Connecting Cairo

SB13 Cairo Conference http://www.sb13-cairo.com/

Democratic Transition and Sustainable Communities Overcoming Challenges through Innovative Practical Solutions

6 -7 November 2013 Fairmont Towers Hotel Cairo, Egypt

Conference Proceedings

SB13 Cairo Conference Organizers Ain Shams University http://www.asu.edu.eg/

Department of Urban Planning & Urban Design 1 El-Sarayyat Street, Abbasyah, Cairo, Egypt German University in Cairo http://www.guc.edu.eg/

Faculty of Architecture and Urban Design New Cairo City Main Entrance El Tagamoa El Khames Postal Code 11835 Egypt Stuttgart State Academy for Art and Design, Germany http://www.abk-stuttgart.de/

Staatliche Akademie der Bildenden Künste Stuttgart D-70191 Stuttgart Germany

German-Arab Chamber of Industry and Commerce http://www.ahkmena.com/

21, Soliman Abaza St, off Jamet El Dowal El Arabia St., Mohandessin, Cairo, Egypt

Edited by: Wafaa Nadim, PhD German University in Cairo (GUC), Egypt

Disclaimer The organizers of SB13 Cairo Conference make no representation, express or implied, with regards to the accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of the information contained in this book and cannot accept any legal responsibility or liability for any errors or omissions that may be made. The views and opinions expressed herein, are the sole responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the organizers. ii

Sustainable Building & Construction

SB13 Cairo – Democratic Transition and Sustainable Communities Overcoming Challenges through Innovative Practical Solutions

Shaker Verlag Aachen 2013

Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data are available in the Internet at http://dnb.d-nb.de.

Copyright Shaker Verlag 2013 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publishers. Printed in Germany. ISBN 978-3-8440-2366-4 ISSN 0945-067X Shaker Verlag GmbH • P.O. BOX 101818 • D-52018 Aachen Phone: 0049/2407/9596-0 • Telefax: 0049/2407/9596-9 Internet: www.shaker.de • e-mail: [email protected]

© SB13-Cairo 2013

Committees Conference Chairs Prof. Dr. Omar Al-Hosseiny, Ain Shams University, Egypt Prof. Dr. Tamer El-Khorazaty, German University in Cairo, Egypt

Scientific Committee Chairs Prof. Andreas Quednau, Stuttgart State Academy for Art and Design, Germany Prof. Dr. Mohamed AbdelBaki, Ain Shams University, Egypt

Conference Coordinator/SB14 Contact Dr. Wafaa Nadim, German University in Cairo, Egypt

Workshop Coordinator Dr. Ahmed Shetawy, Ain Shams University, Egypt

The Scientific Committee Prof. Abbas El Zaafarany, Cairo University, Egypt Prof. Adel Yasseen, Ain Shams University, Egypt Prof. Ahmed O. El-Kholei, Menofia University, Egypt Prof. Ahmed Soliman, Alexandria University, Egypt Prof. Ahmed Yousry, Cairo University, Egypt Prof. Akram Farouk Abdel Latif, Ain Shams University, Egypt Prof. Alain Thierstein, TU Munich, Germany Prof. Ali Abd Alraouf , Drury University, USA Assoc. Prof. Almudena Fuster, Madrid Housing Agency, Spain Prof. Antje Stokman, Stuttgart University, Germany Prof. Ashraf Salama, Qatar University, Qatar Prof. Ayman El Hefnawi, National Center for Housing & Building Research (HBRC Egypt) Assoc. Prof. Barbara Pampe, German University in Cairo, Egypt Prof. Bashayer Khairy, Ain Shams University, Egypt Prof. Chimay Anumba, Penn State University, USA Prof. Christina Claeson-Jonsson, NCC Construction Sweden AB, Sweden Assoc. Prof. Colin Ripley, Ryerson University, Canada Assoc. Prof. Cornelia Redeker , German University in Cairo, Egypt Prof. Dalila El Kerdany, Cairo University, Egypt Prof. Damien Serre, Paris Est University (EIVP), France Prof. Federico Paroloto, Mobility in Chain, Italy Assoc. Prof. Florian Seidel, German University in Cairo, Egypt Prof. G. Mathias Kondolf, University of California, USA Prof. Galila El Kady , Institut de Recherche pour d'eveloppement (IRD), France Prof. Ghassan Aouad, Wollongong University, Dubai Prof. Hailu Worku, Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia Prof. Han Meyer, TU Delft, Neatherlands Prof. Hanan Sabry, Ain Shams University, Egypt Prof. Herbert Dreiseitl, National University of Singapore, Singapore Prof. Ingo Helmedag, Stuttgart University, Germany Prof. Jack Goulding, University of Central Lancashire, UK Prof. James Axley, Yale University, USA iii

© SB13-Cairo 2013 Prof. Jerry Kolo, American University of Sharjah, UAE Prof. Joe Tah, Oxford Brookes University , UK Prof. Khaled Asfour, Misr International University (MIU), Egypt Prof. Khaled Dewidar, British University in Egypt (BUE), Egypt Prof. Lobna Sherif, Architecture of Arab Academy for Science and Technology, Egypt Prof. Magda Ebeid, Ain Shams University, Egypt Prof. Magdy Moussa, Alexandria University, Egypt Prof. Magdy Radwan, Assiut University, Egypt Prof. Mark Blaschitz, Stuttgart State Academy for Art and Design, Germany Prof. Matthias Rudolph, Stuttgart State Academy for Art and Design, Germany Prof. Mieke Oostra, Hanze University, Netherlands Prof. Mike Jenks, Oxford Brookes University, UK Prof. Moemen Afifi, Cairo University, Egypt Prof. Mohamed Ayman Ashour, Ain Shams University, Egypt Prof. Moustafa Madbouli, HABITAT, Egypt Prof. Nagwa El Sherif, American University in Cairo (AUC), Egypt Prof. Nasamat Abdel Kader, Cairo University, Egypt Prof. Natalia Anigbogu, University of Jos, Nigeria Prof. Onuegbu Ugwu, University of Nigeria, Nigeria Prof. Osama M. Farag, Mansoura University, Egypt Prof. Patricia McCarney, University of Toronto, USA Prof. Pekka Huovila, VTT, Finland Prof. Petra Gruber, Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia Prof. Philipp Misselwitz, University of Stuttgart, Germany Prof. Romeo Carabelli, Université François Rabelais, France Prof. Safa'a Mahmoud Eissa, Menoufia University, Egypt Prof. Sahar Attia, Cairo University, Egypt Prof. Samir Sadek, Future University, Egypt Prof. Sayed El Touney, Cairo University, Egypt Prof. Shafak El Wakeel, Ain Shams University, Egypt Prof. Soheir Zaki Hawas, Cairo University, Egypt Prof. Stephan Engelsmann, Stuttgart State Academy for Art and Design, Germany Prof. Susan Draeger, Regensburg University of Applied Sciences, Germany Prof. Symeon Christodoulou, University of Cyprus, Cyprus Prof. Tarek Hassan, Loughborough University, UK Prof. Thomas Bock, TU Munich, Germany Assoc. Prof. Thomas Loeffler, German University in Cairo, Egypt Prof. Tobias Wallisser, Stuttgart State Academy for Art and Design, Germany Prof. Ulrich Knaack, University of Technology Delft, Netherlands Assoc. Prof. Vittoria Capresi, German University in Cairo, Egypt Prof. Wafaa Amer, Cairo University, Egypt Prof. Wei Pan, The University of Hong Kong, China Prof. Yasser Mahgoub, Qatar University, Qatar Prof. Zeinab Shafik, Cairo University, Egypt

Organization Ms. Marion Kussmann, German Arab Chamber of Industry and Commerce, Egypt Ms. Hoda El-Mahgoub, German Arab Chamber of Industry and Commerce, Egypt Proceedings Arch. Maha Shalaby, German University in Cairo, Egypt

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© SB13-Cairo 2013

Preface

From the Minister of Housing, Utilities & Urban Development It gives me great pleasure to welcome you all to the regional Sustainable Buildings and Construction Conference "SB13 Cairo" which paves the road to the World SB14 in Barcelona. This conference could not be held at a more opportune time. A time where Egypt and the whole region have embarked on the road of democracy, and sustainable socio-economic development is a key milestone. A time where our political roadmap is augmented by an economic roadmap, aiming at raising the standard of living for all Egyptians. A time where Governments, academia, and business are working hand-in-hand, revolutionizing thinking, planning and implementation for the betterment of their countries. And time is what we do not have. We cannot experiment and reinvent the wheel. We have to do it fast and right from the start, not only for our people who deserve it, but for the future generations from whom we are borrowing our land. That is why we seek novel proven technologies, solutions and best practices to adapt and integrate into our planning and implementation sustainable development policies, which could be retransferred, after adaptation, to our neighbouring countries in democratic transition. Our sustainable development strategy poses a host of business opportunities in a win-win public-privatepartnership. That includes the sustainability, operation and maintenance of over US$ 270 billion of real

estate wealth, and a host of new fast track strategic programs encompassing tens of mega rural and urban development projects, desert urbanization projects, new cities, roads and corridors for reducing traffic congestion, a National Poverty Geographical Targeting Project, water and wastewater projects, just to name a few. We welcome you all to share in the creation of our new Egypt. Egypt that was, is and will always be the land of opportunities.

Eng. Ibrahim Mahlab v

© SB13-Cairo 2013

SB13 Cairo Conference SB13 Cairo - part of the international Sustainable Building (SB) conference series

Aspirations and expectations vis-à-vis sustainable communities are being raised dramatically in Egypt and worldwide. This requires revolutionising the way of thinking and planning to proactively address local, national, and regional challenges taking into consideration the international perspective. Nonetheless, the global climate change phenomenon and the sustainable building agenda represent a major challenge not only for developing sustainable communities, but also more importantly, managing the development of the socio-economic landscape. The goal of SB13 Cairo is to redefine urban challenges in light of the democratic transition of the society and to capture knowledge and best practice with the target of prioritising and mapping innovative solutions to local, regional, and international challenges. This is achieved through four main subthemes to investigate integrated planning and implementation policies, to explore potentials for incorporating new/alternative energy technologies on the urban and architectural scale, to govern the successful implementation through local governance and capacity building; and finally to demonstrate state-of-the-art knowledge through real life innovative practical solutions for disseminating and sharing lessons learnt.

The anticipated outcome of the conference aims to join forces between theory and practice and find common grounds within the regional and international context.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS SB13 Cairo Conference Organizers ............................................................................................ ii Committees................................................................................................................................ iii From the Minister of Housing, Utilities & Urban Development ................................................... vi SB13 Cairo Conference .............................................................................................................. v

Integrated Urban Planning Policies Evolution of Informal Settlements Upgrading Strategies in Egypt: From Negligence to Participatory Development ......................................................................................................... 1 Khalifa, M. A.

Informal settlement: a tricky query.............................................................................................15 1

Farouk, G.H. and Rudolf, F.

2

Governance Networks as a Tool for Informal Settlement Management ....................................26 A Way Forward for Yemen 1 2 Al-Daily, W. and Dare, R.

Indicators Placement in identifying and analyzing Urban issues ................................................39 Mohamed ElSayed Tolba

Revolutionizing the planning process in Egypt ..........................................................................54 Decentralizing Powers and Actions Yousry. S

Nubian Resettlement Challenges ..............................................................................................68 Between past memories and present settings Serag, Y.M.

The Myth of Nubia, Egypt: A Vivid Potential or Desert Mirage ...................................................82 1

Shetawy, A. and El-Shafie, M.

2

The Rise Of Economic Cities/Clusters ......................................................................................97 Critical Analysis on Reasons of Success Abdel-Kader, M. H.

Worldwide Planning Experiences of Eco-Industrial Development (EID) ..................................109 Hesham Adly Mohamed

Evaluation of Marsa Alam (BOT) Airport in Egypt....................................................................124 ElShamy, W

Self-Developed Areas .............................................................................................................135 The Cases of the Southern Part of Tübingen & Ebny Betik Projects Mannoun. M, Salheen. M, Mahmoud, R.

Towards A New Vision For Sustainable Urban Parks ..............................................................148 A Case Study Of Alain Wildlife Park In Abu Dhabi Rehan, G.

Al-Azhar Park Sustainability: An Environmental Review of a Distinct Model in Local Landscape ...............................................................................................................................................162 1

Mostafa, A. M. and Kamel. D. K.

2

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© SB13-Cairo 2013 The Post-revolutionary effect on the urban harmony of the Egyptian built environment in relation to the collective memory of the population: .............................................................................182 Urban context of the “after revolution” between contravention and elaboration 1 2 Mahmoud, R.A. and Abd Elrahman, A.S.

Democratic Transition of Architectural Language in Egypt after Revolution.............................194 Al-Tawansy. Ali Kamal

The Haussmanization approach ..............................................................................................209 From a counter revolution urban fabric to a success factor for the Egyptian revolution in Cairo ......... 209 Serag, Y.M.

Fallacy of Greening the New Egyptian Cities .......................................................................... 224 Abdelkhalek Awad Ibrahim

Towards an Integrated Neo-vernacular Living Environment: physical and socio-cultural aspects ...............................................................................................................................................238 1

Makhlouf, N. N. and Eid, Y.Y.

2

Flooding as a threat to settlements even in remote areas .......................................................251 Example of El-Sheikh El-Shazli Village – Egyptian Eastern Desert 1 2 Gohar. A and Kondolf. G.M

CITY SCREAM .......................................................................................................................262 A study on using natural soundscape as a barrier for city sounds EL Gohary. G

Global Tourism as a Tool for the Preservation of the Local Urban Heritage ............................275 (Greater Cairo case) Elewa, A.

Historic Parks in the Face of Change: The Merryland Park, Cairo, Egypt ................................288 1

Shetawy, A. and Dief-Allah, D.

2

Connecting Cairo to the Nile: Opportunities for Public Access and Alternative Transportation G.M. Kondolf, R. Marzion, L. Mozingo, K. Balakrishnan, and A. Gohar

Egypt; Nile Island Heterotopias: ..............................................................................................316 Urban Agriculture potentials vs Urban Sprawl 1 2 3 Fouad, H. , Redeker, C and Aly, M.

WASTA BENI SUEF NILE KM 82.5-87.5 km ...........................................................................329 Encroachment mechanisms, consequences and possible solutions 1 2 3 Redeker. C. , Fouad. H. , El Ghayesh, H.

The Downstream Impacts of Ethiopia’s Cascade Dams in the Upper Blue Nile on Egypt ........338 Kantoush. S.A.

Wet Landscape: ......................................................................................................................351 Using Sculptures to Form Underwater Landscape El Gohary, G.

Infrastructures: possibilities and potentials in reclaiming public space .....................................365 A case study on the Ring Road of Cairo 1 2 Shoaib, H. .and El Gendy, N.

A Novel Real-Time Traffic Surveillance System for Intermodal Travel Based on Cellular Networks .................................................................................................................................378 A Case Study from Greater Cairo Metropolitan Area (GCMA) Basyoni, Y. I.

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New/Alternative Energy Technologies and Resources/Practical Exemplars Intermediate Report on the Design of a Net-Zero-Energy Building in Muscat, Oman ..............390 1

2

Rudolph, MR. , Knebel, N.K. , Werminghausen, M.W.² and Frenzel. CF

1

Solar energy potentials in Egypt ..............................................................................................405 Solar energy applications as integral multi-functional systems Mohamed. Abdelrahman Abdelnaeem Abdellatif

Energy Smart Home as a Proposed Strategy for Renewable Energy Utilizations in Hot Desert Cities .......................................................................................................................................418 Mahmoud Mourad, Ahmad Hamza H. Ali, Ali kamel Abdel-Rahman

Solar Impact and Consequences on Heat Insulation in the hot climate of Egypt .....................432 Ertel, H. and Baumann, G.

Energy Simulation as a Tool for Selecting Window and Shading Configuration in Extreme Desert Environment ................................................................................................................446 Case Study: Intensive Care Unit in Aswan 1 2 3 Sherif. Ahmed , El Zafarany, Abbas and Arafa, Rasha

Optimizing the external and internal reflectors and ceiling geometry for a deep side lit space .457 Using validated daylight simulation with genetic optimization algorithm in Cairo, Egypt 1 2 Wagdy, A. and Shalaby, M.

Night Cool ...............................................................................................................................473 Development of Low Cost Renewable Cooling and Heating Systems for Egyptian Buildings 1 2 Eicker, U. and Loeffler, T.

Towards Sustainable Architecture through Passive HVAC ...................................................... 479 Hanafi, A. H. K.

Applying Green Materials for Noise Control in Buildings -with Simulation of MATLAB.............493 1

Mosalam, H and El-Brombaly,H

2

Retrofitting Existing Residential Buildings in Egypt .................................................................. 503 1

Mohammed, N. and Sherif, Y.

2

Comparison between the Provisions of the Egyptian Code of Practice and the Eurocodes for Reinforced Concrete Structures Design ..................................................................................520 1

2

El-Shennawy, A. , Boros, V. and Novák, B.

3

An Investigation into the strength characteristics of Compressed Earth Bricks Stabilized with Cast Iron Dust for Sustainable Construction............................................................................533 1

2

3

Zakariya B.H. , Kunya S.U , Kuroshi P , Mohammed I.Y

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The Tide Changes ..................................................................................................................542 From the Wane of Green Architecture to Wax of Adaptive Facades 1 2 3 Dewidar, K.M. , Mohamed, N.M. and Ashour, Y.S.

Taparura project headquarter as a template for ecological energy saving buildings in the new urban zone in Sfax, Tunisia .....................................................................................................555 1

Mohamed GOUIDER, M.G. , Mohamed, CHOURA.M.C.

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Constructability for Sustainability:............................................................................................564 A Waste Elimination Approach in Construction Projects 1 2 Aboul Seoud, S.H. and Othman, A.A.E.

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Biomimetic strategies for innovation and sustainable development .........................................578 Gruber, P.

1,2

and Benti, D.E.

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Passive House Design In Mediterranean Climates .................................................................. 591 A socio-economic approach Wassouf, M.

THE SICU EXPERIMENT .......................................................................................................600 An Experimental Building Prototype in a Typical Neighborhood of Addis Ababa, Ethiopia 1 2 3 Brook Teklehaimanot , Helawie Sewnet , Dirk Donath

Towards a Sustainable Construction Industry: ........................................................................ 611 Automated Deconstruction and Recycling 1 2 Helal, M. and Bock, T.

GIS and Site Suitability for SustainableResidentialCommunities: ............................................624 Three case studies from the USA Kamal, A.

Urban Management and Local Governance Sustainable Decision-Making through Integrating Geographic Information Systems into the Entire Environmental Impact Assessment Process 1

2

El-Gendawy, A.H.S. , Othman, A.A.E. , Mahmoud, A.H.A.

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Sustainability in Urban and Architectural Design .....................................................................654 Teaching Future Architects Gawad, I.O.

Experiential mock-ups in materials and sustainability: ............................................................. 667 Linking Practice to Academia in the Research-Driven Design Studio 1 2 Kamal, A. and Hays, D.

Talking about Heritage is a solution to foster sustainable development? .................................680 Communication and participation as a tool to build awareness Capresi, V. and Pampe, B

The “semantic innovation” and a new building cycle. ..............................................................689 How the building technology may be a help to overcome the crisis. Barucco, M. A.

Design of Educational Facilities for Autistic Children ............................................................... 698 1

2

Torky, E. , Abdulrahman, A. and Rashed, A.

3

Assessment Methodology towards Outcomes-Based Learning in Urban Design Course ........710 1

Elshater, Abeer and Hendawy, Mennattalla

2

EcoCity capacity building in NBC, a collaboration project between Finland and Egypt ............725 Åsa Hedman, Pekka Huovila, Pekka Tuominen, Francesco Reda, Carmen Antuña, Jutta Jantunen, 1 Tiina Pajula Dr. Yehia ElMahgary, Dr. Ahmed El-Shazly, Dr. Ahmed Tawfik, Dr. Mohammad Shahin, Dr. Ahmad 2 Hamza, Dr Ali Kamel, Dr. Mona Gamal

Using virtual reality as a tool for enhancing the perception and visualization of architecture students ..................................................................................................................................738 1

2

Aly, T. , Abdulrahman, A. and Rashed, A.

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© SB13-Cairo 2013 Informal Settlements Upgrading Strategies Khalifa, M. A.

Evolution of Informal Settlements Upgrading Strategies in Egypt: From Negligence to Participatory Development Khalifa, M. A. Ain Shams University, Faculty of Engineering - Department of Urban Planning and Design. 1 El-Sarayat St. Abbasya, Postal code: 11517, Cairo - Egypt e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract: The issue of informal settlements represents a key challenge not only in Egypt, but also in most of the developing countries worldwide. A review of several countries' experience with upgrading of informal settlements shows that governments have moved away from eradication and eviction policies that advocated the bulldoze of these settlements to the provision, enabling and participatory policies, where the community is a key player in the development schemes. This shift was motivated by the recognition that informal settlements were not a problem but a solution stimulated by the society when formal housing markets cannot cope with the huge demand and urgent need for shelter. And when planning, land administration and housing policies fail to address the needs of the whole society. In Egypt the incidence of informal settlements began just after World War II and sped up during the 1960s.Yet, despite all efforts to contain the growth of informal settlements, they are steadily growing. This paper aims at mapping the change of informal settlements upgrading strategies in Egypt. It investigates the adopted approaches by the government starting from negligence and utter disregard to contemporary participatory development approaches as well as housing policy aimed at providing affordable shelter to the urban poor. It examines some of the best practices of informal settlements upgrading projects in order to identify the key success factors and lessons learned of such projects. Accordingly, this paper aims to find out the influential driving forces affect the success of informal settlements upgrading projects that are suitable for scaling up and replication. Keywords: Egypt, housing policy, informal settlement, upgrading strategies

1. INTRODUCTION Informal settlements represent a universal phenomenon from which suffer numerous countries worldwide and Egypt is one of them. Informal settlements is one of the major facts accompanied the accelerated urbanization process worldwide. They are a result of governments' failure to provide adequate shelter to the urban poor. Therefore, informal settlements should not be perceived as part of the countries' housing crisis but rather as a solution developed by the urban poor under the prevailing conditions of limited economic resources and bureaucratic control, and when neither the government nor the private sector could provide the urban poor with legal and affordable housing (El-Batran, M. and Arandel, C., 1998). The vast number of informal settlements with massive size of inhabited households is an evidence the policy adopted by 1


government agencies who are in charge of managing and controlling urban development and housing regulatory frameworks have been largely ineffective. The scale of urbanization currently underway in developing countries is without parallel in human history. The urban global tipping point was reached in 2007 when for the first time in history over half of the world’s population 3.3 billion people were living in urban areas ((FIG), 2010). The world's population has increased from 2.5 billion in 1950 to 6 billion in 2002, of which 60% has been in the urban areas of developing countries (Payne, G. and Majale, M., 2004). World population is expected to increase by 2 billion by 2030, with almost all of the expected increase to occur in urban areas in currently developing countries (Pitcher, 2009). Moreover, approximately half of the population increase is estimated to be in urban informal areas, approximately doubling the size of the global slum population from 1 billion to 2 billion (UN-Habitat, 2008). This paper aims at investigating the change and evolution of informal settlements upgrading strategies and policies with focus on the Egyptian context in the period from 1970s to date. Given the fact that government's failure to provide citizens with affordable and adequate housing is one of the key causes of the emergence and expansion of informal settlements, the investigation of the adopted policies encompasses both the ones concern on one hand with the causes and on the other with the symptoms; a twin track approach as suggested by Payne (2005). Policies target the causes are principally concerned with the National policy for providing low cost (social) housing that can be afforded by the urban poor, while the ones target the symptoms are concerned with upgrading existing informal settlements and controlling its growth. Structure of this paper is as follows; the following section (2) explains the adopted methodology to carry out this research. Section (3) reviews the history of emergence and evolution of informal settlements within the Egyptian context. Section (4) explores the adopted approaches, strategies and policies of upgrading informal settlements and provision of affordable housing worldwide. Section (5) is an attempt to map out the changes of upgrading ideologies within the Egyptian context and sheds light on some of the best practices of informal settlements upgrading projects in order to identify the key success factors and lessons learned of such projects and finally section (6) includes discussion and conclusion.

2. METHODOLOGY To carry out this research, the author has adopted 2 main methods. Firstly, literature review of publications and official documents to understand the phenomenon of informal settlements and investigate the different academic stances and governments' responses to the challenge of informal urbanization. Secondly, carry out semi-structured interviews with 3 stakeholders who are in close relevance to informal settlements upgrading efforts and shaping related policies in Egypt. The stakeholders are: i) Unit heads at the Informal Settlements Development Facility (ISDF), ii) Senior officials at the United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-HABITAT) Office in Cairo, and iii) Academic staff members from Ain Shams University, Cairo University and Alexandria University who have practical experience in informal settlements upgrading projects in Egypt and work with governmental and official organizations such as the General

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Organization for Physical Planning (GOPP), ISDF and UN-Habitat. Interviews were carried out separately and were conducted as ‘guided conversations’. The main objectives of the interviews were to explore the roles of the different actors involved in shaping the policies and implementing the projects of informal settlements upgrading and whether there are any sort of coordination and cooperation amongst them. Additionally, the author draws upon her theoretical and practical experience in the field of informal settlements upgrading since 2007.

3. ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF INFORMAL SETTLEMENTS WITHIN THE EGYPTIAN CONTEXT The incidence of informal settlements began just after World War II and sped up during the 1960s. Several conditions affected the emergence and growth of informal settlements. One deriving force was the shift in the economy towards industrialization. The massive industrialization during the 1960s created employment opportunities around large cities, which increased rural-urban influx to Cairo and to the other cities. Furthermore, rent control laws were another factor that played a significant role in the emergence and spread of informal settlements. These laws were first issued in 1947 with the objective of protecting low-income households from high cost of housing. During the 1950s the consecutive amendments of these laws resulted in changes encompassed a major reduction in the previously fixed rents, giving tenants more rights over their rented units and restraining the power of landlords in dealing with their properties (El-Batran, M. and Arandel, C., 1998). These laws resulted in diverting the housing market away from rental housing to owner-occupied housing and contributed to the deterioration of the available rental housing stock as property owners stopped investing money in maintenance. Confronted with their inability to afford newly built housing many middle class and low income families were pushed to informal urbanization, which principally took place on agricultural lands at the urban fringes (Khadr, Z. & Bulbul, L., 2011). In the period from 1967 to 1973 (the war against Israel), financial resources were mainly directed to support military needs and all state investments in public housing construction were restricted. On the other hand, the private sector stock did not meet popular demand. The supply was mainly luxury housing for the upper classes with the majority of unites for sale rather than rented, thus the middle and lower classes found the informal sector an adequate alternative to fulfil their needs (Piffero, 2009). During the 1970s, the oil boom in the Gulf States attracted many Egyptian workers to work in the neighbouring oil-producing countries such as Iraq and Saudi Arabia. When they came back, they invested their savings in informal housing, as the formal housing supply was inadequate to meet their demand. The supply proposed by the public sector was neither sufficient nor affordable. Since the 1980s, almost no more new informal areas have appeared, however, the growth of the existing ones has not slowed down in spite of the fall in population growth rates and the 3


strict measures taken by the government against illegal urbanization such as the Military Decrees 1 and 7, which forbids encroachment on agricultural land. In spite of the good productivity of agricultural land, their sale for building was more remunerative than the revenues from farming, which encouraged farmers to sell their lands (Séjourné, 2009). Between 1986 and 1996, the demographic growth rate of informal settlements reached 3.4% per year compared to 0.3% for legal areas, and informal construction growth was estimated to be 3.2% per year, compared to 1.1% in formal districts (Denis & Séjourné, 2002). More details about the formation, typology, characteristics and challenges of informal settlements "Ashwaayat" upgrading can be found in (Khalifa, 2011; Abdelhaleim, 2010; Séjourné, 2009 and Piffero, 2009).Thus, it can be concluded that there were fundamental key factors lead to the exist and accelerated growth of informal settlements in Egypt. They can be summarized as follows: x

Imbalance between the demand of high population increase and the supply of adequate planned formal land for urban expansion

x

The inefficient rent control laws which lead to the recession of private sector from housing market

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Directing all resources to successive wars that Egypt faced.

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Rural - Urban influx to large cities

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Mismatch between housing supply and housing demand

4. REVIEW ON INFORMAL SETTLEMENTS UPGRADING STRATEGIES AND POLICIES As Acioly (2002) argued, informal settlement upgrading is not a new idea, countries such as Peru, Indonesia, India and Turkey already had adopted this approach to tackle the problems of informal urbanization since the 1950s. A review on policies to control and deal with informal urbanization from the 1970s to 2000s indicates a radical paradigm shift in the adopted policy doctrine. During the 1970’s, the oppressive “bulldozer” eviction policy was predominated. Official state's reactions in this period tended to the eradication of informal settlements and rehouse the people elsewhere, most likely in public housing (Hassan, 2011; Abbott, 2002). Adopted policy emphasized land acquisition, land banking and conventional housing projects (UNDP and MLHUD, 2008). Many developing countries pursued this approach until researches and the international experience started to give evidences about the failures of the eradication policies, its deficiency and the destructive effects it had on the urban poor. In the 1980s, a gradual world-wide shift started to take place to promote upgrading approaches that minimize the harmful social, economic and environmental impacts derived from eviction policies, as it maintains the existing social networks and community cohesion where they exist. Emphasis was on lending policies and integration into housing policies with projects and programs focusing on regularization of tenure, infrastructure improvements, establishment of credit mechanisms to support self-help housing and housing improvement, and social & economic development. It was believed that most informal settlements would gradually improve 4


their living conditions when they have a secure tenure. Additionally, local taxes would be collected by registering the occupied lands (Uzun, B., Çete, M. and Palancıoglu, H., 2010). The upgrading programs were combined to sites and services projects where full ownership of plots was awarded to future inhabitants. Sites & Services projects were to become the new orthodoxy (Acioly, 2002). Evaluation of such approach has been carried out in several studies. Findings revealed that the regularization of land ownership was a money and time consuming process which precluded the achievements of projects. Cost recovery could not be accomplished, as inhabitants faced difficulties in paying their share. Impacts of sites & services on institutional and policy reform was minimal if not null and site & service projects never managed to be replicated on a larger scale (Payne, 1984; Skinner, R., Taylor, J. and Wegelin, E., 1987). During the 1990s, with the emergence of new concepts of decentralization and privatization, the role of local governments in managing and steering urban development processes has been broadened. The adopted approach to deal with informal urbanization problems shifted from exclusion to more integration into programs in citywide policies and institutional reforms. Emphasis was on providing package of infrastructure improvements combined with services provision and the physical/spatial restructuring of the settlements followed by legalization of tenure and regularization of property rights (Durand-Lasserve, A. and Clerc, V. , 1996). During the 2000s, as Acioly (2002) argued, the dictum “integration” replaced the term "upgrading". Efforts were directed towards linking informal urbanization with housing and real estate market expansion. Integration encompasses three fundamental aspects. Firstly, physical integration through direct public investments, opening of roads, connection to city’s infrastructure networks and public services and merging to the city’s cadastre and official maps. Secondly, social integration that means adopting specific programs to address community needs and promote social development. Thirdly, juridical integration which means the regularization of land plots, land titling and final resolution of land ownership issues which complements city-wide cadastre needed to collect property taxes and tariffs. Figure (1) indicates the timeline of changes in policy and informal settlements upgrading ideology.

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Figure 1: Timeline of Changes in Policy and Upgrading Ideology (adapted from Acioly, 2002)

5. MAPPING OUT THE CHANGE WITHIN THE EGYPTIAN CONTEXT In order to depict a clear picture on the change of adopted policy and strategies for upgrading informal settlements, this paper explores 3 main strands in this section. Firstly, the national policy of upgrading of informal settlements which represents the government's stance. Secondly, the national housing policy with relevance to providing affordable housing and corrective measures to improve access of the urban poor to formal housing market. Thirdly, parallel Initiatives for informal settlements upgrading by donor agencies, private sectors and civil society organisations. This is an attempt to understand to roles of different actors involve in the process of informal settlements upgrading.

5.1.

National Policy of Upgrading of Informal Settlements

During the 1970s & 1980s and despite the accelerated growth of informal settlements, the government adopted the policy of "negligence and utter disregard". Only in the 1990s, governmental policy started to target informal areas for both security and humanitarian reasons. in 1992, the government launched a national Fund for Urban Upgrading (Madbouly, 1998). In 6


1993, a systematic approach to the upgrading of informal settlements all over Egypt was initiated. A survey to identify informal settlements was carried out in urban areas nationally. 1221 areas were identified and classified as either in need of upgrading (1201 areas) or removal and replacement (20 areas) (UN-Habitat, 2010) ). Consequently, a massive informal settlements upgrading program was initiated and a national plan was developed. The program included two main stages. First stage: 1994-2004 Informal Settlements Development Program (ISDP). This stage was mainly concerned with the provision of infrastructural and basic services such as electricity, water supply, sewerage, paving the streets, tree-planting and landscaping for informal settlements as well as developing deteriorated areas. Second stage: 2004-2008 informal settlement belting program (Tahzeem El-Ashwaiiyat). This stage focused on supporting local government in developing detailed plans that can restrict the growth of informal settlement (Khadr, Z. & Bulbul, L., 2011). By the end of the program, the ISDP only provided basic urban services which covers: electricity, municipal cleanliness, water, sanitary drainage, and road paving for about 352 informal areas and developed 13 deteriorated areas with total cost LE3.2 Billion ( El-Framawy, A. and Algohary, S., 2011). However, the ISDP lacked two main aspects, which limited its success: x

The concept of community participation in planning or implementation

x

Legalization of properties and security of tenure

While focus was on providing infrastructure and improving physical condition of the deprived areas, socio-economic aspects were completely ignored. (UN-Habitat, 2010). In 2008, a presidential Decree No.305 /2008 issued and established the Informal Settlement Development Facility (ISDF) related directly to the Egyptian Cabinet with the main objective of coordinating efforts and finance of the development of informal areas program. ISDF has made a substantial change in the ideology of dealing with informal urbanization by replacing the common terms describe informal urbanization such as “Slums”, “Informal Settlements” or “Ashwa’iyyat” by two distinctive terms; “Unsafe Areas” and “Unplanned areas”. Consequently, policy doctrine and strategies have been changed with prioritizing intervention for unsafe areas (Khalifa, 2011). The definition of unplanned areas is as specified in the Unified Building Law 119 # 2008 (MTI & GOGPO, 2009). They encompass areas, which are not subject to detailed plans, land subdivision plans nor compliant with planning and building laws and regulations. On the other hand, unsafe areas are characterized by posing risks to life, health and tenure or having inappropriate housing. These risks might be due to severe deterioration over time, using components made of makeshift material to build houses, being located in sites subject to landslides, floods, or hazardous infrastructure e.g. high voltage cables, and risky health conditions due to the lack of safe drinking water or improved sanitations and industrial pollution. Unsafe areas were classified into 4 grades of risk, which ordered according to the degree of risk and thus the urgency for intervention (ISDF, 2009): x

Grade 1: areas that threaten life including those located under or above sliding geological formations, in floodplain areas; or under threat from railways accidents.

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x

Grade 2: areas of unsuitable shelter conditions including buildings made of make-shift materials, e.g. shacks, sites unsuitable for building, e.g. solid waste dump sites or ruined buildings.

x

Grade 3: areas exposed to health risks including those lacking accessibility to clean drinking water or improved sanitation, located in the vicinity of industrial pollution, or Located under electrical power lines.

x

Grade 4: areas of instability due to insecurity of tenure including areas located on the territory of state-owned land., sovereign quarters or on the territory of endowments (Awqaf).

According to ISDF's estimations, Un-planned areas constitute 60% of urban areas with average density of 500 person/feddans, building height from 4-10 stories on average; mostly provide safe residence environment and needs medium or long term maintenance. Un-safe areas on the other hand, are estimated to constitute 1% of the urban areas, with an average density of 200 person/feddans, building height 1-2 floors, do not provide safe residence or environment, and calls for deliberate intervention ( El-Framawy, A. and Algohary, S., 2011).

ISDF's policy and approaches differ when dealing with unsafe areas than unplanned areas. x

Unplanned areas require market based mechanisms where by private sector, residents and public partners will benefit from latent land values through planning and building regulations and/or providing tax incentives.

x

Unsafe areas require deliberate intervention by the government to remedy shelter conditions. ISDF's policy emphasized that in situ slum upgrading should be the norm. One of the lessons learnt from successful past experiences is that slum upgrading plans do not work if people are uprooted and lose their source of income and social networks (The Cities Alliance, 2008). The only exception is in Grade 1 areas, as displacement is mandatory. People should then be resettled in safe housing provided by the government or get appropriate monetary compensation. For Grade 2, intervention alternatives include: i) in situ housing replacement with densification or displacement to nearby state owned land, ii) monetary compensation, iii) housing rehabilitation or iv) loans for housing development. For Grade 3, intervention alternatives include: i) transfer or convert aerial power lines to land cable in cooperation with concerned Ministries and Governorates, ii) regularization of polluting factories in cooperation between the Ministry of Environment and the Ministry of Industry or iii) implementation of safe water supply systems and sanitation facilities within the plan of the Holding Company for Water and Wastewater. For Grade 4, intervention alternatives include: i) legalizing tenure with charge or ii) provision of alternative housing.

The finance strategy is based on conceiving ISDF as a revolving fund seeking cost recovery with focused grants to provide citizens with a safe housing environment. Finance modalities include direct loans and grants, as well as bridge loans to development and commercial banks to facilitate finance for the private sector. As an incentive, citizens shall receive market value compensation for properties or be compensated for property devaluation as a result of the development action ( El-Framawy, A. and Algohary, S., 2011).

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5.2.

National Housing Policy

After the victory of 1973 war against Israel, President Sadat engaged the country in a new direction, namely the Open Door Economic Policy (Infitah), marked by a greater political and economic opening to the west and a move away from a state controlled economy towards a liberal market economy. Implication on housing policy resulted in dividing responsibilities between the government and the private sector. The former was in charge only for the construction of low-income housing, and the later would have prime responsibility for providing housing units to the middle and upper-classes. Additionally, the state disengaged from the production of rental housing and maintained the policy of rent control with only minor modifications. As both the private and public sectors disengaged from the rental housing market (El-Batran, M. and Arandel, C., 1998). Thus those seeking affordable rental housing denied access to the formal sector, as rents charge were unaffordable for a large strata. The informal housing market became the only affordable solution to urban dwellers with low or middle incomes. In response to the housing crisis in Egypt, President Sadat introduced the “New Towns” policy in late 1970’s aimed at tackling the problems of inadequate supply of housing and the informal urbanization of agricultural land. However, the main challenge was to relocate the demographic growth that took place on agricultural land to public housing on the desert fringes of the city. Most of newly developed public housing units were left unoccupied due to their high prices, the remoteness of these cities and the inadequate supply of services (Khadr, Z. & Bulbul, L., 2011). From the 1980s, most of governmental investment directed to the new cities and provision of housing was based on the principle of site and services or self-help (World Bank, 2008). However, this was beyond the ability of the urban poor and low income strata. In 1996, the government started the “Mubarak Youth Housing Project”. Its aim was to provide 70,000 affordable dwelling units, in a healthy and productive residential environment. The beneficiaries were the youth who belong to the disadvantaged/low-income groups. The project was completed in December 2000, and its units were distributed in 15 new cities. Project's finance was underpinned by the concept of social solidarity, where the state cross-subsidized nearly 40% from the sales of high-income residential areas and dwellings in both new cities and resorts. In addition, the state offered subsidized credit in the form of soft loans of L.E. 15000 per unit, payable over 40 years at 5% interest rate (MHUUC, 2001). The project proved success and has been replicated in other cities, however, the supply was much less the demand.

5.3.

Parallel Initiatives for Informal Settlements Upgrading and Provision of Affordable Housing

The Government of Egypt, in an attempt to attract new financing for urban development, has tried to involve other international cooperation actors in the upgrading effort (Piffero, 2009). Parallel to the national effort for informal settlements upgrading, there were some initiatives by donor agencies, private sectors, civil society organisations, charities or religious institutions for services provision, sectorial development and housing provision . Examples are the upgrading 9


of schools in poor and informal areas as part of the “100-Schools project” implemented by the NGO Heliopolis Services sponsored by Mrs. Suzan Mubarak and upgrading of youth centres in poor neighborhoods by the Coca Cola Company (Abdelhalim, 2010). From late 1970s to 2000s, there were several successful pilot projects in “sites and services” and settlement upgrading supported by donor agencies. Examples are Hai El Salam in Ismailia (1978), Nasseriya in Aswan (1986), Hadayek Zenhom and Manshiet Nasser in Cairo (1998) amongst others. There was no sole mode of intervention is such upgrading projects. Abdelhalim (2010) distinguished between 2 basic modes of interventions namely "upgrading" and "redevelopment". Firstly, upgrading which encompasses provision of services, sectorial upgrading as well as planning and partial adjustment which maintains most of the urban fabric and physical structures. “100Schools project”, upgrading youth centres, Hai Elsalam project and Manshiet Nasser project fit in the upgrading mode of intervention. Secondly, redevelopment which encompasses on-site redevelopment and relocating which entails substantial replacement of the physical setting. Hadayek Zenhom project fits with the later. For supporting government effort regarding the program of "Shelter for all in Egypt, 1996 – 2001" and promoting the concepts of social solidarity and partnership, in March1998, with support of Mrs. Susan Mubarak a NGO named “Gameyet el Mostaqbal” (Society of the Future) was established to supervise implementation of “The Future Housing Project”. The board of this NGO is composed of businessmen in real estate, manufacturing and construction. The project is designed to construct 70,000 dwelling units with an area of 63 sq. m. /unit, at an estimated total cost of L.E 2.1 billion, without the cost of land. It is replicated afterwards in 15 new cities in Egypt. This project has received the Council of Arab Ministers for Housing and Reconstruction Award in the year 2000 for its innovative approach that integrates architectural, planning, social, economic, cultural, technological, and environmental dimensions (MHUUC, 2001).

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Figure 2: Timeline of changes in policy and upgrading interventions in Egypt

Another initiative that advocates the concept of community participation in upgrading projects is the Participatory Development Programme in Urban Areas (PDP), which was launched as an Egyptian-German development measure in 2004 and is currently in its third implementation phase (2015). It is jointly implemented by the Egyptian Ministry of Planning and International Cooperation (MoPIC) and the German Development Cooperation (GIZ) on behalf of the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) (Shehayeb, D. and Abdelahlim, K., 2011). It is funded by the BMZ with € 4 Million, in addition to € 20 Million from the European Union, USD 5 million from the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, and 1 million Egyptian Pound per year from the MoPIC. The PDP focuses on the upgrading of informal areas in the Greater Cairo Region by introducing and supporting the implementation of participatory methodologies for urban upgrading with public administration and civil society organizations to improve service provision and thus living conditions in an integrated manner to alleviate urban poverty. Accordingly, PDP is assisting local actors in communicating their priority needs and obtaining support from partners on the regional and national levels (GIZ, 2013). The PDP has implemented 2 pilot projects in Manshiet Nasser and Boulaq el Dakrour, principally focused on

11


upgrading of infrastructure and community facilities to demonstrate that such methods can work. Figure (2) indicates the timeline of changes in policy and upgrading interventions in Egypt from the 1970s to date.

6. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: Informal areas are a reality many developing countries have to cope with. Despite all efforts to contain their growth, informal areas are steadily growing. Within the Egyptian context, in spite of all the efforts exerted to upgrade informal settlements and improve the living conditions of its inhabitants, the magnitude of informal urbanization proves that the outcomes of such efforts are still far beyond achieving its objectives. The pace of informal settlements growth is much faster than the pace of any upgrading or development efforts, thus no visible improvements can be recognized on the ground. Simultaneously, the pace of supply of formal affordable housing is much slower than the pace of high demand by the low-income and middle-income households. Reviewing the adopted policies that responded to the challenge of informal urbanization indicates a combination of different approaches to address the problem as well as different actors involved in the process. Actors include governmental institutions, donor agencies, private sectors, civil society organisations and charities. Though, there is no evidence of sound coordination amongst those actors, no contradiction in their adopted policy and modes of intervention for informal settlements upgrading and provision of affordable housing can be recognized. Additionally, the adopted policy tackles the issue of informal urbanization in Egypt is in compliance with the international police doctrine. There is no successful sole mode of intervention in informal settlements upgrading projects. Modes of intervention vary between provision of services, sectorial upgrading, planning and partial adjustment, on-site redevelopment and relocation of dwellers. Each mode is appropriate under the particular physical, socioeconomic and environmental framework conditions that are found in or affecting the respective informal settlement. Despite the success of most of the upgrading initiatives, they constitute only demonstration cases with no institutionalizing mechanisms to ensure replicability and scaling up of such experience in the strategy of governmental institutions or other official structure that provide support and services to informal areas. Informal settlements upgrading programs should be part of the city-wide policy reform and institutional building effort, not a separated reform programs. Addressing the informal urbanization challenge can be a win-win situation for everyone as improvement programs not only benefit the urban poor, but the city as a whole. Additionally, effective approaches to informal settlements upgrading must go beyond addressing the specific problems of settlement, whether they are inadequate housing, lack of infrastructure or services, poor accessibility or severe environmental deterioration and must deal with the underlying causes of urban poverty. More attention should be paid to land regularization and legalization of tenure, non-conventional schemes of community financing, integration to housing markets and land supply and finally emphasizing partnership between public, private and community stakeholders.

