expanded and replicated to provide a more complete picture of computer applications in programs serving young children with disabilities. The full potential of computer technology for young children with disabilities cannot be realized until teachers successfully integrate computers across content and child experiences.