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7. REFERENCES: Abbott, J. (2002). An analysis of informal settlement upgrading and critique of existing methodological approaches. Habitat International , (26) 303–315. Abdelhalim, K. 2010, Participatory Upgrading of Informal areas: A Decision-maker’s Guide of Action, Participatory Development Programme in Urban Areas (PDP) in Egypt. Acioly, C. (2002). The Rationale of Informal Settlements Regularisation Projects: from settlement upgrading to integration approaches. Lecture Notes. Institute for Housing and Urban Development Studies - IHS. Denis, E. & Sejourne, M. (2002) ISIS: Information System for informal Settlements: Ministry of Planning, GTZ. Durand-Lasserve, A. and Clerc, V. . (1996). Regularization and Integration of Irregular Settlements: Lessons from Experience. Volume 6 of UMP working paper series . UNDP. El-Framawy, A. and Algohary, S. (2011). Egyptian Approach to Informal Settlements Development. Informal Settlement Development Facility, Egyptian Cabinet of Ministers. El-Batran, M. and Arandel, C. (1998). A shelter of their own: informal settlement expansion in Greater Cairo and government responses. Environment and Urbanization , Vol. 10 (No. 1). (FIG), (2010). Rapid Urbanization and Mega Cities: The need for Spatial Information Management, Research study by FIG Commission 3. International Federation of Surveyors (FIG). GIZ. (2013). Participatory Development Programme in Urban Areas. Retrieved July 12, 2013, from http://egypt-urban.net/ Hassan, G. (2011). Review and Re-evaluation of the Successive Housing Policy in Egypt. AlAzhar University Journal . Informal Settlement Development Facility (ISDF). (2009). Terms of references for data collection of slum areas (unsafe and unplanned) in the governorates of the republic. ISDF. Khadr, Z. & Bulbul, L. (2011). Egyptian Red Crescent in Zeinhum: Impact Assessment of Comprehensive Community Development Model for Slums Upgrading. Social Research Center, The American University in Cairo. Khalifa, M. (2011). Redefining slums in Egypt: Unplanned versus unsafe areas. Habitat International , 40-49. Madbouly, M. (1998). Urban poverty and informal settlements upgrading: A missing dimension in Egypt. Paper presented at the Association of Graduates and Trainees from Britain in Egypt’s Seminar on Cities, Capacities and Development, 23 November, 1998. Ministry of Housing, Utilities and Urban Communities (MHUUC). (2001). Shelter programmes and City Development Strategies in Egypt. Thematic Committee 6-8 June 2001, Istanbul +5. Payne, G. (2005). Getting ahead of the game: a twin-track approach to improving existing slums and reducing the need for future slums. Environment and Urbanization, 17(1), 135-146. Payne, G. and Majale, M. (2004). The Urban Housing Manual: Making Regulatory Frameworks Work for the Poor. Earthscan in the UK and USA. 13


Payne, G. K. (1984). Low-income housing in the developing world: the role of sites and services and settlement upgrading. Wiley. Piffero, E. (2009), "Beyond Rules and Regulations: The Growth of Informal Cairo", in R. Kipper & M. Fischer (eds.) Cairo’s Informal Areas between Urban Challenges and Hidden Potentials, GTZ Cairo. Pitcher, H. M. (2009). The future of scenarios: issues in developing new climate change scenarios. Environmental Research Letters, 2(025002). Sejourne, M. (2009), “The History of Informal Settlements”, in R. Kipper & M. Fischer (eds.) Cairo’s Informal Areas between Urban Challenges and Hidden Potentials, GTZ Cairo. Shehayeb, D. and Abdelahlim, K. (2011). Maximising Use Value: Action Guide for Informal Areas. © Participatory Development Programme in Urban Areas (PDP) in Egypt, Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH. Skinner, R., Taylor, J. and Wegelin, E. (1987). Shelter upgrading for the urban poor: evaluation of Third World experience. Island Pub. House. The Cities Alliance (2008). Slum upgrading up close: Experiences of six cities. Washington, D.C. UN-Habitat. (2008). State of the world’s cities 2008/2009 harmonious cities. London - Sterling, VA: United Nations Human Settlements Programme. UNDP and MLHUD. (2008). National Slum Upgrading Strategy and Action Plan. Kampala: UNDP and Ministry of Lands, Housing and Urban Development. UN-Habitat. (2010). Egyptian Experience Strategy For Intervention In Informal areas. Retrieved July 9, 2013, from Bonah.org: http://www.bonah.org/social/file/read/4021/egyptianexperience-strategy-for-intervention-in-informal-areas Uzun, B., Çete, M. and Palancıoglu, H. (2010). Legalizing and upgrading illegal settlements in Turkey. Habitat Internationa l(34) 204–209 . World Bank. (2008). A Framework for Housing Policy Reform in Urban Areas in Egypt : Developing a Well Functioning Housing System and Strengthening the National Housing Program. © Washington, DC.

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© SB13-Cairo 2013 Informal settlement: a tricky query Farouk, G.H and Rudolf, F.

Informal settlement: a tricky query Farouk, G.H.1 and Rudolf, F.2 1

UFE, Ain Shams, Cairo, Egypt email: [email protected] 2

Insa de Strasbourg, France email: [email protected] Abstract: Major events that took places in Egypt, act as being the turn in changing the conceptual meaning of the informality. The “social unrest”, the” DowekaRock fall “, and recently the revolution of 25 January 2011 had been the key motivations in the consciousness of new aspects of the informal settlement. The Egyptian revolution amplified the needs to the quality of life, for deprived people who were suffering from bad living conditions. Therefore the uncontrolled growth of the informal settlements after it may indicate other grasp. The paper aims to demonstrate that the process of democratic transition benefit differently social actors according to their social capital, cultural and economic. The process of democratization usually goes with a collapse of institutional frameworks. This collapse is the occasion of the emergence of new actors in social and decision-making games. This opening, beneficial to the renewal of elites and the rotation of generations, however, has not only positive effects: it can generate new inequalities and social exclusion, and benefits are not equally distributed in the strata of the population. The paper will demonstrate the study done through workshop done in April 2013 on the area of Kom El Dekka Informal settlement in Alexandria by the contribution of the student Architecture of UFE and INSA Strasbourg. A social observation of this district will addan opportunity to think on the effects of democratic transition in terms of the formation of informal settlements and social relations. The paper ends by discussing the biases in the process of democratic transition needed to be identified and discussed based upon information brought from the site.

Keywords: informal settlement, individualism, collective action

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1.

INTRODUCTION

The problems in an urban area are caused by the change of cities over time. This change, for example a different economic base (service industries instead of manufacturing) or decentralization, leads to different needs within the urban area. The problems that result from these changes are not only physical, such as underused or vacant land and abandoned buildings, but also social, such as unemployment and social deprivation. The search for and creation of solutions for these problems is known as urban regeneration, which usually takes the form of public policy in order to regulate urban processes and attempt to improve the urban environment. [Chris Couch, C., Fraser, C. and Percy, S.(2003)] There has been a fundamental shift in implementing regeneration policies from just urban renewal, to fostering community development. While, according to Webster’s New World Dictionary, to regenerate means:-“to cause to be completely renewed, or restored or reformed.” As for Urban regeneration is a comprehensive and integrated vision and action which leads to the resolution of urban problems and which seeks to bring about a lasting improvement in the economic, physical, and environmental condition of an area that has been subject to change.[ Peter W. Roberts, Hugh Skyes, (2000)] Therefore the existing inhabitants of an deteriorated area execute the regeneration concept in a way that only improve their economic needs, disregarding all environmental or social consequences’, but in this way, as a stakeholder in the development process, communities effectively become the drivers of change in their neighborhoods and areas. [Wangai, E.(2009)] It should be noted that this actions are different from urban renewal, and urban(re)development as urban renewal aims to achieve mainly improved physical change, and urban (re)development has a general mission and lacks a well-defined purpose [Peter W. Roberts, Hugh Skyes, (2000)] Informal settlements in metropolitan area are considered now part of the inner city's as they are located in prime land. Regeneration of urban areas matters as "the tragedy of inner city affects everyone” (GOTHAM , F. K. 2001). Cities matter, and effective urban regeneration is of fundamental importance to a wide range of sectors and stakeholders including local communities; city, regional and national government; property owners and investors; businesses; environmental organizations; residents and visitors at all levels from local to global (Roberts 2000). Government and society have made the value judgment that cities should be maintained as the focus of urban life in the UK. Urban regeneration is required to keep pace with the consequences of continued processes of urban change. Turok's (2005) categorization of "people" , "business" and "place" appears appropriate. In terms of people, regeneration aims at enhancing skills, capacities and aspirations to enable them to participate in and benefit from opportunities. Regeneration also aims to improve economic competitiveness in terms of business performance to create more local jobs and prosperity. To attract both people and business, regeneration aims to improve general appeal of a place. In theory is that in balance all three elements combine to secure the upward trajectory of locality in a long term and sustainable manner. Dimensions of urban regeneration can be broadly described as economic, social and cultural, physical and environmental, and governance-related in nature. 16


Table 1: Approaches to Urban Regeneration (Tallon, A. 2010) Dimensions Economic Job Creation, income, employment, skills, employability, development. Social / Cultural Quality of life, health, education, crime, housing, quality of public service. Physical/ Environmental Infrastructure, built environment and natural environment, transport and communication. Governance Nature of local decision-making, engagement of local community, involvement of other groups, style of leadership. The first lesson is to recognize people as potential: to invest money, to manage and maintain the physical environment, and to participate in service provision. The second lesson is the need for the government to adopt an enabling approach that supports what people do, and to regulate to the benefit of the collective good. One priority should be the development of enabling /affordable housing standards, rather than standards so unfeasible that they leave most of the housing stock unregulated. The third lesson to be learned from informal areas is the importance of appropriate neighborhood planning: where street layout and distribution of commercial activities promotes sustainability, where value-for-cost is maximized, thereby allowing residents the opportunity to control and appropriate public space, and where people are encouraged to invest in the shared amenities and maintenance of their neighborhood [Shehayeb, D. 2009].

2. THE INFORMAL SETTLEMENT BOOMING IN ALEXANDRIA METROPOLITAN The rapid urbanization in Egypt, over the past four decades, had caused the emergence of informal urban development and informal housing supply. Informal settlements,1 (known as Ashwaiyat) are thought to accommodate between 12 and 17 millions inhabitants [ElKady, G. 1987 and Madbouly M. 2006], or about 40-50% of Egypt’s urban population and over 20% of total population [World Bank and USAID/TAPRII (2007)]. Alexandria Metropolitan suffers also from the informality. It has characterized housing built in violation of existing urban planning legislation and the building code, often by converting (legally owned) agricultural land to urban uses without land subdivision or building permits, and in almost all cases without registered property titles (whether legally-owned land or squatter)[Soliman, A. 2011] . Therefore, as well, many successive laws and decrees since 60s till now directly caused the growth of Ashwaeyat in Egypt and changed consequently the morphology of Alexandria Metropolitan city. The rental control law, before 1967, that freeze housing rent to ensure affordability, caused the withdrawal of Private sector from the housing market, resulting in the long-run in a deficit in housing stock mainly for lower1

According to the legal definition of the Egyptian law for Ashwaeyat: 1- to be built on the land non-assigned for construction (trespass on the property of the State, or encroachment on agricultural land), which does not allow the owner to register the land. 2-to be built in contravention of the laws and requirements of building, which does not allow the owner to obtain a license to build 17


income groups. [Hassan, G. 2011] In plus that the old housing policies adopted by the government in 1950s till 1970s had led to housing shortage, and the exacerbation of informal housing, land speculation in urban areas combined with lack of access to State land by different low-income segments, reluctance to register real estate or housing properties and lack of financial resources for housing development. [Madbouly, M. 2006] While in the 70s (the period during and after wars) major reduction had happen in public investment in housing sector due to the concentration of the financial resources to rebuild the military forces or to the recovery after war, consequently, the gap between supply and demand of affordable housing in existing cities increased, and informal settlements were the only available solution for the poor [Hassan, G. 2011]. While In the 80s to the early 2000s, emerged the concept of directing population growth to the desert outside Nile valley. The government decided to locate subsidized affordable housing to low-income groups only in these new cities. The inefficiency of direct supply of housing; the very bureaucratic, costly process for building permit insurance; unrealistically high planning regulations and standards; and the many difficulties associated with acquiring public land caused an increasing fiscal burden to ensure affordability. As consequent, new communities attracted industrial development but could not attract people to live there and the Ashwaeyat were growing. The Ashwaeyat of Alexandria encompasses a wide range of old historical cores such as Kom el Deka zone. This left a large number of underserviced areas in the inner city, which did not match the definition for eligibility in urban upgrading efforts, and left without improvement.

3. 3.1.

EVOLUTION OF THE WAY OF PERCEVING “ASHWAEAT” AND THE RELATIVE ACTIONS OF INTERVENTION First Reaction: Ignoring The Problem

Governmental Intervention towards “Ashwaeyat” had passed through substantial phases. It was only a reaction of dramatic events or catastrophic incidence facing the state. Ways of intervention had mostly changed in accordance of the diagnosis of the apparent cause of this incidence. Before the early 1990s, informal settlements were usually neglected by public officials. There was a lack of government recognition of the Ashwaeyat, as being informal housing that was built in disagreements of the laws of planning and construction. Due to this definition, informal settlements were out of all state development programs and the absence of services (utilities, paved roads, schools, healthcare centers, etc) was accentuated and their problem gradually had consolidated.

3.2.

Second Reaction: Definition Of Ashweyat As Unsuitable Physical Appearance

The incidents of social unrest took place in such places as Imbaba and Ain Shams in the early 1990s was initiating the first effort to upgrade informal settlement, especially with the increasing social unrest that emanated in such settlements. Informal housing could be classified physically, according either their constructions (permanent or non-permanent construction) or their location with proper use for residential use. The main positive outcomes were government recognition of informal settlements and residents’ right to have access to basic services and adequate facilities, and the delivery in many areas of basic 18


infrastructures such as water supply and sewerage networks together with schools and healthcare centers, which resulted in improving living conditions.

The provision of utilities was the way for intervention before 1993

As the government's response to informality started taking shape, the government initiated the National Program of Urban Upgrading in 1992 and its adoption in 1993. The National Upgrading Program for Informal Settlements2 brought new definitions of these urban problems and for their diagnosis. It led to new type of Interventions in informal settlements. Informal areas were classified according to their ability to be either upgraded (1201 areas) or evicted (20 areas). It started to operate in this phase to provide basic infrastructures and municipal services in almost all squatter and informal settlements in the state. After investing more than LE 2.8 billions in 13 years to implement selected upgrading activities in 895 settlements (although without land tenure legalization/formalization).

Telal Zeinhom In Situ Relocation

2

According to National Project Slum Upgrading 1993 : Slums is the area of population concentrations, which resulted in the absence of Physical Planning, This represents an infringement on the property of the State or others. Slums grew without license, utilities and services, whether partially or totally

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3.3.

Physical upgrading approach

In several studies and official reports housing types, land tenure and locations were used to determine the different typologies of informal settlements. Subsequent government interventions aiming to upgrade these areas typically face the problem of lack of vacant land on which to provide needed services and amenities. Case of in situ relocation in Telal Zenhom was typical method for the reuse of spaces available in upgrading, and the provision of needed services was as the way to prevent illiteracy and diseases. However the provision of infrastructures to the informal settlements had encouraged their growth. Therefore, these areas also suffer from lack of infrastructures and services, and often from such problems as high rate of unemployment and illiteracy. Moreover, the program was criticized for the non-legalizing/formalizing land tenure. This problem constrains the functioning of the land and real estate market and cannot be converted into credit which to finance housing improvement or business start-ups and expansions. At this time, very little attention was devoted to community participation through NGOs and CBOs and the private sector plays no role in the process.

The provision of needed services as a way to prevent illiteracy and diseases 801

900 800

694

700 492

600 500

420

400 300 200

58

54

9

100 0 Electricity

Roads

Water Supply

Sewage

Planning

Cleaning

Security and fire brigade

Investments in urban upgrading by sector, 1993-2004 (in million LE) Source: Ministry of Local Development, 2004

20


3.4.

The Third Reaction: The Social Dimension become an important component in the Intervention

In 1996 was the first definition3 cited in ElShoura report of informal settlement that addressed to the inhabitants as part of the problem and needed an integrated approach combining infrastructural and socio-economic development. In 1997, Hernando de Soto’s ILD and ECES conducted a comprehensive multi-year study of informality in Egypt. Towards offering credits and microcredit’s for poor, The Social Development Fund was established to consolidate this idea. It supports the establishment for small business. It offers many programs performed for youth, women, and poor. On the other hand, the government established The National Committee for Women to defend rights of women, to protect them from violence and to secure social development. Moreover, many dispersed efforts but not unified, were done to prevent poverty, and provide better life conditions for the informal areas inhabitants such as the establishment of social centers, libraries, the attempts of illiteracy remove for dwellers of poor areas, the offers of temporary health care for women and children.

Social Intervention In The Ashwaeyat

The Government in 2008 started to incorporate the issues of community participation by the law 119 year 2008 and the legalization of land tenure in upgrading projects in several squatter settlements developed on State-owned land by declaring it possible to sell the land to occupants based on predetermined fixed prices per square meter applicable to each area (ranging from LE 50-200 depending on location)[Madbouly 2006].

3

Report of the Shura Council-1996 Slums are urban Settlements that have arisen in the absence of overall planning, with disagreements of law and violation upon the property of the State. Consequently, these settlements are lacking of all types of facilities and basic services including water and electricity, moreover they do not have a police or health unit or a school or transport and are not reached by the emergency vehicle. As a result of this cruel deprivation of the minimum standard of living, the situation has spread among the inhabitants of these areas endemic diseases and the spread of ignorance and illiteracy and unemployment, appeared category extracurricular law became a source of violence and terrorism

21


3.5.

Reaction 4: The New Classification Of The Ashwaeyat

After the stone fall of Doweka in 2008, a general strategy for dealing with unplanned and unsafe areas was set. Ways of intervention in unsafe areas4 are determined according to their degree of safety, with consideration of all different aspects. On the other hand, a national strategy was formulated, by ministry of housing, to define ways of intervention in existing informal areas and preventing the formation of new informal areas at the same time. The national intervention was enabling formal lands for needed housing and services, and social housing that absorbs population increase and preventing the informal growth. On the local level, existing ashwaeyat were accepted as partners, the intervention of unplanned areas was to lessen population density by enlarging roads, and providing BUS (raise the living conditions of dwellers) and to encourage the contribution of civil society and NGOs to focus on socio-economic needs for developments. Even though that there is a conceptual shifts in the ways of dealing with Ashwaeyat to respond to different incidences, but in fact, governmental intervention in unplanned area was not varying. It is limited in providing basic urban services and open roads or relocation in situ if there is available land. However, such dealings do not appear to reflect the shift in government policy, rather it appears to be a case-by-case approach. This was missing the adoption of flexible and adapted planning regulations and building standards, the bureaucratic procedures related to land subdivision and building permits, the community participation in finance and implementation of service delivery, and a more responsive and cooperative role for local authorities in the process. [Madbouly M.,Lashin A (2003) While private sector and NGOs interventions are generally limited to social charity actions or temporary donations, the investment in Ashwaeyat needs public policy. It needs continuity. The main problem facing this type of intervention is the lack of coordination and integration of efforts done and the lack of visioning for combining objectives and the lack of the clear identification of the roles for each partner of upgrading in such area.

3.6.

Potentials “ Kom el Deka” in Alexandria city

A quick field study in April 2013 done on the urban area of Kom El Dekka area in Alexandria, by the student of the architecture of INSA Strasbourg, French university of Egypt and Fine Arts of Alexandria University, revealed a different approach of understanding the phenomena of regeneration and fast urbanization specially after the revolution. Kom El Dekka is a typical urban area organized around public squares and narrow roads very unsuitable for the cars and very convenient for pedestrians and children. While the old houses fall down new buildings take place without any consideration for the typical urban form of Kom El Dekka. The replace of these small houses of 2 floors high by buildings about 11 floors high goes with the increase of density, air pollution produces by the decrease of sunshine, the lack of the circulation of air and by the introduction of cars. These transformations are not intended. They proceed from some constrains exposed above like the lack of housing. Once you have a small house that falls down if you want to rebuild a new home you have to find the money for it. The way to obtain this money is to close some arrangement with building companies. The result is the replacement of small houses by high buildings. This strategy benefits to the business, which accede to property and to the owners. This strategy helps some of them to assure a 4

The Informal Settlement Development Funds (ISDF) was established by the presidential decree 305 year 2008 for financing and monitoring upgrading operations through a concrete coordination with the .governorates, to end unsafe areas within 10 years 22


home for them and their children. This may not be the only reason of the fast change of the area. The attraction of high buildings symbolizing modernity may also be a motivation. The main response we’ve got after all from the habitants we ask for was a problem of liquid assets and the problem of housing for young people. As long as you haven’t a home you cannot marry for example. The Egyptian students involved in the field study with the French students have confirmed that this is a real problem alos for them. Once this process takes place in an urban area it is very difficult to stop. The habitants see this solution as the solution for their problem without thinking about the side effects of it. Progressively the landscape change and the maintain of the small houses gets more and more difficult because of the shadow made by the big buildings and the decrease of the life of the public spaces. It is obvious that the moving in buildings changes the uses of the public spaces. The particularity of the public space in Islamic countries loses its sense. There is no more hierarchy between the main street, the street for business, and the adjoining streets usually reserved for privacy. Women lose their common places. They stay in their flat, behind the windows, following the movement of the streets and taking care for their children. The children lose also progressively the access to the public spaces, which become less friendly. The case of Kom El Dekka is very interesting because it shows at minima that there is no universal definition for an informal settlement. Informal settlement takes always place in comparison to a previous form, corresponding to cultural and social ways of life. New buildings replacing very old and unsafe housing can be more informal as they look like. It is not because they contribute to shape the urban area like a downtown that they bring some progress. It doesn't mean that they increase the quality of life. Each urban renewal facilitates, through a special arrangement of space and time, some social activities and deprives some other. Therefore every urban renewal is linked with a potential change, which mostly stays invisible. This invisibility is the result of a lack of projection about the changes involved by urbanism as welle as a lack of discussion. After all it’s a problem of political culture in a broadly sense. The evaluation of an urban renewal should always be linked with the wishes of the inhabitants. Do they like to remove their home without changing the way they live together or do they want to catch the opportunity of their dilapidated houses to change some habits? The propositions of the students take the gamble that the habitants of Kom El Dekka are satisfied with their social arrangement but not with the commodities of their housing. Therefore the issue is how to solve their housing problem without destroying the social and cultural arrangements materialized in a special urban shape? Their solution rests on a mix of public action and market process. The public action is responsible for the recognition of the potentials of Kom El Dekka for Alexandria and the Egyptian nation at all. Kom El Dekka is located near the university and the library as well as some archeological spots of Alexandria. It is the home of Chayed Darwich, a very famous musician who is well known for his engagement in the revival of Egyptian culture and pride. It is a place of a lot of handcrafts as well as social heritages coming from the establishment of Nubian populations. Kom El Dekka offers a lot of ingredients, which could strengthen an ambitious renewal project. Kom El Dekka could be a place for the revival of social skills and knowledge of value. It could be a cultural spot. This orientation, which would avoid the downfall of Kom El Dekka depends from public willpower and private capital. In a period of economic health such an arrangement wouldn't be without side effects too. Gentrification would be the main risk looming at the horizon. Nowadays the issue is framed by the readiness to collective action. The issue is typically the result of individualism without public regulation. An uncontrolled market drives the urban renewal. The case of Kom El Dekka shows at least that urban renewal is a very complex process. Whatever the response of the habitants and the officials is the solution depends of the tendency 23


to collective action in a society. The issue stays the readiness to move together. Cooperation and solidarity stay the main resources to lead a society. Democracy can be a response because it relies on equality, freedom and solidarity. It helps to defend the principle of a common destiny. Cooperation needs stability and confidence to act together. Democracy can offer a frame for cooperation and solidarity if it relies on a public authority, which is able to work on a social common vision for the society.

4.

CONCLUSION

The study highlighted some spatial characteristics of urban areas as Kom El Dekka that support positive aspects of the residential environment, such as "walkability", "self-sufficiency" in terms of daily needs, "convenience" and "home-work proximity", safety in residential streets, and resident participation in the provision of public amenities. The short field study tried to understand how and why the inhabitants of Kom El Dekka work towards the downfall of their living place. People don't realize indeed that the search of better living conditions destroy a place where it is still nice to stay and which could be much more better with some efforts to keep the sense of this place. First of all the economic problems: This is the most important factor responsible for the local regenerating or the rapid re-urbanization that reshape negatively the area. Low income, unemployment, informal vendors, women-headed households and child labor characterized the place. Social and political problems: the lack of education and social recognition of the different social groups does help solving problems collectively. Ignorance is a strong break to cooperation and collective action. Demographic problems: the increase of population determines many urban and environmental issues, such as inadequate housing and lack of services and facilities. The scarcity of water and the poor sanitation affect the public health. Ignorance, high population densities and lack of services lead to environmental degradation in those areas. The invisibility of the changes induced by a process of an informal settlement weights at least on the lack of public intervention through urban renewal. Major events have always unfolded new eras for dealing with slum areas, for the first recognition of these areas after the terrorist acts in the early 1990s which led to social unrest, the government realized that these terrorist came from deteriorated parts of the city and this was a kind of eye opener to the existence of such areas, the fall of the Dewiqa stone in 2008, this loud cry led not only to national but international recognition to the problems of informal areas and the need for quick interventions specially in unsafe areas, then came the Egyptian revolution, although the initial snow ball consisted of all the well-educated youth who saw the need for the reform and started with the peaceful march, when the snow ball quickly thickened with all the people deprived from basic needs and suffering from poverty inequality bad living conditions that are both life-threatening and an insult to human dignity. The Egyptian revolution of 25 of January 2011 become an imitator of many movements in the areas such as Kom El Dekaa that must be understood, and thus a different approach for intervention should follow. The need to Re-discover the resources existing in Kom El Dekka, whether human or economic (skills, character, or urban markets, etc.) and the active intervention towards improving the living conditions of ashwaeyat inhabitant result from the efficient management and use of those resources and the regeneration of urban areas to become capable of production and self development. 24


5.

REFERENCES

El Kadi G. 1987, L'urbanisation spontanée au Caire, Thèse de Docteur-Ingénieur, L.U.P. Université Paris-Val-de-Marne, 1987. Al Kady, G. 1996 , ‘Cairo Cosmopolitan: Politics, Culture, And Urban Space In The Globalized’ – American university press Andrea Tone., 2009, ‘In The Age Of Anxiety, New York’, Basic Books, Oxford university press, 2009 Chris Couch, C., Fraser, C. and Percy, S.(2003), Urban regeneration in Europe, Blackwell Science Ltd Hassan F.G.2011, ‘Review and re-evaluation of the successive housing Policy in Egypt’ Al Azhar University Jourmal, EAJ April 2011 Madbouly M.,Lashin A., 2003 “ Housing Development in Informal Settlements in Cairo”, unpublished research for Urban Training Institute, Ministry of Housing , 2003. Madbouly, M. 2006, "Developing Innovative Approaches for Financing Housing to Meet the Challenge of Affordable Shelter for the Urban Poor in Egypt", published paper at the GOPP conference 2006. MOLD ,(1999), Conference on Informal Housing in 1994 (building on the Shura Council work), Arandel (1997), and the MOLD in 1999 The National Urban Observatory Unit, GOPP 2005 , A Pilot Study on the Experience of Egypt in the Housing Needs Assessment using Urban Indicators, Ministry of Housing, Cairo, 2005. The National Council for Services and Social Development, Low-Income Housing Policy, Republic Presidency - Specialized National Councils, Cairo, 1996. Sims, D., Abdelfattah H., El Shorbagi, M. 2010 "Building a platform for urban upgrading in greater Cairo Region"-Draft Policy Paper World Bank Sustainable development MENA region 2011.p.15 Sims (2010) Understanding Cairo: The Logic of a City Out of Control , American university UNEP 2004 , Guidelines for urban regeneration in the Mediterranean Region. Priority Actions Program, Regional Activity Centre Split.p.7, January 2004 United Nations Human Settlements Programme, (2003) THE CHALLENGE OF SLUMS GLOBAL REPORT ON HUMAN SETTLEMENTS 2003, Earthscan Publications Ltd, London and Sterling, VA World Bank and USAID/TAPRII (2007) "A Framework for housing policy reform in Egypt: developing a well functioning housing system and strengthening the National housing program", May 2007 .

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© SB13-Cairo 2013 Governance Networks as a Tool for Informal Settlement Management Al-Daily, W. and Dare, R.

Governance Networks as a Tool for Informal Settlement Management A Way Forward for Yemen Al-Daily, W.1 and Dare, R.2 1

Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, School of Public and International Affairs Blacksburg, Virginia, USA email: [email protected] 2

McGill University, School of Urban Planning Montreal, Quebec, Canada email: [email protected]

Abstract: Informal settlements are a relatively new phenomenon in Yemen. They were first documented in the 1980s, and have since grown at a very rapid rate. Today, in Sana’a alone, there are an estimated 35 informal settlements that contain approximately 20.5 per cent of its 2.0 million residents. To date, the Government of Yemen has done little to address the unchecked growth of informal settlements. Nonetheless, there is growing concern about the issue, and both governmental and nongovernmental actors have begun to consider new approaches to urban policy development and implementation. One such approach is the establishment of governance networks, which are interorganizational networks of multiple actors that coordinate with one another in order to influence the creation, implementation, and monitoring of public policy. Through the analysis of interviews with governmental and nongovernmental actors, including residents of informal settlements, as well as the review of government documents and studies by international development organizations, this paper explores current efforts to develop governance networks as a tool for the management of informal settlements in Yemen. The results of this study demonstrate the importance of establishing shared goals and clear expectations among governmental and nongovernmental actors in order to ameliorate conditions in informal settlements, with particular regard to service and infrastructure delivery, capacity development, access to land, and land use administration. While Yemen is the focus of this study, its findings are applicable in other developing country contexts. Keywords: Governmental and nongovernmental actors; governance networks; informal settlements; policy development; Yemen

26


1. INTRODUCTION Over the past three decades, major Yemeni cities, including Sana’a, have been impacted by the rapid growth of informal settlements. Although, informal settlements are a relatively new phenomenon in Yemen, having first been documented in the 1980s (El-Shorbagi, 2008), they are growing at an unprecedented rate. Today, in Sana’a alone, there are an estimated 35 informal settlements that contain approximately 2.0 million residents, or 20.5 per cent of the city’s total population (El-Shorbagi, 2008). A key reason for this growth is the rapid influx of disadvantaged migrants. To date, the Government of Yemen has done little to address the unchecked growth of informal settlements. Nonetheless, there is growing concern about the issue, and both governmental and nongovernmental actors have begun to consider new approaches to urban policy development and implementation. The World Bank has recently directed part of its aid to assist the Government of Yemen in addressing the myriad challenges that are associated with the proliferation of informal settlements. Two main World Bank projects are currently underway, namely: the Integrated Urban Development Project; and, the Port Cities Development Project. The World Bank has produced a number of reports on its efforts in Yemen. However, little scholarly research has been done on the broader issue of informal settlements in Sana’a and elsewhere in Yemen, despite their rapid growth and the challenges they bring. This paper explores the different roles of governmental and nongovernmental actors in the governance of informal settlements in Sana’a. Specifically, it investigates the current efforts to develop governance networks as a tool for the management of informal settlements in Yemen. It begins by examining the definition of governance networks, and the range of benefits they provide. It continues with an assessment of informal settlement in Sana’a, and concludes with a discussion of the importance of governance networks in improving conditions and the policy process in informal settlements in Yemen.

2. GOVERNANCE NETWORKS Governance networks are interorganizational networks, which are comprised of multiple actors that cooperate with one another in order to influence the creation, implementation, and monitoring of public policy (Koliba et al., 2011). They provide a theoretical and practical response to the fact that, because of the range of actors that are present in the provision of basic services, the process of policy development is frequently subject to negotiation between government, nongovernment, and other actors (Sørensen and Tørfing, 2007). The governance network approach to policy development is distinguished from top-down approaches to government in that decisions are made through negotiations between multiple 27


autonomous actors, and not the state alone. Thus, the conceptions and interests of all actors shape policy decisions (Sørensen and Tørfing, 2007). This has the potential to increase the efficiency of the processes that surround the development and implementation of public policy (Tørfing et al., 2012). Indeed, by giving nongovernmental and other actors a voice in the policy development and implementation process, governance networks help to build consensus and minimize resistance to new policies. In addition to building consensus and minimizing policy resistance, governance networks also stimulate dialogue, and facilitate knowledge sharing among actors (Sørensen and Tørfing, 2007). This attribute of governance networks is particularly relevant in the case of Yemen and other states with limited financial means and professional capacity, because governance networks provide opportunities to pool the human capital of multiple autonomous actors. Given the many benefits of governance networks, it is then no surprise that they are being developed as a tool for the management of informal settlements in Yemen. The next section examines the problems of informal settlement in Sana’a, and the potential of governance networks to help improve them.

3. INFORMAL SETTLEMENT IN SANA’A Researchers first documented informal settlements in the early 1980s (El-Shorbagi, 2008). Subsequently, the World Bank (2010a) and Al-Waraqi (2009) found that rapid urbanization and high levels of poverty contributed to the significant growth of informal settlements in Yemen, and in Sana’a in particular. The World Bank (2010b) also attributed the rapid informal expansion of Yemeni cities to large-scale rural-to-urban migration and natural population growth. Today, more than three-quarters of Yemen’s urban population lives in poverty, and the majority of its urban poor reside in informal settlements in Sana’a and Aden (United States Agency for International Development [USAID], 2010). The growth of informal settlements in Sana’a accelerated after the unification of the former North and South Yemen in 1990 (World Bank, 2010a), and the influx of refugees from Iraq, Eritrea and Ethiopia that occurred during the mid 1990s (United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, 2010). Rapid growth of informal settlement has presented a number of serious challenges to public authorities and residents of urban areas. For example, Spruit (2008) noted that urban growth in Sana’a is occurring much faster than originally planned, and the current footprint of informal settlement is covering an area that was expected to accommodate growth to 2025. Spruit also indicated that governmental institutions and urban planners often feel helpless and frustrated by the rate of growth, which makes it difficult to provide adequate services. This finding was also confirmed through interviews with representatives of the Government of Yemen: Despite their informality, we sometimes need to intervene immediately to rescue residents. However, we cannot offer more services and infrastructure to all of 28


these settlements because this goes beyond the thin budget we have each year (Government Official [GO] Interviewee 5). They claim the land and build their houses in the absence of State control; then it becomes difficult to remove or to negotiate with them. … The State is weak and is unable to enforce planning regulations or to keep track of the many newly established settlements (GO Interviewee 2). As noted by Sims et al. (2009), El-Shorbagi (2008) and Spruit (2008), the urban poor and marginalized groups of Sana’a encounter multiple hardships living in these communities. Among the key challenges they face are: the lack of basic infrastructure and municipal services; the absence of social infrastructure, such as schools and healthcare facilities; tenure insecurity; environmental problems and unsanitary living conditions; and, difficult access due to topography (Sims et al., 2009; El-Shorbagi, 2008; Spruit, 2008). Interviews with residents of informal settlements confirmed that life is often hard: Our life is hard. It was difficult to go and buy a land or rent a house. … We did bast-yad, [we] placed our hand on this piece of land (Informal Settlement Resident [ISR] Interviewee 3). Living conditions here are very bad … even at the level of electricity and water supply. … Fire fighters and ambulances have no access to these houses once an emergency occurs, such as fire or sickness (IRS Interviewee 11).

3.1.

The Rapid Growth of Informal Settlements in Sana’a

Until recently, aid and donor agencies had not seen informal settlement as a challenge to Yemen. They focused on other serious challenges that are facing the nation, including: water shortages; the presence of Al-Qaida and other terrorist organizations; the Houthi insurgents in Sa’adah Governorate; and, secessionist movements in the South (El-Kholy et al., 2010). The most recent security threat to state capacities was the political upheaval that resulted in the fall of the Saleh regime. These multi-dimensional challenges have overwhelmed the state’s limited capacities and resources. An interviewee from the World Bank provided her insight into these challenges. She said: A third challenge we are facing in Yemen is the security situation, which is preventing a lot of donors and international staff from coming to the country and limiting access to these communities. When you do gain support, it becomes hard to sustain it for the same reasons (International Nongovernmental Organization [INGO] interviewee 10). Generally speaking, Yemen suffers from a lack of interest among donor agencies. In particular, security concerns have made INGOs and international governmental organizations (IGOs) less willing to invest in Yemen. Several interviewees argued that on-going instability and conflict has significantly decreased opportunities for the Yemeni government to attract donors. Provided below are the thoughts of one interviewee: 29


Yemen is now facing multiple challenges. Apart from the poverty, there is the war in the North, the unrest in the South, and declining oil prices, which are all major concerns. Combined, these are really placing pressure on the country’s financial capacity for development, and leading to security issues as well, … so it’s difficult now to attract not only international friends, but also contractors to come to Yemen. This is not an easy task for the government. These issues have created an enormous burden on the shoulders of the Government of Yemen (Nongovernment Organization [NGO] Interviewee 6). Yemen’s problems have burdened the county’s already overstretched infrastructure, and, as has been demonstrated by USAID (2010), the public sector’s capacity to provide basic services. Interviewees also commented on these concerns. The thoughts of one interviewee are provided below: The government ensures that water, electricity, and telephone networks are provided to informal communities. Many streets are paved, but a continued lack of funding and unorganized local authorities make it difficult to improve the lives of the residents. (GO Interviewee 8). An overall scarcity of resources prevents local government authorities from self-financing development projects, which, as a result, are almost exclusively paid for with grants from international donors. Such aid, however, does not typically provide for the operation and maintenance of newly built infrastructure or other assets. This situation has exacerbated the problem of low levels of capital investment at the local level (World Bank, 2010a). As offered by a government official: Our work is limited by annual budget allocations. The insufficient budget hampers project implementation. … Due to the nation’s limited budget, we can only provide the services that are most needed in order to keep the sector functioning … the most important issue is funding. … Even if we have very ambitious plans to eliminate or reduce informal settlements, they might not be implemented due to the shortage of resources (GO Interviewee 1). As a result of the limited resources, public service delivery, such as water supply and sewerage, is not keeping pace with urban growth, especially in informal settlements. In addition, municipal employees lack necessary skills, and are poorly motivated to oversee such expansion, as has been suggested by interviewees. Delivery of urban infrastructure in Yemen is also constrained by low tax revenues, and correspondingly low levels of capital investment. Indeed, the government has reduced dedicated funding for infrastructure in recent years. Moreover, Sana’a also has very low tax revenues, and strongly depends on central government transfers and subsidies to provide basic infrastructure. This issue is exacerbated by the fact that the national government depends on the international community for a large share of its budget. Interviewees elaborated on this issue: We cannot offer more services and infrastructure to informal settlements because this exceeds the small budget we have each year (GO Interviewee 9). 30


The major issue in Sana’a Municipality and in the country is the capacity. … Actually, there is a problem of capacity in the country. Implementation capacity is very weak (INGO Interviewee 6). Other factors have also challenged the national government’s capabilities in facing the rapid growth of informal settlements in Sana’a. These factors are explained in the following sections. 3.1.1. Lack of Professional Capacity A lack of professional capacity in Yemen has led to the mismanagement of land, and, as a result, to increased growth of informal areas (UN-HABITAT, 2012). An interviewee from the Ma’een Directorate, which is one of the ten districts of Sana’a, shared his perspective on the issue: We do not have enough planners to deal with the numerous demands of the poor, or with the rapid growth of informal areas. We request the help of experts and consultants from other countries. This imposes huge cost on us, given the fact that we deal with a very limited budget (GO Interviewee 5). The lack of professional capacity also led to lack of planning policy towards informal settlements. The national government deals with this type of community on a case-by-case basis, as an interviewee noted: There are no particular policies about informal settlements in Yemen. We deal with them on a case-by-case basis (GO Interviewee 5). 3.1.2. Weak Law Enforcement Interviewees from the Ministry of Public Works and Highways (MPWH) argue that law enforcement is routinely weak, which leaves government professionals unable to impose planning regulations: Absence of any clear mechanism for enforcing planning regulations makes it easy for low-income people to seize public and private lands illegally, mostly the lands on the periphery of cities. They squat on them and build their houses in violation of construction standards and safety requirements. These settlements often lack infrastructure and social services, which are otherwise available in the city centres. They become hotbeds of environmental pollution and social corruption (GO Interviewee 1). Weak law enforcement has increased the illegal occupation of public land and the random expansion of the city, according to the observation of INGOs officials. Look! Basically, in Yemen, it is sometimes impossible to tell what is formal and what is informal, because only in a very few cases has anything been built with a

31


permit in the last 20 years. So it is always informal. … It creates a very confusing situation and it becomes very difficult to fix (INGO Interviewee 9). 3.1.3. Insufficient Land Management System A World Bank (2010a) study indicates that Yemen’s present land titling and transaction registration system is ineffective, both in terms of its coverage, and its perceived value in securing property rights. It showed that, although the property registry office of Sana’a now has the highest registration rate in the nation, its capture rate is estimated to be no more than 20 per cent of actual annual transactions. Based on the feedback of interviewees from different public agencies and development organizations, lack of professional capacity, weak law enforcement, and a weak jurisdictional system have led to an insufficient land management system. A World Bank official shared his concerns on this issue: Especially in Sana’a, more than in any Yemeni town, there is no land management on the part of the government. … It is a very difficult environment in which to try to reach someone to talk about the need for integrated planning, participatory planning, land management, public land management, etcetera. These are concepts that have been used throughout the world, but it is very difficult to find evidence of their influence in Yemen (INGO Interviewee 9). In addition, limited land registration rate in Sana’a is the result of the inadequate quality of public land and property registration services, including: the lack of regulations governing the conveyance process; poorly institutionalized and lengthy recording procedures; restricted regulatory oversight of the activities of notary publics; high registration costs; and, an unsatisfactory legal and technical framework associated with the transition from a person-based to a parcel-based deed registry system (World Bank, 2009). Deed registration with a local notary public remains the most widespread form of land right declaration in Yemen. Consequently, the nation effectively has both public and private property management frameworks that operate simultaneously, and do not coordinate with one another. The lack of a uniform and legitimate single system that is overseen by the government and is transparently, equitably, and effectively administered results in systemic difficulties and conflicts concerning proof of rights to property throughout Yemen (Dabbas et al., 2011). 3.1.4. Inadequate Urban Planning Strategies The nation’s planning framework remains underdeveloped and uncoordinated. Local governments, such as the Municipality of Sana’a, are responsible for preparing planning studies, as well as public construction and environmental plans before submitting them to national public agencies for approval. However, due to capacity constraints, the General Authority for Land Survey and Urban Planning (GALSUP) completes most of the national-level review work. An interviewee from the World Bank commented: Well, they don’t have a policy on informal settlements. That is a big problem in Yemen; … the point was like why don’t they develop a policy, at least, a national strategy that can actually address some of these issues because without any 32


framework how do people intervene? So that was the big thing in Yemen. There are no organizing principles. So everyone may intervene and do whatever they want in a very fragmented system (INGO Interviewee 9). 3.1.5. Lack of Coordination A lack of coordination among governmental agencies often causes duplication, overlap, and delay of services and project delivery to informal areas, as concluded by different interviewees from government agencies and national and international organizations, and as supported by a number of scholars, including Ahsan (2009) and Osborne and McLaughlin (2002). It also becomes problematic to address the priorities and needs of the poor appropriately. An interviewee from GALSUP outlined some of the coordination problems he has encountered: Unsuccessful projects were usually in situ projects where we tried to fix the status quo of a neighbourhood, basically, because of a lack of coordination with other agencies. … Absence of coordination between our agency and other governmental and nongovernmental agencies and organizations is one of the biggest concerns and challenges. … We usually allocate state lands for public goods and services, such as providing land to the Ministry of Education to establish a school. But often, public agencies disregard our proposals and leave the properties undeveloped, a situation that inspires poor people to squat on available land (GO Interviewee 3). 3.1.6. Conflicting Interests Once a conflict arises between two or more government agencies, it usually imposes delays on projects, or removes them altogether from the government agenda. An interviewee from the Municipality of Sana’a shared his agency’s experience with working with the municipal governing body to find a location to expand the Sa’awan resettlement project: We are now in the process of preparing a location, which is an expansion of the former location [of the Sa’awan project]. There is some conflict over the land. Governing body members want the property for building a mosque, and we need the land for relocating more residents from informal settlements. … We hope to convince these officials to proceed with the second phase of Sa’awan project (GO Interviewee 4).

3.2.

International Assistance

During the 1980s and 1990s, the World Bank provided financial assistance to the Yemeni Government to upgrade older, informal settlements as part of the First Urban Development Project in eastern Sana’a. Once the First Urban Development Project had been completed, however, they were not engaged with the issue of informal settlement in Yemen (Spruit, 2008). Moreover, the declining interest of aid agencies and donors in Yemen had weakened the government’s capability to manage the rapid development of informal settlements, as emphasized by government officials and leaders of NGOs and INGOs who participated in this research.

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In 2009, however, some initiatives of the World Bank to help the Yemeni government address the challenges associated with the proliferation of informal settlements emerged (USAID, 2010). Two main World Bank projects are currently underway. These are the Integrated Urban Development Project and the Port Cities Development Project, as an interviewee from the World Bank indicated: We are sending two projects up to the Bank Board for approval. One is the Port Cities Development Project (second phase), and another is the Integrated Urban Development Project, which is largely focused on upgrading informal settlements (INGO Interviewee 12). The Integrated Urban Development Project is designed to: improve the living conditions of poor and at-risk populations, and reduce environmental degradation in Sana'a and Taiz; and, develop a national integrated plan for urban development that is locally administered, and includes support for squatters and residents of low income informal settlements while providing upgraded living conditions (MPWH, 2010; World Bank, 2008). The World Bank’s proposed strategy addresses two core challenges. Indeed, it not only seeks to remedy the existing situation (i.e., integrated upgrading of selected areas), but also to provide guidance to the continuing informal urbanization process, instead of preventing it. To meet these challenges, the proposed strategy is based on a number of principles, including: x

Addressing the long-term challenges pertaining the dynamic growth of informal settlements, not only the existing situation. This was explained by an interviewee from the World Bank: It takes a lot of in-depth work. We do an in-depth analysis of informal urbanization to determine: where they are in their development; how the financial sector is currently performing; what is happening with the land markets; what the most appropriate intervention is; and, what our long-term suggestions should be (INGO Interviewee 11).

x

Encouraging the involvement of the private sector, and improving the inter-sectoral approach, especially in service delivery. The in-country officer of both the Integrated Urban Development Project and the Port Cities Development Project shared her perspectives on this issue: Many people are invited, including: private service providers; beneficiaries; and, everybody else (INGO Interviewee 11).

x

Ensuring the participation of residents in planning and development. An interviewee said: There has been a realization that unless people are involved in what you provide for them, the chances that you will design something that they don’t need, they don’t want, or which is inappropriate are very high, and then something is not used, not only do you not get any benefit out it but, basically, it dies out because of a lack of maintenance after that (INGO Interviewee 11). 34


x

Combining physical with socio-economic development interventions and engaging multiple actors. This was also echoed by interviewees: The residents already do something themselves and the World Bank is helping them but we also provide some water, sanitation, and some roads. So again it is sort of an integrated way where the physical infrastructure and the social community engagement is working hand-in-hand (INGO Interviewee 12). So, we have done a lot of analytic work. … There is analytic work on the housing side, on informal settlements, and on the relative competitiveness of various cities to help the government to stimulate economic growth (INGO Interviewee 12).

x

Improving planning practices and professional capacities. Interviewees said: Building capacity takes time. It takes hardware and software and a lot of political will. … We do some training and workshops to improve the performance of the government personnel and planners (INGO Interviewee 12). It is not just funding. It has to come with building capacity for those entities that are managing such projects in Yemen (INGO Interviewee 10).

4. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY The analysis in this study is based on personal interviews with key stakeholders involved in informal settlement governance in Sana’a. Qualitative methods of analysis have been employed and both primary and secondary sources of data have been used. Primary data were collected through personal interviews with thirty-five individuals and key stakeholders, including responsible government officials, relevant leaders of national and international organizations operating in Yemen, and the residents of one informal settlement. These interviews were conducted between November 2009 and June 2012. Secondary data from reports of the Government of Yemen and various international organizations, official documents, and available academic studies on informal settlements in Sana’a were collected. Semi-structured personal interviews with 11 governmental officials (GO) from relevant Yemeni government agencies were conducted. Only those public officials who occupied decisionmaking positions, and were knowledgeable about Yemeni government policies and actions concerning informal settlements were recruited. The main aim for interviewing government officials were to gain more in-depth perspective about government policies, practices, official views, current and future plans on informal settlements. Also, to learn more about the type of collaboration and coordination, if ever existed, among local and national agencies and with national and international organizations. Twelve leaders from a number of NGOs, INGOs, and IGOs that are active in informal settlements in Yemen were also interviewed. These interviews were designed to gain the perspectives of these organizations about government policies, and the impact of donors and 35


international development organizations on the governance of Yemen’s informal settlements; and, to gain a better understanding about the degree of involvement these organizations have in informal settlements, and the type of programs they offer to the residents. Interviewees of this group are identified with NGO or INGO and numerals. Finally, twelve long-term residents from one informal settlement in Sana’a were interviewed. Interviews with residents of informal settlements were designed to learn more about their daily experiences, and their personal perspectives on government practices and policies and NGOs and INGOs assistance. All interviews were conducted individually so that participants form different groups, especially the residents of the informal settlements, felt free to share their experiences, thoughts and perspectives. Interviews were conducted at a place of the interviewee’s choosing (e.g., at home or work), and consent was obtained from all. Voice recordings were made, and confidentiality was guaranteed to all interviewees. Perceptions of these different groups of respondents were compared and contrasted to gain a robust picture of how governance was being practiced. The analysis was firmly grounded in the collected data. Governance network theory was the primary framework for analysing participants’ observations and perceptions.

5. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION It is clear that informal settlement presents a wide variety of challenges, not only to governmental, but also nongovernmental actors, including the residents. The governance networks that are currently being developed in Yemen offer a potential solution to improving the living conditions in, and policy development of, informal settlements. Moreover, governance networks can help the Government of Yemen to overcome the great challenges it faces. With regard to service delivery, the proposed approach of the World Bank to encourage the involvement of the private sector in delivering services to the residents of informal settlements helps to create shared goals and interests among governmental and nongovernmental actors. This sharing of goals and interests helps the government to develop clear policy and implementable planning procedures for informal settlement throughout the country. Governance networks can also help to ensure the participation of residents in the planning process. This, in turn, helps to develop their social capacity by encouraging community participation, and involving them in the decision-making process. In addition, involving residents in the decision-making process can also instil senses of pride and responsibility. Finally, the governance network approach to policy development helps to minimize policy resistance, and can increase fairness for all parties. Indeed, by providing a mechanism for ensuring the equal participation of all stakeholders, including the residents of informal settlements, in the policy development process, the network approach to governance can

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improve conditions in Yemen’s informal settlements. This is, however, not to say that the Yemeni government does not need to work closely with the international community in improving the security condition and investment climate of the nation. Doing so will encourage a better flow of aid into Yemen, and help the country to overcome the economic crisis that it has been in since the early part of the 1990s.

6. REFERENCES Ahsan, R. and Quamruzzaman, J. M. 2009. Informal housing and approaches towards the lowincome society in developing countries. In: Australian Sociological Association, the annual Conference of the Future of Sociology. Canberra, Australia 1-4 December 2009. Australian National University. Al-Waraqi, F. M. 2009. Urban planning strategy of Sana'a City based on the present and future requirements. Ph.D. Dissertation. Sana’a University and Asyot University. El-Kholy, H. and Tschirgi, N. 2010. Rethinking the approaches to local governance programing in conflict affected countries in the Arab region: an exploratory study. Noha El-Mikawy and Shaima Hussein eds. United Nations Development Program UNDP: Regional Centre in Cairo. El-Shorbagi, M. 2008. Sana’a city development strategy urban upgrading study: informal residential development and informal areas in Sana’a (inventory, typology, dynamics, strategy, and action plan). Sana’a, Yemen: Sana’a Municipality. Dabbas, S., Burns, S. and Burns, T. 2011. Developing effective policy and planning in Yemen. In: FIG Working Week, TS02J Organizational and Legislative Issues, Bridging the Gap between Cultures. Marrakech, Morocco 18-22 May 2011. Koliba, C., Meek, J., and Asim Z. 2011. Governance networks in public administration and public policy. CRC Press: Boca Raton. Osborne, S. P. and McLaughlin, K. 2002. The New Public Management in Context. In: K. McLaughlin, Stephen P. O. and Ewan, F. eds. 2002, New Public Management: Current Trends and Future Prospects. London: Routledge, pp. 7-14. Ministry of Public Works and Highways (MPWH), 2010. Resettlement policy framework. Integrated Urban Development Project: Urban Upgrading for City of Taiz. Available at: [Accessed 12 June 2010]. Sims, David, Ahmed El-Basti, Khalid Amin, Mohamed Lahouel, Mostafa Madbouli and ElShorbagi, M. 2009. Sana’a city development strategy. Cities Alliance, World Bank, and Capital Secretariat of Sana’a City. Sørensen, E. and Tørfing, J. 2007. Governance network research: toward a second generation. In: E. Sorensen and J. Tørfing, eds. 2007. Theories of democratic network governance, Palgrave: Basingstoke, pp.1-21. Spruit, S. 2008. Yemen urban housing sector review. Ministry of Public Works and HighwaysYemen and the World Bank: Yemen.

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Tørfing, J., Peters, B. G., Pierre, J. and Sorensen, E. 2012. Interactive governance: advancing the paradigm. Oxford University Press: Oxford. UN-Habitat, 2012. The state of Arab Cities 2012: challenges of urban transition. Kenya: United Nations human settlements program (UN-Habitat). United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), 2010. Yemen: global needs assessment. Available at: [Accessed 10 May 2012]. United States Agency for International Development (USAID), 2010. Country profile: property rights and resource governance-Yemen. Available at: [Accessed 10 May 2012]. World Bank, 2010a. Republic of Yemen: integrated urban development project. Washington, D.C.: World Bank. World Bank, 2010b. Republic of Yemen: second port cities development project. Washington, D.C.: World Bank. World Bank, 2009. Republic of Yemen: land tenure for social and economic inclusion in Yemen: issues and opportunities. Sustainable Development Department: Middle East and North Africa Region. Washington, D.C.: World Bank. World Bank, 2008. Project information document (PID), RY-integrated urban development project, Middle East and North Africa. Available at: [Accessed June 10 2012].

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© SB13-Cairo 2013 Indicators Placement in identifying and analyzing Urban issues Mohamed El-Sayed Tolba

Indicators Placement in identifying and analyzing Urban issues Mohamed ElSayed Tolba Ministry of Housing, General Organization of Physical Planning El-Kasr Al-Aini street, Egypt e-mail:[email protected]

Abstract: Sustainable urban development has become an alternative approach in urban world, taking all the city sectors as an analytic integral unit to know the extent of progress or deterioration of its life quality by all its human, economic, social and physical, demographic, ..., as well as giving a future image for the development of that community in the light of the changes surrounding it. Physical and general planning Studies addressed the urban globe over recent decades point to the existence of many issues in their cities, which were often identified traditionally and without the appropriate measuring variables. So that we have to put strength and weak points of our urban reality into our consideration while thinking of sustainable urban development and balanced social justice. As for the absence or exclusion of "indicators" from the planning process in the development cause negative effects on more than one level perhaps the most important are: i. Tumble to set the development plans in various sectors. Any plan must be based on the information and statistical data. ii. Setting a wide range for interpretations and arbitrary estimates. iii. Wasting time and effort of planners and economists, sociologists and researchers to search for data and statistical data are built upon. iv. Inconsistency in determining developmental and sectoral priorities. The research methodology paper discusses the role of indicators in determining the developmental issues which are considered the most important problems facing decisionmakers and the effectiveness of the urban plans preparation, throughout answering some questions. The most important of these questions are: What are the considerations of identifying developmental issues and selection criteria of indicators related to issues? What are the types of issues according to basis or target of classification? How to support and guide the indicators in the identification and analysis of planning issues and problems? The research will try to answer the importance of developing and designing indicators as one of the primary determinants to identify and follow-up issues. As if they are not taken into consideration, it leads to negative impact on sustainable urban development. Keywords: urban management, indicators, urban issues, sustainable urban development

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1. INTRODUCTION The outgrowth role of cities in the global system illustrates the importance of the developmental process in facing the constraints and challenges of urban growth in order to provide solutions to the problems facing the countries of the world and create an international society based on equity, justice and solidarity,[ Lamia Shakour ,2001] we refer specifically to poverty, unemployment and poor distribution of population densities, environmental threat and the qualitative low level of life in addition to the housing crisis coupled with shortcomings in achieving the proper performance of the integrated urban management systems at the level of the methodology and application. In light of global changes, current local urban monitoring is one of the key determinants to identify issues and follow-up because not taken into account lead to negative impact on sustainable urban development and management. It also becomes a need to develop knowledge systems capable of making the right decisions at the right time is. So monitoring approach is considered one of the most important elements of urban development management, but in practice, the decision-makers require accurate information classified as predictors for the problems and needs, capabilities and goals in the present and the future which would make the decision more effective in responding to the developmental requirements. It is also important to make balance in development between the sectors of urbanization in local administrative, which is difficult in policy development and decision-making stages, and clearer at the implementation stage carried out by the local administrations to ensure the efficiency of urban management processes by providing monitoring permanent progress of urban development in all aspects of urban, economic and environmental. This monitoring requires the availability of a large volume of information and statistics in order to be analysed and delivered to the decision makers, which always aim to achieve sustainable urban development that provides better quality of life to the citizens of the city which considered the goal of the orientation of the international community and to the idea of establishing a local urban observatory, as a mechanism for decision-makers to see the problems of the city clear and specific. We must develop a systematic framework which allows a kind of integration between the extent of the contribution of urban monitoring (as a tool) and urban development (as a system of concepts) and management (as a mechanism) in the preparation of an effective and integrated framework for sustainable urbanization. In this context, we can display a range of general and basic concepts and differentiation from each other and in which terminology reader can be defined that revolve around the research paper, which are as follows

Indicator: Defined as scale summarizes information indicating a particular phenomenon, and provides a suitable answer to the needs and questions that decision-makers ask about. Indicators also indicate tempos and provide quantitative or qualitative information which will help to determine priorities and needs to meet the objectives and clear policies.-[Audi,2001] or a quantitative expression of the qualitative mode, therefore, the real indicator must be blind. [Mohamed Tolba,2010]

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Under that indicators are one of a large effective mechanisms to measure the efficiency of development targeted at different levels national, regional and local, and these indicators constitute the fundamental basis of the decision-making process, which can follow the cyclical changes that occur, showing the extent of progress or regress in achieving the goals of sustainable development Sustainable development: Defines as on-going development processes that ensure future growth through the development gateway which allows meeting the needs without destroying the resources that depend on future development, it is not a goal in itself but a mean to increase society's ability to survive and grow. One of the main objectives of sustainable development is to achieve equality and social justice. It also introduces the notion of development itself which is a need to measure both for the formulation of policies, plans and setting goals or to the evaluation of results. Given the vast transformations in concept development, the indicators defined in turn important developments on several axes of measuring economic growth to social indicators and indexes such as the human development index. It appeared the development index term that represents some of the factors that constitute the development process or condition, the handle can be measured directly and fully ad hoc factor of development and the development index as the side that achieved a goal of development or of its components. Sustainability indicators: define as indicators that carry the ability to turn the concept of sustainable development of theoretical, practical reality can be applied and the results of measurement by measuring progress or regress in the relationship between development and preservation of natural resources for the future. Urban Indicator: Defines as measures to provide information on past and current trends and assist planners and decision-makers in making decisions that affect the future results of reflective interactions between social, environmental and economic impact on the region or community. [Rhonda Phillips,2003] Urban issues : Are the problems faced by existing urban planning in all sectors within the town of functional diagnosis and analysis of the status quo through a set of indicators. Issue or Problem: Are the implications in one of the community axes (population/development/service ...) to resolve the problem on the level axis and often depends on the resolution of the development plans of the axis or sector can be measured by indicators. The procedural concept of indicators within the planning process to "determine the magnitude of the problem and measure them accurately to assess the current situation, and use the indicator used by measuring the magnitude of the problem in the follow-up plan and evaluate the performance and stand on progress towards achieving the goals, whether short or medium (outcomes) or long-term ( impacts). [Mohamed Tolba,2010] 41


Figure 1: process of preparation and follow-up of urban policy Source: UNCHS (UN-Habitat), Indicators Programme, Monitoring Human settlements "Abridged survey", Nairobi,1995.p7

1.1.

Literature review

1.1.1

Urban monitoring and its role in the support of decision-makers and planning process .

The indicators are the backbone of urban monitoring, all studies and partnerships with all sectors is the primary objective in which a set of urban indicators can be produced, consistent with the needs of the city, and the provision of information, in particular indicators as a basis for monitoring urban "a ruler in the decision-making process at various levels and differing types where there is no resolution without an accurate and transparent contribute to the decisionmaking process and consciousness. As has been said," depends on the quality of the maker of data also affects the on the assurance by the resolution. "[Mohamed Abdala,2007] So are indicators used to manage an important space in city management and urban management on short, medium and long term, so as to enable them to collect data in the form of synthetic variables, relating to the definition of key blobs (issues) associated with decisionmaking and responsibility. As seen from Figure 1, the process of preparation and follow-up of urban policy- so that policies are not the goals to be achieved or desired conditions to be achieved or access (Target and Objectives) but innovative method for how to achieve those goals within the limits of the possibilities available and expected difficulties and external conditions in the working environment and mobility [Tarek wafik,2004] -Each stage using a set of indicators, moving from strategic policy required indicators measuring the progress and achievement of the objectives of the policy for the implementation of the development strategy, which is implemented through a series of strategic programmes and projects, indicators shall be a function for monitoring transitions and the successful implementation of the strategy, and the use of indicators to evaluate performance and to review the successful implementation of the strategy, develop and prepare new policies for development.

42


Indicators are used in urban management as a framework to develop city sustainable urban development model through pressure-state-response, which is used in many countries of the world in the management of the city ، As shown in figure (2) And policies for urban governance are to raise the efficiency and effectiveness of methods and tools and mechanisms for the management of urban development. Examples of these quality policies on raising the efficiency of the decision- making process and mechanisms of implementation through effective participation and positive integration between the roles of development partners (local - central agencies - private sector - civil society institutions). There are also policies of interference in the urban systems (social, economic and environmental) on specific changes – Concrete and measured – in urban systems through direct or indirect intervention, policies do not constitute a separate mechanism for decisionmaking but a subsidiary mechanism of the system of decision-making and

management of urban development[Tarek wafik,2004] Perhaps the best analytical frameworks used to identify, develop and understand indicators Are used to model (Driving Force –State –Response — performance), and although it is not a perfect model, but it serves as a framework for the identification and development of indicators, this model consists of four packs of indicators as shown in figure (3) [Madinah Municipality ,2004] : x Driving indicators: Relating to humanitarian activities and interactive relations with the political, social, economic and institutional. x State indicators: Measure the quantity and quality of urban development. x Response indicators: Related policies, programmes and mechanisms for change and development current situation such as change in laws and economic measures. x Performance indicators: The indicators for measuring the effectiveness of various policies and programmes to address the negative aspects of urban development.

Figure 2: Monitoring tool in urban management

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information

information Human activities

Driving Indicators

Economical, social, religious and organizational

Policies and programs

State Indicators

Response Indicators

Effects and continuation

Performance Indicators

Figure 3: the theoretical framework for the development and preparation of indicators

As shown in figure (4) framework developed by the Organisation for economic co-operation and development (OCED, 1999) (DPSIR) link relations for indicators and continuous feedback between global and local objectives. basic relationships between the levels of development indicators based on indicators of driving forces-pressures-status quo-impact-response model is perfectly rational for continuity in the work of the knowledge, but when it turns into a regular process for more complex purpose. the transition from one stage to another through indicators, whether on a global or regional, according to needs and conditions correspond to vital resources.

Figure 4: feedback at the regional and global sustainability [Meg Holden and Clare Mochrie,2006

]

A study of the components of urban planning and management in relation to indicators where planning is one of the basic administrative functions required in all levels of Administrative organizations (industrial, commercial, service ... Etc ( and associated planning process in the future and therefore needs much information about the past and the present and complete the planning process. Preparing a plan can be considered important information for all levels of management and the planning function can be regarded as a consumer today Result of the 44


information in the sense that they derive the information necessary to process information system planning and staffing plan which is important information for the different administrative levels which benefit from this information as a mean of facilitating decision-making for urban management. Urban management processes have emerged in cities and aimed to find appropriate policies and programmes for the development and advancement of economic and social conditions of the urban population and finding appropriate solutions to the problems facing urban areas to make them capable of functioning required. This describes the relationship as follows: 1- The planning process needs inputs in the form of information and encounter problems or obstacles [results of the external and internal environment analysis]. 2- Is a set of planning processes using inputs [information] to develop the estimates and projections and monitor activities to be undertaken and the allocation of resources in order to ensure the achievement of the goals. 3- Are the planning and selection of elements, dimensions and calendar plan effectiveness and the success of its implementation in the light of knowledge and renewed contact between the system diagrams. And finally the planning process based on first steps to actually learn, that they need for indicators and targets future is based on the urban monitoring (indicators), and on this basis is indispensable for planners on indicators and information is located at the focus of planning and supplies into the decision-making process.

1.1.2

How to placement urban monitoring to identify pressing urban issues and problems Indicators are oriented to specific issues and suggest some useful findings and conclusions for policy where urban issues are closely intertwined with all areas of sustainable development, which aims to improve the quality of life of individuals as a first step to improve the quality of life for its stability and a secure environment equipped with basic services. And by showing the literature I've used indicators informally for a long time and especially in the economic and social fields and for the evaluation to measure progress towards achieving the desired objectives. The literature has shown, studies on the indicators within this concept since the mid-1960s where the focus was on social indicators and increased attention to this issue during the 1970s with the development of many indicator programmes related to various social, economic and environmental aspects. Where to go for the development of sets of indicators to be adopted at a global level, either in the urban area began to develop indicators related to the growth and development of the city since the early 1970s in the area of housing in particular has started developing indicators early but specific issues aspects and not cover the private sector as a whole. This has some literature that uses indicators can be as follows: x Statistical tools to understand the contents of the quantity and dimensions of the current situation of human settlement as one unit, and guide decision-making. x Diagnostic tools to identify gaps, bottlenecks, disruptions in various sectors in the city and other levels and to identify needs and inputs required for the treatment and development of sectors of the city.

45


x x x x x

x

x

Clear tools to express their goals and priorities and then enable the policies and urban development plans and programmes Tools for follow-up and monitoring of the implementation of the municipal plans and programmes of action and projects and thereby contribute to correct input components of development policy. Analytical tools to examine the impact of the application of policies and strategies and inputs in physical space dimensions of economic, social and environmental. Tools for comparison of urbanization and development of one city over time or between different cities, and can identify best practices. Tools to assess the State of development of both environmental, housing, municipal services, and finding accurate standard indicators to monitor progress in resolving problems and remedy the shortcomings experienced by citizens to the regular and continuous The process of coordinating the interests and input of all involved stakeholders, Government, private sector, institutions of civil society and participatory processes are to raise the efficiency of cities and human settlements and improve the quality of life for citizens. A means of facilitating decision-making for good urban governance so as not to mislead officials in decision-making for the conduct and management of the local and national levels.

The treatment of urban development issues in Arabic cities depend on efficient and effective employment of urban monitoring to decision makers who are on top of the urban management system, given the complexities and the obvious entanglements between components of urban development issues in various levels (socio-economic-development-environmental ... Etc), relying on sophisticated techniques became the distinguishing mark of differentiation between the level of performance in urban governance of cities, both on a general level (International) or regional (Arab) or national level (individual States). United Nations efforts have resulted in the emergence of the concept of "sustainable urban development", which developed its concepts in 1990 to develop a program to measure the housing indicators and then developed the concept of "comprehensive" urban indicators "to include the indicators of the housing sector, the transport sector and infrastructure sector, and the economic and social development through the recommendations of the Habitat Agenda in 1996 concerning the necessity of establishing urban observatories Working out of a desire to develop a knowledge-based information system which can be used exclusively to support the development of urban policies and programmes more sensitive to the reality of urban agglomerations, urban And represented as a tool to help maker Resolution on the problems plaguing the city and follow the evolution of those problems (negatively or positively), policy development and operational programmes to overcome them in the end is the new approach to urban observatory locomotive for sustainable urban development. It was the definition of Habitat Urban Observatory in 2001 that local network brings together stakeholders and which is responsible for collecting, analysing and disseminating data on a set of indicators aimed at reflecting the priority issues in the field of sustainable development. As is the use of data and information resources that are collected by the local network in order to 46


support decision-making and policy formulation is conscious, so is the central point for Urban Observatory of urban surveillance at the local or national level. In 2007 the Board of Directors of the United Nations human settlements programme, in the twenty-first Congress for the adoption of the medium-term strategic and institutional plan for UNHabitat for the period 2008–2013, which focused on five main areas of action: monitoring urban realities, partnerships with the private sector and the domestic sector, the provision of housing and land costs affordable, basic services that are compatible with the environment, innovative human settlements finance, planning, organization and management. It is important that the decision maker should be understood and is in the process of identifying the problem or issue you want to take an active decision to solve this problem , In other words, a real understanding of the problem and suggest appropriate alternatives to solve require information and data concerning the problem replace the resolution and related problems than the decision maker can compare facts and figures and come out with indicators and information to reach the right decision. Therefore it aims to analyse the problem or issue of fact indicators of current situation to establish a relationship between the cause of the problem, as measured by indicators on the one hand, and the consequences of the symptoms assessed by indicators on the other hand, the analysis of the problem by drawing a tree whose roots and branches and leaves causes symptoms and results is critical in the process of urban governance, success in identifying the tree and components to develop a logical response, rationality and reason. And the figure shows (4) indicators circle to identification and analysis issues.. Elicitation developmental issues and problems

Information database

Diagnosis of the current situation

Give

Evaluation and Review

Find solutions to these problems and

Through

Programs and projects short-and long-term

Which

Measure success range

Figure 5: indicators circle to identification and analysis issues. Source: researcher prepared, 2013

Thus not only the role of indicators in monitoring the current status of the society but also extends beyond the development of solutions to problems or issues where you can measure the success of those programmes and their impact throughout the community. This led to the emergence of the term urban indicators.

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1.1.3 Determining developmental issues Considerations To determine the developmental issues are among the most important problems facing decision-makers and effectively urban planning was necessary to resolve any issue taken into four basic steps: x I: Determine the dimensions of the issues x II: choose the indicator (or indicators) to give a statistical expression for each of these dimensions x III: analysis of strengths, weaknesses, threats and opportunities x IV: analysis of indicators and detailed results (a) The most important criteria for indicators selection related to the following issues: x Be of particular relevance to the issue x The indicator is understandable and can be explained easily by the average reader. x Focus on outcomes (rather than inputs or processes used to produce results) x Clarify the direction of indicator movement, whether good or bad x Available in the form of time series x To be brief in nature. x Be detail by, for example, geographical or demographic group. x Measurable objective (e.g., life expectancy and educational qualifications). x Avoid indicators which are essentially personal (such as happiness) or objective, and that do not have agreed-upon measures (such as political freedom). x The indicators are an expression of the status quo, and follow-up performance. (b) The Working List of Indicators political agenda; -makers and the general public, both domestic and international; development; revision of these goals and targets; implementing

the

plans;

This is one of the most important benefits of the outcome of the urban monitoring process : identify the issues and problems of each sector as a result of the monitoring indicators for urban conditions of society and which can touch all the problems and perceptions and policies for solutions both in the short term or long term, you can also make use of monitoring results in measuring the effectiveness of solutions to all issues, and measure the movement of the problem both in the negative or positive for tracked so that the development process and it’s stages are part of the largest and most comprehensive process "resolution".

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1.1.4

Types of cases on the basis or purpose of classification

We have references and literature classification issues, according to the foundation or target of classified including issues in accordance with: types of decision support, and availability of measurement variables, as well as in accordance with the method of analysis, as described below: -Issues in accordance with the decision-support process -Issues in accordance with the availability of measurement variables -Issues in accordance with the method of analysis

2. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 2.1 The interaction and integration of monitoring urban development and developmental issues. The process of urban development issues and urban development priorities, in particular, through display of constraints and challenges (major issues) structural development in the diagnosis of the current situation and that there may be separate or integrated in different situations and that all were linked to the membership. Indicators are necessary for decision-making and policy development, which is needed to ensure the continuity of the functioning of decision makers at all levels. And not the importance of indicators to the machinery of Government and State administration, but also extends to nongovernment users, offering business information required for decision-making, as well as the need for such indicators to enable citizens to monitor the performance of their Governments. We have specialists disagree about the relationship between problem solving, decision making and planning process which can be described as follows: 1- There is a close integration of process planning and decision-making stages and taken from problem identification to implementation and follow-up. 2- The decision-making process and an integral part of the planning process 3- Statistics and indicators are one of the most important aspects of knowledge where the availability of accurate data and indicators is one of the most important requirements of process planning and decision-making process. And the figure shows (5) integration planning process with stages of the decisionmaking process and the role of indicators.

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decisionmaking process Stages

planning process Stages

Evaluation & follow-up Implementation plan Formulation Plan

Understand current situation

Identify problem

Implementation Information gathering and and follow-up analysis of the problem alternative formulation and select alternative Differences

Indicators function in the integration of Decision-making and urban management methodology

and agree

Figure 6: planning process integrated with the decision-making process and the role of indicators Source: researcher prepared in master degree, 2010

Therefore the development process and its stages include part of the largest and most comprehensive process "problem solving ", Development focused on the choice between the alternatives _ either the process of solving the problem is to focus on the broader framework which begins with observation and sense the existence problem analysis and other returned not only with a base of available information and data are converted to standard indicators and finally implement the solution that thinks it's appropriate _ in this context, the intellectual development process/problem resolution following stages as is explained in figure (7), (8).

Understand the problem Identify goals

formulation of alternatives

problem solving cycle

Decisionmaking

Evaluation of alternatives

Implementation Selected

Figure 7: Relationship between development and solution of urban problems (Tarek Wafik, 2004)

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Figure 8: planned streaming methodology problem analysis and decision-making Source: Shams al-Din Abdullah Shamsuddin, entrance The theory analysis of the problems and take decisions , p. 37

In the end, indicators are essential in decision making and development management in General, given that policy makers and planners to indicators at the stage of identifying planning issues and problems and develop a plan to manage development.

3. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION In order to strengthen the employment indicators in development management , identify and analyze the issues, urban problems and their reflection on the formulation of strategies and the promotion of sustainable urban development policies, this requires development of monitoring framework within which combines all inputs of development, the main results can be summarized and recommended through experiences in establishment and operation of urban observatories , the development of indicators and their reflection on the process of the development process in the following: 1. The need to deepen and consolidate the role of urban monitoring through urban observatories. 2. Development of a sustainable urban indicators Through Reviewing indicators Monitoring and analysis of issues, urban problems and identify more comprehensive framework each State can choose from consistent and community identity. 3. Emphasize the importance of indicators to monitor any phenomenon as a starting point and then monitor the evolution.

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4. The need to agree on a set of key indicators for each issue So that the data is available or can be made available, a way to build and create an incentive for the monitoring and compilation of long-term data. 5. Measurement should focus on monitoring the phenomenon and its repercussions not only visible size monitoring An example of a large slum areas and degraded structurally within the city and focused on the social and health implications…Etc. or monitoring the phenomenon and the impact such as environmental issues. 6. Different language dialogue and given the multiplicity of concepts in identifying issues and indicators associated with the measured .And requiring the future standardization of measurement methods of planning issues and problems on a local level in the Arab world with a knowledge base. In summary, a closer look-in the link indicators to identify issues and problems, and note that the cursor is first of all a diagram where the cursor has a formulation has the power to influence the formulation of objectives and policy development, this means that you must search for the development of the structure of indicators to suit the challenges and constraints by trying to apply the international indicators of national significance.

Figure 9: A proposed model for the dynamic urban monitoring indicators Source: researcher, 2013

4. REFERENCES Majid Osman (2007), statistics and decision support for policy formulation, information and decision support center. Mohamed Hassan (2004), a culture of resolution in the knowledge society, Journal of research of the technology and management in the knowledge society,

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Mohamed Abdel-alla (2007), problem-solving and decision-making, the Centre for the development of graduate studies and research, College of engineering-Cairo University. Mohamed Adnan Wadi (1997) , Developments in survey indicators and their theories, Institute of Arab planning – Kuwait. Mohamed Dabos (2003), development of indicators of rural development , academic research, the quality councils – Village Development Division. Mohamed Tolba (2010), urban monitoring and decision-making for sustainable development "foundations of integrative design of indicators", unpublished thesis, Faculty of urban and regional planning-Cairo University. Medinah municipality (2012), documentary study of the mechanisms of action and proposals for sustainable local urban observatories . Nibal Tai (2008), Indicators and statistical data are gender responsive , United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia (ESCWA). Tarek Wafik (2004), employment results indicators of urban observatory in the formulation of urban development policies , unpublished study. United Nations (Economic Commission for Africa)(2001), the development and use of indicators for sustainable development, Morocco. United Nations Development Programme Regional Bureau for Arabic States (2009)," human development report 2009-Arabic challenges to human security in the Arabic countries, Beirut, Lebanon. Kamal Saleh (2007), Towards the development of human development indicators for the Arabic States, The first Arab Statistical Conference, Jordan. World Bank (2007), indicators of the world's cities "an integrated approach to measuring and monitoring performance of cities", summary report. Shams al-Din Abdullah Shamsuddin (2005), entrance The theory analysis of the problems and take decisions of management, management development and productivity CenterMinistry of industry, Damascus. Yemen-Mohamed Hafez (2005), the concept of gender indicators and criteria and steps for preparation, course equal opportunities unit-Ministry of finance. Cecilia Wong, (2006). Indicator for Urban and Regional Planning "the interplay for policy and methods". Holden,m.; Mochrie,c. (2006), Counting on Vancouver: Our View OF the Region Vancouver, Regional Vancouver Urban Observatory. Hoernig, H. and Seasons, M. (2005). Understanding indicators. Community Indicators Measuring Systems.3-32. New York: Ashgale. Holden, M. (2006). Urban Indicators and the Integrative Ideals of Cities. Cities. 23 (3): 170-183. Elsevier. Lisa Segnestam, world bank, (2000).DEVELOPING INDICATORS "Lessons Learned from Central America".

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©SB13-Cairo 2013 Revolutionizing the planning process in Egypt Yousry, S.

Revolutionizing the planning process in Egypt Decentralizing Powers and Actions Yousry. S Ain Shams University, Department of Urban Design and Architecture 1 El Sarayat Street, Abbasia, Cairo, Egypt E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract: While the global market and neo-liberal economy brought about Entrepreneurial planning approaches, the late 20th Century post industrial cities called for collaborative planning which in turn lead to strategic planning. With the new building Law 118/08, Egyptian government adopted the strategic planning approach starting with villages, cities then governorates. However more than 10 years had passed and none of the defined visions and strategies have been applied and results were limited to border changes in villages, few development projects and large number of aging development reports. This Paper is an attempt to revolutionize the strategic planning process in Egypt through a theoretical approach that defines key elements to be adapted for better implementable development. Revisiting of stakeholders - specifically local authorities’- role in the plan is thus defined as a major focus that enables decentralization of powers and decisions with minimum policy changes required through a diagnostic analysis of the main reasons for inefficiency in addition to revolutionizing the planning process itself. The paper is designed as a survey research that studies the efficiency and sustainability of the strategic planning process in Egypt within the natural development policy setting. A descriptive conclusion of the new process design concludes the possible benefits for the urban future of new cities in Egypt. Further research shall provide deeper focus on the new proposed process and its legal and policy impact sketching a clear roadmap for the transformation aspired. Keywords: decentralization, implementable planning, strategic urban planning, temporary urbanism

1. INTRODUCTION In a world that has sought to expect the unexpected, to predict the possible scenarios and to accordingly be prepared; time has proven its own different way. It’s likely that planning on itself brings the future into present, However it has become doubtful that a line drawn today shall judge our acts tomorrow. In 2008 the economic crisis shifted the world to its will; just as in 2011 the Egyptian and Arab people shifted the political globe to their choice. These and many multi54


scale paradigm shifts cause from dramatic to detailed plans change, and they are now more often happening. The world as a whole has become so linked that a stroke in the Far East could affect plans in a distant continent. Accordingly, (O’Donovan and Flower, 2013) claims that strategic planning is dead, however (Mintzberg, 1994b) argues that it is certainly not dead but has fallen from its pedestal; he explains that the most successful strategies are visions not plans. (Zuckerman, 2012) Claims that today’s profoundly uncertain times have forced business strategists to acknowledge that strategic planning as usual will not provide the foundation needed to survive tumultuous economic conditions. Correspondingly, after more than ten years of applying strategic planning in Egypt, it has become questionable whether the process –as it isis expected to achieve the anticipated goals; or a process revolution for sound, real and implementable development should take place. This paper discuss the relevance of maintaining strategic planning process currently adopted by the Egyptian government for urban development, concluding suggested reform to the process that could adopt it with the local and global changes. This will be achieved by defining the key aspects within the process that should be modified to fulfil the aspired development goals and maintain efficiency, and sustainability. By the end of the research, insights for the new process guidelines and its expected outcome will be described.

2. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 2.1.

Research Approach

This paper holds a theoretical approach in the sense that it tests the hypothesis that strategic urban planning is the current successful tool for the Egyptian development; it provides general insights on Egyptian urban development road map focusing on the conceptual framework of the problem and not the target groups or case study. It also combines diagnostic approach exploring the reasons of the concluded inefficiency, and a final descriptive approach for the new suggested process.

2.2.

Research Design

The research is designed as survey that studies the efficiency and sustainability of the strategic planning process in Egypt. Quantitative diagnosis is used to analyze results from the designed standard structured questionnaire that is then compared to theoretical data and thus conclude variations and suggested changes applied to the process. The Sample selected for the questionnaire is a Matching sample; randomly chosen from the strategic planning main stakeholders: Governmental, Non-governmental, Private sector and Academic agencies.

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2.3.

Research Setting

This research takes place in the natural setting of the existing planning polices and laws.

3. STRATEGIC URBAN PLANNING This part of the research shall provide a concrete base for the later discussion; explaining the theoretical background and conceptual framework of strategic plans and strategic urban planning focusing on the Egyptian application of the process.

3.1.

Strategic Planning Background

As a basic management tool; strategic planning concepts began in the late 1950’s within the U.S. Department of Defense represented in the Planning-Programming-Budgeting-System (PPBS) that was later adapted to series of varying strategic planning and budgeting systems (Young, 2003). Large companies later in the 1960s and 1970s practiced strategic planning; providing a framework beyond the 12-month cycle and a systematic approach of management (Webster et al., 1989) Strategic approaches were then applied in the urban context in the 1980’s to promote public policies for socio-economic development, public participation and public-private cooperation between actors of the city. Later in the century, cooperation networks between cities have arisen with the aim of enhancing collaboration and knowledge production (CIDEU, RADEUT, URBAL), and the development of incentives for various levels of government to foster the implementation of Strategic Urban Plans in cities (Rodríguez, 2009) (Mintzberg, 1994b) summarized the strategy formation approaches in ten different schools illustrated in the table below. Table 1: Schools of Thought on Strategic Planning ( Based on (Mintzberg, 1994b)) School Design

Conceptual (informal)

Planning

Formal

Positioning

Analytical

Cognitive

Mental

Entrepreneurial

Visionary

Learning

Emergent

Political Cultural Environmental

Power Ideological Passive

Configurational

Episodic

View of Process Both are essentially SWOT analyses : their strength lies in the assessment stages of strategic planning places greater emphasis on “content” rather than process Focuses on mental or deliberative processes “strong person” with a compelling vision of the future Emphasis on collective or “groupthink.” collective cooperative dimension Passive response to external forces Put all other schools into the context of specific episodes 56

Approach Strive to elucidate—or to put into plain words—the appropriate methods or procedures of making strategy.

Descriptive : Take on thematic interpretations


Understanding the different approaches and philosophical basis of strategic plan elucidate the fact of the wideness and comprehensiveness of the process. Thus the focus of this paper will not be carried to explain and categorize those approaches, but rather focus on the Egyptian application in urban planning to criticise and discuss the concept of creating a strategic plan without going into details of the process itself.

3.2.

Egyptian Application Of Strategic Urban Planning

For as old as its civilization, Egypt has one of the longest histories of a centralized, top-down, decision-making process and traditions in the world. Even after the 1952 revolution decentralization consequences had remained illusionary through dividing the country into provinces, cities and villages each with its own legal personality. (Arab Republic of Egypt 1960) while Nasser tended to increase centralization through the prevailing socialism spirit generated by the Soviet Union (Tobbala, 2012). Within the same approach for decentralization efforts, the Egyptian government adopted the strategic planning approach. The new system carried within many levels and concepts of participation and cooperation involving all relevant stakeholders in the development process. The Egyptian (Presidential decree, 2008) defines the strategic plan as the plan that defines the future vision for urban development, which can be applied on national, regional, governorate, city or village scale. It illustrates the goals, policies and required economic, social, and environmental development plans to achieve sustainable development. It also defines the future needs for urban expansion, different land uses and implementation programs, priorities and mechanisms in addition to sources of funds on the planning level. This law created a new development hierarchy and decentralization pyramid, one that receives support from all relevant stakeholders. However, even it looks like a widely spread decision making process, the power and financial capacities remained top-down as illustrated in the figure below.

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Central Government

Strategic plans for cities and villages by Governorate level

General policy for planning and urban development on the national, regional and governorate levels.

Defining local needs and priorities + detailed plans

Figure 1: Development process plan in Egypt (Author adapted from (Presidential decree, 2008))

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Suggestions- Recommendations

Authorizing General national goals and polices for urban planning and development

Programs – guidelines- polices- monitor- Approve

Strategic plans prepared by GOPP, Approved by Supreme council

Revolutionizing the planning process in Egypt Yousry, S.


The strategic planning process includes three main stages illustrated in the figure below.

Figure 2 : Strategic urban planning process (Author adapted from (Khaleefa, 2012))

The process as illustrated above holds great participation principles; however it remains clear that actual application of the process seldom carry equal values. It could also be concluded from the figure the complexity and time consuming involved in such a process; especially with the lack of appropriate database and capacity of application authorities. The main challenges facing the strategic urban planning process in Egypt will be summarized in the following part of the research aiming at defining the key issues to be addressed within the updating of the process.

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4. EGYPTIAN URBAN DEVELOPMENT PLANNING CHALLENGES The questionnaire used for this paper to survey urban development in Egypt and strategic planning specifically included variety of roles and involvement in strategic planning as governmental (23.5 %), non-governmental (11.8%), Private sector (29.4%) and academic sector (35.3%) with a total of 16 contributors. The rating of the Egyptian national development plan resulted as follows.

Figure 3: Rating of the Egyptian national urban development plan (questionnaire performed by author)

It is clear from these results that main problem with the planning is the poor implementation in addition to the average -and below- quality of the plan. It is important to also note that an average plan that could not be implemented shifts it to a bad one; since plans without action and achievements lose their basic goal for development. Additionally result for the strategic plans’ projects implementation shows that the majority of respondents believe that from only 11 to 25% of the plan’s outcome is implemented. This is shown in the figure below.

Figure 4: Average percentage of outcome projects' implementation after strategic plans are completed

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The basic question that the following part of the research will address is the reason behind this poor implementation of plans and strategic projects and concluded recommendations for enhancing the process. This is based on the qualitative analysis of the questionnaire results and experiences from the strategic plan of 6th of October new city and Alexandria strategic urban plan which reflected main technical, institutional and financial challenges summarized below.

4.1.

The Fallacy Of Prediction Within A Revolutionary Context

In the survey questionnaire, more than 50% of respondents believe that the strategic plans take from 3 to 5 years to be finished. Thus when it’s time for implementation, the data on which decision have been made are already years old. Our current external environment is one of market uncertainty, international political unrest, and shifting social values; and economic imbalances(Zuckerman, 2012). Therefore, in our fast, connected and revolutionary world; political, socio-economic and global trending could be completely different after such duration. (Mintzberg, 1994a) claims that according to premises of strategic planning, the world is supposed to hold still while a plan is being developed and then stay on the predicted course while that plan is being implemented; which is certainly not the case. The questionnaire results show that despite living the change; the majority of respondents could not expect whether the effect of the Egyptian revolution on urban planning would be positive or negative. This reflects the complex interrelated situation that makes it hard for expectations to be true or valid. Similarly, in their recent book The Temporary city; (Bishop and Williams, 2012) challenges our preoccupation with long-term strategies and master plans and questions our ability to achieve these in the face of increasing resource constraints and political and economic uncertainty.

4.2.

Figure 5: Results of questionnaire question :How do you think the Egyptian Revolution changes shall impact urban development? (Author)

Centralization and Institutional Conflicts

(Tobbala, 2012) explains that the power of local governments has always been controlled by the central authority in addition to moving some of the few local powers to public organizations leaving local authorities with incomplete dysfunctional powers and leading to disputes between central and local authorities causing inefficient decision making and services provided to local communities. Although elected local popular councils are present at the different local levels, the hierarchy system within the elected and appointed local councils in addition to the non61


defined roles and responsibilities represent the root cause of its ineffectiveness. (The Center for International Private Enterprise (CIPE), 2004) adds that despite the importance of the democratic character of local government, the regime’s policies are proceeding in the opposite direction. Thus we are dealing with a quasi-governmental body whose membership is monopolized by ruling party members. The main problems in this regard can thus be summarized as following: x

Inconsistency of decisions taken by central authorities involved in the implementation of local plans including Ministry of housing, Ministry of Planning and Ministry of Local development.

x

Vague rules and regulations connecting plans to budgets and implementation mechanisms on different planning scales.

x

Overlapped and poorly defined roles and responsibilities of different stakeholders involved in development.

x

Lack of incentives for decentralization at the central level and thus holding back attemps for local units empowerment.

x

Lack of local authorities power creating a gap between the end-user / citizens and decision making

x

Corruption and manupulation of the system

x

Lack of local capacity within governmental agencies

x

Stakeholders involvement is not effeciently adopted; in many cases applied only in first phases of data collection and analsis then decions are taken centrally afterwords.

4.3.

Centralized Financing

The second key challenge to the application of the strategic plans is the financing problem. Although fiscal decentralization efforts began in the early 1990’s with the economic system reform, state control over the public sector’s finances remained highly centralized and concentrated; all financial requests from lower government are to be approved by the central ministries and other central administration units—by the Ministry of Finance and approved by the Cabinet and Parliament as part of the annual budget process.(Boex, 2011).Figure 6 illustrates the main financial constrains to successful decentralization in Egypt. This results in the lack of local authorities to adopt the projects decided in the plans since they have no financial control over their budgets or investment opportunities.

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Figure 6 : Main financial constrains to successful decentralization in Egypt ( Researcher analysis based on (Boex, 2011))

4.4.

Poor Databasing

The absence of accurate, updated and systemized database for raw data needed in strategic planning represents also a core challenge to the process. Data collection phase often acquires longer durations that assigned in order to create the basic database. This also links to the governance problems reflected in the central government need for data basing, and their use of strategic plans to achieve this need. Secondly is the lack of local capacity that could maintain and update the data collected by the strategic plan through electronic systems and GIS formats. Accordingly, so much time is spent in collecting very detailed data to create a database that will already be inaccurate by the end of the project leading to the next important challenge of time lag between planning and implementation.

5.

Revolutionary Urban Planning in Egypt

It is concluded from the previous sector that the urban planning process in Egypt –represented in the strategic planning approach- is in need for revolutionizing itself. The system -as it is- has proven inefficiency and thus changes should be introduced internally and externally.

5.1.

Conceptual Shift

When thinking about the changes required to improve the planning process, it is important to start with the basic idea and concept of planning. Importing global trends that are already aging shall first pass through a filtering conceptual stage to decide whether this system is the most efficient and sustainable approach. In their latest vision to the changing world, (O’Donovan and Flower, 2013) believes that what is necessary today is a strategy that breaks free of static plans 63


to be adaptive and directive, that emphasizes learning and control, and that reclaims the value of strategic thinking. Accordingly conceptual shift of the existing paradigm should take place to transfer predictions to experiments, data collection to pattern recognition, and top down execution to execution by the whole. This leads to the conclusion that the strategic plan paradigm –as we know it- is degenerating; a new trend calling for ‘adaptive planning’ is thus evolving.

5.2.

External Scheme

These are the changes regarding the urban policy and management environment; where administrative, fiscal and political decentralization should be applied by Law. Providing incentives and means of implementation for the central government is a key issue. 5.2.1. Good Governance (The Center for International Private Enterprise (CIPE), 2004) suggests that “People’s councils need to be at the top of the system, a strong partner, rather than a weak partner. They need to hold power at the local level, extract resources, and be the main driver of local operations.” Accordingly local budgeting and resources should be revised creating new opportunities for local financing and true contribution for development, in addition to creating sound market plans for outcome projects to involve various investment sectors and enable local authorities to manage the process. Also transparency and sustainability of the governing system shall increase cohesiveness and the hierarchy of planning from national to local and village levels aiming at achieving basic principles of good governance. 5.2.2. Governmental Capacity Building and Data Basing Two linked issues that should be addressed in parallel are the capacity building and data basing. Capacity building for central government shall aim at understanding their roles and responsibilities, to comprehend the factual goals of strategic planning and thus facilitate the process and to effectively play its role in national planning and management. Local authorities shall be empowered and enabled to also play its vital role, it should thus be able to create the link between the people and the different stakeholders and perform their public awareness role. Local authorities shall have required capacities to collect, maintain and update databases to facilitate decision making and feedback cycles.

5.3.

Internal Scheme

These are suggestion for the strategic planning process itself; or the changes that are recommended internally to better achieve the aspired goals. As the complexity of our physical and social systems make the world more unpredictable, we have to abandon our focus on predictions and shift into rapid prototyping and experimentation so that we learn quickly about what actually works (O’Donovan and Flower, 2013). Thus instead of creating plans and sticking to it; we should define a direction and test it. (Mintzberg, 1994a) claims that the whole process should loosen up and edging its formality to cope up with the external interacting factors. Accordingly in this new form, the planner role shifts from deciding the strategy to serving and contributing around the strategy making process. Supplying with analysis, broaden considerations, and act as the catalyst that support strategy making, finally they can be 64


programmers of a strategy; helping to specify the series of concrete steps to carry out the vision (Mintzberg, 1994a). This strategy making is an immensely complex process which involves the most sophisticated, subtle, and at times subconscious elements of human thinking. (Mintzberg, 1994a)

Figure 7: Basic proposed structure for the proposed strategic approach (O’Donovan and Flower, 2013)

This approach is alternatively suggested by (Bishop and Williams, 2012) as the new emerging approach that reconsiders the contemporary in favor of a more dynamic, fluid approach which “See Click Fix”. Temporary Urbanism Initiative has thus begun to emerge and even applied in the long-term master planning as in London's Royal Docks project in addition to Washington, D.C., which is ahead of the curve. (Lepeska, 2012) (Schramm, 2013) concluded from his analysis of the mis functioning planning trends that we need “proto-dynamic” plans for cities that draws an economic path leading to self-sustenance; the urban plans of the future have to combine the capacity first to encourage a city’s entire population.

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6. CONCLUSIONS It is clear from the discussions that strategic planning as we know it is currently degenerating while a new –still unclear- paradigm is taking over. It is questionable if the Egyptian urban environment is currently capable of embracing such a major shift with its existing capacities. However, Egyptian people have succeeded to surprise the world throughout history, and are now expected to revolutionize its policies and approaches as well. The New Revolutionized urban planning in Egypt shall conceptually be base upon adopting external schemes of good governance concepts; and internal shift in paradigms from long term plans to a more adaptive, inclusive and flexible planning process. Plans and reports shall be transformed to actions and testing which is expected to save resources and see changes. Further research should draw a clear roadmap for the process change; identifying carefully what the new process should be like and the institutional and financial steps required for adopting it, additionally learning from experiences adopting new trends in urbanism shall also be studied for possible learning and application in the Egyptian context.

7. REFERENCES ARAB REPUBLIC OF EGYPT (1960) Law of local administration number 124. Cairo, . BISHOP, P. & WILLIAMS, L. (2012) The Temporary City BOEX, J. (2011) Democratization in Egypt: The Potential Role of Decentralization. Policy Brief. Washington DC, Urban Institute Center on International Development and Governance. KHALEEFA, M. A. (2012) Governance relation to participatory planning. UPL 623 Participatory Planning. Cairo, Ain Shams University. LEPESKA, D. (2012) The Rise of the Temporary City. The atlantic cities. MINTZBERG, H. (1994a) The Fall and Rise of Strategic Planning. Harvard business review, 107-114. MINTZBERG, H. (1994b) The Rise and Fall of Strategic Planning, New York, The Free press. O’DONOVAN, D. & FLOWER, N. R. (2013) The Strategic Plan is Dead. Long Live Strategy. Stanford social innovation Monitor Institute. PRESIDENTIAL DECREE (2008) Building Law 119. Cairo. RODRÍGUEZ, R. M. (2009) Strategic Urban Planning: A local governance tool in response to the complexity of the new socio-economic environment. Universidad Pablo de Olavide de Sevilla. SCHRAMM, C. (2013) It's Time For City Planners To Adapt A New Model. Forbes. THE CENTER FOR INTERNATIONAL PRIVATE ENTERPRISE (CIPE) (2004) Decentralization and Curbing Corruption in Local Government. Series of White Papers to Promote

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Transparency & Combat Corruption in Egypt. Department of Economic and Social Affairs (DESA). TOBBALA, S. (2012) Local Governance and Democratization: The Roadmap for a Responsive Accountable Egypt. London, The London School of Economics and Political Science – LSE. WEBSTER, J. L., REIF, W. E. & BRACKER, J. S. (1989) The Manager's Guide to Strategic Planning Tools and Techniques, planning review. YOUNG, R. D. (2003) Perspectives on Strategic Planning in the Public Sector. USA, University of South Carolina. ZUCKERMAN, A. M. (2012) Healthcare Strategic Planning: Is Strategic Planning Still Relevant?, Health Administration Press. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. (2007). Indicators of Sustainable Development: Guidelines and Methodologies. New York and Geneva: United Nations. United Nations Development Programme. (2009). Arab Human Development Report 2009. New York. UN-HABITAT. (2008). State of the World’s Cities 2008/2009–Harmonious Cities. New York. UN-HABITAT. 2009. Planning sustainable cities: policy direction, abridged edition. UN-HABITAT. 2012. State of the World’s Cities 2012/2013–prosperity of Cities. Victoria de Villa and Matthew S. Westfall(2001), Urban Indicators for Managing Cities: Cities Data Book. Meg Holden and Clare Mochrie(2006), Revista Internacional de Sostenibilidad, Tecnologlay Humanismo.

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Nubian Resettlement Challenges Serag, Y.M.

Nubian Resettlement Challenges Between past memories and present settings Serag, Y.M. Ain Shams University, Faculty of Engineering, Urban planning and Design department 1 El Sarrayatstreet, Abbassia, Cairo, Egypt e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract: In 1964 thousands of Nubians were relocated from their villages to new relocation settlements in Komombo. This was due to the construction of the high dam which would eventually cause the total flooding of their habitat, hence the relocation. To their dismay the new settlements lacked fundamental aspects, causing a harsh lifetime experience of uprooting the Nubians from their context. This caused them to have an inter-generational belief of marginalization. In recent years, Nubian voices started calling for the "right to go back" to locations near their original habitat. Such calls became more profound after the 2011 revolution, with promises made to meet such demands. However, to many Nubians, going again through another relocation process is not that simple. There are several aspirations that Nubian people set as conditions before undergoing such process. This paper addresses the impact of politics ,in a cold war era, which caused the Nubian diaspora and its consequences until present day. It briefly looks at these consequences in the differences between the authentic communities and the resettlement ones. It attempts to define the Nubian aspirations and basic concerns for the reversed resettlement process of the Nubian people, within recent political changes. The research is based on the analysis of a field work findings in Aswan and Nubia in November 2012, several interviews were conducted. Literature review has been included to understand the historical background as well as the contemporary views and the government actions towards the case in recent years. In terms of research findings, the paper identifies the resettlement locations set by the Nubians themselves, and their characteristics. It also identifies the challenges and needs for such a process. This is done while explaining the different stances of agreement or disagreement within the Nubian people on the process altogether. The paper concludes that the Nubian resettlement history has been affected by the political conditions on a more national level. Key Words: human settlements, Nubia, regional planning, resettlement

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1

INTRODUCTION

The Nubians are an ethnic group that has been living for centauries in old Nubia. Once a kingdom, Nubia is located in the south of Egypt, and the North of Sudan. Because of colonial settings and the division of Egypt and Sudan into two countries instead of one, Nubia had been divided into these two parts, despite the fact that social links had been mostly sustained between the two. The Nubians are among them divided into some three main tribes, the Kenouz, Freija and Arabs. Their main economic activities were based on agriculture largely and on fishing to a lesser extent in their original homeland(Al-Soghayer, 2010). The aim of this paper is not to give an anthropological study on the Nubian people; it rather looks at the forced displacement process that took place in Nubia in the 1960s and their resettlement process taking into consideration the political factors that led to such an outcome. The paper then moves back to the present and tries to make an overview on the current initiatives of reverse resettlements of the Nubians close to their origin with calls of the right to go back becoming more substantial. In doing so, the recent political events since the January 2011 revolution until summer 2013 are taken into consideration.

1.1

Research objectives and methodology

The paper mainly focuses on investigating the relationship and impacts of politics on the forced resettlement process of the Nubians in the 1960s. It then investigates the impacts of politics on recent calls and attempts of a “reversed resettlement process” by the Nubians to return to their original context. In doing so, the research methodology worked on understanding the contemporary political settings during the 1960s as well as the post January 2011 revolution. It then analyzes the resettlement process in the 1960s and the reversed resettlement attempts in present time in light of these settings. At this point the main research methods were based on literature review as well as field excursion to the Nubian resettlement villages in November 2012 with Ain Shams University staff and students. Several interviews were held during that time in which senior Nubians who witnessed the resettlement process Figure 1: Old Nubia in Egypt and Sudan were interviewed for their accounts on Source: Fernea and Grester , 1973 their past disappointments as well as their present aspirations and concerns for a reversed resettlement process.

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2.

SETTLEMENTS AND HOUSING PATTERNS

The Nubian settlements i.e. villages had several unique characteristics, in terms of the settlements' pattern and housing. The most important characteristics can be listed as follows: - There were two types of settlements’ patterns in Old Nubia: the grid pattern that is usually found in the southern part of Nubia on flat lands where dwellings were organized in rows parallel to the Nile. And the Free pattern, that was usually found in Northern Nubia where the settlements stood mostly on hills leaving the flat lands for agriculture. (Merdan, 1999). - The direct link with the river Nile, as the settlements were either built directly on the banks of the Nile or within few hundred meters away from it. Owing to their close location with the river, most of the daily and social habits were somehow related to the river, a fact that many of the elderly interviewed persons in Nubia stressed on.

Figure2: Settlements Pattern in Old Nubia, with the villages being close to the Nile and bordered by agricultural lands. Source: Mahgoub, 1990

- In case of the grid pattern, the single village was characterized by its horizontal expansion to the extent that its length of expansion could reach few kilometers. - The Nubian dwelling units were large in terms of surface area, floor plan and number of rooms. These dwellings were built from local materials such as stone , clay and sand with the roof built of palm leaves hence, adequate to local conditions. The facades were rich in ornaments and colors. (Kamel , et al, 2002).

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Figure 3: Above: Pictures taken on sight in 1964 showing the direct relation of the Nubian villages with the Nile. Source: Zigler, 1964. Below: Ariel pictures showing the settlements' pattern in old Nubia .

3.

EARLY RESETTLEMENTS

The people of Nubia were forced to evict their land several times through the 20th century. At least three times in the period between the early 1900s – 1933. The Aswan Reservoir was constructed in 1902 which led to the submerging of few Nubian villages, the reservoir's height was increased twice and that led again to further submerging for some villages, however, each time the Nubian people would rebuilt their homes and villages again either on high lands or nearby locations ( Merdan, 1990). However the most critical eviction that took place was because of the construction of the high dam in the 1960s.

4.

THE NEED FOR A NEW DAM

Despite the construction of the Aswan reservoir, the effects of the annual Nile flooding were devastating. The flooding affected many villages along the Nile Valley and the Egyptian delta causing seasonal disasters in terms of losses in lives and properties. In the 1950s this annual situation led the Egyptian government to seriously consider building a new dam that would help in providing a solution to such annual disasters but would also

Figure 4: Annual flooding of the Nile had devastating effects on the villages in the Nile valley and Delta. Such devastation required a crucial action, which materialized later in the High dam

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help in providing sufficient water for land reclamation (BibAlex.org, 2013). During the 1950s and the 1960s the construction of the High Dam was Egypt's main Mega national project. In 1954 Egypt decided to build a dam in Aswan, higher than the already existing one. The Aswan High Dam was totally completed by 1970, its construction resulted in the protection of Egypt from both floods and droughts, an increase in agricultural production and employment, improved river navigation that benefited tourism and an increase in electricity generation (Biswas, 2002).

4.1

The Initial attempt

By that time, Egypt had transformed recently from a kingdom to a republic following the 1952 revolution. The new government and new regime sought to have a major achievement at that time, which evidentially was the construction of the High Dam. The construction process was estimated to cost 690 Million $ to 1.5 Billion $ (BibAlex.org, 2013). Egypt approached the US and the UK as well as the World Bank to fund the project, were they initially agreed to fund the project and provide the necessary consultancy work and advise (ibid). In an interview with Nubian village former mayors and chiefs who witnessed this period, some claim that the initial proposal suggested by this group was to have a careful intervention when constructing any dams in the region to minimize the flooding impact of the reserved water. Thus instead of having one big lake as the case of lake Nasser, the idea was to have several lakes without flooding the villages or at least few ones. Such an intervention would have been appealing to the Nubian community at that time.

4.2

A Cold War issue

However, due to disputes regarding major arms deals after both countries denied to arm Egypt, Nasser approached the Eastern Bloc and signed an arms deal with former Czechoslovakia, the two countries as well as the World Bank rejected to contribute to the project. At that time, the tide of the cold war was high, meaning that such an act by each meant a clear inclination towards the Eastern Bloc rather than the West. As such the United States sent an official letter of withdrawal from funding the project to the Egyptian ambassador in Figure 5: The High Dam was built with a direct Soviet Washington; consequently, the assistance in the 1960s. Source: www.britanica.com , 2013 Western dominated World Bank rejected the initial offer to support the construction of the High Dam (Biswas,2002). As a consequent for this rejection, Nasser announced the nationalization of the Suez Canal in 26 July 1956, to fund the project from the revenues of the Canal, The Nationalization process sparked the Suez War in 1956. Of course there are many opinions showing that this

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nationalization was going to take place anyway, yet the rejection of funding was the spark and reason go ahead with the Nationalization. Following the Suez War Nasser approached the Soviet Union for support in the construction process. The Soviet Union funded the construction of the High Dam starting from 1958; it participated in most of the phases, design, construction and operation. The construction started in 1960 and ended in 1970 (BibAlex.org, 2013).

5.

THE EVICTION

Despite the many advantages resulting from the construction of the High Dam, its disadvantage and the negative impacts on the Nubian population were devastating. As a consequence of the construction of the high dam, one of the largest artificial lakes in history was created, that is Lake Nasser with an area of 350 Km2 that extends in both Egypt and Sudan and flooding most of the Nubian villages. Despite the fact that the Egyptian government knew the consequences of this project, the decision was taken to commence with it, of course to achieve the advantages mentioned earlier but it is also argued that this was done to stress on the Egyptian political will and to show the world that the new administration of Egypt can achieve such a national project even with the resentment of the Western powers. At that time, about 42 Nubian villages were eventually submerged under water, thus leading to an imminent need of resettlement ( AlSoghayer, 2010).

5.1

The Resettlement

Prior to the eviction the government tried to come up with a conciliation plan for resettlement. Relocation sites were chosen by the government to be in Komombo (Merdan, 1999). The construction of new villages for the Nubians was set in the plan, and models for these villages were shown and displayed to Nubian people. Based on the interviews with the Nubians, some recall this period by saying it was a period of promises, were the government promised them compensation for their homes by giving them new homes in the new resettlement villages and good compensation for their palms. The river Nile was scheduled to change Figure 6: 44 Nubian Villages were resettled near course in the May 1964, as such the need to Komombo with the same names and orders. proceed with the resettlement was pressing. Source: Mahgoub, 1990 This was coupled at that time with an international campaign of saving the ancient Egyptian monuments in Nubia, an action that was led by the UNESCO as a coordinator between Egypt and the involved nations. (UNESCO, 2009).

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42 Nubian villages were evicted at that period. The Egyptian government had commissioned Egyptian and Sudanese ships in the Nile to carry on with the eviction process. The ships took the Nubians to the new locations where they were only asked to take their valuables (possibly furniture as well) and their transportation to the new locations was carried out successfully (Salah, 2012). According to eyewitness accounts (interviewed Nubians in November 2012), the eviction process itself and the transportation to the new locations went with no human casualties, however, the aftermath to that was critical.

Figure 7: The eviction process in 1964 was done through Nile transportation. Source: http://www.almasryalyoum.com , 2013

Most of the new resettlement villages were not ready at that time and were partially constructed. Many of the families that were evicted did

not find the promised new house. The eviction process was rushed, without finishing the construction of the new villages (salah,2012). According to one of the interviewed Nubians in November 2012, many families were packed together for shelter in the buildings of the community centers of these villages in very non healthy conditions. During the visit to a resettlement village, one of the Nubians who was a child at the time of the eviction mentioned that the most hated building in the village was that of the community center because of its bad memories from the time of their first arrival. 74

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5.2

The Dark side

The resettlement process was not smooth as it was portrayed. On the contrary the impacts of such process continue until present day. Some of these impacts listed as follows: - The loss of original habitat of the Nubians, where they used to live in horizontal expanded villages close to the river Nile, with the new locations most of their villages were located far away from the river.

Figure 10: The resettlement villages were too compact with almost no greenery which was the total opposite of the original villages, causing dismay to the Nubian people. Source:

- Due to the change in environment and contextual settings, the first generation of Nubians after the resettlement faced several epidemics and many infants died of diseases that were not previously known, as explained by an interviewee. - The Nubians were never compensated with the just and agreed compensation for their land and palms. The set value for the palms of the Egyptian Nubians was much lower than the affected Sudanese Nubians compensated also by the Egyptian government (Salah, 2012). The poor quality of most of the resettlement houses which in several cases were built with unsuitable materials, and in some cases described as concrete cells, on improper soil leading to continuous cracks in the buildings structures. Also the relatively small surface area for the new houses when compared to the original houses in old Nubia. This caused several modifications by the residents to make a better usage of space and increasing the house’s area (Kamel et al, 2012).

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Figure 11: The new housing units were inappropriate in terms of design, area and material as opposed to the original ones. As years went by the relocated residents had to intervene and add some modifications to at least reach for a compromise. Source: Kamelet al, 2012

- There was a clear shift in job types, most of these jobs shifted towards the service sector and many other migrated to other cities in Egypt and abroad for different job opportunities, since the original jobs had to do with cultivation and fishing. - The change in the social characteristics and habits, since most of the social habits had to do with the river, which suddenly was no longer there. - The new settlements lacked greenery, an important factor in the Nubian daily life that was no longer there in the new settlements (Little, 2011). - The danger of losing the Nubian language. In many tribes and families the Nubian language started to fade away, due to the fact that most of the education is done in Arabic and the parents find it easier to deal with their children in Arabic. One of the old Nubian chiefs (November, 2012) made a demonstration of this during the field work by talking to a nine years old child in the Nubian language, the child did not understand a word. - The loss of the idea of the pure race. As the interviewed Nubians in the field work recalled that historically the Nubians kept their marriages from the same tribe, however, after the resettlement and since they had to live next to other people from the Southern part of Egypt in Komombo, the Nubians started to have intermarriages with their neighbors. Based on the above discussion, it could be argued that the forced displacement of the Nubians which was a consequence to the construction of the High Dam was a direct impact of political measures at that time. Working with the "What if" approach, one can simply question what if the World bank, the US and UK went forward with supporting and funding the construction of the 76

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High Dam? In that case the Western plan would have been considered with a much lesser impact on the Nubian villages, however that was not the case and the other plan went forward.

6.

THE STANCE OF THE SUCCESSIVE EGYPTIAN REGIMES PRIOR TO THE JANUARY REVOLUTION

It is quiet astonishing to ask the old Nubians about their opinion of what had happened to them. The answers are diverse, some say they consider the High Dam project a mega national project that served the whole of Egypt and that they consider this as a national need. Others are traumatized with the experience and consider this a crime towards them conducted by the Egyptian government and Nasser. Many of them consider their time in old Nubia as the time for prosperity which was taken from them because of the relocation process. Many Nubians consider President Sadat's era as the time when their voice was heard with serious promises given to serve their cause. In a visit to Aswan in 1979 Sadat welcomed the Nubian return to the reclaimed land around Lake Nasser (the closest area to the site of Old Nubia) and promised to construct 42 villages for them. However, with the Sadat assassination his promises were not fulfilled (Marefa.org.2013). During the Mubarak era several promises had been made as well to provide land compensations and reverse resettlement to the Nubian communities, most notably in the last decade of his rule, the last four years to be specific. In 2007, Mubarak promised to give priority to the Nubians to resettle back in the lands surrounding Lake Nasr. He also promised for the reconstruction / revitalization of the 42 original villages (Al Malkey, 2007). The Nubians presented a charter for demands in September 2009 that included the following main issues(Marefa.org.2013): - Development of villages for the Nubians in the areas surrounding Lake Nasser with a maximum distance of 2 kilometers away from the lake. - Defining the areas of Wadi El amal, GarfHussain, Toshka, Qustul, Sayala, Adendan, Sebou, Omda and Abu Sinbel as potential come back areas. - Making a general development plan for the whole area to include different economic activities that would support the Nubian population, parallel to the construction works for the new Nubian villages. - Setting a reasonable desert hinterland for future expansion of these villages. - Introducing a free trade zone between Egypt and Sudan in Kostel and Adendan on the banks of the lake to attract and mobilize trade between the two countries. - Increasing the investment in agricultural activities around the lake with the priority given to the Nubian and then the Aswan residents. - Upgrading and constructing of different services and industrial plants to serve the Nubian communities. This charter was presented by delegates of the Nubian community to GamalMoubarak , president Munbarak's son during his visit to Nasr El Nuba in September 2009. Such a visit was considered in the view of some as a propaganda and marketing visit to the then ruling National 77

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Democratic Party and Gamal Mubarak who is argued to have been seeking to follow his father as the next president of Egypt. By the end of 2009 the government was working on providing 10000 Feddans of reclaimed agricultural land around lake Nasr as well as providing 2000 housing units for resettlement, however, the exclusiveness of these lands and units to the Nubian people were questionable as the main national policy was accused to be looking at the rural development of these lands explicitly to all Egyptians (ibid). On the contrary, the government at that point was working on a new development project to provide a resettlement alternative to the Nubians in the area of "WadiKarkar" to the west of Aswan airport. This intervention started during the Mubarak time, were the land of WadiKarkar was donated to the Nubians. Once an army land, the donated site was targeted to host the residents of three Nubian villages, in a location that is only 5 Kilometers away from Lake Nasser, taking into consideration the restrictions for building close by environmentally sensitive locations like lake Nasser ((Maged, 2011). Although the soil is considered reclaimable, this alternative was opposed later by the members of the Nubian community. The main reasons for that are that they consider it far away from the Lake, since they wanted a direct location close to the water, and some consider the cultivation of the area is starting all over again and finally the constructed houses are too close to each other contradicting the original Nubian norms, while with the presence of the desert, a better planning and granting of more area per residence could have been achieved easily.

Figure 12: Top: Location of WadiKarkar in relation to Aswan. Right: WadiKarkar new settlement constructed by the army. Below: new houses for the Nubians in WadiKarkar. Source: Google Earth, 2013 and http://www.communitytimesonline.com/artdetails.aspx?articleid=1231, 2013.

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7.

POST JANUARY 25TH REVOLUTION

In the period following the January 2011 revolution, similar promises were given to the Nubian community. In April 2011 a conference was organized by the Egyptian Journalists' Union and chaired by a key Nubian activist (HaggagOddul). At the conference, Nubian groups restated their demands; they want to resettle on the banks of Lake Nasser, and to be awarded land for homes and agriculture. They also wanted the full recognition of Nubian culture and language in education as well as guaranteed electoral representation. Despite that the ruling Supreme Council of Armed Forces at that time granted them some land in Toshka area, as well as carrying out the resettlement project already started in WadiKarkar (Baraka, 2011). Many saw that as falling short from realizing the minimum demands for the Nubians. In the same period an announcement was made by the government for a large scale project close to old Nubia and targeting to rebuild the Nubian villages (Little, 2011). It is argued that little has been achieved in such projects, with the promises continuing during the short lived reign of President Morsi. Some argue that since the Nubian community is of a small number of about 3 million people, there voice was not heard specially that they are of a peaceful nature and would not cause any political disturbance (Little, 2011). As such, it is argued that such promises of development and resettlement are made especially after the revolution in a way to show that the ruling authorities after the revolution seek to portrait themselves as listening to all the demands of the different segments of the Egyptian society.

8.

THE DESIRE TO RETURN

The right to return has been a demand by the Nubian people for almost four decades. However, do the entire Nubian people share and have the desire to return to old Nubia? And what are the variations of this desire among them? During the field visit to Aswan and Komombo in November 2012, several interviews and discussions had been conducted with Nubian groups of different age groups. Among those interviewed were Village mayors and chiefs, senior citizens above 60 and middle age persons within the range of 25 to 35 years old. The main questions of the interviews and discussions dealt with the desire to return back to old Nubia and what kind of activities would they expect to do when they return. It was astonishing to realize that not all the Nubians have the same point of view concerning the desire to return issues. For the senior generation, they indeed were very nostalgic to their original homeland and remembered with grief the memories of eviction and resettlement. They welcomed the idea of going back, however: - Many were very skeptical about going through a similar painful relocation and displacement process as the one they went through in the 1960s. - Some argued that going back to the original homeland is very desirable and acceptable provided that the government invests in building the new Nubian villages - Some argued that a strategy for relocation should be set. In that sense, not all the communities should leave at once, rather the youth should go first to make sure that the services and construction provided by the government are suitable for the relocation process. Thus, the idea is to have a foothold in Komombo where they have lived for the last 79

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50 years and at the same time working on the relocation process thoroughly with the least possible losses. - As the original activities of agriculture and fishing were replaced by other activities and jobs in the service sector , some questioned the capabilities of the younger generations and going back to working in such activities in which they have never been exposed before, hence demanding a different perspective for economic activities for their expected return. - Many of the younger generations are unemployed, with a lot of negative impacts on the society, hence, with another relocation and a new development, possible job opportunities could be created for the youngsters. The second interviewed group i.e. the younger generations expressed their will and desire to return back to their original homeland. All of them were told by their parents and grandparents about how their life used to be in old Nubia, even some of them expressed that as heaven on earth. In most of the interviewed they lacked the real estimation of facts and of what to be done once they are relocated in old Nubia. Only when the interview opened up these issues that they started to be aware and pointed out the following issues: - Most of them already have their jobs settled either within the resettlement villages in Komombo or in other cities in Egypt or abroad. Hence, there is a need for a clear vision of what they will do once they return. - Many of them question their capacity of starting to work in land reclamation and agriculture if they go back to old Nubia, since they have never worked in these jobs. - Some consider it a good opportunity to preserve the endangered Nubian culture and languages, which are highly affected since their first relocation. It is worth mentioning that most of these issues have been taken into consideration by the expedition team who made an academic project seeking to realize a strategic regional development plan for Nubia. This was further elaborated later by some to introduce key strategic residential and economic projects that would be suitable for the new Nubian characteristics as discussed above.

9.

CONCLUSION

The destiny of the Nubian people had been harshly affected in the 1960s by the tense political situation between Egypt and the West. The direct impact for this was their forced displacement away from old Nubia because of the construction of the High Dam that caused the submergence of their villages. There might have been other alternatives, however, the political will to show the capability of Egypt in doing such a project and the ill preparation of the government for the measures to be taken afterwards accentuated the impacts of forced displacement with the Nubians with a growing sense of injustice. In the following four decades the successive governments made promises of resettlement close to the original location of the Nubian villages, however, few real actions had been realized, notably within the last decade. Being only 3 million people, the Nubians, who are as well peaceful, were never considered a political menace to any government. Nevertheless after the January 2011 revolution, Nubian voices were encouraged by the whole Egyptian situation to express their distresses. The main difference became in the promises 80

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made by every government after the revolution and even on the level of presidency to show that all voices are heard after the revolution. Heard but with not enough concrete actions on the ground. Accordingly, it is recommended that a solid development plan for the Nubian second resettlement should be formulated taking into consideration the modified characteristics of the society and the immanent need for a variety of economic activities to sustain this development. Also this plan should consider developing the sites demanded by the Nubian for their return rather than forcing different locations on them. With the winds of change once more hitting Egypt (June 30th 2013) , there is hope that all Egyptian voices including those of the Nubians will not only be heard for political reasons but concrete actions will be taken to relieve the injustice that happened.

10. REFERENCES Al Malkey, R., 2007. Nubian resettlement crises: A question of priorities, in: Daily News Egypt (16/5/2007). Al Soghayer, A. , 2010. Nubia and Lake Nasser: Secrets and Monuments, Agyal, Cairo. Baraka, H. , 2011. Aswan Governor: Sharaf to discuss resettlement project with Nubian leaders, in Egypt Independent, http://www.egyptindependent.com/news/aswan-governor-sharafdiscuss-resettlement-project-nubian-leaders (seen July 2013). Bibliotecha Alexandrina (BibAlex.org), History of Modern Egypt: Opening of the High Dam, http://modernegypt.bibalex.org/Types/Events/Details.aspx?ID=iCyW0PueT4HIif%2fODeQ GJg%3d%3d (seen June 2013). Biswas,A., 2002. Aswan Dam revisited: The benefits of a much-maligned Dam, in D+C Development and cooperation, No.6, GIZ, Frankfurt. Fernea,R. and andGrester, G., 1973. Nubians in Egypt: Peaceful people, University of Texas. Kamel, D. and Abdel-Hadi, A., (2012), Space, Color and Quality of Life in a Nubian Environment, in International Journal of Architectural Research (IJAR), vol. 6- Issue 1, MIT. Little,T., 2011. What next for \Egypt’s forgotten minority? In: think Africa Press, http://thinkafricapress.com/egypt/what-next-egypts-forgotten-minority (seen, July 2013). Mahgoub, Y., 1990. The Nubian experience: A study of the social and cultural meanings of architecture, Published PhD. Thesis, The University of Michigan, USA. Marefa.org, 2013, Nubian People Migration, http://www.marefa.org (seen July 2013). Merdan, A., 1990. Nubian architecture: The Nubian charchter in urban composition, unpublished MSc. Thesis, Ain Shams University, Cairo. Merdan, A., 1999. Development concepts and implementation strategies for new settlements: with spatial reference to Aswan Dam Lake region – Egypt, limited publishing PhD. Thesis, Stuttgart University. Salah, M, 2012. Nubian Modern History, http://www.modernaswan.com (seen July 2013). UNESCO, 2009. Monuments of Nubia: International Campaign to Save the Monuments of Nubia, http://whc.unesco.org/en/activities/172/ (seen, June 2013). Zigler, K., 1964, Photos taken on site from old Nubia. 81

© SB13-Cairo 2013 The Myth of Nubia, Egypt: A Vivid Potential or Desert Mirage Shetawy, A. and El-Shafie, M.

The Myth of Nubia, Egypt: A Vivid Potential or Desert Mirage Shetawy, A.1 and El-Shafie, M.2 1

Ain Shams University, Department of Planning and Urban Design 1 El-Sarayat Street, Abbassia, Cairo 11517, Egypt e-mail: [email protected]

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Abstract: In an era known for its openness, new ideas and values, and fierce competitions, access to knowledge and various cultures, globalisation has vivid marks on the identity and perception of traditional communities. Traditional communities continued through time via likeminded posterity constructed through generations far older than any of their living members. The strength of their culture and identity is determined by the capacity to preserve the communal traditions of their individuals whom use to have common interests within specific physical boundaries. Within such context of global and national changes, traditional communities are abstracted into groups having local interests rather than distinctive cultures. The Egyptian Nubian communities are one of the oldest traditional communities in Egypt. They are resettled in Kom Ombo, north of Aswan, after successive waves of displacements since the construction of Aswan Reservoir in 1902. After being isolated for a long period of time, they were exposed to various cultures and social structures. After the 25 January 2011 Revolution, there have been calls on successive governments to adopt development policies targeting such specific communities after a long period of neglect since the first displacement in 1902. Nonetheless, Nubian communities no longer exist in the traditional sense and consequently successive government faced the dilemma of determining their local public interest to target. Nubian communities are no longer bound to their lands, traditions, economic base, social and political habits, and even to their built and natural environment. This paper argues that the Egyptian Nubian communities not only have lost their distinctive culture but also have been forced to adopt new socio-economic and socio-political structures alien to their traditions through successive displacements. It aims to highlight via field evidence the fact that the Egyptian Nubian culture becomes no more than a myth loosing almost all of its development potentials. Keywords: traditional communities, local culture, displacement, resettlement, Nubia, Egypt

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1. INTRODUCTION “Globalization is the process of making, transformation of some things or phenomena into Global ones. It can be described as a process by which the people of the world are unified into a single society and function together” (Croucher, 2004) Duru-Ford (2002), points out that local cultures are likely to be victim to global ‘’consumer’’ culture. Nowadays, global entertainment companies are changing the understandings and dreams of citizens wherever they are located. For instance, Coca Cola, Disney and McDonald along with Samsung, Shell oil and Apple symbolize the process of influencing consumer’s behaviour all around the globe. Simply, they are creating new rules, new business process, new ways to eat and drink, new hopes and dreams, and consequently new cultures. Adding, the case that deserve studying, the (I-mania) that invaded the globe in the last five years, it is considered technology creating the possibility and even the likelihood of global culture. The technical sense in defining globalization is directed towards people’s needs and concerns; this process is a combination of economic, technological, socio-cultural and political forces. “Globalization brings opportunities as well as problems, both most clearly seen in cities. Also cities as they reflect the problems associated with globalization, they hold the potential for solving these problems. Their challenge is to function not only as engines of economic growth but also as agents of social justice” (UNCHS, 2001) As all academic terms and concepts, there are supporters and critics who have contradicting views about Globalization. As for supporters, they like the idea of the global village linked together via the internet and IT; and the benefits of capital flow and free markets. On the other hand, critics see globalisation as the main reason of destructing local natural and built environment and challenging local culture and consequently threatening the human existence (Podobnik, 2004). Many scholars around the world believe that globalizing of traditional local cultures will help to create a more peaceful world. (Berger, 1997), in his paper “the four faces of Global culture”, opines that global culture might have a negative side attached to it that is called a “World Wide Airport Culture” in which the traditional local societies face the forces of losing their local identity to vulgarized, homogenized and rich diversity of human civilizations. One of those vivid forces is the so called “Mc World” where traditional local cultures became under the westernization wave effect. Young people around the world are affected by such culture; as the western music, wear American jeans and T-shirts with phrases, social and political behaviour, economic systems, family and social relations . . . etc.

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2. CULTURAL AND GLOBALIZATION According to various academics, scholars and practitioners affiliated to different academic disciplines and professions, culture has been a buzz term defined differently. Culture is a complex envelope environment which includes knowledge, belief, arts, morals, laws, customs, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as member of the society. Moreover, learning a culture is a lifelong process from birth of death considering that what is learnt from society to society and from one stage to another through time of every society (Kasongo, 2010). Characterized by being dynamic and holding its own personality and identity, culture gives communities a sense of dignity, continuity, security that binds society together. As the fact that we are human does not mean we are the same, culture transformations always grow, develop and/or diminish gradually not suddenly (Obiora, 1996). Globalization is the process of harmonizing different cultures and beliefs through minimizing differences in various cultures. It recklessly produces a seamless global system of unified culture and economic values due to the advancement in communication. Countries around the World are increasingly being forced to plug into such system and adopt its attached values (David, 2002). Globalization involves opening up traditional economic systems, information and knowledge freely and widely to the global market and its forces. Consequently, all countries must pursue a common set of economic policies as permitting free and discriminate operation of transnational corporation in their economies, additionally, opening of their economies freely and indiscriminately to import and concentrate on exporting what they are supposed to be specialised in and good at (Velde, 2009). Hence Globalization puts Governments under extreme pressure to make radical changes in their economic policies to preserve their economy to make benefits from and face the negative impact of capital flows, foreign investments, trade and migration. Thus, different governance approaches, reform policies, development projects and economic and social policy measures were carried out by governments especially those of developing countries. The effect of globalisation on developing countries was most felt, noted and documented due to the dominance of the economic modes and financial practices of the global economic leaders, most particularly in the G8 countries and specially the USA (Oputa, 1996). “Despite the globalization of the world’s economy, the reality of each individual city remains unique and complex. There can be no urban model of reference, only case studies. Any city’s future must be anchored in its individual identity. Its ‘urban heritage’ must be the starting point for the development of urban policy. This heritage and its accumulation –the history of a city, its neighbourhoods and its residents- must be studied, recorded and told” (UNESCO, 1996) Since globalization is an economic based concept, it forces countries to Market its heritage as a product according to the demands of consumers, mainly tourists resulted in the commercialization of heritage over conservation values. In other words, under the pressure of globalization countries tends to transform their local culture with its built heritage into a product for tourist consumption. Such shift accompanied the emergence of a greater number of destinations competing for unique tourist experiences, traditional communities undergoing a state of redefinition and reinterpretation of their cultural heritage in order to compete and attract tourists. Following, in his paper “Globalization, Urban Heritage, and the 21st century Economy” (Rypkema, 2005) stresses that many of the variables that will influence a city’s economic 84


opportunity will be qualitative and place-based rather than quantitative and location-based referring to the Five Senses of Competitive Cities which accordingly have considerable impact on both economy and culture heritage of cities. As traditional cultures tend to compete, they must enjoy senses of place, identity, evolution, ownership and finally, community. In other words, land and people still the main drivers in competing among globalized world. This is to emphasise that cultural heritage is not only a production of traditional communities but also about of distinctive places where such communities live within. This has always been evident in the shift of habits, dialects, language, customs etc of the very same traditional community living in different places (e.g. Nubian clans in Egypt and Sudan). Over the coming sections, a diagnosis of the current situation and susceptibility to globalization in Nubia, Egypt, with specific reference to the socio-cultural and socio-economic shifts is presented. In order to provide a valid and reliable analysis a research methodology has been designed. It targets efficient primary data collection based on the safety and security environment in Egypt and the limited time and resources attached to the field trip.

3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY As a first step in the exploration, analysis and documentation of the current context of once a unique culture, the authors divided the study population involved in the conservation of the site into five distinct groups: Government officials (i.e. Ministry of Culture, Ministry of Tourism, Aswan Governorate, Local Public Council, and Village Council), Residents including community leaders, residents of the old and displacement settlements, owners and workers of tourism activities (i.e. hotels, bazaars, boatels, museums and monuments), tourist guides of various nationalities and tourists of various ages, gender and nationalities. The fieldwork was carried out in the settlements of Qustol, West and East Tushka, Tomas and Afea, Abu Simble, West suhayl (Gharb Suhayl ) as an example for the resettlement villages and Elfantin as a traditional village

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Table 1: Study population, methods and sampling techniques Study Population Government Officials

Residents

Workers and owners of tourism activities

Ministry of Culture Ministry of Tourism Aswan Governorate Local Public Council Village Council Community Leaders Residents of original and displacement settlements Hotels, bazaars, museums, boatels, monuments

Tourist Guides

Various nationalities

Tourists

Males (various age groups) Females (various age groups) Various nationalities

Methods Semi-structured interviews

Sampling technique Purposeful then snowballing

Semi-structured interviews Direct observation Group discussions Semi-structured interviews Direct observation Group discussions Semi-structured interviews Semi-structured interviews Direct observation Group discussion

Purposeful Stratified random sampling then snowballing Stratified random sampling then snowballing Purposeful then snowballing Stratified random sampling then snowballing

Semi-structured interviews were used to collect primary qualitative data to a sample selected through different sampling techniques (see Table 1). Semi-structured interviews were judged more appropriate than structured interviews due to security and other resource limitations (i.e. time and funding), as well as the type of data required. Briefly, a total of 63 interviewees of all groups were interviewed. This was in addition to direct observation and group discussions over a total period of 3 weeks (January 2013). The researchers have also made use of several secondary data sources, mainly documentation and archival records, while seeking to triangulate data to confirm the validity and reliability of both primary and secondary data collected.

4. NUBIA, EGYPT The old Nubia is the area impeded between the Aswan in Egypt at the first cataract at north latitude 24° and at Khartoum in Sudan at the 6th cataract at latitude 19°. The name “Nubia” was derived from the “Noba” people who settled in the region of southern Egypt and Northern Sudan in the 4th century. Nubia was divided into two regions as shown in figure (1): Lower Nubia, Upper Nubia, according to the flow of the Nile to the north towards the Mediterranean Sea.

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Figure 1: old Nubia (Merdan, 1999)

Lower Nubia located in southern Egypt between the First and Second Cataract and included three ethnic groups: Kenuz, Arabs and Fedija located from north to south respectively. The Kenuz groups (i.e. Matouki) inhibited the north region near Aswan, along 150km beside the Nile. They used to speak Matouki which was familiar to the people of Dangola; and inhabited 17 settlements: 1- Dabood, 2- Dahmeet, 3- El Ambercab, 4- kalabsha, 5- Abo Hoor, 6- Maewao, 7Marea, 8- Garf Husien, 9- Gursha, 10- East Kashtemna, 11- West kashtemna, 12- El Deka, 13El Allaqui, 14- korta, 15- El Mahraka, 16- Sayala, 17- El Madeek. The Fadija groups (i.e. Mahas) inhabited the southern region, along 130km of the Nile valley. They used to speak Mahasi, an oral not written language. They inhabited 17 settlements as well: 1- Koresko and Raeka, 2- Abou Handal, 3- EL DewN, 4- Derr and tonkala, 5- Tomas and Afia, 6- Keta, 7- Ebreem and Gezera, 8- El Genena and Shebak, 9- Aneba, 10- Masmas, 11East Toshka, 12- West Tushka, 13- Armena, 14- Abu Simple, 15- Qustol, 16- Balana, 17Adendan. The Arabs groups (i.e. Aliqat) are settled between the two previous groups. They speak Arabic and lived in 5 settlements at 40 km along the Nile valley: 1- El soboo, 2- Wadi El Arab, 3Shaterma, 4- El Senquary, 5- El malkey. 87


Upper Nubia located in northern Sudan between the Second and Sixth Cataracts of the Nile River. This region included 5 clans: Batn el hajar, the Abri delgo reach, the dengola reach, the Abu hamid reach and the Ahendi reach representing three ethnic groups (i.e. Sukkot, Mahasi and Dongolawi) from the north to south respectively.

Figure 2: Old Nubian Villages (Merdan, 1999)

For centuries, Nubian People lived in their isolated communities till the end of the British colonialism and the establishment of the Republic of Egypt in 1952 and the secession of the Republic of Sudan in 1956, when Nubia was divided between Egypt and Sudan. While both Sudan and Egypt under the military rule of Great Britain, Aswan reservoir was built across the river Nile caused the flooding of the north Nubia and its monuments in 1902. The reservoir was later on vertically extended twice in 1912 then 1933. After the 1912 and 1933 vertical extensions of the reservoir, majority of floods affected Nubian villages and communities moved their settlements on higher grounds at the very same locations. The Egyptian government at the time financially compensated communities shown in figure (2). In 1960s, Egyptian Nubians were forcibly resettled due to the revolutionary project of the High Dam and the formation of Lake Nasser. This time the Nubian villages were not given a chance to decide their future plans, they were forcibly moved to Kom Ombo, the north of Aswan on the west bank of the Nile and on Elephantine Island. Many Nubians today live in large cities such as Cairo after they chose to leave their region.

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4.1

The Period Before Displacement (Before 1902)

According to Merdan (1999), The Nile, the desert and the date palm trees formed the Nubian people culture who lived in isolated villages located far from each other. As the Nile was the centre of life in old Nubia, the Nubian people use to plant palm trees as an income generating resource and for making houses roofs, day to day tools, furniture, windows, doors etc.. This is evident in the words of one of Nubian elders called Um-Faisal as follows: “Palm trees income was shared between date merchants who did not own the land but wants to plant date palm, land owners and finally villages’ women who had the responsibility of irrigating the trees. Income shares are finally divided equally among the three and afterwards are inherited to their sons and grandsons” (Fieldwork interview, 2012)

Figure 3: Nubian Communities (Fieldwork Interviews, 2012) Semi-structured interviews were used to collect primary qualitative data to a sample selected through different sampling techniques (see Table 1). Semi-structured interviews were judged more appropriate than structured interviews due to security and other resource limitations (i.e. time and funding), as well as the type of data required. Briefly, a total of 63 interviewees of all groups were interviewed. This was in addition to direct observation and group discussions over a total period of 3 weeks (January 2013). The researchers have also made use of several secondary data sources, mainly documentation and archival records, while seeking to triangulate data to confirm the validity and reliability of both primary and secondary data collected. Nubians used to be attached to their lands and the shared ownerships were never sold or traded. Shared ownership of all community assets went beyond being merely economic benefits to be of social importance in favour of maintaining the relationship between new and older 89


generations. Women in Nubian communities used to have major role in bonding the Nubian families together while struggling to survive in the absence of their men regularly travelling to other populated regions seeking financial resources. They used to be responsible of farming, decorating their houses and being communities’ narrators who tell stories and transfer the traditions to the future generation. Money value, savings and working abroad were the two main issues affecting social order as well as community relationships in Nubian communities. Nubians used to purchase on credit among community members and between other Nubian communities until remittances were received or crops sold. They usually invest their savings in land property and goods. Settlements were built as far as possible from the Nile to make use of the flat river banks in agriculture. The construction of houses, paintings and decorations, reflects the community spirit. The construction and decoration of new houses were considered as major festival social events. Nevertheless, Nubians had three major ceremonies: Mawlids (i.e. spiritual and religious events), Birth and Death, and Marriage. Marriage ceremony is one of the most important public events. It was extremely rare to find a wedding between two different ethnic groups especially at Kenuz clan. The wedding lasts for a minimum of two weeks where all group dancing used to be performed in front of the bride’s family house. Couples must stay for 40 days at the bride’s family and then they were excused go to their own house. Their way of life was simple, self-regulated and self-governed. The Nubian communities were capable of solving their own problems and conflicts internally and peacefully. They use to limit any outside knowledge that might affect their distinctive identity, culture and social order where seeking outside help to solve internal community conflicts was considered as a community failure. To sum up, Nubians were paying a lot of attention towards conserving their distinctive identity, culture and way of life. They used to transfer their social values, their identity, symbols and tools to the next generations. Their customs, traditions and their language were considered the main guardians of the Nubian culture (i.e. a mean of conveying knowledge and believe).

4.2

The period of Displacements (1902 – June 1964)

The Displacement story started in 1902 when the Egyptian government started to build the Aswan Reservoir. Consequently, 10 Nubian settlements were flooded and were forced to move towards the eastern and western desert on higher grounds. In 1912, another 8 villages were forced to move to higher grounds after being flooded as a result of the first vertical extension of the Aswan Reservoir. For the third time, the Aswan Reservoir was vertically extended again in 1932 forcing 11 Nubian villages to act the same as the other villages of the first two displacements. Although Law no. 6 of 1933 expropriated private Nubia land and assessed the compensation of disasters years 1902 and 1912 and 1932, the law was unfair to the Nubian people. The government at the time did not care about Nubia or the Nubian villages while it focused on conserving the Nile water. Compensation was estimated to be 3,600,000 Egyptian pounds, while the government assigned affected Nubian Communities 1, 700,000 and later on about half a million Egyptian pounds were deducted for no apparent reason. Nubian environment dramatically changed as a result of successive increase in water level of the River Nile which led to the spread of epidemics such as typhoid fever, diphtheria and malaria.

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In Brief, the first three displacements (i.e. of 1902, 1912 and 1933) resulted in, Firstly, the loss of the agriculture land, or in other words the shortening of the River Nile banks due to flooding. Secondly, it resulted in the immigration of some of the Nubians to other Egyptian regions. This was coupled with major shift of change in language, customs and traditions. Thirdly, the change of location resulted in extreme negative impact on community relations via economic and social system change (e.g. shared ownership, scarcity of resources as a result of crop-based economy collapse, change of marina locations and consequent transportation routes, exposure to other local communities, customs cultures and habits, etc).

Figure 5: Nubian resettlement Villages at Kom Ombo (Merdan, 1999)

In 1957, President Nasser declared the construction of the High Dam project. At first, the project was thought to be under the supervision of the USA, as they made the original designs. Originally, 5 lakes were planned instead of Lake Nasser taking into account the flooding risk of Nubian villages. However, due to escalating conflicts with the World Bank and the USA, Nasser decided to alley with the Russians to construct the High Dam with a completely different design and layout plan. The government at the time considered the High Dam Project as a matter of national security. Consequently, Nubians were forbidden from the government to play any role in its implementation. They were suspected to have strong ties with the Sudanese government due cross border relations with the upper Nubian communities. Hence it was decided to impose displacement of Nubian communities and villages (i.e. 39 Nubian villages) to Kom Ombo area, 91


50 km north of Aswan. It has been decided compact the area of the Egyptian Nubian communities from 39 settlements along the Nile of 320 km, into 33 settlements occupying an area of 60 km long and 20 km width shown in figure (5). The displacement took place in the period of October 1963 till June 1964 without taking in consideration the Nubian communities perception and/or the impact on Nubian identity and culture. Attempts to discuss project’s drawbacks were taken as an act of national treason. This can be noted in the words of President Nasser in 1960 as follows: “The prosperity which shall cover Nubians is enormous because it shall bring all the children of Nubia together on a correct foundation to build a strong healthy society”. Both Mahgoub (1990) and Merdan (1999) acknowledge the resettlement project as the starting point of the transformation of traditional Nubian Urbanity accompanied with a change in Nubian Culture. During the implementation of the resettlement project, minimizing the cost was a main target, resulting in many drawbacks. The recommendation of the planning committee, surveys results and Nubian perceptions and needs were completely neglected and ignored. In March 1962, 18 months before the deadline of resettlements, the construction work of the new settlements had not started yet. Consequently, this had led to putting more pressure on the government and decision-makers to keep a blind eye on such drawbacks. The Nubians had to live in villages close to each other and not close to its assigned agricultural land. Their Traditional construction methods and materials were replaced. Lime stone and reinforced concrete roof tops were introduced to Nubian communities in their new settlements. Allocation of new houses was according to the number of family members. In order to save construction materials and use less of the land area allocated for housing almost all design guidelines, surveys, recommendations and Nubian culture were neglected. Construction materials were to be imported from all over the country to comply with the deadline of completing the construction of the new settlements and the new houses allocation. Additionally, agriculture lands were located far from allocated new houses and settlements. This issue was critical as the Nubians use to leave their tools and animals in their land. Money became more important as they start to see strangers – people of upper Egypt- selling them things and making some trading but not in the same way they use to have back in the old village (Credit until crops are sold). Some of the men started to move to other regions to gain more money. Views about resettlement process are expressed by the study population as follows: “it was like living in jail, we hate the new houses and we felt like we all want to go back in time” (community leader). ” we used to farm and to eat what we farm, but el kheer (Allah blessing) was gone forever since resettlement [...] we had unemployment problems as never experienced before” (tourism worker). “Each family had a new house and a large piece of land for farming. What do they need more? They are so lazy and just use this resettlement and culture issues in blackmailing successive governments” (government official) (Fieldwork Interviews, 2012) According to Merdan (1999) and confirmed by fieldwork results, there were three different responses of Nubian communities to the resettlement project and processes. First, it is called acceptance and modification. Nubians accepted the resettlement processes and looked forward 92


to enjoy higher level of public services and new life style and social contract however, sooner than they thought, this all turned into nightmares. New settlements suffered severe lack of services, some of the houses were not complete, streets and houses were similar that they had to make marks at the beginning of each street, lack of clean water resulted in lots of young children mortality and lack of privacy as they shared the same wall with neighbours. Moreover, the houses were given to them by proto-types according to number of family member with no social consideration. Hence, Nubians started to make modifications on their new houses in forms of paintings, decorating and/or constructing Mastaba to achieve the traditional form of houses. Women role became smaller as agricultural land located far from their houses (i.e. 1020 km away). Consequently, quit farming for men and stayed home to raise kids and housework. As a result, men and their lack of knowledge about farming they started to either sell assigned land to adjacent local communities or rent land to Upper Egypt farmers (i.e. saaida) to cultivate on their behalf. Either ways, the Nubian communities completely lost their traditional connections to agriculture and farming. Second, building traditional houses in the new settlements, a small number of families whom are economically better off prior to resettlement moved to the skirts of the new settlements and built large houses following the traditional way. Although, on one hand, they escaped lots of problems facing other Nubians regarding their new houses but, on the other hand, they were isolated from their community. Third, Returning to the old location and building new settlements in traditional way, in 1973, few Nubian families decided to move back to the old villages (i.e. elbalad elkadem), when a government decree was issued allowing them to return to old Nubia. They are currently located at Abu Simble, Wadi Alaqui, Qustul and Adindan. To sum up, the resettlement (1963-1964) created lots of conflicts and mistrust between both the government and Nubian People. Shifts in food kind, clean water problem, lack of services and the general upheaval of social structure negatively affected the ability to protect their identity and culture. Even though, Nubian communities have tried to accept new socio-economic and socio-political context. As years passed, the new Nubian settlement failed to be a viable community that could provide a promising future and/or preserve their distinctive culture. Even when they decided to move back to elbalad elkadem, the mega shifts occurred to their culture, identity and needs since the relocation period make it difficult to accept the old copy of elbalad elkadem. These changes dramatically extended to the period after displacement and the shifts itself became more radical. Simply, the four displacements that took place in history for the Nubian People turned out to be the bomb shell upon the Nubian Culture. Nubian communities lost their Languages, Customs, Traditions and mainly their homes and their Lands. A question need to be asked:-What Culture left for the Nubians except of some stories about elbalad elkadem and how life looked like back in those old days?

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4.3

The period after Displacement: (Since June 1964) “Resettlement has not only taken Nubian to a different physical environment but also has placed them in new socio-culture conditions [...] this has resulted in social change, the direction of which is as yet unidentified and unpredictable” (Fahim, 1983)

Successive displacements altered many the Nubian social and economic values and traditions; and even threaten the existence of the Nubian culture. This has been evident in the words of one of the Nubian community leader as follows: “Strangers taught us to steal, to lock our doors and closets and to trust no one [...] we lost the community spirit our core identity and culture [...] we dress like the strangers, watch Satellite channels, abandoned many of our traditional dishes, women are no more helping men in land, we are rapidly losing our language, our songs and our ceremonies […] we are no more traditional Nubians [...] Any culture is connected to a specific place and location and social system that follows. We lost both of them after displacement” (Fieldwork interview, 2012) Our interviews with the Nubian elders and younger generations showed huge differences in social and community perception. Although these differences were also well documented in Mahgoub (1990), this papers stresses that such gap of perceptions has dramatically expanded. The old generations that were born in old Nubia still have these memories and hopes of returning to the “homeland”, elbald elkadem. On the contrary, younger generations, born in displacement (Tahjer) villages, have different perception. They argue the issues concerning the quality of life from a completely different dimension, a practical and economic rather than emotional one. They address the need to more services, better houses or government should renew and built a concrete and brick houses able to be vertically extended. Their dream nowadays is to go to the city and have a good job. They speak Arabic much better than their native language. This has been evident from the interviews as follows: “our (older generation, 55 yrs upwards) dream is to go back to our old villages overlooking the Nile where we can cultivate Palm trees and enjoy the peace of true Nubian community spirit and culture. We have tried to cope but it has damaged our community and destroyed our culture […] (younger generations) just forget about those elders and this talk about returning to homeland nonsense. They have no financial and social responsibilities anymore to think about. What can we do up there?” (Fieldwork interview, 2012). The Nubian socio-economic values have been dramatically altered as well. Successive governments played an important role in changing the socio-economic life of the Nubians. Local markets were built in the Tahjer villages where the Nubians met the saidis as merchants, speaking Arabic and using the Egyptian currency notes in selling and buying processes. Consequently, markets and currency notes replaced the credit based system as well as community support values. It also forced break the community attachment to crop cycle. Successive governments also encourage the Nubians to quit Palm trees planting. They introduced many incentives for Nubian villages to plant Sugar cane and to sell the harvest to Kom Ombo Factory. This was considered easy money for Nubians who started to change the crops they used to plant to Sugar cane. Such change in the crop socio-economic system had much effect on the crop cycle and attached community support system. It also had much impact 94


on the built environment where the core material (i.e. palm tree wood) of construction processes has been diminished. Views about such changing socio-economic context were expressed by various members of the study populations as follow: “we did not use to plant sugarcane in el balad el kadem but after resettlements we start to plant it for extra money” (Merchant). “Tourism is a better way for the Nubians to earn their living; Tourists love to see the Nubian culture” (Government Official). “We are fascinated with the Nubian culture we enjoy the way they live” (Tourist). “We need more services. It seems that the government forgot about us ever since we were resettled in these villages” (Resident). (Fieldwork interview, 2012) As the cost of day-to-day grows higher, as Nubians quit farming and cultivation they instead run taxi and/or bus services between villages. Many young Nubians move to work in clerical jobs and the majority left their communities to work in the tourism industry where they spend summer in Sharm El-Sheik and Hurghada on the Red Sea; and Winter in Luxor and Aswan. Others went to work in Saudi Arabia and Gulf countries. This has led to daily community conflicts where some families lower in social hierarchy became wealthier than other Nubian families causing jealousy and hatred within and between Nubian communities who used to solve their problems among their community or inside the family but after displacement they used to go to the police station or to report to (omda). Museumation of Nubian culture became a way of earn living. Many touristic resorts and/or villages were built to mimic the Nubian style and to sell the Nubian Culture, customs, tools, dresses, etc. nevertheless, it was striking to discover that almost all of the merchants in such villages, Sohayl for example, are Saaidies , Aswanian people or Nubians born in resettlements (i.e. Tahjer) villages. Additionally, most of the monuments and artefacts presented in the Nubian Museum of Aswan belong to the ancient Egyptians, mainly Pharaohs.

5. CONCLUSIONS There has been a common agreement between theorists, academics and practitioner that culture is much related with specific space edge, social, economic and political structures as well as the natural environment with which it lives and evolutes. It is inherited through generations and redefined through time. Consequently, communities with distinctive culture tend to lose parts or all of its culture when they change their spatial settings and related natural environment. The change in economic, social and political structures play major factors in a total change, and in many cases the lost of local cultures. The reasons behind such change might be the exposure to alien cultures on the local, national and/or the international level (i.e. globalisation of monoculture). Globalization homogenises various local cultures into one big culture with no sense of ownership and/or distinctiveness. It has been evident from an extensive fieldwork that the Egyptian Nubian communities have lost their distinctive culture, social, economic and political structures in the face of reckless journey and serious of events that starts with the construction of Aswan Reservoir in 1902 and ends with forces of globalisations through major shifts in media, information technology, national political economy, social structures and community employment trends, etc. Currently, Nubian culture is just stories and memories among younger generations who are living in settlements more like suburbs with various urban services, facilities and multi story residential buildings of concrete slabs, brick walls, and fresh water, sewage and electricity networks. They do enjoy access to the internet and satellite channels, road networks, cars ownership, mobile networks, etc. 95


Younger generations perceive, unlike the elders, old villages as no more than history they have never seen and/or lived. This paper presents and highlights through practical evidence and documentation that since the Egyptian Nubian communities have been forced to resettle in a completely different natural and built environment since 1902, there has been a major shift in their social structures, economic base, political orientation and governing rules and habits, day-to-day language (i.e. the use of Arabic instead of original language), exposure to other cultures as a part of Aswan suburbs. This has negatively affected the ability of Nubian communities to preserve and regulate their distinctive culture. Consequently, the paper concludes that Nubian culture is currently rather a desert mirage than a vivid development potential.

6. REFERENCES Berger P., (1997), Four Faces of Global Culture, a working paper, National Interest, Fall 1997 Issue 49, pp 23-7 Croucher S., (2004), Globalization and Belonging: The Politics of Identity a Changing World. Rowman & Littlefield. Duru-Ford L., (2002), The macdonization of Hongkong Global Policy Forum. Radio Northerland David, F, (2002). Why National Pride Still Has a Home in the Global Village.Global Policy Forum. New York. The Scotsman May 18 Fahim, H., (1983). Egyptian Nubians: Resettlement and years of coping, University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City Kasongo A., (2010), Impact of Globalization on Traditional African Religion and Cultural conflict, Journal of Alternative perspective in the Social Sciences, Vol. 2, No 1, pp 309-22 Merdan A., (1999), Development concepts and implementation strategies for new settlements, with spatial reference to Aswan Dam Lake region, Egypt, Stuttgart University Mahgoub Y., (1990). The Nubian experience: A study of the social and cultural meanings of architecture, Doctoral Dissertation< University Michigan Obiora A., (1996). Feminism, globalization and culture after Beijing Paper presented at a Symposium Organized by Indiana Journal of Global Legal Studies Oputa N., (1996). ChoTac-Hyon: Foreign Investment in Korea: Recent Trends and Changes to Improve the Investment Environment Economic and Financial Review, vol. 24, No 1, pp 541 -62 Podobnik B., (2004), Resistance to Globalization: Cycles and Evolutions in the Globalization Protest Movement. Rypkema D., (2005) Globalization, Urban Heritage, and the 21st century Economy, Global Urban Development Magazine, VOL1Issue 1, May 2005, http://www.globalurban.org/Issue1PIMag05/Rypkema%20article.htm Velde W., (2009), The global financial crisis and developing countries: taking stock, taking action, Briefing Paper 54, Overseas Development Institute, London UNCHS (2001), Cities in a Globalizing World, Earthscan Publications Ltd, UNESCO, (1996), Cities of Asia, Heritage for the future, World heritage Centre, Jun 1, 1996, http://whc.unesco.org/en/activities/498/

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© SB13-Cairo 2013 The Rise of Economic Cities/Clusters Abdel-Kader, M.H.

The Rise Of Economic Cities/Clusters Critical Analysis on Reasons of Success Abdel-Kader, M. H. Cairo University, Department of Architecture Faculty of Engineering, Giza, Egypt e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract: Economic cities are on the rise all over the world, in the East and West, in developed and developing countries, in democratic as well as socialist political environments. That is due to the importance of those cities/clusters to economic development following the cluster theory developed by Michael Porter, and success witnessed in clusters such as Silicon Valley and others. Egypt, while facing serious economic challenges due to the rough political landscape it is going through, has a number of economic cities in the phase of development such as SEZone in Sokhna, East Port Said, as well as the Suez Canal Development Scheme. Lessons from international experiences are important to consider before launching any of these projects. This paper addressed the theory of economic clusters/cities then analyses the development of two economic cities; King Abdullah Economic City in KSA and Iskandar Malaysia Region in Malaysia. Main development schemes and achievements thus far shall be presented and indicators of success shall be compared. The hypothesis set forth in this paper is that location imperatives not only still inscribes the economic identity of the economic city/cluster (identifying types of industries and their relationships), but also defines the most suitable management and administration system of the cluster, and both play a crucial role in the success of the cluster. Keywords: clusters, economic cities, endowments, development, location imperatives

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1. INTRODUCTION The increasing number of economic cities/clusters rising in the different continents around the world, in strategic locations within nations, stands witness on the continuing importance of location imperatives for competition and success. Other than the most traditional clusters like Silicon Valley and Hollywood, approximately 300 special economic zones have been established in about 75 countries and regions in the world today (some are called free trading zones, some processing-exporting zones and some tax-free trading zones). Practices vary between countries. Special economic zones are set up when a country delimits a special area where, through exemption of customs duty, it formulates various preferential conditions and provides public facilities to attract foreign investors to set up factories whose finished products be mainly for export (Dixin, 2009). Economic cities/clusters rose in both capitalist and even on a larger scale and some times more successful in socialist states (i.e., China's Shenzhen). As Egypt is undergoing radical transformation in its political landscape, which is expected to reflect on other fields such as the economy and more importantly the establishment of economic cities, this paper attempts to critically analyse the real reasons behind the success of economic cities. During that process, relationships between clusters and economic cities shall be established followed by an analysis of different economic cities typologies. The objective is to explore the different methodologies adopted for two economic cities (King Abdullah Economic City –KAEC- in KSA and Iskandar Malaysia Region) to draw lessons from their experiences5. The hypothesis set forth in this paper is that location imperatives not only still inscribes the economic identity of the economic city/cluster (identifying types of industries and their relationships) , but also defines the most suitable management and administration system of the cluster, and both play a crucial role in the success of the cluster.

2. CLUSTERS AND ECONOMIC CITIES "The enduring competitive advantages in a global economy lie increasingly in local things – knowledge, relationships, motivation – that distant rivals cannot match." (Porter, 1998) More than a decade ago, Michael Porter clarified the changing role of location in the global economy through the definition of clusters. Clusters are geographic concentrations of interconnected companies and institutions in a particular field, and encompass an array of linked industries and other entities important to competition such as universities and research centres, vocational training providers, technical support, standards- setting agencies, etc. (Porter, 1998). Hence clusters are seen as vehicles for an innovative-driven economy leading ultimately to economic development. Further, clusters are seen as developing through positive externalities (catering on agglomeration advantages) which ultimately lead to cost savings. Delgado, Porter and Stern (2010) empirically demonstrated that industries located in strong clusters register high employment growth, as well as higher growth of wages, number of establishments and 5

This paper is the first among a series of papers planned to be prepared on economic clusters in Egypt. This paper introduces international examples in order to set up the background of the topic before proceeding with the task of addressing economic clusters in Egypt, which will follow in the second –addressing industrial clusters-, and the third addressing touristic clusters. 98


patenting. Furthermore, they added that within these clusters, new industries emerge, and affect growth of adjacent clusters. Douglas Woodward looked at Porter's cluster theory through its policy implications; the theory was read as overcoming industrial targeting and focusing on productivity that leads to growth and competitiveness. Hence what a country or region produces becomes irrelevant; what actually matters is how productively that is produced. Woodward argues that while Porter views his cluster theory as an alternative to the industrial targeting, he himself finds it rather complementary to the traditional industrial approach. The simple argument was that the tools that Porter employed in cluster analysis are the same empirical tools of industrial targeting; employment location quotients. (Woodward, 2004) Economic cities that rose phenomenally in the last few decades around the world represent a manifestation of both cluster theory and industrial targeting that Porter advanced and Woodward commented on. Economic cities rising combine the basics of Porter's theory; healthy context for investment and competition, good demand conditions (local and most importantly global –i.e., export based on the economic base model), existence of efficient supporting industries system, presence of high quality specialized inputs (i.e., suitable employment, capital resources, etc.). (Porter, 1998) Further, economic cities inherit the essence of the traditional industrial targeting policies manifested mainly in; government intervention and policy re/formulation, local employment base or existing industries (redirecting them to achieve better industrial performance), local endowments of the place and existing linkages (Krugman, 1983). The following analysis of the two economic cities in subject (KAEC and Iskandar) has three objectives; first to prove that both cluster theory and industrial targeting theory co-exist in the economic cities/regions phenomenon , second to demonstrate that economic cities/regions differ in scale and management system pending on the specificity of the locale, and third, to draw lessons on the real reason of success of an economic city, which is in this case the specific endowments of the locale. In that process both sets of characteristics identified for the cluster theory and industrial targeting theory can be identified as follows and used in the analysis of the economic cities selected: -

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Cluster theory characteristics: o Presence of high quality specialized inputs (e.g., human, capital and natural resources; physical, administrative, information, scientific and technological infrastructure) o Existence of related and Supporting industries o Strong demand conditions (either local or global) o Healthy context of firm strategy and rivalry Industrial targeting characteristics: o Government intervention and policy formulation o Local endowments such as employment, linkages, resources, etc.

Some of the characteristics in both theories might seem to overlap such as local resources in the first and local endowments in the second but one can see that the first focuses more on the quality of the inputs.

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2.1.

Economic Cities: Variations and Similarities

The selection of the economic cities to be analysed was based on the following criteria; to differ in size; to differ in cultural and economic contexts, to differ in policy making and administrative structure. That was deliberate in order to test the complementary aspect of both theories in different contexts. The following cities have been selected: King Abdullah Economic City- North of Jeddha KSA, Iskandar Development Region- South Johor Malaysia.

A-

King Abdullah Economic City (KAEC):

The vision set for KAEC was "to build the city as the Greatest Enabler of economic and social development in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Its location was selected on the Red Sea, one of the most vital circulation axis linking Asia with Africa and Europe, 80 Kilometres north of Jeddah, KSA's most vital economic centres, in Midway between the Holy City of Mecca, Medina and Yanboa, three main cities in the Kingdom. The site has been selected and promoted to as enabling investors to reach some 250 Million Middle East consumers. The planned city is about 168 km2 with 2 million targeted inhabitants. The total built up area is conceived at 80 million m2 and the Marine Port is expected to receive some 20 million regular vessels a year. The city has a waterfront of 64 km; 30 km on the Red Sea and the rest are formed through artificial water canals inside the city. The city land uses comprises the port, an industrial zone, a business district, an educational district, tourist resorts, and a variety of residential areas. These zones are well connected internally and externally with an efficient infrastructure system of roads, water desalination and electricity generation stations, and advanced information and telecommunication networks providing efficient communication, security and public services to the city. The city's main economic drivers are; the industry (mainly plastics) and logistics services; transport, loading and unloading transit services; knowledge and financial services; technology and infrastructure; tourism and hospitality; services of upscale lifestyle. The administrative structure of the city was set in a way that it is 100% privately developed. A Main Developer was selected to manage the development process of the city, a partnership between a Major developer in the Middle East and a number of Saudi developers. The Saudi government plays the role of facilitator and monitoring the activities of the Main Developer. A public offering was set for the city for a certain amount of finance for seed development finance in addition to the investments of the Main Developer, whose role was to plan, market, construct the infrastructure of the city and manage it. The investors’ attraction package included 100% ownership for foreigners of projects and real estate developed for their workers - which is not possible elsewhere in the Kingdom-, no minimum capital amount required and no regulations on exporting investment capital; no taxes on personal income, and 20% on foreign companies; existence of financing programs for projects to encourage investments in the city.

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Figure 1: KAEC Master Plan (KAEC, 2010)

B-

Iskandar Development Region, South Johor, Malaysia:

The vision set for Iskandar was "to develop a strong and sustainable urban community of world class achieving the principles of nation building, development and value creation, justice and equality among the different stakeholders." The region's location is strategic, falling on the sea at the Southern tip of the Malaysian peninsula, across the sea from Singapore on a vital circulation axis between East and West. Due to the large scale of the region -2217 km2, three times of size of Singapore- it has been marketed as a Global Integrated Development Hub. The region's existing population at the time the plan was set was 1.5 million and targets 3 million inhabitants in 2025. The total jobs existing in 2025 is to reach 1.46 million and the total pioneering projects are planned to be about 280 km2. As Iskander is a region rather than just a city, the plan was to link a number of cities of different economic specialties, in one large economic region, with a number of pioneering projects in each of those cities that would enhance the nature of development and benefit from the existing local endowments for those cities, in a complementary fashion. The region's scale necessitated the existence of an efficient transportation system to link the different cities and pioneering projects within the region and to the outside world. The five pioneering projects, or flagship projects as called in the city's master plan are created in different cities, building a different identity for each as follows: JB City Centre, the financial centre of Iskandar Malaysia will be located in the New Financial District of JB City, where conventional financial practices will also be complemented by innovative Islamic banking; Nusajaya is set to be Asia’s foremost fully integrated city with world-class investment opportunities for business, industry, living and leisure; the Western Gate Development, anchored by one of the world’s major container ports, Port of Tanjung Pelepas (PTP), the key economic activities will revolve around port and marine services, warehousing and logistics, utilities, engineering, entreport trade and hi-tech manufacturing; Eastern Gate Development, poised to be a key industrial and manufacturing hub, long established as a manufacturing 101


centre, key economic activities will be skewed towards heavy industries and logistics, including electrical and electronics, chemical and oleo chemical, engineering-based industries, food products, ports and warehousing, and finally Senai-Skudai, this flagship zone is synonymous with Senai Airport, which is envisaged to be the second largest airport in the region after Changi by 2025. Not only will key economic activities include airport services and logistics, engineering, electrical and electronics, but will also extend to education, agro and food processing, ICT and retail-tourism. The management of Iskandar is done through the Region's Development Committee chaired by the Prime Minister and the Minister of the Johor State, with an executive manager of the region and a number of development specialized departments. Hence mainly government officials manage the development of the region. To attract international investors, a number of benefits have been offered such as no ban on exporting capital invested, freedom to hire foreign employees, 10 years tax exemption if projects start before 2015, tax exemption for real estate developers until 2015, foreign employees have the right to buy or import one car with tariff exemption, tax exemption for foreign workers for 10 years, and a 15% taxes on local employees.

Figure 2: Iskandar Malaysia Development Projects in Each Flagship Zone (Author, year)

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3. THE ANALYSIS Looking at both economic regions, KAEC and Iskandar, trying to apply the theories of Cluster and industrial targetting, the following major differences can be depicted: -

-

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-

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Scale: It is obvious that Iskander is much larger than KAEC despite the diversified economic base in both. Both economic clusters have industry, tourism, administrative and educational hubs, and a major port. However, each differs in size, location and relationships among the different components. While in KAEC all basic economic activities lie in one city, they are located in different cities, each considered a development catalyst in that city complementing each other at the scale of the region. Management: While in Iskander the management of the region is handled by Government entities, KAEC relied on a private developer to be in charge, despite the fact that this developer is mainly a real estate developer with no previous experience in this specific form of development that carries an economic dimension not known in the developer's previous experience. Location and local endowments: While KAEC was founded on a desert land, North of Jeddah, Iskander was developed on existing communities, with local endowments already in place, and only new strategies were introduced. Industry structure: Iskander adopted a diversified industrial policy relying on local know-how and surrounding agricultural resources. KAEC decided to be specialized in Plastics and all related industries, creating a specialized industrial cluster, independent of any surrounding industries. Inter-firm cooperation and relationship can hardly be tested at this stage for both clusters and not enough data is available for it.

As for the characteristics of the cluster and industrial targeting theories, while they exist clearly in Iskander, KAEC falls short in applying most of them, relying mainly on imported labour and row materials, foreign know-how, and adopting a no-involvement policy from the Government in development procedures due to the management set-up laid in place by the Saudi Ministry of Investment, which is mainly the industrial targeting theory requirement. While it is too early to predict the success of both experiences, while the early results show a slowdown in the development of KAEC and fast growth of Iskander, which can be referred to the existing endowments of the latter, and existence of all characteristics of both cluster and industrial targeting theories elements.

Success Measures in the Study of Economic Cities Speaking of success measures in economic development, David Ammons and Jonathan Morgan ( argued that for cities or countries seeking economic development, what had been an almost exclusive focus on marketing and industrial recruitment in the past is being augmented by approaches that emphasize home-grown sources of economic activity—efforts that develop entrepreneurial skills, creativity and talent, and promote innovation. Hence they advances the theory that the new set of economic performance measures will reflect the fact that so much of what communities do now to promote economic development involves enhancing local and regional competitiveness and boosting the local capacity to support private investment and economic growth from both within and without. This new approach to measuring success will assume that economic growth, as measured by a quantitative increase in certain indicators— jobs, capital investment, and tax base, for example—is an intermediate outcome that should 103


lead to qualitative improvements in a local and regional economy over the longer term. Communities, therefore, will be emphasizing indicators such as job quality, wealth creation, economic diversification, and sustainability (Ammons and Morgan, 2011). Looking back at the two economic cities studies in this research, success measures have varied and results also varied.

A- King Abdullah Economic City (KAEC): Despite the fact that the city’s official website does not include any updates on the city’s economic performance and the latest report that can be downloaded dates back to 2010, indicators in reports of some financial institutions as well as news on development projects in the city bear witness on the city’s performance. First in a report issued by CITI, the financial institution, on the performance of KAEC, a bail out from the Saudi government (The Ministry of Finance) at the amount of SRI 5bn took place in 2011. The report minimized the impact of this loan on the city’s future, and represented it as a positive indicator of the political backup of the project by the government. It also indicated that, as land sales is the main source of revenue for the city, low land price currently in place in the aim to attract anchor tenants deprives the city from larger revenues that would allow them to speed up infrastructure construction. The report also stated a number of risks the city is facing manifested in the following points: - Being a green field development, - Completion of key pieces of infrastructure such as the port, the railway and connection to national electricity and gas grids, - Success in the commercial operations of the industrial tenants to increase population, - Within the patronage-based system of Saudi, there may be times when KAEC comes into competition with established industrial, commercial, logistics and cultural centres elsewhere in the Kingdom or elsewhere in the GCC and MENA regions. Second, in a GCC Equity Report published by TAIB Securities, some indicators were mentioned on the city’s performance; first was the fact that about 15% of homebuyers defaulted on purchases, and the company had to delay the construction of 16 towers. The world economic crisis was blamed for such incident. Second, in its recommendation at the end of the report, it suggested that, “As a result, the company is likely to face challenging times over the short- to medium-term, both from the operational and financial perspectives. Accordingly, we suggest a cautious approach with an exit strategy at current levels.”

In brief, KAEC is not performing as planned. The news about large Saudi companies relocating in KAEC is an attempt from local giants to assist the government overcoming the failures of the project. From our point of view, the fact of building an economic city on a green field, without having any local resources or existing assets to build on, is THE crucial element that delayed the development of KAEC as planned.

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B-Iskandar Development Region: In Iskandar Development Region, a five-year development progress report (Iskandar Malaysia Progress Report, 2011) was published on their website dated December 11th 2011. Starting with words from Prime Minister of Malaysia and other top management personnel, the report addressed clearly the progress in the different flagships, the milestones achievements, and the social development programs in place such as human capital, housing and spatial development, as well as issues of safety and security. Among the strong indicators of the region’s ongoing success are the investments. A target of US$ 14 Billion in the first phase was exceeded to reach US$ 21.1 Billion (Figures 3-4).

Figure 3: Cumulative Investments 2006-2010 Year-On-Year (IRDA, 2011)

Figure 4: Breakdown of Cumulative Investments by Domestic and Foreign (IRDA, 2011) Sources 2008-2010, Year-On-Year (Iskandar, 2011) 105


Committed investments during the first phase went into various sectors including manufacturing, property development, utilities, leisure and tourism, as well as government spending. As for the jobs created, the report indicated the jobs per sector that were actually created during the first phase of development and also highlighted the targeted jobs to be created in the following phase (Figures 5-6).

Figure 5: No. of vacancies created by economic sector as at September 2011 (IRDA 2011)

Figure 6: No. of vacancies to be created by economic sector (2011-2015) (IRDA, 2011)

Further, progress is being achieved across multiple sectors including education, healthcare, leisure and tourism, property, creative and retail. In addition, critical enablers such as physical

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infrastructure, safety and security, public housing, and social development initiatives are also moving forward6. What was really interesting in the report is the display of the achievements related to the fair and equitable distribution of wealth which is one of the foundations for the development of Iskandar Malaysia. The vision of the project was restated in the report “creating a prosperous and harmonious community underpinned by social inclusion and equitable wealth sharing”. Social development programs were discussed and already in place in order to ensure that the growth and value created will be shared amongst the local population and that the poor would not be inevitably left behind by the thrust and pace of the development. Economic and social inclusion programs as well as housing and spatial development schemes have been put in place and operating. Safety and security were also taken into consideration, being of prime importance not only for the people and businesses currently residing in Iskandar Malaysia, but are also factors that would influence investor confidence and the region’s attractiveness as a place to live, work and play in. Iskandar Malaysia proved to include all elements of success of an economic region; developed over existing local resources, strong management, clear vision of growth and social inclusion -a true development project that would benefit local societies and sustain the economy.

4. CONCLUSIONS In practice, the cluster theory and industrial targeting theory characteristics manifest themselves in what is known as Economic Cities that are evolving in both developed and developing countries all over the world. Iskander and KAEC are examples of economic cities/regions that differ mainly in size and management system. The difference in industrial policy, local endowments, management system where a non-experienced developer in such economic development exists in KSA renders the KAEC experience under pressure for success. Success of economic cities lies in the complementary nature of both cluster and industrial targeting theories for economic development. Iskander achieved noticeable success and KAEC is striving to achieve its development goals in a nation with limited local human resources, management skills, and poor industrial history. Egypt, with the trend of economic cities planned to be developed in different locations in the country, such as East Port Said and the SEZone in Sokhna, have to learn the lessons from the international experiences. Economic cities will not succeed if built on green fields without existing local endowments that, though well studied policy and efficient management would achieve its goals.

6

Refer to the report for more detailed information on each sector and the different flagship achievements and infrastructure projects. 107


5. REFERENCES Ammons, D. and Morgan, J. (2011). State-of-the-Art Measures in Economic Development. PM Magazine, Volume 93, Number 5, June CITI Research (2012). Equities: Emaar Economic City. Report, Real Estate Development (GICS), Real Estate/Property (Citi), CEEMEA, Saudi Arabia, August Delgado, D. et al., (2010). Clusters, Convergence, and Economic Performance. Working paper Dixin, X. (2009). China's Special Economic Zones. Beijing Review, Vol. 52 Iskandar Regional Development Authority (IRDA), (2011). Iskandar Malaysia Progress Report. Iskandar, Malaysia Krugman, R. P. (1983). Targeted Industrial Policies: Theory and Evidence. Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas City, pp: 123-155 Porter, Michael E. (1998). Clusters and the New Economics of Competition, Harvard Business Review, November – December, pp: 77-90 TAIB Securities WLL, (2011). GCC Equity Report: Emaar The Economic City. Research, Manama, Kingdom of Bahrain Woodward, D. (2005). Porter’s Cluster Strategy Versus Industrial Targeting. Working paper, University of South Carolina

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© SB13-Cairo 2013 Worldwide Planning Experiences of Eco-Industrial Development (EID) Hesham Adly Mohamed

Worldwide Planning Experiences of Eco-Industrial Development (EID)

Hesham Adly Mohamed MENA for Environment, Health, Safety and Security Consultancy & Training, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates e-mail: [email protected] Abstract: Industrial development is a vital component of the development processes of the new cities, providing an important source of national income through trade, creating jobs and adding to the value of the primary products. The industrial sector is expected to play an instrumental role in revitalizing economic growth in MENA region and the Egyptian economy over the medium and long terms. Industrial Ecology (IE) considers the recent more important theoretical concept which changes the traditional industrial consumption practices of materials and energy to new approach to optimize the use of limited resources, and to protect the environment in the same time. IE can be conceptualized in three development models (I, II and III). Type I as linear, immature and unsustainable model; type II is a semi-matured state; and type III is a mature and materially closed ecosystem that is ultimately sustainable. Natural recourses depletion and deterioration of life quality, all are evidences that we are practicing immature and unsustainable (linear) model of development and semi-matured (quasi-cyclic) in limited situations. Eco-Industrial Development (EID) is the practical application of the theory of industrial ecology, it encompass a variety of approaches aim to create synergistic relationships within and between various enterprises for the purposes of resource sharing, pollution prevention, waste stream recycling, cost savings, and ultimately to close the loop of material and energy exhausting. Worldwide planning experiences which represent deferent perceptions on the implementing tools to realize EID in Asia, Europe, America and Australia, varies over the world but eventually categorized to three planning levels:

The first level is the “Intra-Firm” as: (Design for the Environment – Life Cycle Assessment – Cleaner Production); The second is “Inter-Firms” as: (Eco Industrial Park – By Product Synergy - Industrial Symbiosis); and The third is “Regionally” as: (Eco Industrial Network).

Keywords: eco-industrial development, worldwide experiences of EID

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1. INTRODUCTION Our initial conceiving to the biological environment as unlimited sink for the industrial pollution by focusing on solving industrial problems with reaction approach at the End-of-Pipe (EoP) to minimize the adverse impacts to resolve the problems after its occurrence is neither look for root causes nor proactive approach. So this research paper would introduce the levels and tools of eco-industrial development (EID) by analysing the interpretation and implementation of EID concept for the most important worldwide experience in Asia (China – Japan - Singapore), Europe (Denmark), United States and Australia.

2. LITERATURE REVIEW Industrial Ecology (IE) is a developing framework that enhances the impact of industry and its process on the biophysical environment (EDA US., 2004). Industrial ecology aims to look at the industrial system as a whole it does not address just issues of pollution and environment, but considers as equally important, technologies, process economics, and inter-relationships of businesses. It is the merge of ecology and technology, views industrial systems in harmony with their surroundings, not in isolation from them. IE is concerning with the integration of environmental issues into production and consumption practices, it investigates material and energy flows in industrial activities, the impacts on the environment, and the influences of economic, political, regulatory, and social factors on the flow and transformation of these resources. IE aim to optimize the use of limited resources, and to protect the environment in the same time (Suren, 2002), (Robert and Leslie, 2002). Industrial Ecology is a contradiction in terms. This contradiction refer to the traditional conceiving to the Biological Environment as unlimited sink for the industrial pollution by focusing on the solve of industrial problems with reaction approach at the End-of-Pipe (EoP) to minimize the impact of the industrial system to solve the problems after its occurrence not with a proactive approach (Suren, 2002). The word ecology is derived from the Greek "Oikos", meaning "household", combined with the root "logy" meaning "the study of." Thus, ecology is, literally the study of households including the plants, animals, microbes, and people that live together as interdependent beings on Earth. The origins of IE are based in many fields and past trends in environmental and industrial movements. IE argues to offer connections among different fields or systems of thinking in ecology together with systems for design of products and processes and economics as well. There are many definitions for the Industrial Ecology, which affect on the interpretation for this concept; most common definitions shall discus below: Frosch and Gallopoulos in 1989, which conceder the earliest American proponents of IE explain that “the traditional model of industrial activity - in which individual manufacturing processes take in raw materials and generate products to be sold plus waste to be disposed of - should be transformed into a more integrated model: an industrial ecosystem. In such a system the consumption of energy and materials is optimized, waste generation is minimized and the effluents of one process may serve as the raw material for another process.” (Robert and Nicholas, 1989). 110


Graedel and Allenby in 1995 in the first textbook on IE declare that, “Industrial Ecology is the means by which humanity can deliberately and rationally approach and maintain a desirable carrying capacity, given continued economic, cultural, and technological evolution. The concept requires that an industrial system be viewed not in isolation from its surrounding systems, but in concert with them. It is a systems view in which one seeks to optimize the total materials cycle from virgin material, to finished material, to component, to product, to obsolete product, and to ultimate disposal. Factors to be optimized include resources, energy, and capital.” (Graedel and Allenby, 1995). Frosch and Uenohara in 1994 explain that “Industrial ecology provides an integrated systems approach to managing the environmental effects of using energy, materials, and capital in industrial ecosystems. To optimize resource use and to minimize waste flows back to the environment, managers need a better understanding of the metabolism (use and transformation) of materials and energy in industrial ecosystems, better information about potential waste sources and uses, and improved mechanisms (markets, incentives, and regulatory structures) that encourage systems optimization of materials and energy use.” (Frosch and Uenohara, 1994). Allenby in 1992 wrote that “industrial ecology may be defined as the means by which a state of sustainable development is approached and maintained. It consists of a systems view of human economic activity and its interrelationship with fundamental biological, chemical, and physical systems with the goal of establishing and maintaining the human species at levels that can be sustained indefinitely - given continued economic, cultural, and technological evolution.” (Allenby, 1992). Lowe in1993 argues that “Industrial Ecology is a foundation for creating sustainable industry in a sustainable society”, employing a whole systems approach to design and management of the industrial system in the context of local ecosystems and the global biosphere (Lowe, 1993). Barry Commoner in his book, "The Closing Circle" argued for the relationships between modern industrial activity and ecology, laying out the laws of ecology as they relate to current human activities. Commoner argued that “if we are to survive economically as well as biologically, industry, agriculture, and transportation will have to meet the inescapable demands of the ecosystem”. Commoner goes on to assert that “present productive technologies need to be redesigned to conform as closely as possible to ecological requirements.” (Commoner, 1971). Eco-industrial development (EID) is the practical application of the theory of "industrial ecology," it is basically a blend of resource conservation, pollution prevention, and industry efficiency; encompassing a variety of approaches including "cleaner production, eco-industrial park, ecoindustrial network, and by product exchange". EID involves the creation of synergistic relationships between various industries for the purposes of resource sharing, conservation, waste stream recycling, and, ultimately, cost savings.

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3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY This research paper will adopt the theoretical and the Inductive approaches as the following:

The Theoretical Approach: This approach is depending on reviewing literature, books, research papers, and publications of the international organizations. This approach will be applied through, discussing the different concepts of the Industrial Ecology (IE) theory and its practical application and interpretation on the industrial three levels of development

The Inductive Approach: This approach is depending on explaining and analysing the most important worldwide experiences to define the characteristics of EID. This approach will be applied through evaluating the implementation and interpretation of the worldwide experiences.

4. EID WORLDWIDE EXPERIENCES Many of developing and developed countries have been struggling to find an alternate vision for development instead of the tradition of mass production and mass of material consumption. They facing a negative heritage of unsustainable economic activities in recent decades, which caused environmental degradation and resource depletion, many industries and societies, have been forced to go through changes in their mode of production (Morikawa, 2000), (Jo, 2001). Creative alternatives in land-use, pollution reduction, and sustainable development are continuously proposed and debated. One possible solution that promised well for pollution reduction, or even prevention, has been the concept of eco-industrial development (EID). EID describes a closed-loop industrial cycle where generated materials or by-products are returned to the manufacturing process, either used by another facility, or as feedstock for the production of other products (Jo, 2001). The following are the brief studying for 12 projects of the most important experiences in Asia (China – Japan –Singapore), Europe (Denmark), United States and Australia for interpretation and implementation of EID concept.

4.1

China Experience

China has become one of the world leaders in the movement to transform standard industrial parks into eco-industrial parks (EIP) and to develop new ones. A major driver for the effort to develop EIPs is China’s Circular Economy (CE) initiative. China’s rapid industrialization in the last decades has stimulated serious problems of depletion of natural resources, degradation of major ecosystems, and pollution extending far beyond its borders. The resources are not available to provide a growing population with higher standards in a Western lifestyle of consumption. The challenge for the Chinese government and people is to create an alternative to Western economic development models. The Circular Economy approach to efficiency of resource-use, integrates cleaner production and industrial ecology in a broader system encompassing industrial firms, networks or chains of firms, eco-industrial parks, and regional infrastructure to support resource optimization. State

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owned and private enterprises, government and private infrastructure, and consumers all have a role in achieving the CE. The three basic levels of action are:

At the individual firm level, managers must seek much higher efficiency through the 3Rs of CP, reduce consumption of resources and emission of pollutants and waste, reuse resources, and recycle by-products.

The second level is to reuse and recycle resources within industrial parks and clustered or chained industries, so that resources will circulate fully in the local production system.

The third level is to integrate different production and consumption systems in a region so the resources circulate among industries and urban systems. This level requires development of municipal or regional by-product collection, storage, processing, and distribution systems (Zhu, 2003). Efforts at all three levels include development of resource recovery and cleaner production enterprises and public facilities to support realization of the CE concept.

In May, 2004, the Shanghai municipal government decided that two of its industrial parks should begin the process of becoming eco-industrial parks (EIP): Shanghai Chemical Industry Park (SCIP), and Shanghai Caohejing Hi-Tech Park (SCHTP).

4.2

Japan Experience

Japanese industry and society have been forced to go through changes in their mode of production. Recognizing an eco-industrial approach as a way to realize sustainable development, Japanese leaders have initiated various types of eco-industrial projects around the country. There are currently about 60 eco-industrial projects operating or under development (Molloy, 2000). These projects are grouped into the following categories:

Eco-industrial parks;

Eco-Town Projects; and

Industrial cluster and zero emissions efforts.

The primary driving factors of Japanese eco-industrial projects (The EBARA Corporation, the Kokubo industrial park, Kawasaki Eco-Town, and Taiheiyo Cement Cluster) fall into four categories: environmental, political, economic, and social.

Environmental Factors: Japan produces about of 450 million tons of waste per year. This is mostly industrial waste of 400 million tons from the processing of natural resources into industrial products, and the rest is municipal waste. Over 60% of this waste was either incinerated or dumped in landfills (Ministry of Health and Welfare, 1999). Being a mostly mountainous country with a high population density, Japan faces a serious shortage of landfills (Japan Environmental Agency, 2000).

Political Factors: There is a growing consent among policy makers that environmental friendly and more sustainable production practices need to be found to improve the quality of life for society. The central government provides promotion and funding programs, including the Eco-Town project program. The tighter government regulations for waste disposal and recycling practices have been an important driving factor encouraging business and industry to find innovative waste management practices. 113


Economic Factors: Japan's lack of landfill space and its increased waste disposal costs, as well as its limited natural resources, are driving recognition of this fact. Consequently, by-product exchange and zero emissions efforts are perceived as a potential source of economic value, rather than a burden on businesses needing to comply with stricter regulations.

Social Factors: Since Japan is a very homogeneous society, with a highly developed sense of community, participants in eco-industrial projects are likely to develop close mental proximity, which is one of the important factors in successful projects. The highly developed transportation infrastructure makes regional and inter-regional by-product synergy physically feasible and economically attractive. The public and policymakers have become convinced that environmental problems can no longer be ignored when it comes to economic growth.

4.3

Singapore Experience

Jurong Island combines seven small islands off the south-western coast of Singapore into a single petrochemical hub. Jurong Island link to the petrochemical industry began in the late 1960.s and early 1970.s when three oil companies, Esso, Mobil and Singapore Refinery Company, established their facilities on three of the seven islands. Currently, Jurong Island is home to several petrochemical companies as well as third party providers of utilities, tankage and terminal facilities. Over time, the companies established common infrastructure and facilities, and a network of service pipes was established. As processes are linked, feed stocks can be sourced directly from nearby plants of other companies, and likewise, output may be easily dispatched to end-users in the vicinity. The amalgamation of the seven small islands to form Jurong Island began in 1991 to consolidate and maintain the petrochemical hub. When completed, Jurong Island will have a total land area of about 3200 ha from an initial mass of less than 1000 ha. Some landscape ecological principles were integrated in the overall master planning, in particular the creation of vegetated stream and river corridors (to provide migration corridors and habitats for wildlife, wetland open space for flood-adjustment during the storm season, and opportunity for groundwater replenishment). These have been combined with industrial ecology principles, in particular the closing of materials cycles. Three master plans were developed starting from the identification of scavenger industries that could close the gaps between existing industries. The distinctive elements of the different plans are:

Dual functionality of the water network: the system of streams on the new island serves both as a landscape ecological corridor, as well as the carrier for the material flows (through pipes, boats etc.).

Restoration of natural ecosystems, particularly swamps and coastal ecosystems, which were destroyed by the amalgamation of the smaller islands. These restored and new landscapes provide a buffer between industrial activity and the natural landscape, help recycle and treat the wastewater and waste heat from the various industries.

It appears that each plan element has been applied for the detailed spatial planning and industry development for specific areas within the Jurong island industrial district. Specific information with regard to the effectiveness of these for fostering regional resource synergy developments is not available. At a generic level however, it appears that the spatial planning approach is particularly useful for the development of utility synergies, to pool resources and 114


achieve economies of scale in environmental remediation services, in logistics and other utilities.

4.4

Denmark Experience

The term 'Industrial Symbiosis' was coined in the small municipality of Kalundborg, Denmark, where a well-developed network of dense firm interactions was encountered. Kalundborg is a contemporary illustration of how industrial loops have always worked. Most industrial ecologists believe that Kalundborg, a small city on the island of Seeland, 75 miles west of Copenhagen, is the first recycling network in history (Garner, 1995), (Schwarz, 1997). In this city of 20,000 people, the four main industries:

Coal-fired power plant (Asnæs); Refinery (Statoil); Pharmaceuticals and enzymes maker (Novo Nordisk); and Plasterboard manufacturer (Gyproc).

Consultants did not design, nor did Danish government officials finance, Kalundborg’s industrial symbiosis. It was, rather, the result of many separate bilateral deals between companies that searched to reduce waste treatment and disposal costs, and to gain access to cheaper materials and energy while generating income from production residue. Jorgen Christensen, a spokesperson for Novo Nordisk, is explicit on that point: “I was asked to speak on ‘how you designed Kalundborg.’ We didn’t design the whole thing. It wasn’t designed at all. It happened over time.” (Lowe, 1995), Henning Grann, a Statoil employee, reinforces the point: “The symbiosis project is originally not the result of a careful environmental planning process. It is rather the result of a gradual development of co-operation between four neighboring industries and the Kalundborg municipality” (Garner and Gregory, 1995). One of the important elements in many of the material and energy exchanges at Kalundborg is the physical proximity of the plants. As distance between plants increases, the transaction costs increase. Where transactions involve transferring heat in the form of steam or hot water, close physical distance is extremely important in minimizing transmissions losses. Jørgen Christensen of Novo Nordisk, stresses the importance of what he calls “the close mental distance”. He goes on to describe a commonality of mind that has existed among the leaders of the local companies and the City of Kalundborg. All the managers are of about the same age, and have children of similar age who attend the same schools. They are members of the same clubs and attend the same churches. The symbiosis among their companies thus grew out of personal relationships of shared values, understanding, and trust. One additional lesson from Kalundborg in this regard, is that close interaction at all levels in the companies can be an important ingredient of success. The Danes found that though good, trustbased communication at senior levels is essential to establishing the exchanges, close interaction among employees at all levels is essential for optimal implementation. The Kalundborg symbiosis highlights two important aspects about the relationship of government to the success of an industrial ecosystem. The first is that government regulation can be effective enforcing industries to recognize and pay some of the community or externality

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costs associated with their products. The second involves the clear evidence that the proper role of government is to establish requirements and goals, but not to specify how to meet them. Government regulations have played a major role at Kalundborg, as the symbiosis has evolved. First, they restricted emissions of certain materials, such as sludge, and sulfur dioxide to the air. Second, they banned certain practices, e.g., discharging hot water to the environment. And third, they compelled certain industries to do specific things, but then provided subsidies to help defray some of the costs, e.g. the district heating program for Kalundborg. Where government has established requirements, but has not specified technological solutions to meet these requirements, the companies have been very creative in finding effective, economically feasible solutions. Once these externalities became costs to the firm, they were quick to find ways of lowering costs. The mandated reduction in allowable level of SO2 emissions is an example. Asnæs Power Plant was able to find a scrubber technology that produced commercial-grade gypsum as a byproduct. Sale of the gypsum to Gyproc resulted in a reduced demand for imported mineral gypsum, thereby lowering Gyproc’s costs while improving the Danish balance of trade. Kalundborg symbiosis incorporates many elements that emphasize the cycling and reuse of materials in a broader systems perspective, these elements include:

Embedded Energy and Materials: To create a product, resources are used for extraction of materials, transportation, primary and secondary manufacturing, and distribution. The total energy and materials used is the amount embedded in that product. By reusing by-products and cogeneration (Cogeneration is a specific means of utilizing embedded energy by reusing waste heat to produce electricity or by using steam from electric power generation as a source of heat), industrial symbiosis preserves the embedded materials and energy for a longer period within the industrial system.

Life Cycle Perspective: It considers the entire set of environmental impacts that occur at each stage of the product life cycle and use across enterprises.

Cascading: (By definition, a cascade must include at least one use beyond the virgin use of the resource.) It occurs when a resource, such as water or energy, is used repeatedly in different applications. In successive uses, the resource is of lower quality, a lower level of refinement, or lower value. The cascade terminates when either a considerable amount of energy must be added to recover value from the resource or the resource is discarded.

Loop Closing: Loop closing occurs when a resource has a cyclical flow embedded in the industrial ecosystem and the resource, rather than being used in a degraded form, reappears similar to its original form.

Tracking Material Flows: It identifies and quantifies all significant material inputs and outputs of each firm in the subject industrial system. The results are analyzed to suggest opportunities for exchange of materials among firms as well as opportunities for more efficient resource use in the industrial ecosystem.

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4.5

United States Experience

A growing number of communities in the USA as in Fairfield, Londonderry, and New Jersey Chemical Industry Project are considering eco-industrial development (EID) strategies. EID is based on the idea that a flourishing economy and environmental health can coexist through strategies that integrate environmental, economic, and community development goals. The ecoindustrial concept in USA encompasses a range of approaches, including pollution prevention, by-product synergy, green design, life cycle analysis, joint training programs, and public participation. Early projects sought to create closed-loop systems within the boundaries of an eco-industrial park (EIP). Recently eco-industrial developers have broadened their scope to capture by-product exchange opportunities in broader regional eco-industrial networks (EINs). Also a growing number of businesses have begun to incorporate more intensive social and environmental improvement standards into their operations. (Mary, 2001), (Centre of Excellence in Cleaner Production, 2007). EID integrates a number of tools and strategies focusing on the design of production processes, products, and physical space, to increase resource efficiency, lower cost, and mitigate environmental impacts. Other strategies emphasize on building business-to-business and business-to-community linkages on local and regional scales to facilitate exchange of materials, infrastructure, information, services, energy, water, and other resources. The goal of each of these diverse strategies is to optimize resource efficiency among the collective industries of a park or region. In the U.S.A each eco-industrial project has sought to implement the combination of these strategies that are most appropriate and feasible for their location rather than adopting a piecemeal approach (Lowe, 2001). Each strategy, when implemented successfully, adds value to the park and becomes a valuable recruitment incentive. The ideal EIP or IE network would incorporate all of these strategies in the long-term. Each strategy, and its application to eco-industrial development, is described below: (Mary, 2001).

Resource Recovery, Pollution Prevention, & Cleaner Production: Closed production loops emerge from the elimination of wasted energy, water, and materials for cost savings within and among firms. “The goal is to minimize environmental impacts by changing both the way goods and services are produced (process technology) or the products themselves (product design)”.

Integration into Natural Ecosystems: Preventing and mitigating environmental impact requires designing eco-industrial parks in a way that considers natural ecosystem conditions and resources. Ecosystem planning principles include land use and efficiency, health, safety and environmental protection.

Industrial Clustering: Eco-industrial development projects have adopted industrial clustering strategies to build more efficient regional industrial ecosystems. The industrial clustering approach focuses on assessing a region’s unique economic, industrial, commercial, and other resources to build a comprehensive economic development plan.

Sustainable (Green) Design: Most existing eco-industrial projects have incorporated one or more sustainable or green design features into their landscaping and facilities. The primary objectives of green design are to maximize water and energy resource efficiency, minimize waste, and maximize use of recycled and environmentally friendly materials in the construction and operation of facilities. 117


Anchor Tenant: It is a way to create a more definable set of possible inter-connections. The eco-industrial anchor tenant concept is loosely based on the real estate development strategy of using an anchor company to attract other firms to an industrial park. In the eco-industrial context, the anchor tenant strategy focuses on how the anchor industry can provide significant waste streams to satellite firms that can utilize the wastes in their own production processes.

Eco-Industrial Park designs are flexible enough to take advantage of local circumstances in land availability, financial commitments, unique industrial sector concentrations, and regulatory policies. There are three model types of EIP as below:

Centralized: The centralized EIP model exists in a single large industrial parcel that is home to all of the exchange participants. This model commonly has a central firm that the exchange design is created around.

Decentralized: A decentralized EIP model is one where there is a main site which contains the central most business partners in the exchange network and is supported by smaller sites located nearby. A decentralized process of exchange works well when the materials can safely and cheaply be transported from one site to the next.

Virtual: The design flexibility of the Eco-industrial waste stream exchange can be fully decentralized to the point of having each participating company individually located. This option should be considered under circumstances where appropriate land is highly scarce, business relocation is infeasible, or as a first step into the creation of a decentralized or centralized EIP. Small companies with limited or highly specialized inputs and outputs can still participate and improve their environmental and economic soundness.

4.6

Australia Experience

Australia has experienced an increase in the interest in regional resource synergies since the early 2000’s, which appeared to have been driven by three different environment and resource efficiency agendas (Altham, 2004), (Centre of Excellence in Cleaner Production, 2007):

Mining, Minerals and Sustainable Development (MMSD): The Australian component of this global project (MMSD 2002) under the Global Mining Initiative put the spotlight on the problems and opportunities presented by the large volume minerals processing waste streams (slag, processing residues, waste rock, overburden etc.) (Sheeny, and Dickie, 2002), (MMSD, 2002). In doing so, it also revealed that quite significant regional by-product synergies are already happening in resource processing intensive regions like Kwinana and Gladstone, as these make good economic sense (GRSG, 2002), (Sinclair, 2002).

Degraded Land & Dry-land Salinity: one of Australia’s principal environmental problems is land degradation as a result of dry-land salinity (GoA, 2002). A number of approaches including plant based and engineering is being investigated, and one of the promising strategies is to grow new crops that are salt resistant, enhance deep dewatering by reducing salinity risks to surrounding areas and produce a valuable product.

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Drought and Water Restrictions: throughout Australia there are growing pressures on the short and long term availability of potable water. This has encouraged interest initially in water reuse, but more recently into the whole concept of sustainable urban living. Looking for water reuse opportunities can fit well with the need to have compatible land uses in the buffer zones of existing wastewater treatment plants under pressure from urban encroachment. An example involves the establishment of a cluster of water intensive businesses in the buffer zone of the Subiaco wastewater treatment plant in Perth, Western Australia (George, 2002).

Each of these regional synergies provided an opportunity to turn an initial environmental pressure into an opportunity for economic development and social advancement at the local or regional level. Gladstone and Kwinana, are the two most prominent minerals processing intensive regions in Australia, and consider examples for industrial synergies.

5. CONCLUSION Reaction approach at the conventional End-of-Pipe (EoP) to minimize the impact of the industrial system to solve the problems after its occurrence, it simply displace the problem elsewhere. Displacement of wastes and emissions are neither ecologically nor economically viable. Industrial Ecology consider the recent more important theoretical concept which change the traditional industrial consumption practices of materials and energy to new approach to optimizing the use of limited resources, and for protecting the environment in the same time. It is a closed-loop approach; it is a foundation for creating sustainable industry in a sustainable society. Industrial Ecology is the merge of ecology and technology, views industrial systems in harmony with their surroundings, not in isolation from them. IE can be conceptualized in three development models (I, II and III). Type I as linear, immature and unsustainable model; type II is a semi-matured state; and type III is a mature and materially closed ecosystem that is ultimately sustainable. The ultimate goal of the IE community is to move towards the type III. Unfortunately we are still in between the type I and type II model. Eco-industrial development (EID) is the practical application of the theory of industrial ecology, and the interpretation of the industrial development varies worldwide but eventually categorized to three levels of planning (figure 1):

The first level is the Intra-Firm as: (Design for the Environment – Life Cycle Assessment – Cleaner Production); but CP considers the holistic one and more relevant to industrial process and project designers.

The second is Inter-Firms as: (Eco Industrial Park – By Product Synergy - Industrial Symbiosis); and

The third is Regionally as: (Eco Industrial Network).

Worldwide experiences included 12 projects in 6 countries which represent deferent perceptions on the implementing tools to realize EID. The characteristics and comparisons of the 12 projects are summarized in table (1). By studying these deferent experiences for interpretation and implementation of EID concept in Asia (China – Japan - Singapore), Europe (Denmark), United

119


States and Australia, it is concluded that driving factors, transition plan and managerial characteristics are almost common in all. Environmental and economic factors are the main drivers to adopt EID concept to resolve recently developing challenges and constrains. The major driver for the effort to develop EIPs in China is Circular Economy (CE) to solve national serious problems of natural resources depletion, degradation of major ecosystems, and pollution extending far beyond its boundaries. The resources are not available to provide a growing population with higher lifestyle standards as the government plan. In Japan, mass production for development, unsustainable economic activities, environmental degradation and resource exhaustion, and scarce of land to landfill wastes all are drivers to find an alternate development concept. In Singapore, EID concept was adopted to abate and mitigate environmental degradation may cause by the petrochemical hub that was built on a sensitive area (Jurong Island). Denmark experience `Kalundborg` which is claimed the first recycling network in history, EID concept was adopted for economic and regulatory reasons. In the other hand Australian experience was initiated as response to environmental needs.

EIP

Eco Industrial Park

CP

Cleaner Production

BPS

By Product Synergy

DfE

Design for Environment

IS

Industrial Symbiosis

LCA

Life Cycle Assessment

EIN

Eco Industrial Network

PP

Pollution Prevention

Figure 1: The three levels of EID planning

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Table 1: Worldwide experiences of EID interpretation (Researcher, 2012)

Inter Firms

EIN

W. Water

Energy

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

Shanghai Caohejing Hi-Tech Park

X

X

X

X

EBARA Corporation

X

X

X

Kokubo Eco-industrial Park

X

X

X

X

Kawasaki Eco-Town Project

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X X

X

X

X

X

Gas

Intra Firm

Shanghai Chemical Industry Park

Anchor

VIPs Industrial Cluster

Project / EIP SMEs

Country

R. Exchange / Recycle

EID Lvel

By Product

Tenants

X

China

X

X X

X

X

X

X X

Japan Industrial Cluster with Cement Industry, Taiheiyo Cement

X

Singapore Jurong Island

Fairfield, Baltimore, Maryland

X

Londonderry, New Hampshire

X

New Jersey Chemical Industry

X

X

X

X

Denmark

Kalundborg

X

X

X

X

Australia

Gladstone (Queensland)

X

X

X

X

USA

121

X

X X

X X

X

X

X

X

X

X


6. REFERENCES Allenby, B.R., (1992), "Industrial Ecology: The Materials Scientist in an Environmentally Constrained World," MRS Bulletin. Altham, J. and R. van Berkel (2004). “Industrial Symbiosis for Regional Sustainability; an update on Australian initiatives”, 10th International Sustainable Development Research Conference, Manchester, UK, ERP Environment. Centre of Excellence in Cleaner Production, (2007), “Regional Resource Synergies for Sustainable Development in Heavy Industrial Areas: An Overview of Opportunities and Experiences”, Curtin University of Technology, Australia. Commoner, B. (1971), “The Closing Circle”, Bantam Books, New York. Economic Development Administration-EDA US. (2004), Eco-Industrial Development., Retrieved from: http://www.dnr.cornell.edu/saw44/NTRES331/Products/Spring%202004/Papers/Industrial Ecology.pdf Frosch, R.S. and Uenohara, M. (1994), "Chairmen's Overview," in Richardson, Deanna J., and Fullerton, Ann B. Industrial Ecology U.S. Japan Perspectives, National Academy of Engineering. Garner, Andy, and Gregory A. Keoleian. (1995), “Industrial Ecology: An Introduction”, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, National Pollution Prevention Center for Higher Education. Retrieved from: http:// www.umich.edu/~nppcpub/resources/compendia/ind.ecol.html. George, S. (2002). “Shenton Sustainability Park: Prospects for an Eco-Industrial Park. Case Studies in Sustainability: Hope for the Future for Western Australia”, Perth (WA), Australia. GoA (2002). State of the Environment, Canberra (ACT), Australia, Commonwealth Government of Australia. Graedel, T.E. and Allenby, B.A. (1995), "Industrial Ecology," Prentice Hall, New Jersey. GRSG (2002). Sustainability Report for the Gladstone Region 200: Better Glradstone -Better World, leading the Gladstone Region towards sustainability. Gladstone (Qld), Australia, Gladstone Regional Sustainability Group. Hollander, J. (2000), “Analyzing the Effectiveness of the Eco-Industrial Park to Promote Sustainability” Master’s thesis at University of Massachusetts Amherst. Japan Environmental Agency, (2000), Kankyo Hakusho, Environmental White Paper. Jo

Jeanne Lown, ECO-INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT AND THE RESOURCE CONSERVATION AND RECOVERY ACT: EXAMINING THE BARRIER PRESUMPTION. Retrieved from: http://www.bc.edu/dam/files/schools/law/lawreviews/journals/bcealr/30_2/01_TXT.htm

Lowe, E. (1993), "Industrial Ecology - An Organizing Framework for Environmental Management," Total Quality Environmental Management. Lowe, Ernest A. (1995), “The Eco-Industrial Park: A Business Environment for a Sustainable Future”, Paper presented at conference on “Designing, Financing and Building the

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Industrial Park of the Future,” sponsored by the U.S. EPA, Research Triangle Institute, and the University of California at San Diego, held in San Diego, May 4–5. Lowe, Ernest. (2001), “Introduction to Eco-Industrial Parks.” Asian Development Bank. Mary Schlarb, (2001), Eco-Industrial Development: A Strategy for Building Sustainable Communities, Cornell University, and this report was prepared under an award from the Economic Development Administration, U.S. Mary Schlarb, M.P.S. (2001), “Eco-Industrial Development: A Strategy for Building Sustainable Communities”, Cornell University, USA. Retrieved from: http://www.eda.gov/ImageCache/EDAPublic/documents/pdfdocs/1g3lr_5f5_5fschlarb_2ep df/v1/1g3lr_5f5_5fschlarb.pdf Ministry of Health and Welfare, (1999), Nihon-no Haikibutsu Shori, “Waste Management in Japan”. MMSD (2002). “Breaking New Ground: mining, minerals and sustainable development (The Report of the MMSD Project)”, London, UK, Earthscan Publications (for IIED and WBCSD). Molloy, L. (2000), “Eco-Industrial Development Roundtable Proceedings”, retrieved from: www.cje.cornell.edu/wei/EIDP/Feb00minutes,htm Morikawa, Mari. (2000), “Eco-Industrial Developments in Japan”, Indigo Development Working Paper # 11. Indigo Development Center, retrieved from: http://www.indigodev.com/IndigoEco-Japan.doc Robert A. Frosch and Nicholas E. Gallopoulos, (1989), “Strategies for Manufacturing”, Scientific American. Robert U. Ayres, Leslie Ayres, (2002), A Handbook of Industrial Ecology, retrieved from: http://books.google.com/books?hl=ar&lr=&id=g1Kbxizc1wC&oi=fnd&pg=PR9&dq=%22Ayres%22+%22A+Handbook+of+Industrial+Ecology% 22+&ots=N1QOxJteJW&sig=2GTUR7ArmMoNuWiT7CWG_tYJDVI#PPA3,M1 Schwarz, Erich J., and Karl W. (1997), “Implementing Nature’s Lesson: The Industrial Recycling Network Enhancing Regional Development”, Journal of Cleaner Production. Sheeny, B. and P. Dickie (2002). “Facing the Future: the report of the MMSD Australia Project”, Melbourne, Vic, Australian Minerals and Energy Environment Foundation. Sinclair-Knight-Merz (2002). Kwinana Industrial Areas Economic Impact Study. Perth (WA), Australia, Kwinana Industries Council. Suren Erkman, (2002), "Industrial Ecology: a new perspective on the future of the industrial system", retrieved from http://www.esf.edu/for/germain/Erkman%20%20Industrial%20Ecology.pdf Yang, P. and O. Lay (2004), "Applying ecosystem concepts to the planning of industrial areas: a case study of Singapore's Jurong Island." Journal of Cleaner Production. Zhu Dajian. (2003), “Circular Economy Theory and a Comprehensive Fairly-Well-off Society”, School of Economics and Management, Tongji University, Shanghai, China.

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© SB13-Cairo 2013 Evaluation of Marsa Alam (BOT) Airport in Egypt ElShamy, W.

Evaluation of Marsa Alam (BOT) Airport in Egypt

ElShamy, W. German University Cairo, Department of Architecture and Urban Design New Cairo City, Main Entrance El Tagamoa El Khames, Egypt E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract: Globalization has been the main issue of international arguments of economic issues and its effect on the third world countries. There are a lot of researches that analysis the globalization issue and its effect on developed countries, it is not possible to understand what is happening successive developments without reference to the phenomenon of globalization, which has now become a frame of reference for all humanities and social and political studies. The end of twentieth century witnessed the change of governmental role in infrastructure projects; it changed its role from execution to supervision on infrastructure projects implemented by private sector through different methodologies of privatization in infrastructure projects. The economy of Egypt faced a lot of challenges that led to increase of private sector participation in infrastructure projects. Egyptian government as a result offered Marsa Alam airport for private sector participation in airport construction and operation in 1998. Since then Marsa Alam airport was constructed and operated by private sector and under supervision of Egyptian government through BOT model, we lack evaluation of this experience. This paper aims to evaluate Marsa Alam airport actual performance with respect to feasibility studies done at the earlier stages of the project. Keywords: BOT, Egypt, infrastructure projects, Marsa Alam Airport, privatization

1.

INTRODUCTION

Infrastructure is defined as the services and facilities necessary for an economy to function (Sullivan & Steven, 2003). Infrastructure projects are defined by group of buildings, networks & services found in cities & civilized regions, social & economical and it is represented in products and services characterized by monopolization (Gamal, 1998). The end of twentieth century witnessed the change of governmental role in infrastructure projects from execution to supervision of infrastructure projects implemented by private sector through different models of privatization of infrastructure projects all over the world. Privatization system of infrastructure projects was first initiated in the middle of 1980’s. It aimed to improve quality of services provided to users, improvement of economical efficiency of services, reduction of financial burdens on government budget and development of local financial markets (Franceys, 2003). Build Operate Transfer (BOT) model is considered one of the main manifestations of privatization models as a result of globalization in construction industry (Khan, 2008). It is accompanied by the increase of private contribution in the infrastructure projects; consequently the role of the government has changed to supervision. 124


Airports facilities are considered one of the most important facilities that privatization system was applied to BOT system; because airports are one of the most features that reflect the development of countries. Airports have become one of the main features they compete to show their power and development achievements; in order to introduce better and more entertaining services to customers (Kasarda, 2007). Airport planning, design and operation systems had changed a lot through the past decade as a result of privatization of airport that was first initiated in USA and then spread all over the world . Egyptian aviation industry has 20 airports, divided in 5 categories; international, domestic-international, domestic, training & BOT airports (EHCAAN, 2010). There are two BOT airports in Egypt, namely Marsa Alam Airport & Al Alamein Airport, they are privately operated under the supervision of Egyptian government represented in the Egyptian Airport Company (EAC). Marsa Alam Airport and Al Alamein Airport were contracted to private entities under BOT contract in 1998, as a part of council of ministries development plan for Egyptian cities. This paper aims to evaluate Marsa Alam BOT airport constructed in Egypt 15 years ago according to achievement with respect to primary expectations in the feasibility study stage, during construction phase & operation phase.

2. 2.1.

BOT Model Introduction

Infrastructure projects are facing great problems now a day as shown in Figure 1. It faced main two problems; it faced the rapid increase of infrastructure projects cost, it also accompanied by rapid decrease of governmental revenues. Infrastructure projects needed large budget because of new investments to match technological development for infrastructure projects implementation ways and to overcome the increase of inflation rate. Developed countries also suffer from infrastructure problems as well because of great pressures on budgets and lack of possibility of imposing new taxes.

Figure 1:Problems Infrastructure Projects (Nassr,1998)

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World Bank report for year 1994, entitled by “infrastructure for development” discussed the problem of infrastructure projects especially in developing countries. This report summarized the problems facing infrastructure projects as Low efficiency of operation represented in shortage of production, and ineffective use of workers; Negligence of maintenance: represented in insufficient fund required for such purpose; Low financial efficiency represented in inefficiently financial management; Failure to respond to public demands represented in repetitive mistakes of services, Negligence of incapable public sector & Ignorance of harmful influences on environment (World bank,1994 ). In Egypt, before 1952 the private sector was dominating a lot of economical activities besides foreign investments in different fields, private sector were dominating financially and administratively on most public facilities (El Salmi, 1980). While after 1952. Egypt started to minimize the role of private sector in Egypt especially the foreign investments, such as nationalizing Suez Canal. Egyptian government was directed towards the construction of national projects; such as high dam, iron and steel companies, sugar companies, etc… most of companies were operated by public sector between years1961 to 1973. They were characterized by mismanagement and inefficient management systems causing the loss of most companies and inappropriate usage of these infrastructure projects (El Salmi, 1980). Government started liberalization of the economy and take legal actions necessary for such policy. Privatization system started to be used at the middle of eighteenth by selling public sector companies that faced obstacles and problems in operation (Samaha, 2003). Egyptian government declared in the middle of 1991 its commitment towards economical and financial reform program after it reached an agreement with International Monetary Fund about privatization program in Egypt (Kandil, 1989).

2.2.

Definition of BOT model

BOT refers to; Build - a private company or consortium agrees with government to invest in infrastructure projects; Operate - the private sector owns, maintains and manages the facility for an agreed concession period; transfer - after concession period the company transfers ownership and operation of facility to the government (Khan and Sattar, 2008). BOT projects used in the construction of mega projects of infrastructure such as transportation projects appears clearly where governments would not afford financial fund of such projects since the private sector is responsible for the financial fund. The project is transferred to the government at the end of agreement period without any charges. As shown in Table 1, BOT model is divided for three main types; transfer immediately model is where infrastructure project is transferred to goverenment operation right after construction, transfer after concession period model is where infrastructure is constructed by private sector, operated for certain agreed period by private sector and then transfered to government afer end of concession period. While No transfer model is where the private sector is responsible for construction and operation for infrastructre projects under supervision of governement without any transfer of these responsibilities.

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Table 1: Institutional Arrangement for BOT system (Nassar, 1998) Main types

Transfer Immediately

Term Abr.

Term Definition

BT

Build and Transfer

BTO

Build, Transfer and Operate

BOT

Build, Operate and Transfer

BOT

Build, Own and Transfer

BOOT

Build, Own, Operate and Transfer

BLT

Build, Lease and Transfer

BRT

Build, Rent and Transfer

ROT

Rehabilitate, Own and Transfer

DCMF

Design, Construct, Manage and Finance

BOR

Build, Operate and Renewal of concession

DBFO

Design, Build, Finance and Operate

BOO

Build, Own and Operate

ROO

Rehabilitate, Own and Operate

MOO

Modernize, Own and Operate

model Transfer After Concession Period model

No transfer model

2.2.1. Advantages & disadvantages of BOT system As shown in Figure 2, Main advantages of BOT model is that BOT model reduces of technical risk and financial burdens on public sector, it also increases efficiency of construction and operation processes for BOT projects. Participation of private sector in implementation of projects leads to innovation; reduce waste produced by these projects, it decreases of cost of the project and increases efficiency of work. As shown in figure 3, BOT system decreases governmental control over the different stages of the project, due to change its role from execution to supervision. On the long run, the spending of customers in exchange of service provided by the project could exceed savings of customers. Finally BOT contracts seem to be more complex than other contracts due to increase of contract parties.

127


Figure 2: Advantages of BOT system (Walker,2007)

Figure 3: Disadvantages of BOT system (Nassar, 1998)

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3. Marsa Alam Airport Marsa Alam city is located 280 South of Hurghada City, 65 kilometres along Red Sea Shore as shown in figure 4; it is considered one of the most famous touristic cities in Egypt along Red Sea (Marsa Alam, 2010). The airport is located 60 Km North of Marsa Alam city with an area of 21 km square. Marsa Alam airport is considered one of international airport with 600 Pax./Hour capacity. EMAK Marsa Alam group got the tender in 1998 to construct international airport in Marsa Alam under BOT system with the supervision of ECAA (Egyptian civil aviation authority. Marsa Alam Airport was established in order to serve touristic flow directly from Europe to Red Sea Touristic sites (EMAK, 2005). Figure 4: Marsa Alam Airport Location

3.1.

Marsa Alam Airport Contract

Table 3 shows Marsa Alam Airport Contract duration that was stated in the contract of Marsa Alam Airport, it is classified into three main durations; construction period that states the construction period estimated for construction of the airport; free tax period that states the period allowed for the investor to pay the agreed tax to the government; concession period that states the period granted to investor to use the airport facilities before the transfer to the government at the end of the concession period. Table 3: Marsa Alam Airport Contract duration (El Wakaie, 1999) 4 years 11 years

Construction Period Period after which the project can start to profit and benefit from the Egyptian government revenue

25 years

Concession Period

40 Years

Total BOT Contract

Marsa Alam BOT Airport contract includes development of Port Ghalib area in front of Marsa Alam airport to be part of the agreement and be operated by EMAK Marsa Alam Group (El Wakaie, 1999.

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3.2.

Marsa Alam Construction Evaluation

Table 4 shows Estimated/Performed time schedule for Marsa Alam Airport, it shows that Marsa Alam airport succeeded to start the operation of the airport in first phase few months earlier than scheduled. It also succeeded to start the second phase 4 years before the time scheduled for this phase. Table 4: Estimated/Performed Phases Schedule - Marsa Alam Airport (El Wakaie, 1999) (El Zarie, 2010) No. of Phase

Planned Delivery of Phase

Performed Delivery of

Status

Phase

1st Phase

2002

2001

Advanced 4 Months

2nd Phase

2013

2009

Advanced 4 Years

3rd Phase

2026

NA

NA

Marsa Alam Operation Evaluation

Airport operational performance follows frequency statistical analysis as defined ‘it is the study that deals with repentance of certain items’. The frequency study is evaluated with respect to 1.

1.00 0.80

Rating

3.3.

0.60 0.40 0.20

Airport operation evaluation will focus on airport operation from year 2005 till year 2009. It will be divided into

0.00 YEAR 2005

YEAR 2006

YEAR 2007

YEAR 2008

YEAR 2009

Years

Figure 5: airport evaluation method

3.3.1. Total flights Share rate This study shows rate of annual flight share rate of airport with respect to total annual airport flights of the Egyptian aviation industry, it aims to study the annual number of flights share rate with respect to total flights in Egypt as a percentage rate. Table 5 shows airport flight rate percentage of different airports with respect to Egyptian aviation industry. Table 5: Marsa Alam Airport flight share Percentage (EHCAAN ,2010)

Airport

Percentage

sharing Airport Share rate

Year 2005

Year 2006

Year 2007

Year 2008

Year 2009

1.63%

1.74%

1.77%

1.97%

2.34%

0.70

0.74

0.76

0.84

1.00

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1.00 0.80 0.60 0.40 0.20 0.00

Rating

Figure 6 shows that Marsa Alam airport rises regularly during the study period, it shows regular development of the airport YEAR YEAR YEAR YEAR YEAR performance and improvement. This due to 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 regular increase of demand upon the airport Years accompanied by the rapid tourism development in Marsa Alam area (El Zarie, Figure 6: Marsa Alam Airport total Flight share rate 2010).

3.3.2. Flights cumulative frequency distribution It shows grouping of monthly number of flights into 7 mutually exclusive classes showing number of observation in each classes through cumulative frequency. It is calculated as cumulative frequency along different frequency ranges (Jan 2005 – June 2010). as shown in Error! Reference source not found.. Table 6: Marsa Alam Airport passenger share Percentage (EHCAAN ,2010)

Frequency

Range 1

Range 2

Range 3

Range 4

Range 5

Range 6

Range 7

4.55 %

13.64 %

25.76 %

42.42 %

63.64 %

87.88 %

100.00 %

Figure 7 shows that Marsa Alam airport is distributed regularly during the study period; it shows regular development improvement for airport performance. It implies the regular monthly frequency for airport which shows statically success for airport operation process by private sector.

Figure 7: Marsa Alam Airport total Flight share rate

3.4.

Marsa Alam Financial Evaluation

It is considered one of the indicators for airport efficiency performance during the operation process of the airport. Passenger rates is considered an indicator of airport revenues by assuming international/ domestic passengers rates to indicate the revenues of airport. Other aspects of airport revenues such as (commercial services, airlines facilities revenues, cargo services, etc...). it was assumed as a ratio average for different facilities survey that revenues

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for international passenger to be 5000 LE per passenger & revenues for domestic passenger to be 1000 LE per passenger. Table 5: Annual airport international & domestic passengers (EHCAAN ,2010) 2005 428,255 7,045

International passengers Domestic Passengers

2006 492,078 8,077

2007 635,223 7,584

2008 793,207 26,678

2009 898,404 40,454

Table 5 shows annual airport international passengers while Table 6 shows annual airport domestic passengers along the study period (2005 – 2009); by assuming that revenue rate of international passenger is 5000 LE/ intl. Pass & revenue rate of domestic passengers is 1000 LE/ dom. Pass.; We can use Equation 1 to calculate annual airport revenues as shown in Table 7. Equation 1: airport annual revenues

Table 7: Airport revenues

Airport Revenues Ratio

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2,148,320,000

2,468,467,000

3,183,699,000

3,992,713,000

4,532,474,000

0.47

0.54

0.70

0.88

1.00

Figure 9 shows regular rises of aiport revenues along study period, Airport facilities succeeded to reach world hospitality standard requirements through services & activities provided by airport, it attracted both international and domestic tourism in small period of operation with respect to airport life cycle. Figure 9: Marsa Alam Airport Revenues.

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4. CONCLUSIONS Marsa Alam airport succeeded to achieve forecast cost & time due to well study of the project during the construction phase, while it succeeded to achieve operational forecast & exceed in different aspects due to the commitment to airport city concept & completion of related project planned, that helped a lot in the development of the airport. BOT airports performance varies with respect to the private sector financial ability to achieve the planned studies for the airport; as financial status of private sector entity operating the airport is considered one of the most important issues for success of airport. Marsa Alam Airport showed exponential success due to: -

Capability of investor to construct the airport and service facilities on schedule.

-

Presence of service facilities around the airport that increased the attraction forces of investors in the area.

-

Governmental care to encourage international tourism to invest in Marsa Alam city.

-

Following Latest technology in Airport Operation and maintenance.

-

Presence of entertainment facilities in the airport for passengers.

5. REFERENCES AND IN-TEXT CITATION/ REFERENCING Bahl; Roy W. & Linn; Johnannes F.- Urban Public Finance in developing countries – Oxford Uni.-1993 Brown, L. (2000) The Population Challenge article, Encarta yearbook. EHCAAN (2010), Egyptian Holding Company for Airports and Air Navigation website, http://www.ehcaan.com/about_comp.aspx, Accessing (12/4/2010) El-Salmi, Ali (1980) Private Sector Management: An analysis of decision-making and employment policies and practices in Egypt, UNSP. El Wakaie, Masrya (1999), BOT contract for Marsa Alam Airport, verion 53 El Zarie, Abd El Aal (2010), Meeting with Eng. Abd El Aal El Zarie, Deputy Manager of Marsa Alam Airport, April 2010 EMAK (2005) Marsa Alam Airport Company, International Marsa Alam Airport Brochure, october 2005 Franceys R, Weitz A. (2003), Public-Private Community Partnership in infrastructure for the poor, Journal of International Development 15: 1083-1098. DOI: 10.1002/jid.1052 Kandil, Amany; Abdel Fadil, Mahmoud & ElMenofy, Kamal (1989), The private sector and public policies in Egypt, Public policy and private sector in Egypt seminar, faculty of economics, Cairo university, cairo. Kasarda , John d. (2007), Airport Cities & the Aerotropolis: New planning Models article, Airport innovation, April 2007

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Khan, Ammad Hassan-jamil, Misbah and Sattar, Mudassar (2008), The trend of Build Operate Transfer (BOT) Projects in Pakistan. First international conference on construction in developing countries. August 4-5. Pakistan Marsa Alam (2010), Marsa Alam Official site, www.marsaalam.co.uk/, visited on 10.5.2010 Nassar, G. (1998) Infra-structure projects execution by BOT system. FIDIC. Sliver book. Samaha, Ahmed ElSayed, (2003), Towards effective urban management in Egypt - in the context of privatization of infrastructure projects, Phd thesis, Cairo University. Sullivan, A. and Steven, M. (2003). Economics: Principles in action. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458: Pearson Prentice Hall, pp: 474. World Bank (1994), Report on World Development: Infrastructure for Development, Translated by Al-Ahram Translation and Publishing, Al-Ahram Printing Business, Cairo. Walker, John (2007), Private financing of infrastructure assets (the Virtuous Cycle), Asia-Pacific Ministerial Conference on Public-Private Partnerships for infrastructure projects development

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© SB13-Cairo 2013 Self-Developed Areas Mannoun. M, and Salheen. Mahmoud

Self-Developed Areas The Cases of the Southern Part of Tübingen & Ebny Betik Projects Mannoun. M, Salheen. M, Mahmoud, R. 1

Ain Shams University, Department of Urban Planning 1 El-Sarayyat Street, Abbasyah, Egypt e-mail: [email protected]

2


3


Abstract: Self-developed and self-organized areas are becoming attraction spaces for urban planners and architects in the recent years. These areas follow different concepts and theories, such as Co-Housing and participatory design. These concepts are applied through different techniques and implementation processes. The main objective of this paper is to trace the process followed in order to reach a successful product of self-developed neighbourhood project. This process is scrutinized in the light of theories, concepts, and implementation stages as well as involved stakeholders in order to obtain an appreciated housing neighbourhood product. There have been some experiments in developed countries like Germany to recreate the traditional process and the resulting products are becoming appreciated by the users, the authorities as well as the professionals. In Egypt, for example the Ebny Betik “Built your own house” project was one of the most popular projects adopted by the government to offer suitable and affordable houses for the middle class based on citizens participation. The first section in the paper explains the concept of co-housing development with focusing on its characteristics. The second section based on a comparative analysis between Southern part of Tübingen project in Germany and Ebny Betik project in Egypt. The paper will present each project through introducing the main ideas and objectives of the development. Then explaining of the process and the product on relation with the co-housing characteristics. The final section a conclusion based on a comparison between the Tübingen project and the Ebny Betik project to help deduces a process to achieve a successful self-developed and selfsustained area. Keywords: co-housing, participatory design, self-developed area, Ebny Betik Project., Südstadt developing area in Tübingen 135


1. INTRODUCTION The process followed in creating the self- developed areas is a main factor in constructing the product. Most of the successful self-developed areas are based on the concept of co-housing. The author conducts a study on the co- housing concept, which is linked with the theory of participatory design. Both the concept and the theory have a main and an effective factor in reaching a strongly bonded community toward their living environment. House-Building Cooperatives, “which means “Baugemeinschaft” in German” is a functional way of urban development that appeared after the World War II in Germany, based on cooperative principles and citizens’ collaboration to build their own neighbourhood. Applying the participatory design theory and identifying its rules as well as classifying the role of each stakeholder in the process are key factors in detecting the product. Freiburg and Tübingen in Germany played a pioneering role in spreading over the concept in the early 1990’s in Europe. According to Liese (2008) the reasons for generating this concept is the following: 1. Citizens cannot find their needs in the ordinary block design accommodations thus in the cooperative housing they start implementing the individual and the group needs. 2. Creating community neighbourhoods that allow families to have social life and provide walkable distances to the daily routine supplies and social facilities. Building cooperatives communities concept can be a good model to apply in self-developed areas in Egypt that is based on community initiatives under the help of different authorities and responsible parties of the city.

2. LITERATURE REVIEW This section of the paper explain the main idea of co-housing concept to implement a selfdeveloped area and its initiation in the world and focusing on the concept main characteristics.

2.1.

Co-Housing Concept Initiation and Definition

Lietaert (2009) mentions that this concept started in 1972 in Denmark, the project hosts 27 families by a Danish Architect who was influenced by a psychologist article arguing that children should have one hundred parents. The concept emerged from the Danish word “Bofællesskaber” translated as “living communities” in English. McCamant & Durrett Architects firm a pioneer in applying this concept in United States coined the term ‘co-housing: that is derived from the English word “cooperative”. In 1987, McCamant & Durrett Architects firm was initiated in California to adopt the co-housing concept after doing several researches on the co-projects in Denmark. Their main concern is People, their interests and their quality of lives. They defined co-housing as: “These communities cluster 12 to 35 homes around common facilities. Residents participate in the planning and design process from the very beginning, ensuring that their community meets their needs, both individual and collective. Each household owns a private residence—complete with kitchen—but also shares extensive common facilities with the larger group…. These common facilities, and particularly common dinners, are an important aspect of community life both for social and practical reasons.” McCamant & Durrett, 2013.

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Co-housing can be defined as: a group of people gather in one place, sharing main aim to build their own neighbourhood and create their living community. Each participant owns as apartment that offers the main living aspects while sharing the other public facilities with the community such as gardens, workshops and public services…etc. According to a study held by a centre for “cooperatives-Wisconsin University” with collaboration with “cooperative development services” states that the idea of co-housing ownership each one owns his apartment or through renting it. Also each participant has to pay a monthly amount of cash to develop and upgrade the public facilities in the neighbourhood.

2.2.

Co-Housing Characteristics

Main characteristics of Co-housing according to Lietaert (2009) based on McCamant & Durrett Architects are six: first the concept of co-housing is totally managed by the community through the theory of participatory design process, in addition to have help from professionals, experts, facilitators. Second characteristic is to design the urban space and landscape of the area through identifying the entrances, paths, softscape and hardscape elements. These will direct to third characteristic that focuses on the community common facilities that give the place its spirit. The fourth characteristic mentioned is that a regular meeting has to be managed between representatives of the community people chosen by inhabitants through voting or random choice. Wisconsin University study added that co-op work is organized between the participants through identifying the role of each toward running the whole process to reach the final outcome. Through electing representatives and creating a board to operate the process and control the community participating. Then having constant meetings to be updated by the new developments and upgrade the ideas and on the other side solve any pop up problems. The fifth characteristic according to Lietaert is that all participants are equal and no hierarchical division all has his (each individual) right to state his opinion and needs. The sixth characteristic is each participant has a separate income. Characteristics of Co-housing

Participatory Design

Urban & Landscape Designs

District Facilities

Meetings / Representatives

Figure 1: Characteristics of co-housing (adapted from Lietaert 2009)

The above figure summarizes the co-housing characteristics on keywords. These keywords will be examined on the research case studies “Südstadt “Southern” developing area in Tübingen” and Ebny Betik Project to understand the relation of self-developed areas and co-housing.

3. RESEARCH CASE STUDIES This section in the paper is descriptive and explanatory. It will discuss the initiation of the case studies, raising the main objectives of the development and then the implementation process and the challenges that face the involved parties and then the product of the areas. The paper 137


will reflect the characteristics of co-housing concept in the two case studies: the Southern part of Tübingen in Germany and the Ebny Betik project in Egypt. The methodology used in Southern part of Tübingen is an interactive method based on holding of different interviews with major representatives in the project. The author focused on choosing the interviewee who can help in feeding up the research with the role of the involved parties and the development process and the challenges that face the project. Interview held with City of Tübingen Senior Planning Officer and with another professional who works in the project team of the city and both lives in southern part of Tübingen. In addition to an interview with the urban planner who was in charge of the project. The author examined the product through visiting the area and having a tour in it with one of the city citizens who is interested in the project. The other case is the Ebny Betik project. The research methodology used is based on studying the project Terms of references and the official documents of the project from the governmental authorities. In addition to holding of several interviewers with the project citizens to examine the potentials and the constrains of the project initiation, implementation and final product.

3.1.

THE SOUTHERN PART OF TÜBINGEN PROJECT

Initiation The development project of the Southern Part of Tübingen “Südstadt developing project” implemented the concept of “House-Building Cooperatives”. The project is located at Baden-Württemberg state in Germany and the idea of the project started in 1991. Schuster, (2005) mention that after the end of the World War II and after the cold war on the European countries and declaration of the withdrawal of the French troops from Germany, Tübingen City Council and the Regional development department of Baden Württemberg targeted reusing and development of southern part.( Figure 2: Development Districts (Tübingen Palmer, 2011). “Andreas Feldtkeller” the Universtätsstadt,2009) head of Tübingen city at that time, took the initiative to redevelop the area in order for it to be adaptable for hosting a quite good number of inhabitants. The development includes four main quarters in Southern Part of as in figure (2). Referring to an interview with the Senior Planning Officer at the Municipality of Tübingen, (2011), he mentioned that the idea is simple: a group of citizens join together to implement their ideas about working and living in their own neighbourhood. Project Objectives According to the city of Tübingen, (2005) there are three main objectives which; the city and the urban planning office put in mind while drawing the main concepts to develop the southern part. These concepts are derived to perform satisfaction to both the city and the citizens. The first concept is to make the urban plan of the area while taking into consideration the idea of connectivity with the rest of the city. The second idea is to create an enclosed community where citizens can find their requirements and desires to obtain ecological and sustained 138


houses integrated in a living environment that offers other commercial needs. The third concept assists in achieving the latter concept through creating mixed-use areas with small land parcel in each district. Figure (3) illustrates the development objectives in regard to two main participants of the city of Tübingen and its citizens. The figure also shows the objectives of the development obtained through two main categories of stakeholders “Tübingen city” and “Tübingen citizens” each has a major role in the process of the development.

Figure 3: Development objectives

Development process versus product This part of the paper now turns to discuss the process of the development and the product of the project of the Southern Part of Tübingen. In order to gain an in-depth analysis of Tübingen, it would be interesting to examine the process of self-development against the characteristics of co-housing discussed in the previous section. The following subsections would use these characteristics to examine the self-development in Tübingen project through figure (4).

Defining Groups

LEHEN Three urban office

Adaptive Re-use

Stakeholder role


Public open spaces

Tübingen City

Mixed- Use

Mobility

Public Facilities

Tübingen City

District Facilities

Urban &Landscape Designs

Citizens

Meetings/ Representatives

Figure 4: Project process in respect to the co-housing process (adapted from Lietaert, 2009)

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Participatory Design The theory of Participatory design has a major role in developing the district of Tübingen that depends mainly citizens’ participation. However the city had to set out some criteria to allocate the end users and select deserved citizens for the district. One of these criteria is people readiness to establish and generate different activities in the area so the concept of the “Mixed Use area” can be created and comes from different social standards. Figure 5: Diversity on the select the Citizens (Tübingen city council archive, 2010) The main group of stakeholder are the citizens. They participated in both the designing and implementation processes in order to have all their needs and to obtain the maximum satisfaction of their own living neighbourhood.

According to the interview with the Senior Planning Officer of the city (2011), he said that citizens have to come in groups and defined their required plot area and position. In order to form these groups, the role of the city was to introduce people to each other and to create an atmosphere that gives them the chance to meet each other. So they organized different meetings, platforms and events, etc. These gatherings provided the possibility of choosing the most matching and compatible people that would share common ideas and requirements. By this action the idea of self-developed started on ground. Then each group had to appoint an architect who played the role of the facilitator in order to direct them to the right Figure 6: Various buildings blocks path and to respect the concept of sustainability and the rules of the district. The appointed architect for each group was also in charge of implementing the requirements and demands of the people to attain their satisfaction. This was performed through having different meeting with the group. To follow up the process with the architect, the group had to choose representatives from them. After having reached a remarkable solution in designing process, another meeting was held to show the design to the rest of the group. Any modifications needed are suggested during this meeting. Afterwards they represented the final version of the design to the city to get an acceptance. Finally, they started implementing the design on ground. (Ferber, undated) This kind of co-housing project led to a new result based on creating colourful facades and innovative self-developed area. The participation of several groups who assigned different architects led to a product of diversity and variety of designs, materials and colours, which is obvious from the facades of the buildings, figure (6) One of the obstacles and the major challenges that face the city of Tübingen is to own the land and get the land from the Federal of Germany. In order to get the land and start the urban development the City of Tübingen is enforcing the rule by which it gains the ownership of the land. Urban Development Act §165 BauGB state that: “Implementation of the measure is required in the public interest, in particular in order to meet an increased demand for housing and places of employment, for the construction of public 140


facilities or consequential developments, or in order to return derelict land to productive use” Act §165, German Federal Building Code According to this Act, the city can successfully take the land from the Federal of Germany and start the development of the area. Based on an interview with Senior Planning Officer (2011) the municipality plays major role in operating the project. It has the role of: a) designating responsible planners for the urban planning of the district; b) following the design procedure through adding the design principles and criteria and; c) addressing the responsibility and defining users criteria and formation of groups. All in all, the municipality is in charge of monitoring the whole project till nowadays. Urban & Landscape Designs A competition was held for the urban design and landscape of the Southern Part of Tübingen. Several proposals were submitted to the city council by various planning offices. However, “Stuttgart Planning LEHEN Three Office” won the project. This could be attributed to their respect of “Andreas Feldtkeller” criteria in addition to the concept of mobility and sustainability through applying the concept of Building communities. (Schuster, 2005)

Figure 7: Main Building Blocks design in French quarter. (adapted from Tubingen city council archive, 2010)

The urban planning office parcelled the district into plots as seen in figure (7), and each group had to determine their needs and the size of the plot to build their required building (Schuster, 2005). The Senior Planning Officer, 2011, added that the city had to control the heights of the building between three and five stories in order to have diversity in levels but with respect to the area scale. Both “French quarter and Loretto Areal” follow the concept of having parking buildings at the borders of the districts where all the citizens can park their cars and then have a little walk to their home. (Ferber, undated). Planners focused on landscaping of the district as shown in Figure (8); public spaces and courts are major elements in the urban design and landscape of the district. Each block of buildings contains a public court shared among the citizens of the block. To solve the problem of maintenance it is important to note that each group is responsible of designing, caring and monitoring this court.

141

Figure 8: Public courts between building blocks


District Facilities Planning of the district started through the integration between the old and the new buildings. The city achieved this idea through adaptive reuse and renovation of the old barracks and buildings as shown in figure (9). (Kuhn, 2010) It is a rule that the ground floor of the building host any kind of services available to the surrounding community. It varies between shops, nurseries, workshops, restaurants and cafes, etc. (Citizen, 2011) This facilitates the existence of public amenities and most of Figure 9: Adaptive reuse building from horse stable to wood workshop the citizens’ needs in their neighbourhood. However among the obstacles are the non-existence of hospitals, universities, police or fire stations in the area. They depend on the main facilities of Tübingen city. Nonetheless, this may not be considered as a problem for the citizens of the area because they are well connected to the city. They have a bus trajectory connected with the main routes of Tübingen city. Meetings and Representatives As discussed earlier in the participatory design section that each group has to choose a representative in the design phase. Senior Planning Officer, 2011, stated that the representative is just a communicator between the group, architect and city council to facilitate the process. The role of the architect is to compromise the different opinions and views and to direct them to the right and suitable decisions. (Scharf, 2011). In figure (10) it shows the methodology used in participating of both the citizens and the city in having their own neighbourhood. First the city kicks-off the project through a collective meeting to find the interested groups. It is followed by group initiatives in designing their houses that takes several meetings from them. Representatives from the citizens gather with the city council to present the outcome design of the buildings and the public courts. The city makes modification on the design if required and then another meeting with all citizens to show the results. By that the city imposes its control but with a democratic way. 142

Figure 10: Project Implementation process (Feber, undated)


The city was concerned with the durability of the project so they had to think on a way of monitoring and management. The urban renewal office of Tübingen city performs as a coordinator and urban development office of Tübingen city as a project director. They have to supervise and control the whole process and evaluate the product and then to keep an eye on the district to make sure that no one break the rules and regulations and all respect neighbour property. (Schuster, 2005) In order to control selling the apartments, Selina 2011 mentioned that the apartment’s owners can sell their own apartment at any time. The city added a price fixation for the first 10 years to stop fast price rising and extreme "money making". However, any change of ownership of land or apartment has to be cheeked by the urban development office of Tübingen city administration have the authority.

3.2.

EBNY BETIK PROJECT

Initiation Ebny Betik project means Built your own house in English. It is one of the National housing projects initiated by the previous president “Hosney Mubarak” in his election program in 2005. The project was planned by the Ministry of Housing of Egypt. It claimed that they will provide 89,000 housing units. Ebny Betik spreads along on 13 cities of Egypt; all have the same initiation time frame 6 years starting from 2005. The national project “Ebny Betik” initiated by the Egyptian Housing Government under the responsibility of The General Organization for Physical Planning (GOPP) and new urban communities Authority (NUCA). Project Objectivise The project was planned to implement the concept of self-development in order to fulfil the objectivise of the project. The first objective of the project is to afford an economical residential housing units for the Egyptian youth. The strategy of the project is the residence are responsible to build their houses while the government provide the project with all services and utilities according to the Egyptian standards. The second objective is to limit the urban sprawl to the main cities of Egypt and to create affordable residential projects in the new settlements. Services & utilities

New Housing project Government

Citizens Affordable houses

Urban Sprawl Figure 11: Development objectives

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Development process versus product As explained previously the German case study in relation with the characteristic of the cohousing. The following figure will illustrate the same in relation with Ebny Betik project. Citizens

Infrastructure

Government

Government Practitioners

Government


Citizens

Government

Public Facilities

District Facilities

Urban &Landscape Designs

Citizens

Meetings/ Representatives

Figure 12: project process in respect to the co-housing process (adapted from Lietaert, 2009)

Participatory Design The main idea of the project is each owner has to build his own house. However specific architectural models and prototypes are designed by practitioners and given to the citizens to implement during the construction phase. The governmental authorities proposed different plots with an area 150 m2/ each. (AbdelHakem,2009). The government set a rule on the foot print area equals to 50% from the all area. The building height should not exceed the ground and maximum two typical floors. Also the government fixed specific phases that the citizen has to follow in order to get the land and in case of any delay he might lose the land. The government had to set out some criteria to select the users the main one is to be youth with an income not exceed 1000 EGP/month. (http://www.urban-comm.gov.eg/). The citizens role is planned to have a major role in constructing their houses, however in fact most of the owners took the prototype designs and assigned external contractors to build the houses. (AbdelHakem, 2009). Figure (13) shows one of the buildings in the three phases assigned by the government to get the land and the house. The construction phases are: excavation and foundation/columns, the walls and last phase is the external finishes.

Figure 13: Constructing phases (Building owner, captured 2009 Received 2013)

The obstacles that face the citizens are they have to depend on contractors that causes a drop on owner participation at the beginning of the project and the owner becomes an observer only. Based on the interviews with the citizens they said that they faced problems with the construction material as the price of steel increased during that time. They also complained from the small foot print area and the prototypes that does not accommodate their needs. Last but 144


not least the problem of lack of safety in the area during construction phases. These problem were not solved the citizens has to accommodate with it or have to return back or sell their plots. Based on the interview with the citizens, they said that some citizens do not respect the size of the foot print and they built on larger area without having a permission. The government action is to impose a fine and penalty to those who exceed the foot print limit. Urban & Landscape Designs The project spread in different areas in Egypt, the urban master plan of each project designed by different consultant offices related to the public universities in Egypt. (TOR). The urban designs aims to accommodate affordable living area to the citizens. No hierarchical division and equality between the citizens. The master plan of the project was planned to accommodate the residential buildings and other main public services buildings. The public buildings and spaces are the government responsibility to design and construct. th

Figure 14: Land use of 10 of Ramadan project

District Facilities In this project the public facilities considered as a major problem. Through the scrutiny of the implemented current product compared to the planned urban fabric of the consultant other problems appeared. Lack of most of the service buildings of the district. The only provided service buildings is based on individuals initiatives without planning. That leads to odd shape in the project but helps the citizens to find their needs. This means that the citizens have to find their own way to accommodate their needs even if they have to do it themselves. Meetings and Representatives The governmental organization are in charge of monitoring and management of the project. They are responsible on following up with different consultants and to choose the end user. The system allocated to control the project construction is based on the three phases of construction that permit the citizens to finish their houses in the project duration. The problem comes with lack of coordination and communication between different stakeholders. No moderator, sessions or platforms that helps in creating an atmosphere of changing thoughts.

4. CONCLUSIONS Comparing the two case studies; it is obvious that the authority in the German case is in charge of the project during the whole duration starting from initiation phase till the construction and the post occupancy. While in the Egyptian case the government was in charge in the initiation and the early phases while in construction it turned to be the citizens responsibility without the authority control that caused defection in the process. The way of participatory process in the Tubingen project was held by involvement of all the parties in different occasion which helped in

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transfer of ideas and opinions. The opposite was in Ebny Betik project with lack of communication and no moderator. Last but not least in Tubingen the citizen has right to design, create and construct his house while in Ebny Betik the prototype concept limit the users to achieve their goals and needs. Successful self-developed neighbourhood area can be created upon similar characteristics of the co-housing concept. It mainly depends on the community participation on creating their living neighbourhood from early stages of the development. Furthermore, the authority has the role on determining of the main design principles of urban planning and landscape elements that helps in creating the main idea and character of the public spaces. In addition to the character of defining the main district facilities that helps on achieving a well sustained neighborhood through proposing different services and concepts to facilitate the process of development and to be accepted by the users. Last but not least periodical meetings among different stakeholders of the authorities and the community through choosing of representatives are major factors to perform a well self-developed project. The last point shows that self-developed areas are based on a joint process between the community and the governmental authorities. This concept is highly needed to be implemented on the third world countries that suffer from lack of resources and authorities commitments. It provides dividing and sharing of the responsibilities and the tasks among different parties that facilitate the development process; though a good communication among all stakeholders. On the one hand, It gives the community its rights to participate in drawing their futuristic life, decision making, and implementation of the ideas. On the other hand, the authorities have the power to initiate and determine the main objectives of the development in addition of constructing of the main infrastructure of the project and the major role of management and control on the project.

5. REFERENCES AND INTERVIEWS AbdelHakem, Rania, (2009). The revival of self-help housing in Egypt. MSc thesis, Cairo University. Belk, Charles L., (2006). Cohousing Communities: A Sustainable Approach to Housing Development. UC Davis Extension. (http://extension.ucdavis.edu/unit/green_building_and_sustainability/pdf/resources/co_hou sing.pdf) Egypt. Ministry of Housing, Utilities and Urban Development. Term of References of preparing the general and detailed master plan, network, infrastructure, housing prototype designs and Documents of presenting the work of project “Ebny Beitik project. Federal Building Code, (1960). Part Two, Section 165 Urban Development Measures. Germany. Ferber, Gabi (undated). Land use and transport planning Tübingen Stuttgarter Straße / Französisches Viertel. http://www.eltis.org

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Kuhn, G.and Harlander, T. (2010). BAU/GEMEIN/SCHAFTEN. 1st Ed. LBS-Stifung. BadenWüttemberg, Germany. Lietaert, Matthieu, (2009). Cohousing’s relevance to degrowth theories. [ONLINE] Available at: http://degrowth.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/lietart_cohousing-and-degrowth.pdf. [Last Accessed 1jan2013]. Liese, Julia, (2008). Konzept detail. House-Building Cooperatives – a Model for the Future. pp.902-906 McCamant & Durrett Architects http://cohousingco.com. Referee, April 2013 Palmer, Boris, (2011). Plan - build - live Building communities in Tübingen . 2nd ed. Germany: Architektenkammer Baden-Wüttemberg, Kammergruppe Tübingen. Scharf, Armin, (2011). Plan - build - live Building communities in Tübingen . 2nd ed. Germany: Architektenkammer Baden-Wüttemberg, Kammergruppe Tübingen. ScottHanson, Chris, ScottHanson, Kelly, (2005). The cohousing handbook: building a place for community. 2nd ed. Canada: New Society Publishers. Soehlke, Cord,(2011). Plan - build - live Building communities in Tübingen . 2nd ed. Germany: Architektenkammer Baden-Wüttemberg, Kammergruppe Tübingen. Tübingen city, (April 2005). Tübingen: Südstadt Development. Tübingen Germany. www.uwcc.wisc.edu/pdf/coophouse02.pdf www.moh.gov.eg. (2012) [Online]. [Accessed: February 2012] www.urban-comm.gov.eg/. (2012) [Online]. [Accessed: February 2012].

Note: the interviewees agree to publish their information in the proceeding and all the responsibilities rely on the authors.

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© SB13-Cairo 2013 New Vision for Sustainable Urban Parks Rehan, G.

Towards A New Vision For Sustainable Urban Parks A Case Study Of Alain Wildlife Park In Abu Dhabi Rehan, G. Helwan University Department of Architecture Mataria, Egypt e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract: The interest of all human societies with environment has grown recently especially after lifestyle associated with dangerous environmental crisis, such as loss of biodiversity and shrinking green space, air and water pollution , global warming and the depletion of nonrenewable resources, which prompted the call for a sustainable alternative model works to achieve harmony between the achievement of development objectives on the one hand and the protection of the environment and sustainability on the other hand The UN Conference on Environment and Development include a set of criteria and indicators that reflect the positive outlook for the sustainability of human settlements development to create an environment based high-efficiency. Urban parks are considered one of the important mechanisms for achieving sustainable urban development from this standpoint this research focuses on the study of urban parks and their role in achieving sustainable development. It then concentrate on a case study of one of the sustainable success environmental parks in Abu Dhabi (Al Ain park) as a model for environmental and identify the advantages to find out extent of application of each to sustainable development criteria in order to get cleaner and green environment in the future follow the highest standards of sustainable development.

Keywords: elements of urban parks, indicators of sustainability, sustainable development, sustainable parks, urban parks.

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1.

INTRODUCTION

The urban park movement had objective to increase life quality in the modern City. In the last years is noticed an increasing interest for development of nature in Cities. In order to exemplify the importance of urban parks for sustainability and the future of the city. This paper Analyses a project that marked the urban park movement– the alain wildlife park in Abu Dhabi-which play in ecological, social and economic sustainability and it will address the importance of urban green spaces for life quality and sustainable development.

2.

THE PROBLEM OF THE RESEARCH

The most of the urban parks suffering from Problems like economic, social, and environmental problems which affect the community and its continuity of the urban development fulfillment such as poor maintenance, lack of attention, lack of development, underutilization and lack of activities and basic utilities. It was necessary to apply new entries for the development of urban parks that insure the continuity.

3.

THE HYPOTHESIS OF THE RESEARCH

Urban parks are now viewed as an important part of the broader structure of urban Development rather than just recreation and leisure facilities. By integrating conservation, education, residential areas and commercial enterprises within the development for economically sustainable and controlled growth."

4.

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

The concept of sustainability means many different things to different people, the definition of sustainability show that sustainable development is a complex issue, based on social, economic and environmental aspects. Sustainable development has been defined in many ways, but the most frequently quoted definition is from Our Common Future, also known as the Brundtland Report "Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. [1] It contains within it two key concepts: the concept of needs, in particular the essential needs of the world's poor, to which overriding priority should be given; and the idea of limitations imposed by the state of technology and social organization on the environment's ability to meet present and future needs.

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4.1

The Goal Of Sustainable Development

The goal of sustainable development is to enable all people throughout the world to satisfy their basic needs and enjoy a better quality of life without compromising the quality of life of future generations.

Figure1: the goal of sustainable development

In urban planning, it is important to integrate social and environmental aspects of development need with economic progress. The sustainable development means that architects, builders, designers and community planners attempt to create buildings and communities that will not reduce natural resources. [2] Economists have since focused on viewing the economy and the environment as a single interlinked system with a unified valuation methodology.The achievement of sustainable economic development requires a new and different approach to policy making and its implementation. The planners looking for greater integration and co-ordination of policy making and its implementation across the public sector, and across social, economic and environmental policy portfolios.

4.2

Economic Sustainability

Economic sustainability is development ensuring that the per capita income of future generations is not lower than that of the present generation it is used to identify various strategies to utilize available resources to best advantage. The idea is to encourage usage of resources that is both efficient and responsible. With economic sustainability, the goal is to create productivity over the long-term. A commercial business is much more likely to remain stable and continue to activate from one year to the next. [3] Economic sustainability can be seen as a tool to make sure the cities have a future to contribute to the economic benefit of the owners, the employees, and to the community. The sustainability of economy is the ability to sustain productivity (both in agricultural and in the country in general).

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5.

THE MAIN TYPES OF RECREATIONAL OPEN SPACE ARE

- Parks - Open space - Comfort space within housing areas - Natural/informal open spaces - Ornamental gardens - grassed sitting out areas. We will concentrate on the urban parks as a tool for sustainability.

5.1

Definision Of Urban Parks

The park is a well-used place. People of different genders, ages and backgrounds use a park on a systematic basis during all parts of the day, week and year. A good park is visible and easy access by various means of transportation. “A park should be comfortable, with a good image and possess such amenities as seating, information, food concessions, bike racks, and bulletin boards”. [4] These elements make a park not only attractive but attractive for people of all ages. Most of all, a park should be a sociable place where people go to observe the passing scene, meet friends, and interact with a wide range of people different from themselves. Parks have long been recognized as major contributors to the physical and aesthetic quality of urban development.

5.2.

Youth Development

Young people skills reflect physical changes, rapid growth, psychological and social changes. Youth development means that all youth are engaged in attempting to meet their basic personal and social needs to be safe, be useful, and be valued and to build skills that allow them to contribute in their daily lives. Urban parks have long played a vital role in community programs for youth.these can contribute with recreational such as open spaces, playgrounds and sports fields. Now it is important to think how to make youth development most effectively. Parks can provide great opportunities for youth to build the skills, knowledge, and talents they need to satisfy their lives

5.3

New Vision For Urban Parks

The “new view” of urban parks calls attention to the broader contributions they can make to the vitality of communities and their residents. These contributions include: [5] -“ helping youth chooses rewarding paths to adulthood by providing programs and opportunities to build physical, intellectual, Emotional and social strength. - Helping new entrants to the workforce find productive jobs by offering decent, entry-level employment opportunities in the community. - helping community residents improve their health by providing a place to enjoy fresh air - helping citizens join together to make their communities better, by encouraging them to participate in park planning and management.” This new view of parks goes well beyond the value of parks as places of visual assets and recreation to communities, and focuses on how practitioners, policymakers And the public can begin to think about parks as positive contributors such as youth development, public health, job opportunities and community building. But they need dependable information about community needs and the effects of activities proposed to meet those needs.

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5.4

Three General Attributes Of Parks

(1) Self-sufficiency in natural resources and maintenance. (2) Solving urban problems of park boundaries. (3)Creating new standards for landscape management in urban parks It also explores policy implications of these attributes regarding park design the practice of landscape architecture, citizen participation, and ecological education.

6.

IDEAL PARK ELEMENTS

- Access and Circulation—a park should allow people alternative choices of movement to provide physical permeability. - Visibility—a park should also allow for visual permeability allowing people to see in and out - Lighting—Lighting improves the night time legibility, use, and enjoyment of a site. - Diversity—Parks should provide variety in physical features, activities, and users. - Signage and park information - Discourage Isolation encourage sociability

7. SUSTAINABLE PARKS Urban parks are now viewed as an important part of the broader structure of urban and neighborhood Development rather than just recreation and leisure facilities. While most of the world has recognized the Theoretical and Empirical Researches in Urban Management Sustainable parks are the new wave in park development. And the trend toward sustainable park development that is taking place across the nation and the world. [6]

Environmental

Urban parks

Economic

Quality of life

Sustainable city

Social

Figure 2: urban parks as a tool for sustainability

Sustainable Parks differ from traditional parks in regard to many details and at least three general principles. - Sustainable Parks attempt to become self-sufficient with regards to material resources. - Sustainable Parks can play a role in solving larger urban problems outside their boundaries. - Some of the more specific characteristics of Sustainable Parks that may or may not be incorporated into the de Uses green building techniques such as solar power, rain water reuse/greywater for irrigation, etc. to minimize ecological costs of construction and ongoing use sign and management include[7] - Employs best management practices to ensure healthy ecosystems. - Encourages partnerships with other entities to foster community support - Has a strong sense of place and identity - Recycles waste products as much as possible

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- Enhances the environment, does not degrade it. - Educates the public about the value of natural resource stewardship - Enhances wildlife habitat - Does not pollute - evolves the public in many ways (as partners, customers, volunteers, participants, stakeholders, etc.) - Promotes alternative forms of transportation (e.g. greenways)

8.

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

There is an interrelationship between social, economical and environmental factors in relation to urban parks development. Physical factors were also considered key to understanding park utilization and development. This conceptual framework was used as a basis to identify the link between demographic characteristics and park utilization. It integrated the important aspects of the urban parks in terms of social, economic and environmental development. Alternative uses of parks, the users, the determinants as well as the factors affecting the parks. This conceptual framework asserts that one must consider the interplay of several factors in order to understand parks and social economic development of parks.

8.1

Economic Factors of Urban Parks

The economic benefit of parks helps to raise property values, create quality townscapes the quality of parks provides an indicator of whether an area is an attractive place for people to thrive. These environments include space for urban green. “Sustainability is an important concept for today’s planners and an increasingly enlightened public especially in connection to social and economic development. Sustainable economic development occurs when progress towards environmental and social sustainability occurs within available financial resources securing such resources may in the Sustainable development recognizes the interdependence of environmental, social and economic systems and promotes equality and justice through people empowerment and a sense of global citizenship.”(8)

8.2

Social Benefits

Capacity to work together can reduce crime even in very poor Communities; the urban parks can play a vital role in building. Good quality parks can provide opportunities for community activities that can benefit the less fortunate in the society. Well-managed parks can therefore create friendly environments for groups like children and wheelchair users, helping them to socialize and take part in community life. “Parks help to build community unity by getting people to engage with each other in partnerships. In terms of equality for all sectors of society, free access to parks offers a uniquely affordable alternative to commercial leisure activities.”[9]

8.3

Educational And Health Benefits

Parks are increasingly used as an outdoor classroom for school subjects such as environmental studies and provide valuable venues for research projects. As a result, they can help rekindle the relationship between urban residents and the natural world. Urban Parks provide an opportunity for research partnerships with universities, scientific and industrial research organizations to examine a wide range of biophysical, economic and cultural issues related to park and visitor. [10] They can also provide work experience and learning opportunities in environmental management and educational opportunities. Urban

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Parks therefore if well established can serve as laboratories for biologists, geographers, environmentalists as well as social scientists.

8.4

Environmental Benefits

Urban areas need to be drained to remove surface water, but the impermeability of many built surfaces raises the probability of flash floods. Urban green protects soils and moderates harsh urban climate for example by cooling the air, reducing wind speed and giving shade. Healthy environments lead to healthy economies and societies. Parks are pollution ameliorators and help counter the pollution, which can make cities unbearable and unsustainable. Urban parks with well maintained vegetation act as physical filters helping to reduce air pollutants such as sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxide. They also help in reducing the rate of ozone production and in capturing dusts and volatile organic compounds. [11] Urban parks with tree vegetation are a major contributor to stabilizing the urban climate, they serve as lungs for towns and cities and counter pollution by removing particulates from the air, adding oxygen and removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere They promote the idea of ecologically sensitive towns and cities by providing wildlife corridors and are havens for many birds, animals and wildflowers. Parks contribute to land reclamation by establishing trees and woodlands on the many derelict and degraded lands in urban areas, it is an inexpensive option for improving the appearance, enhancing their ecological value and making them available for recreation. The research will concentrate on one of the most successfully models for urban parks – alain wildlife park, as a good model for the integration of social, economic and environmental development as well as the factors affecting the parks to achieve economic urban development.

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9. ALAIN WILDLIFE PARK

Figure 3: layout of Alain wild life park

In a unique desert setting on the edge of Al Ain, a historic oasis settlement in the United Arab Emirates, Alain Wildlife Park & Resort is a place for people to come and learn about arid land wildlife and conservation through vivid, first hand experience. Alain Wildlife Park & Resort is based around the current Alain Zoo that was founded in 1967 by the late Sheikh Zayed. Since its founding, the zoo has been a centre for endangered species’ conservation and is internationally recognized for the successful breeding of desert antelopes.

9.1

The aim of Alain Park:

The aim is to evolve the resort (AWPR) into a showcase for sustainable living in harmony with nature and wildlife that will be known all over the world. As well as creating a highly attractive destination, and committed to the increasingly important and never ending scientific challenge of conserving desert animal and plant life. [12] Alain Wildlife Park & Resort will showcase the biodiversity of the world’s deserts and demonstrate sustainable desert living. This new wildlife park is part of the UAE’s commitment to wildlife conservation both within the UAE and internationally.

9.2

Master plan:

The overall vision of the Alain Wildlife Park & Resort (AWPR) is to build a world famous showcase of desert life and culture in Al Ain, in a manner that is sustainable, sensitive and true to the spirit of the region's traditions and cultures. So the guidelines and master plan for the resort have to entwine the strictest principles of wildlife conservation and environmental sustainability with the most intelligent modern practices in planning and integration. The big challenge was to unify and balance all the various features, requirements and design elements, which inevitably meant resolving some occasional conflicts of interest, while at the same time encouraging innovation and choice.

9.3

The new vision of Alain Park:

Set in the heart of Al Ain, the Garden City of the United Arab Emirates, extensive works are currently underway to transform Alain Zoo to Alain Wildlife Park & Resort by expanding exhibits and improving facilities are turning the former zoo into a world wildlife park and

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resort. The UAE continues its dynamic transformation into a booming economic and tourism hub, a mixed use development has been planned and designed, creating a world class, sustainable leisure and learning destination with a wealth of opportunities for the astute investor or developer.

9.4 The main concept for the park Integrating conservation, education, residential areas and commercial enterprises within the development for economically sustainable and controlled growth."Sustainability is a core basis of Alain Wildlife Park & Resort. Sustainability, conservation and education are key drivers of the development and aim to use this unique set of components to create a regionally and internationally attractive tourism and resort destination.AWPR exists to promote sustainable living, allowing visitors to contact with nature and living in a desert arid environment. The wastes from on-site building demolition is being reused and recycled in construction materials. On the construction site, hundreds of existing trees are being temporarily relocated until each can be transplanted into the landscape when the development is complete.

9.5 The elements of the project The project will be made up of several components; the Sheikh Zayed Desert Learning Centre, a world deserts zoo, wildlife safaris, resort hotel, residential areas and botanical gardens, conservation and breeding center will also be integral to the park.

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Figure 5: the elements of Alain Park

Core zoo

Offices

Fenced desert

Industrial

Aviary

Learning center

Future residential

Schools

9.5.1 Sheikh Zayed desert learning center (education): Project Vision: To create a unique destination attraction that will honor the legacy of Sheikh Zayed and his visionary attitude towards the environment, wildlife and conservation. Project Description the Sheikh Zayed Desert Learning Centre is an integral part of the development of the Alain Wildlife Park & Resort. The Centre will be an exhibition and exploration of the natural and cultural history of the Arabian Deserts, as well as deserts worldwide. The building is an accessible sculpture that affords multiple spatial experiences.[13]

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A kinetic architectural promenade gives the building its ultimate form, a sculpture that responds to the imposing mass of Jebel Hafeet, a theatrical backdrop to the wildlife park. The idea of geographic Strata has been expressed through the building’s system of ramps and multiple Levels. Nestled into the land and plantings, the building further emulates the natural world.

Figure 6: Sheikh Zayed desert learning center

The Sheikh Zayed Desert Learning Centre is considered as an example of Estidama's high environmental standards due to its com.it companies of active and passive energy efficient systems. It contains a 10,000 square meter natural history museum focusing on the adaptation of life to the extreme climate of the desert environment. In addition, the geology, paleontology and anthropology of the UAE and arid land environments will be exhibited in an interactive and technologically advanced museum. Alain Wildlife Park & Resort will become an international reference for conservation, education, and sustainability.

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9.5.2 Conservation Alain Wildlife Park & Resort participates in conservation efforts throughout the world. AWPR’s renewed mandate focuses on engaging local people, especially families, in natural surroundings where they will discover the desert and the traditions of people living harmoniously with this place. Alain Wildlife Park & resort is a place for people who want to know about wildlife and conservation in the natural desert. It offers a learning, leisure and living experience with wildlife and nature. Alain Wildlife Park & Resort is deeply rooted in the cultural heritage and values of the Abu Dhabi Emirate. The Park is divided into five distinct conservation center, world desert zoos, safari experiences, as well as economic ventures including a resort hotel, retail development and residential homes. [14] Every building on site is designed to have lowest environmental impact possible. Resort hotel development will provide economic support to the Park, ensuring that AWPR’s conservation and education facilities are maintained well into the future. It designed to encourage both the cultural heritage of his people the preservation of natural heritage, and for today and for generations. 9.5.3 The residential areas

Figure 7: The residential community in Alain Park

The residential community within the Park will deliver to residents and visitors a completely new way of living. Wildlife, ecology and the environment all co-exist with sustainable development to create a living environment in harmony with nature. Building a residential community that borders the themed desert areas and wildlife means providing an environmentally-friendly and sustainable living environment. The building of this community will include land use, development and community design techniques that preserve natural features.[15]The residential will provide visitors the choice of a family oriented hotel and a luxurious 5-star resort. All with convenient access to excellent shopping and an oasis theme water park.green hotel are environmental-friendly properties which apply practices that save energy and water and reduce the environmental impact of buildings to achieve sustainable development. To be more sustainable, green buildings use renewable, reused or recycled materials.

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9.5.4 The commercial areas A themed shopping environment and multi-level retail area will include outdoor shopping promenades, a shopping mall, cafes, restaurants and special 'dining with a view ‘opportunities. Themed desert safaris will provide a centre of excellence that welcomes people of all ages and nationalities to gain a deeper understanding of desert environments from around the world and wildlife that inhabit them. It provides an outstanding backdrop from which to relax, contemplate, and observe animals in their natural settings.

Figure 8: The commercial areas in Alain Park

10.

CONCLUSION

Alain Wildlife Park & Resort consider a model for cultural and ecological sustainability, conservation and education. Alain Wildlife Park & Resort is the beneficiary of a clear vision of how the environment, people and wildlife can co-exist in a sustainable manner. It is a multifaceted development designed around wildlife to create an outstanding sustainable leisure and learning destination aimed at bringing people in touch with nature. It is based on the ideas of conservation and education. One of the unique feature and quality of the project is the fact that investors and residents will directly contribute and be part of supporting wildlife conservation efforts and community development in UAE and abroad.

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11.

REFERENCES

1. World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED), our common future, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1987 p. 43 2-D. Barry Dalal-Clayton, Stephen Bass, Sustainable development strategies, OECD Publishing, 2002 3- Michael Spence, the Next Convergence, the Future of Economic Growth in a Multispeed World, May, 2011. 4-John Crompton, Parks and Economic Development (PAS 502), APA Planning Advisory Service, 2002. 5- Chris Walker, the Public Value of Urban Parks, Urban Institute (UI), June, 2004. 6- Rabare R.S., Okech R. and Onyango G. M., THE ROLE OF URBAN PARKS AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT: CASE STUDY OFKISUMU KENYA 7- Douglas Farr, Sustainable Urbanism: Urban Design with Nature ,November 16, 2007 8- Alexander Garvin, Gayle Berens, Christopher B. Leinberger, Urban Land Institute, Trust for Public Land (U.S.), Urban Land Institute, 1997 . 9- Galen Cranz, Michael Bolan, -Defining the Sustainable Park: A Fifth Model for Urban Parks, Geography Papers , Landscape Journal, 2004 Volume: 23, Issue: 2, Pages: 102-120. 10- Tara Byler, Designing In the Green: An Approach to Sustainable Park Design, ASLA, Moore Iacofano Goltsman, spring, 2008, Volume 64, No. 2, Page 32 11- Sustainable park development, a beyond-LEED approach to capital program management, PUBLIC WORKS MAGAZINE, January, 2006. 12- www.alaintimesuae.com. 13- Essam Al Ghalib, Al Ain Wildlife Park seeks interns, the national journal, June, 2011 14 –http://www.bartenbach.com 15- Neil Norman, ZAYED AND THE DREAM: LONDON COLISEUM, London WC2, August 3, 2010.

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© SB13-Cairo 2013 Al-Azhar Park Sustainability: An Environmental Review Mostafa, A. M. and Kamel, D. K.

Al-Azhar Park Sustainability: An Environmental Review of a Distinct Model in Local Landscape Mostafa, A. M.1 and Kamel. D. K.2 1

Ain Shams University, Department of Architecture Abbassia, Cairo, Egypt e-mail: [email protected]

2

Ain Shams University, Department of Architecture Abbassia, Cairo, Egypt e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract: Cairo represents an example of dense urban areas in a hot arid climate that significantly requires the positive influences of green areas, but markedly lacks them. Al-Azhar Park responds to this harsh need of greenery and open spaces with an added value in its location among historic areas and distinct views of the old city. Its creation confronted many challenges but ended up with a large urban park that annually attracts millions of visitors. Although the park attracts many visitors who appreciate its greenery, panoramic views and vistas, its sustainability and integrity with its contexts should be reviewed taking into consideration its arid context and relevant sustainability criteria assigned for the evaluation of landscape developments, such as ‘Sustainable Sites Initiative’. Hence, this study aimed at reviewing the park’s sustainability along all its phases in order to enhance its future sustainability and its required environmental value continuity as well. The study methodology depended on a comparative analysis based on reviews of sustainability measures that should be considered versus investigating the park’s status via semi-structured interviews and observations, in order to conclude the park’s situation in terms of sustainability consideration.

The study concluded that Al-Azhar Park can be described as “contextually” and “partly” sustainable in terms of its various design aspects. While its ongoing operation and maintenance lack implementing many sustainable measures, such as adopting recycle/ reuse approaches and considering energy efficiency and its resources’ renewability. Missing measures should be considered and enrolled in integrated sustainable plans to ensure Al-Azhar Park subsistence and further enhance environmental awareness. Keywords: Al-Azhar Park, sustainable landscape, sustainable sites initiative

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1.

INTRODUCTION

Although Cairo was once described as the “Garden of the World” in the 14th century, it is now one of world’s most densely populated places that it significantly lacks greenery. A mid-eighties study estimated the rate of green space as low as the size of a footprint per inhabitant (Nassar, 2011). A more recent study pointed out that the overall rate ranges around 1.5 m2/ person which is still much less than international norms. Moreover it further diminishes to less than 0.1 m 2/ person in areas with higher population density and low incomes (El-Zafarany, 2004). In such a heavily green-lacking context, Al-Azhar Park with its large area (30 hectare) and location near poor neighborhoods and Cairo’s center (figure 1), represents a great response to this lack both to the whole case of Cairo and to its neighborhoods in particular, whose communities economically benefited from the park creation as well. Such improvements qualified Al-Azhar Park to be considered one of the world’s sixty great public spaces and the only one in Egypt by the Project for Public Spaces (PPS) (PPS, 2011). Thus, the park’s creation emerges as an objective in itself, particularly when considering the challenges its creation had to face. Its creation commenced on 1984, yet its completion was only on 2004 (Rashti, 2004). Considering the significance of AlAzhar Park highly stimulates verifying its subsistence; more specifically its sustainability, whose first definition reflected the quest for the subsistence of the environments, whether natural, social or economic. Thus, this study aims at investigating Al-Azhar Park sustainability as a base for its subsistence and continuity in performing its roles as a unique landscape development in the local context

2.

Figure 1: Al-Azhar Park greenery within its urban context and the adjacent Salah Salem road

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

To achieve this research aims; a multi-layered methodology was applied with the following three investigation mechanisms: First, a preliminary content analysis of the relevant international guide and performance benchmarks of landscape practices’ sustainability (Sustainable Sites Initiative; SITES) has been carried out in order to build a criteria framework for sustainable landscape. Second, based on the previous investigation, and for the purpose of this study, the SITES rating system points were reviewed, slightly amended and reformulated by adding some missing points accordingly with the main categories. The last SITES category of ‘monitoring and innovation’ was included in the points added to the main previous categories. Then, all points were formulated as questions for the semi-structured interviews’ template prepared by the researchers. The design of this template considered the limited awareness of environmental sustainability in local practice; it was formulated to quest information shortly yet expressively while being open and receptive to unexpected information from the interviewees. A review of 163


Al-Azhar park site selection, pre-design, design, construction, operation and maintenance phases was planned and achieved through the semi-structured interviews with key-persons involved with all these phases; they are: Prof. Dr. Maher Stino and Prof. Dr. Laila El-Masry (Sites International – Development and preparation of the final master plan, detailed final designs and construction documents and construction management); Eng. Hisham Hassan (Engineering and Maintenance Manager of the park); Mr. Mohammad Elessawy (The park’s deputy manager); Prof. Dr. El-Saady and Prof. Dr. Mohammed El-Khateeb (Horticulture Department – Al-Azhar Park); and Mr. Ahmed Abdel Hameed (Guest Relation Department – AlAzhar Park). Third, field visits and observations were carried out to complement the second review. Based on these steps, the park’s status, in terms of sustainability consideration, has been figured out.

3.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Sustainability of the built environment should be enhanced for the sustainability of the natural environment and the built environment itself. This applies to buildings and landscape developments, however landscape developments may have acquired less boosting based on considering landscape more related to nature, hence spontaneously green and ‘sustainable. However, reconsidering landscape design as a system with inputs and outputs, its sustainability remains questionable according to their quality; whether environmental, social or economic. Thus, sustainable landscape could be defined as the one that balances human needs and the environment, aiming to minimize the inputs of non-renewable resources and energy, maximize levels of internal recycling and improve the outputs’ environmental quality (Smith, Clayden, & Dunnett, 2008), as figure 2 depicts. Evaluating sustainable practices can boost their approaches’ implementation and publicity; a fact that encouraged developing evaluative framework of sustainable practices, which commenced for buildings about 15 years ago, yet only manifested in landscape in 2009 with the emerging Sustainable Sites Initiative “SITES”. Guidelines and Performance Benchmarks that were created on 2009 representing a landscape-oriented rating system. SITES was modeled after the LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) the green building rating system (USGBC, 2009), similarly structured from categories, prerequisites, and credits (Solomon, 2012). SITES directly focuses on site and landscape design with or without buildings, while LEED included similar sustainable measures for site or landscape scattered along its categories and was more building-oriented. SITES categories also positively differ from that of LEED in their related sequence to landscape projects’ development, making it more applicable along development phases of any landscape project (Solomon, 2012).

Figure 2: Sustainable landscape as low inputs -outputs’ system

However, reviewing the categories addressed by SITES, reveals some shortfalls, such as requiring the materials properties that help reducing heat island effect in the “soil and vegetation” category despite having another category for materials’ selection. Also for the materials’ response to storm-water; the use of permeable or impermeable materials in accordance with water hydrological requirements is not clearly required in SITES. Besides, hydro-zoning as a strategy for water efficiency in irrigation is not clearly requested.

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Thus, despite the advantageous setting and categorization of SITES, it seems to miss some points or to fairly enhance them. Therefore, this study prepared an amended similar framework. The obstacles that confronted the park’s creation have been discussed in many articles, but sparse studies adopted evaluative approaches to quantify the park’s performance. This is more evident when considering the emerging and essential approaches such as sustainability.

4.

FINDINGS OF REVIEWING AL-AZHAR PARK SUSTAINABILITY

Based on the semi-structured interviews, field visits, observations and the relevant literature reviews, findings could be drawn following the structure of the interview’s template that basically conformed with that of SITES (American Society of Landscape Architects, et al., 2009).

4.1.

Site Selection

Site selection represents the basic unrecoverable step towards sustainability achievement, to preserve existing resources and minimize environmental disturbance. In Al-Azhar Park, its previously derelict dump site with its advantageous location proposed itself to be assigned as a vast park. Thus, the selection of the site was based on realizing the harsh need of greenery in Cairo, and more specifically in the site’s neighborhoods (Nassar, 2011). The following sections demonstrate the park’s site response to the required points; the first five are required as prerequisites in SITES, while the last one presents an added value to the park project. Limiting the Development of Prime, Unique, or Nationally Important Farmlands As Cairo lacks greenery and the park’s site lies in the Cariene dense fabric, the park site does not trespass any form of farmlands. Protecting and Preserving Floodplains, Wetlands, Threatened or Endangered Species and Their Habitats The park’s site is away from such significant areas, hence does not trespass them. Selecting Brownfields or Greyfields Sites for Development Al-Azhar Park site was originally used as a debris dump for more than 500 years. Thus the park represents a distinct example of converting a brownfield site into a functional useful one, which is of the most significant features of Al-Azhar Park creation. Selecting Sites within Existing Communities Al-Azhar Park’s site is in the vicinity of many neighborhoods and the main road of Salah Salem, as figure 3 shows. Its adjacency to Al-Darb Al-Ahmar neighborhood helps improving the neighborhood local cultural, social and economic aspects via its residents’ participation in the park’s ongoing activities, employing some neighboring residents in its construction and operation works and via exhibiting and marketing some of their handicraft works.

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Figure 3: Al-Azhar Park circulatory paths and connections with surroundings (Rashti, 2004)

Selecting Sites that Encourage Non-Motorized Transportation and Use of Public Transit Al-Azhar Park adjacency to Al-Darb Al-Ahmar provides pedestrian access to it via many entrances along the western side of the park which also provide access from the park to the context historical attractions. Accessibility via many public transit means is provided from the adjacent road of Salah Salem road at the eastern side. Other non-motorized transportation means (such as bicycles) and facilities are neither common nor organized in Egypt. Selecting Sites to Fulfil Needs of Their Contexts This point is recommended to sustainability weighting of the site selection, to encourage developments that are responsive to their contexts’ needs. Al-Azhar Park’s site responds to the harsh need of green spaces in the over-dense Cairo, where having an open space is highly appreciated but least probable due to economic pressures. The park project aimed to improve local climate, human health and well-being in nearby neighborhoods and the whole Cairo.

4.2.

Pre-Design Assessment and Planning

Pre-design assessment and planning is a basic starting step towards sustainable measures’ implementation; to predict sustainability potentials. Establishing Integrated Teams for the Park Works A team of different specialties was formed with the project onset; it subordinates to the Aga Khan Trust for Culture (AKTC) and included: a design team for the park’s planning and landscape design; Sasaki Associates and Sites International, later architects were involved for the buildings’ design. Site and geotechnical surveys and soil tests were carried out by a team from Cairo University and foreign partners (AKTC, 2005). A professional team for horticulture and gardening was also assigned for the park’s works that started working in experimental and propagating off-site plant nurseries with the participation of the American University of Cairo which offered a 20 hectare desert plot for this purpose (Jodido, 2011). Pre-Design Assessment of Site Sustainability Potentials In this phase, most assessment and treatment measures were dedicated for the site soil and associated vegetation due to the original site condition. Extensive geo-technical soil tests, initiated in the concept phase, revealed that the site soil was inhomogeneous, loose, and compressible with high salinity levels due to its previous use. Thus, the main challenge was to convert such disadvantageous soil into proper land for the Park’s creation. In addition, the site was requested by the General Organization of Greater Cairo Water Supply (GOGCWS) to 166


include the construction of a municipal water reservoir complex, consisting of three large, circular reservoirs (each 80 m ø), distribution lines (including a I.4 m ø transmission line), and a pump station. This delayed the park work and added additional requirements to its planning to integrally safeguard the reservoir complex while providing accessibility for maintenance purposes. Another challenge was the excavation of the historic Ayyubid wall, which extends more than 1300 meter. The historic wall required restoration considering the western slopes of the park grading, vegetation, irrigation and drainage systems. The impacts of the reservoir complex inclusion and the historic wall excavation were assessed and considered. Users’ and Stakeholders’ Participation (AKTC) devoted consideration to the participation of Al-Darb Al-Ahmar residents in the park’s creation phases to enhance their positive connection with the place and benefit from their view points. Al-Darb Al-Ahmar residents’ views towards the park were limited as they did not expect its availability for their use. Stakeholders include (AKTC) which initiated the project as a gift to Al-Darb Al-Ahmar district in parallel with the rehabilitation of many historic buildings there. It prioritized the neighborhood residents to contribute in the park’s construction and operation phases. The ministry of culture was also interested in the restoration activities (INURA Cairo).

4.3.

Site Design

Optimizing the design of site soil, vegetation, water elements, materials and other facilities related to human health and well-being basically enhances its functionality and sustainability; hence the park status in terms of these points are reviewed in the following section Soil and Vegetation Soil and vegetation are much related aspects of healthy sites. Vegetation has positive climatic and environmental impacts such as mitigating heat island effect and pollution. In Al-Azhar Park, about two-thirds of the vast site areas are assigned for vegetation (Rashti, & Stino, 2001), emphasizing their impacts and sustainability significance, as reviewed in the following: a. Soil Management Developing a proper soil management plan is crucial to protect and restore healthy soils. However, in Al-Azhar Park, the site previous use did not allow healthy soil, nutrients or hydrology to exist, resulting in no need to protect or restore any of them. Instead, the site soil required treating its high salinity and disadvantages (AKTC, 2005).

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To tackle the soil problems, a total of about 1.5 million cubic meters of rubble and soil were removed; about 160,000m3 of them were used as fill elsewhere on site and about 605,000m3 were subjected to geotechnical treatment that included mixing with special sand and Wetting agents to provide improved topsoil layer whose depth is 0.5 to 2.0m. Underneath the topsoil, is a clay membrane layer, 0.3 to 0.5 meters thick, that was designed and laid down to prevent irrigation water seepage and consequent soil settlement. This clay layer was obtained from the drilling of Al-Azhar tunnel and other river bed sources near Cairo. The original soil beneath was previously sprayed and compacted. Above the clay liner, perforated drainage network pipes were allocated to collect excessive irrigation water, hence protect lower soil from water-caused settlement (Rashti, & Stino, 2001) (Figure. 4). Figure 4: Section through the park’s topsoil (Nassar, 2011)

Areas to be planted were further treated by improving additives and nutrients; moreover, salt flushing by initial irrigation was applied on site. Hardscape areas were supported by the replacement of their top soil with compacted layers of 'structural fill', to depths of 2 to 3 meters while major buildings required piling or raft foundation supports. b. Preservation of Vegetation Designated as Special Status No procedures were implemented at Al-Azhar Park’s site to protect or preserve such vegetation as they did not originally exist. c. Water-Efficiency Considerations: Vegetation Selection and Hydro-Zoning Moderating total consumption of water by the selective usage and allocation of plants has been prioritized at the park. Therefore, vegetation selection and hydro-zoning are applied as follows:

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- Most vegetation types used at the park are suitable for their site in terms of water requirements, whether native or adaptive species which represent the majority of species. Nevertheless, efforts are made to revive some Egyptian native types. - Succulent desert plants and creeper plants are used on the western slopes to control soil erosion and probable runoff, which in turn conserves the irrigation water, and reduces water pressure on the historic Ayyubid wall (figure 5). - Large areas of the park are covered with grass, creating lawns which are desired for their aesthetic appearance but are criticized for their high need to irrigation and maintenance. - Hydro-zoning helps using irrigation water efficiently via closely allocating plants with similar irrigation needs (The Colorado Department of Local Affairs, 2004). This approach is applied in the park.

Figure 5: Plant species at western slopes

d. Appropriateness of Plant Species Native and adaptive plants are preferred in sustainable practices as the first support native wildlife and naturally adapt with their climatic conditions and associated water availability (Reel, n. d.); and the second provide similar results though they differ in their origin. More than 650 plant species were planted in Al-Azhar Park (Stino, & Stino, 2011). The following is a general review of the plant species’ categorization in the park: - Native plants such as acacia, palm trees, sycamore, buckthorn, and tamarindus indica are used at the park. Horticultural superintendents at the park pointed out that native species are limited at the park due to the higher availability of adaptive plants. - Adaptive plants are widely used across the park; for example roystonea (commonly known as royal palms), are used to emphasize the main spine, their use of water is higher than that of native palms; however their aesthetic distinction outweighed its use. Olive (olea europaea) is another used adaptive example that is native at the eastern Mediterranean basin coastal areas. - Exotic plants are vegetated sparsely for educational reasons. -No invasive plants are grown. e. Vegetation Usage with Regard to Sustainability The significance of vegetation in landscape projects includes functional, visual and aesthetic benefits. This is evident at Al-Azhar Park, as the following section demonstrates: - The park is described as the lung of Cairo. It reduces soil erosion, improves the micro climate and mitigates heat island effect via reducing pollution and green gas emissions. - Vegetation at the park is not utilized to minimize cooling or heating requirements of the park’s few buildings which are designed in fair accordance with their environment climatic factors. - Herbal plants, such as cymbopogon citratus, geranium and tamarindus indica are cultivated for educational aims and limited trading. The latter purpose has not been achieved, since some of the visitors occasionally pick some of these plants considering them public properties. 169


- Vegetation elements are used to define spaces and paths. They are used as focal elements or spaces at some places as well, such as the sunken garden and the formal garden. The park vegetation supports design theme derived from the contextual historic Islamic heritage of old Cairo, via elements such as the main spine and citrus orchard. (Stino, & Stino, 2011). Water Providing irrigation water for man-made gardens is of critical importance in arid climates. The Egyptian quota of water per capita reached less than the world water scarcity limit in 2009 (The Ministry of Economic Development, & UNDP, 2010). Sustainable landscape should protect, restore and support its site hydrology and different water resources, particularly potable water. The following points present the water use strategies implemented in Al-Azhar Park: a. Water Efficiency of Irrigation Systems and Schedules The irrigation systems used in the park depend on the use of sprinklers and drippers. Both systems are automatically controlled and allocated according to the plant species. Water requirements are automatically and daily determined depending on a local weather station specifically constructed at the park. Sprinklers are mainly used for the irrigation of lawns, while drippers are used for shrubs and trees. Sprinklers’ types vary accordingly with the plant species. Sprinklers’ heads are positioned and oriented to irrigate their designated areas with no loss in adjacent areas. Drippers are also used for the western slope to reduce the excess irrigation water and in turn the stress on the Ayyubid wall. Hoses are sometimes used. The park average daily consumption of irrigation water is estimated to a range around 1200m3. b. Managing Rainwater through Design Rainwater rates at Cairo do not exceed 2.4cm per year (Abd-Elkader, Bassily, & Michael, 1998), which was considered too low to be harvested. c. Use of Non-potable Water for Irrigation Non-potable water sources include harvested rain-water and recycled greywater and wastewater, all of which are not considered at Al-Azhar Park, due to the scarcity of the rain water and the unavailability of other alternatives’ implementation approaches. The main source of irrigation is raw Nile water from a nearby municipal distribution line that conduits water to the lake, whose water is mechanically filtered. The lake serves as a strategic reservoir for the park’s irrigation as its volumetric capacity is about triple the daily amount of required irrigation water. It is periodically maintained to minimize sedimentations and retain its volume capacity. Fountains are used in the lake to freshen its surface water, besides their aesthetic effects. d. Design of Drainage Systems with Regard to Site Hydrology Due to the abovementioned site soil conditions, the subsoil requires continuous protection against water leakage, particularly along the Ayyubid wall. Thus, there is no hydrology of the site to be maintained; instead, the site requires draining excess irrigation away from the subsoil layers, which is achieved by the drainage system as described before. The drainage perforated pipes are surrounded by gravel filter to extract excess water from the top soil. e. Water Efficiency in the Selection of Landscape Water Elements Water elements are key factors in landscape developments for their aesthetic and spatial influences and enhancing environment for accordant wildlife (Dee, 2007). The selection of water elements in arid contexts should be weighted with regard to water use-efficiency. In the park, water elements could encompass its recreational symbolic values with water efficiency to a 170


great extent, based on the fact that most elements’ design simulates their precedents along the history of Islamic architecture landscape. The park’s water elements depend on the best utilization of water simultaneously with achieving maximum visual and climatic benefits. The water elements types used in the park are: fountains, cascades and runnels, in addition to the lake. The fountains design used in the park, such as that at the entrance area, have no standing pool as they stem out from flat surfaces hence avoid potentials of this base water evaporation. Cascades and runnels are linear with shallow depth to utilize water economically yet provide spatial orientation (Figure 6). Thus, except for the lake, all water elements are relatively limited in their water volume.

Figure 6: Some of the water elements in Al-Azhar Park

f. Efficient Strategies in Water Elements Water elements should be operated efficiently in terms of water consumption. In Al-Azhar Park: water elements are run by two pumps that re-circulate the water after filtering it. Materials’ Selection Materials should be sourced and used efficiently throughout their life-cycle. Their management as a part of sustainable landscape practices is examined in the Park as follows: a. Maintaining On-Site Structures, Hardscape and Landscape Amenities Al-Azhar Park’s site did not originally include eligible elements to be maintained for resources’ conserving and wastes reducing. b. Use of Recycled Content and/or Salvaged Materials Although this approach helps reducing waste outputs to the environment and the consumption of virgin materials, it is not common in local practice or Al-Azhar Park either. c. Using Materials and Plants from Sustainability-practicing Providers and Manufacturers Manufacturers and providers, whose practices increase energy efficiency and reduce resources’ consumption, should be prioritized. However, such approach is unfamiliar in local practice. d. Use of Wood from Sustainable Sources Although eliminating the use of wood from threatened species and the exclusive use of wood from certified sources enhance resources’ sustainability, such concepts are not common in Egypt, as most kinds of wood are purchased from the local market which depends mostly on imported commodity with no consideration of the wood origins’ sustainability. e. Use of Regional Materials In Al-Azhar Park, hardscape works depend on local resources and craftsmen. Hardscape and features materials are mostly of different kinds of local stones. Marble benches, and lighting posts were fabricated at workshops in a nearby district; Al-Sayyida Aisha. Other materials and fixtures are purchased from the local market though they are originally imported in their most.

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f. Consideration of Deconstruction, Disassembly, Reuse and Recycle of Used Elements and Materials Reusing and/ or recycling of the used materials and elements are not a regulatively adopted approach in the Park. For instance, woody furniture used in the park’s restaurants was maintained and reused. However, due to its public heavy usage, some of it has been resold to the park workers even after maintenance since the status was much degraded for public reuse. In addition, waste recycling was proposed at the onset of the project and assigned a store for wastes classification, however the idea was not applied and the storage is used only for wastes’ collecting. Generally, about one third of the whole leavings are sent to the landfill. g. Environmental Response to Heat and Water This point is not independently designated in the ‘SITES’ benchmark. However, for its significance it should be focused to enhance that landscape materials acquire high solar reflective index (SRI) and appropriate permeability according to site hydrology. In the Park, most of the hardscape materials have light colors. However, hardscape ground cover is impermeable, yet suitable for the site soil above-mentioned properties. h. Use of Low-VOCs Aiding and Finishing Materials This point is not considered in selecting sealants, paints and coatings, although these materials are selected of well-known international brands, but without checking the VOCs contents. Normal safety considerations – such as using masks and gloves – while using such products are applied based on the guidelines of the Environment, Health and Safety Department (EHS). Human Health and Well-Being Human health and well-being should be enhanced through site design where environmental, cultural and social aspects should be integrally considered, as the following points will review. a. Equitable Site Development and Use The (AKTC) prioritized employing the adjacent Al-Darb Al-Ahmar neighborhood residents for the construction works of the park after qualifying them through training courses in order to improve economic and social aspects in addition to enhancing their positive connection with the project. The (AKTC) still requests the stewardship of Al-Darb Al-Ahmar residents for the park’s operation and maintenance works, yet their participation percentage retracted from about 80% of workers during construction to 38% during operation due to the need of other qualifications and some deficient attitudes of them. Improving social and economic aspects is also considered in the park’s operation for Al-Darb AlAhmar and the whole of Cairo, via measures such as: - Sessions with representatives from Al-Darb Al-Ahmar were held in the park’s project onset to investigate their relevant needs and demonstrate the park’s significance for their neighborhood. - Representatives from Al-Darb Al-Ahmar are welcomed to clarify any complaints. - Reduced ticket price for visitors from Al-Darb Al-Ahmar. - Reduced ticket price for charity targets (e.g. orphanages and similar institutions). - The Park hosting blood donation campaigns. - Handicrafts sessions for children. - Social gathering events for handicapped. - Festivals for special events and holidays.

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b. Sustainability Awareness and Education Sustainable practices should enhance sustainability awareness to positively influence users’ attitudes and behavior, particularly in a place like Al-Azhar Park, This is reviewed as follows: - The park is considered a botanical garden where the environmental awareness of plant types is raised by labeling many of them. - Educational trips organized by other bodies for enhancing the environmental awareness of flora and fauna are also welcomed in the park. (figure 7) - Collaborating with the Wadi Environmental Science Center (WESC), and the British Council of Cairo, the park hosted the annual festival of the World Environment Day, on which many sessions, exhibits and activities are held as environmental awareness festival. These events are prepared with special considerations of resources’ preservation and environmental protection being adopted and applied. The activities included showcasing of recycled toys and demonstrations of environment friendly technologies (UNEP, 2008). In 2010, the American University in Cairo (AUC) participated in the festival via displaying information about the different applicable household means of sustainability and on how sorting trash at home may help trash collectors in the recycling process. (AUC, 2011)

Figure 7: Labelling plants’ types at the park

c. Consideration of Location and Surroundings This was accomplished in Al-Azhar Park via two distinct approaches: First, the park creation was a part of an integrated project for the restoration of Al-Darb Al-Ahmar neighborhood. Hence, its construction was accompanied with the restoration of about 1.5 kilometer section of the excavated 12th century historic Ayyubid wall. In addition, restoration and cultural rehabilitation of many historic buildings in Al-Darb Al-Ahmar were also implemented. Secondly, the park design optimized its site potentials that include: overlooking the 15th century Mamluk “City of the Dead” and open panoramic views of Cairo, and the refined hilly topography mostly caused by the accumulations of the debris during the site previous use. The park hence provides panoramic views of Cairo’s Islamic skylines, particularly by the main spine that runs from the Hill Top restaurant to the Lakeside Café emphasizing the unique Citadel complex view.

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d. Accessibility, Safety and Way-finding The park site is easily accessible by different means including public transportation and on foot from adjacent neighborhoods. Most areas in the park are easily accessible for all users including the Handicapped. A number of electric cars are available upon request, mostly for old or handicapped visitors’ circulation. Moreover and based on fair follow up of users’ problems and demands; a paved path across the green to the pergola area was added to provide suitable shortcut that many users were spontaneously taking on the green cover. (figure 8) The park is well monitored via wandering security members and a police section in the park’s administration, resulting in fair security along its areas. Adequate levels of lighting enhance safety assurance and perception. According to a study that handled aspects of the park’s post occupancy evaluation (Salama, 2008), about one third of the study’s respondents considered lighting levels insufficient at some places causing them to look unsafe. Therefore, nocturnal lights were increased with about 30-40 %.

Figure 8: Turning an unplanned shortcut into a constructed path

Regarding way-finding, there are many signs and maps that guide to the park’s areas. Nevertheless, the abovementioned study pointed that also about one third of its respondents face difficulties in their way-finding in the park and attributed that to reasons such as the need to have ‘you are here’ maps, the small size of lettering, seeing difficulties due to low nocturnal lighting levels and the signs’ poor distribution. e. Opportunities for Outdoor Physical Activities Al-Azhar Park is designed to provide different experiences by manipulating various physical features of landscape morphology without specifying areas for certain activities, except for the children area and the sport complex assigned for Al-Darb Al-Ahmar residents. This was meant by the park’s designers to allow various interpretations by users according to their preferences. f. Light Pollution Light pollution is minimized in the park via limiting lighting to passages and focal points of entrances and buildings. Lighting levels were designed to create subtle effects in many areas but ere recently raised to provide better nocturnal visibility and security.

4.4 Construction Construction activities have degrading impacts on the natural environment due to associated air and water pollution, soil and existing vegetation disturbance, if sustainability is not well considered. Considering these issues in Al-Azhar Park are reviewed in the following points: Protection of Existing Site Soil and Vegetation No protection measures were taken during construction activities for existing soil or vegetation, as the site previous use created disadvantageous nonhomogeneous soil.

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Protection and Restoration of Soil Proposed for No-Buildings Uses This approach intends to protect areas of the soil that is proposed to be planted or for purposes other than building upon. Similarly with the previous point, this measure is also irrelevant. Restoring Soils Disturbed by Previous Development and/ or During Construction Due to its poor original status, the park’s whole site soil was treated in various ways with no specific data about protection plans or measures implemented during construction phase. Controlling Construction Pollutants Construction activities are usually associated with polluting wastes for soil, water and air. In the case of Al-Azhar Park, two main reasons resulted in no consideration of such approaches: the deteriorated status of the original site, and the lack of such approaches in the local practice of construction activities. Although the first reason may justify missing any specific measures adopted during construction to minimize disturbing the site soil or water, it does not stand for not considering measures to minimize any potential air pollution, but the second reason does. Use of Low-emitting Construction Equipment For this point, SITES states requirements that apply to all diesel engines used on site during construction. Diesel fuels are generally used in Egypt for construction vehicles and equipment, which are reviewed by the Ministry of State for Environmental Affairs as a partial requirement to renew their license (MSEA, 2011). The efficiency of the criteria implemented by the ministry in general and the efficiency of construction equipment in Al-Azhar Park in particular, are not clearly stated or reported by the investigated persons or elsewhere. Diverting Construction and Demolition Materials for Reuse or Recycle In Al-Azhar Park, the site soil was mostly contaminated, hence has been partly amended and used in the mixture for the new improved soil layers. However, no reuse of the construction activities’ wastes was implemented.

4.5 Operation and Maintenance Operation and maintenance can be described as the most crucial phase for any project continuity. In this regard, the present status of Al-Azhar Park can be described as follows:

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4.5.1. Sustainable Site Maintenance Plan Maintenance plays a vital role in sustaining projects; this can be conceived when comparing AlAzhar Park with other Cairene public gardens such as Al-Fustat garden or the International Park at Nasr City, where the inadequate maintenance caused their deterioration both. Al-Azhar Park operation team follows up maintenance practices that can be easily observed when visiting the park. Nevertheless, there is no specific site maintenance plan that helps ensuring the development sustainability. 4.5.2. Storage and Collection of Recyclables There is only an allocated storage near the main park entrance as mentioned before, however it proved its inadequacy with the park operation as it can only hold wastes on daily basis. Thus, more storage spaces are required for storing requirements (particularly for exhibits equipment) and restoring activities required to prepare worn fixtures for reuse. As for the recyclable organic materials, a storage and treatment space is allocated beside the plants’ nursery. 4.5.3. Recycling Organic Matter At Al-Azhar Park, organic matter produced form vegetation trimming and cleaning are recycled and mixed with chemicals to produce compost that is used to fertilize the park’s vegetated soil. 4.5.4. Outdoor Energy Consumption and Renewable Sources for Landscape Electricity Needs Energy-saving lamps are recently used for outdoor lighting. The British council and the Wadi Environmental Science Center (WESC) have also suggested a ‘Zero-Carbon’ program in which some ideas were introduced such as generating renewable energy from solar radiation and wind at the park, and constructing environmental toilet units whose organic wastes are treated and reused as compost. However, these ideas have not been implemented due to economic constraints emerging after the political changes since 25th of January-2011. 4.5.5. Limiting Exposure to Environmental Tobacco Smoke and Greenhouse Gases Smoking is only banned at the children area. Concepts of limiting the use of landscape maintenance equipment that exposes the site and users to localized air pollutants or generate greenhouse gases are neither locally common nor applied in the park. 4.5.6. The Use of Fuel-Efficient Vehicles Electric cars are available for the park operation team and visitors, with no more consideration of fuel-efficient or low-emitting vehicles which are not common locally.

5.

DISCUSSION

It is worth reporting that investigating the park’s status was not neither easily conducted nor well quantitatively supported due to the lack of quantitative documented information provided by the investigated key persons. This also excluded the possibility of quantitatively evaluating the park’s sustainability in terms of credits or points as in Sustainable Sites Initiative rating system. The investigation and the detailed analysis of the five phases of the park reveal various aspects of success and shortage, as briefed in the following points:

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(1) Site selection can be claimed as the most sustainable phase of the park development, though not intentionally for ‘sustainability’, mostly for the developing of a heavily deteriorated brownfield dump site, also for its connections with existing communities, public transit and responsiveness to contextual demands. (2) Pre-Design assessment and planning phase can be described as partly sustainable since its sustainability-relevant measures were limited. Despite assigning integrated team of different specialties for the park’s creation, they are not specifically experienced in sustainable practices. No assessment of sustainability potentials had been done, except for the assessments of the site soil and relevant suitable vegetation. However, prospected users participated with their opinions and later in the park construction and operation phases. (3) Site design phase can be described as partly sustainable based on the following: (3-1) Soil and vegetation design are partly sustainable based on the adaptability of most plants and adopting the hydrozoning approach while using large lawns throughout the park. (3-2) Water use is mostly sustainable due to measures such as: the efficiency considered in irrigation systems, schedules, water elements’ selection and their operation. On the other hand, the use of rainwater or non-potable water resources and accurate measurement of water use are missing at the park. In addition, adopting vast lawns despite their relative high needs of watering was justified by the park’s landscape designers’ realization of the park’s uniqueness within its context. They considered the lawns a sort of compensation of the very low rate of green spaces per Cairene inhabitant, particularly when considering the inappropriateness of the few ground cover alternatives in serving the purposes that lawns serve. (3-3) Materials’ Selection is partly sustainable based on using local materials and the good response of hardscape materials to the site heat and water conditions while not considering reuse or recycle approaches of materials, or the use of low VOCs’ materials. (3-4) Human health and well-being were partly considered via well considering the park’s unique location and historic surroundings, also for its site accessibility, availability of cultural and physical activities, and relative promoting of environmental awareness. (4) Construction phase does not seem sustainable as there is no evidence for controlling its associated pollution or for adopting reuse or recycle approaches of its wastes, although the site deficient soil was restored by construction activities. (5) Operation and Maintenance phase lacks most of the sustainability-qualifying measures, such as: having a sustainable maintenance plan, collecting recyclables; except for organic ones, considering fuel and energy efficiency and utilizing renewable energy sources in the outdoor. Therefore, this phase is mostly unsustainable. As a whole, the park could prove sustainability; mostly in its site selection, to different extents in its pre-design, design and construction phases with limited sustainability consideration in its operation phase, as figure 9 briefs, where the bars’ length represents the relative extent of considering each of the corresponding investigated measures.

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Figure 9: Al-Azhar Park sustainability evaluation

Reviewing Al-Azhar Park status in terms of sustainability also revealed the following: The park project onset had been in the mid-eighties of the last century, while the sustainability concept was later defined; hence many sustainability approaches were not manifested yet during the park’s preliminary development phases. The park’s original site status was much deteriorated resulting in two consequences: first, the inexistence of the physical features that can constitute sustainability potentials; hence, no assessment, protection or restoration was executed for such elements; hence they are marked as ‘not applicable’ in figure 9. Secondly, most preliminary phases of the park exclusively focused on the soil reclamation and preparation for the park’s purposes. The local context lacks the knowledge and the practice of sustainability; this can be easily observed in the educational programs and local media and it resulted in many sequences relevant to this study: o Many investigated issues that constitute the practical support for implementing sustainable measures are missing in local practice; such as: the availability of wood from sustainable sources, manufacturers or providers that support sustainable practices, also the availability of manufacturers and mechanisms to support the reuse and/ or recycle of materials, were they are wasted from the site or provided to it. Therefore, these measures are described as ‘not applicable’ in figure 9. Such measures were also out of the perception or concerns’ scope of most investigated persons. o Some sustainable measures are partly and not intentionally implemented, such as: the occasional selling or reuse of some used materials and the recent use of energy-efficient lighting for outdoors and the use of few electric (low-emitting) vehicles in the park.

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6.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Generally, it is not fairly practical to use the Sustainable Sites Initiative (SITES) benchmark to evaluate the sustainability of local landscape developments at present due to the inexistence of relevant local norms and authorized bodies that can organize and quantitatively check detailed performance practices. Based on the above-discussed points, Al-Azhar Park can be described as: - ‘Contextually’ sustainable; relative to its context which lacks considering the sustainability approaches, both conceptually and practically, and - Partly sustainable; based on applying some measures in the park’s phases of site selection pre-design and design though not clearly targeting the sustainability concept which has been defined later. Conversely, the ongoing operation and maintenance phase lacks many sustainability measures though the concepts of sustainability are better defined at the present despite not being so in the local context. Consequently and based on the fact that the operation and maintenance phase is the only ongoing one for better implementing of sustainable measures, well-defined plans for sustainable site operation and maintenance should be assigned, through which more conservative attitudes towards resources’ consumption and wastes’ handling should be adopted. These can include: Incorporating professional staff members specialized in sustainable measurements with eligible authorities. Their tasks should include: reviewing and improving ongoing operation and maintenance measurements in terms of sustainability, initiating missing sustainable measures and coordinating efforts with environment-concerned bodies and authorities. Considering better water efficiency which can be targeted by: providing greywater reclaiming systems and equipment; quantitatively monitoring water irrigation usage; and encouraging water efficiency practices of both the park’s workers via advisory training sessions and the users via simple brief advisory signs. Adopting more specific procedures for the reuse and/ or recycle of used materials; via specifying more suitable spaces than the currently available one, using well organized system for sorting, documenting and reorienting materials operated by trained staff. Prioritizing the selection and use of recycled content materials and low VOCs aiding and finishing materials where possible. Encouraging the use of fuel-efficient vehicles and renewable energy resources whose equipment can be kept against vandalism via their installing above roofs where possible. Minimizing the exposure to environmental tobacco smoke via assigning a limited area for it. Providing maps of the park with good distribution to improve way finding. Enhancing environmental awareness both quantitatively (by labeling and introducing more elements in the park) and qualitatively (by attractive means; such as videos, shows, festival events, competitions and children relevant activities).

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7.

REFERENCES

Aga Khan Trust for Culture (AKTC). (2005), Al-Azhar Park, Cairo and the Revitalization of Darb Al-Ahmar: Project Brief. pp. 3-4. Retrieved from the Aga Khan Development Network website: http://www.akdn.org/publications/2007_aktc_egypt.pdf American Society of Landscape Architects, Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center at The University of Texas at Austin,& United States Botanic Garden. (2009), The Sustainable Sites Initiative: Guidelines and Performance Benchmarks 2009. USA Dee, C. (2007), Form and Fabric in Landscape Architecture, London& New York: Spon Press. p.78 El-Zafarany, A. M. (2004), Existing Green Areas in Cairo, Comparison with Planning Criteria and International Norms. Proceedings of Faculty of Engineering Conference, Alazhar University 2004, Cairo. p. 10 Engineering and Maintenance Department at Al-Azhar Park. (2004), Working Drawings and Detailing Sheets: Fountain (14) General Arrangement Detail. INURA Cairo (International Network for Urban Research and Action). (n. d.), Cairo: The Organized Loss of Identity. p.2. Retrieved from the International Network for Urban Research and Action website: http://www.inura.org/NMM_Posters_PDF/INURA11_Cairo.pdf Jodido, P. ed. (2011), Case Studies: Egypt. In The Aga Khan Historic Cities Programme: Strategies for Urban Regeneration. pp.310-315. Munich: Prestel, Retrieved from: http://archnet.org/library/pubdownloader/pdf/13085/doc/DPC3526.pdf Ministry of State for Environmental Affairs (MSEA). (2011), Egypt State of the Environment Report 2010. Cairo: MSEA. p.38 Nassar, H. F. (2011), Cairo’s Great Oasis. Landscape Architecture Magazine, Apr. 2011, 90100 Project for Public Spaces (PPS). (2011), Al-Azhar Park. Retrieved from the project website: http://www.pps.org/great_public_spaces//one?public_place_id=812# Rashti, C. (2004), The Development of Azhar Park. In S. Bianca & P. Jodidio, (Eds.), Cairo: Revitalizing a Historic Metropolis Turin: Umberto Allemandi & C. for Aga Khan Trust for Culture, pp.149-163. Retrieved from: http://archnet.org/library/pubdownloader/pdf/9589/doc/DPC1553.pdf Rashti, C.& Stino, M. (2001), Converting a Derelict Site into an Urban Park. In Aga Khan Historic Cities Programme (formerly Historic Cities Support Programme): The Azhar Park Project in Cairo and the Conservation and Revitalisation of Darb al-Ahmar. Aga Khan Trust for Culture, pp. 15-34. Retrieved from: http://archnet.org/library/pubdownloader/pdf/8616/doc/DPC1246.pdf Salama, A. M. (2008), Media Coverage and Users’ Reactions: Al-Azhar Park in the Midst of Criticism and Post Occupancy Evaluation. METU Journal of the Faculty of Architecture. 2008/1 (25:1). pp. 105-125 180


Smith C., Clayden A. & Dunnett N. (2008), Residential Landscape Sustainability. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. pp. 5-7 Solomon, N. B. (2012), Site Specific: A new Sustainable Rating System Aims to Protect and Regenerate the Ecological Capacity of Landscapes. Retrieved from McGraw-Hill Construction Continuing Education website: http://ceu.construction.com/article_print.php?L=5&C=909 Stino, L. E. & Stino, M. (2011), The Design of Parks and Gardens in Cairo, Egypt: Their Heritage, Tradition and Development. IFLA APR Congress - Hospitality: The Interaction with Land. Bangkok, Thailand. p. 5. The American University in Cairo (AUC). (2011), Retrieved from The American University in Cairo website: http://www.aucegypt.edu/research/ddc/Pages/Committee.aspx The Colorado Department of Local Affairs, Office of Smart Growth. (2004), Water-Efficient Landscape Design. USA: Colorado Department of Local Affairs. p.2 The Ministry of Economic Development and the United Nations Development Program (UNDP). (2010), EGYPT'S PROGRESS TOWARDS ACHIEVING THE MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS 2010, p.126. Retrieved from United Nations Development Programme website: http://www.undp.org/content/dam/rbas/report/2010%20MDGR_English_R5.pdf United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). (2008), World Environment Day - 5 June 2008. Retrieved from the United Nations Environment Programme website: http://www.unep.org/wed/2008/english/Information_Material/Africa.asp US Green Building Council. (2009), LEED Reference Guide to Green Building Design and Construction. p.109. 69.‫ ﺹ‬،‫ ﺟﻬﺎﺯ ﺗﺨﻄﻴﻂ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ‬،‫ ﺍﻟﻘﺎﻫﺮﺓ‬،‫ ﺩﻟﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﺎﺭﺓ ﻭﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ‬.(1998) .‫ ﻭﺳﻮﺯﻳﺖ ﻣﻴﺸﻴﻞ‬،‫ ﺟﻮﺭﺝ ﺑﺎﺳﻴﻠﻲ‬،‫ﻣﺮﺍﺩ ﻋﺒﺪ ﺍﻟﻘﺎﺩﺭ‬

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© SB13-Cairo 2013 The post-revolutionary effect on the urban harmony of the Egyptian built environment Mahmoud, R A. and Abd Elrahman, A. S

The Post-revolutionary effect on the urban harmony of the Egyptian built environment in relation to the collective memory of the population: Urban context of the “after revolution” between contravention and elaboration Mahmoud, R.A.1 and Abd Elrahman, A.S.2 1

Ain Shams University, Department of Urban Design and Architecture Address of University, Egypt e-mail: [email protected]

2

Ain Shams University, Department of Urban Design and Architecture Address of University, Egypt e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract: The Egyptian urban space is in continuous metamorphoses since the Revolution of January 2011. This transformation is being manifested by various phenomena. On the one hand, the feeling of patriotism arose from Al Tahrir square to change the Egyptian’s soul. So People start to express their feeling by methods, considered as new to the Egyptian community, like graffiti. On the other, another part of the society started to make profit from this revolution and the non-application of the laws by the massive demolition of old buildings and the reconstruction of new towers. Moreover, there are unplanned installations of street vendors in many parts of the capital. In addition, and due insecurity reasons, fences are added everywhere in order to protect buildings, etc. This complex impact of Egyptian Revolution of 2011 on the Cairene urban space -with its interface between positive and negative- has been preoccupying us; especially when it comes to its effect on the urban harmony of the built environment of the city and its relation to the urban collective memory of the population. We believe that this intense metamorphosis of the Cairene urban space will deeply touch both the individual and the collective memory of its inhabitants. Consequently, urban users can be easily disturbed and detached from their urban personality due to these changes (as they were manifested on a large scale through all over the Egyptian capital.) This research will focus on the analysis of various phenomena appeared after the Egyptian Revolution. Moreover, it will scrutinize how these changes did or will affect the harmony of the Cairene urban space and their influence on the urban memory of the population. Keywords: collective, harmony, memory, metamorphosis, urban space

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1.

INTRODUCTION

The Egyptian Revolution was a catalyst for bringing on surface the best and the worse reactions of the Egyptian People. On the one hand, the sleeping artist inside each Egyptian is awakened to register and reflect the political situation on the walls of the city of Cairo. Graffiti has appeared through all districts of the capital to express feeling of sorrow, joy, disappointment, solidarity or even to send messages to the ruler. On the other hand, since the Egyptian Revolution of 2011, Cairo’s urban space is subjected to an ongoing process of spatial transformation. This dynamic state of the streets left citizens with an experience of an urban amnesia. The urban space is not recognizable anymore. These phenomena are manifested by different multiple actions: eradication of different buildings in most districts, adding fences to guarantee a minimal level of security, transforming certain streets into a location for commercial installations and street vendors and changing the activity of many buildings. Many districts of the Egyptian capital showed same symptoms: Nasr City, Heliopolis, Downtown and even New Cairo. We believe that this post-revolutionary impact deeply affects both the harmony of the Cairene urban space as well as the urban collective memory of the population. “Urban changes –the demolition of a home, for example – inevitably affect the habits of a few people, perplexing and troubling them.”(Halbwachs, 1950). The objective of this paper is to trace and scrutinize the changes that took place in different areas of Cairo in order to understand the effect of these changes on both the harmony of the urban space and the collective memory of the inhabitants of these areas. In our research we depended mainly on the observation of the transformed spaces as well as in-depth surveys with some users to see whether they are approving these changes or rejecting them.

2. LITERATURE REVIEW The term of “collective memory” appeared in different context in the second half of the nineteen century. It refers to shared information in the memory of a group of people using the same space. Émile Durkheim (1858–1917) and Maurice Halbwachs (1877–1945), philosophers and sociologists, were the most famous persons who analysed and developed this concept. The latter believed that every phase lived by a group of people in a certain space is usually translated by spatial images, recalled only by this group. And this is why “Spatial Images play so important a role in the collective memory.” (Halbwachs, 1950). According to Maurice Halbwachs in his book the collective memory, “La Mémoire Collective, 1950”, the change of our physical surrounding highly affects the image of our permanence and stability, thus our mental equilibrium. (Halbwachs, 1950) It’s exactly what’s happening in Cairo’s post-revolutionary urban space. What Cairo’s urban space experiences nowadays is like giving up its character or forcing its users to leave their urban personality behind. People are very susceptible to suffer from the metamorphoses of their living space more than any other serious event. The user of a certain space feels secured and stable as long as buildings and street remain the same. “As long as the locations of a building within a district and the district within a city haven’t changed as any tree, rock or hill, any urban group wouldn’t feel the change in their city. Paris and Rome, for example, […] the great majority may well be more sensitive to a 183


certain street being torn up, or a certain building or home being razed, than to the gravest national, political or religious events.” (Halbwachs, 1950). Halbwachs also stresses on the importance of the stability of the spatial surrounding, during a periods of time, for a group of people to remain united even after spreading in different places. “Although one may think otherwise, the reason members of a group remain united, even after scattering and finding nothing in their new physical surroundings to recall the home they have left, is that they think of the old home and its layout.” (Halbwachs, 1950). If we move to Aldo Rossi, the great architect in his book “The Architecture of a City, 1982”, he also recognizes that amid the process of urban evolution, monuments and landmarks are the fixed points that help citizens to be familiar with their city. These monuments are the points of reference in the inhabitants’ collective memory. Rossi means by monuments not only urban or architectural heritage from ancient eras, but also every building that people use to take as a landmark or a reference in their urban space. We believe that the massive demolition of old buildings that took place in Heliopolis after the revolution, for example, will put the Heliopolitains to the risk of being psychologically lost in their living space. We think that this kind of transformation is the most dangerous one amid the rest of metamorphosis process, which occurred through different actions in the Cairene urban space, after the Revolution of 2011.

3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY The research methods, employed in this document, consist of literature review concerning the topic of collective memory, urban character and street arts like graffiti. The literature review in this research is combined with in-depth interviews with both Cairenes who suffer from the metamorphoses of their living space and those who appreciate the appearance of street art (because it really expresses their feeling towards what happens in the country). However, our observation and photography of the transformation of the Cairene urban space after the Egyptian revolution of 2011 -and comparing our findings to what we have in our collective memory or some old photos- remain our main source of documents. During our research process, we observed and documented all kind of transformation -regardless whether we consider it negative or positive- that took place in the Cairene urban space in different districts. Interviews were mainly held with shop owners in Heliopolis and some of the old residents that use to live there before the revolution and some of the new comers in the new towers. We also depended on some interviews already done in the literature concerning the street art (Graffiti). Moreover, some of the inhabitants of New Cairo -those who felt anxious because of theft actions and thugs and the sense of insecurity during and after the revolution- provided us with some information that were very useful to us. We also interviewed some of the street vendors and People who live in the surrounding areas where these vendors were multiplied.

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4. URBAN MEMORY, URBAN HARMONY Let aside any considerations for comfort or aesthetics, we believe that each individual cumulates an urban memory that belongs to a certain place during an era of his life. This urban memory -depending mainly on a mixture of spatial images- allows this individual to live and react with certain stability in this space. These spatial images –regardless how beautiful, luxurious or in real harmony, from a professional point of view, the space is- correspond to a certain urban harmony fully or partially formed or matured in each individual memory. This is because each individual has a different perception of the urban space, depending on his cultural and social background. As a part of a community, the individual memory can be considered as the smallest cell. Whether the individual memory is formed alone or affected by others, at the end of the day it is a part of a bigger tissue, or we can say that individual memories integrate together to form the collective memory of this community. We are totally convinced that the transformation of the urban space whether by changing its activity or razing its old buildings, etc. will affect differently the inhabitants of this space, since each individual urban memory will experience a certain mutation manifested differently depending on the way each individual perceive this urban space. The sum of these individual memories into a collective one won’t be the same as existed before. The sum will be another collective memory, a deformed one. We believe that this massive change of urban context or urban harmony will strike the population with an urban amnesia. As a result, they won’t feel as stable or as secured in this urban space as they used to be. Let us put this theory differently, if we assumed that each individual memory corresponds to a pixel; this pixel is the smallest entity of a bigger picture. The bigger image is actually the collective memory of the inhabitants for a certain era, when they used to live comfortably and securely. If this pixel or this cell suffers from a complete transmutation then the bigger image won't be the same, and so is the collective memory as well as the sensation of stability of the population. If the Cairene urban space changes suddenly, and that's what happened after the Revolution, and each user lost his urban individual memory about this space, then the Cairene collective memory won't stay the same. People won’t be able to recognize their living space anymore or even recalling spatial images once described this place. Therefore, at this point we can dare to say that the inhabitants will suffer from what we call it an urban amnesia. It's exactly the same feeling when one person sleeps in a certain room. A room that he recognizes very well like the palm of his hands, each line and each corner evokes a certain memory or a certain event, and he wakes up the next day to find himself in a different room. This person might very likely suffer from a mental disturbance. This is why, for example, the rebuilding of Beirut Down Town was achieved with a replica of the old buildings that used to exist, same colours and same architecture, in order to bring back to its population their collective memory about this place. In the coming part we will try to list and scrutinize some of the changes that have been manifesting in the Cairene post-revolutionary urban space. We will try to assess, from our point of view, whether these changes are negative or positive and their effect on the inhabitants.

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5. 5.1.

A POST-REVOLUTIONARY URBAN CONTEXT Graffiti th

The 25 of Jan revolution led to a prospering action of artistic activities between the youth. The street graffiti played an important role to spread the message of the protesters as an open air art studio, specially the revolution's martyrs portrays. The most famous examples are in Mohamed Mahmoud Street besides the ministry of interiors. The artists or even the makers of Graffiti didn't think how their work had an influence of the political circumstances and on the society. Since the revolution of Egypt in 2011, the graffiti has started to return back to the Egyptian culture after being hindered for a long time, where during Mubarak era, it has been treated as illegal misdemeanour. Martyrs and heroes portraits, messages, Revolution success and Egyptian pride statements have been among the common graffiti drawn and sprayed all over some public and private entities fences, under the bridges and on some clubs’ exterior wall fences. Whatever was its location, it has been one of the ways that people express their thoughts and ideas. Colourful and random graffiti has affected the urban context and general appearance of lots of urban themes in Egypt, though some people believe that graffiti act as documentary evidence to events occurring during that period, exactly as the ancient Egyptians graffiti. We believe that people, who are welcoming the appearance of graffiti in the streets, again, think that this street art help them to register events in their memory. They consider it as a bond as it reminds them every day of the martyrs and of how what they have been through during this time. The propagation of graffiti street art in Cairo insures that a radical change has occurred in the relation of certain Cairenes to public space and the authorities, in the way in which they express themselves. (Adrienne de Ruiter, 2012)

Figure 1: Graffiti drawn by Ultras on Shams Club fence wall – "photo captured in July 2013 at Heliopolis district", Men Watching and Taking Pictures of the Martyr Murals in Mohamed Mahmoud St. – "photo captured in September 2012 at Mohamed Mahmoud St." (Researcher, 2013) (Ruiter, A., 2012)

Positive phenomenon, though walls used to be plain and white now they are portrayed with slogans, stencils and images. However, Graffiti in Cairo streets has become the society true Mirror. It reflects the state of mind of the youth, their complaints and expectation from the new regime. Also the Graffiti artists converted the public spaces to a place for culture participation. The Graffiti streets turned into a space for dialogue, discussion and also education, any message you can deliver to the passers by drawing on the wall, and the people see it a true message wish couldn't be portrayed in any newspaper or magazine. 186


Figure 2: The famous graffiti portrayed on the rocks that put by the police in front of Mohamed Mahmoud St. - "photo captured in September 2012 at Mohamed Mahmoud St.", another graffiti shows the restrictions imposed by authorities - "photo captured in September 2012 at Mohamed Mahmoud St." (Google images, 2013) (Martinez, 2013)

The urban memories for the people who use these streets and sites were affected, moreover, messages left behind by the artists that expressed their experience and feeling are, consequently, affected the memories and feelings of the residents and users of the place.

5.2.

Street vendors

Though one of the purposes of Egypt's 2011 revolution has been food affordability, the unemployment percentage along with the inflation percentage have dramatically increased, leading to a higher poverty rate. The matter that caused lots of people to seek working as a Street Vendor, especially in view of lack of the proper governmental supervision during the current circumstances. The negative impacts of said vendors have not only affected the urban context and the general appearance of the city, but also it has negatively affected the legal binding shops and boutiques selling similar products and paying taxes, plus highly blocking the traffic. The lack of governmental supervision again is blamed on the huge and increasing numbers of said vendors.

Figure 3: Street Vendors display their product in the right of way of Tala'at Harb St. in down town, a space in Opera squared fenced by the local authorities to be used by street vendors - "photos captured in May 2013 at Tala'at Harb St. & Opera Square – Down town" (Researcher, 2013)

Streets like Talaa't Harb, El-Bostan, Sherif, Adly were considered as a footpath for Cairo residents, where lots of commercial, administrative and recreational activities existed. Nowadays, many people avoid walking there, Cairo and down town residents are seeking for alternative places inside Cairo for shopping, Cinema and other activities. People don’t recognize 187


these places anymore. They don’t really feel secured; a sense of degradation is over whelming places where they used to live, shop or even promenade.

5.3.

Demolition and reconstruction

Heliopolis zone along with other similar places have been known by its high to moderate social standards with a very special organized urban planning. Since several years ago and largely in the past few years, the vertical extension has been a common trend, where villas are being replaced by towers and tall buildings, whatever was the street capacity to contain the residents of these buildings or not. After the Revolution, the massive demolition and construction is largely uncontrolled, yet the government is again to be blamed for leaving these vertical unstudied expansions. According to our surveys in Heliopolis concerning the eradication of old building and the reconstruction of towers, People kept telling us that the demolition occurs mainly over night after covering the site with banners or cloth, and the reconstruction takes place very quickly afterwards. They are all very upset because of the effect of new towers on their streets: nowhere to park cars, water is not sufficient and more loads on electricity, etc.

Figure 4: The Swiss Chalet, a famous heritage building in Heliopolis before and during demolishing in the first and second photo, in the third photo a group of youth protest in front of the building against its destruction - " photo captured in April 2013 at the intersection of Elhorreya St. with Elnozha St. in Heliopolis" (Heliopolis Heritage Initiative, 2012-2013)

A shop owner was complaining that he can’t see the sun anymore because of the new towers across the street. One of the new comers to Heliopolis who lives now in Shaheed Abdel Monëm Hafez St. told us that “It was always her dream to come and live in this street”. She had in mind that” The street is very nice and the social standard of the inhabitants is very high”. She also added that “The Street was very calm and relatively large and you could easily park anywhere.” The irony is that now when she lives at this same street, she complains of noisy activity in the building she lives in, and that she can’t find any more a place to park her car. In her Memory, she had spatial images concerning this street with a certain pattern and architecture typology that made this street, according to her, very special and full of qualities. Now, when the urban pattern, the architectural typology and the activities have changed, she discovered that she is living a myth; it’s not the same street she had been dreaming of. Many of the new comers in the newly built towers in Heliopolis are living the same nightmare: they have paid a lot of money to

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be able to live in the Heliopolis they have been dreaming of; the Heliopolis that once existed in their collective memory, only to discover later that it’s not the same district anymore.

Figure 4: New residential towers that are currently constructed after demolishing the low-rise villas, after th January 25 revolution - "photo captured in September 2012 at Almazah St., Heliopolis." (Researcher, 2012-2013)

5.4.

Illegal parking spaces

After the revolution, in the absence of oversight and follow up by localities’ officials, residents decided to determine informal private car parking at different areas in many cities to locate parking in front of their buildings and shops that they inhabit, that contributed to the lack of parking space available in the streets with a growing proportion of car ownership per household.

Figure 5: Parking space determined by digging columns ores and constructing concrete ramps over sidewalks in Nozha district - "photo captured in June 2013 at Taha Hussein St.& Mohamed Refa'at St. – Nozha district" (Researcher, 2013)

Parking places are determined by digging columns ores or chains, another type to determine these areas trough constructing concrete ramps over sidewalks, where there is no longer a place for pedestrians to walk. This phenomenon has existed before revolution, but it is execrated these days, as there is no monitoring from the local authorities. The habits of people have changed: defined parking space if you are a resident, a difficulty to find a suitable parking if you aren't, difficulty to walk on

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pedestrian walkways, moreover, a change in the physical image of the place. All the above, led to change in the collective image and feelings of the inhabitants and users of the space.

5.5.

Installation of fences for security reasons

Figure 6: Gates and fences constructed by local residents in the right of way of surrounding streets for th security issues - "photo captured in June 2013 at 5 District, New Cairo." (Researcher, 2013)

Gates and fences were constructed in some districts under the absence of security in Cairo streets after the revolution, residents of different neighbourhoods collected money and brought security staff to stand at selected points as an entrance for their district, some of gates are still exiting until now, and some were removed. People live in same residential block intend to isolate themselves from the surrounding using the concept of "gated communities", without taking permission from the local authorities. Fences and gates are constructed in the right of way of surrounding streets, sometimes on the pedestrian walkways or over the green spaces. This phenomenon exited before, but differently. People used to protect their balconies or windows, especially those who live at the ground before. However, after the Revolution we used to see this phenomenon has expanded to include higher stories and surrounding entire buildings.

Figure 7: Barbed wires installed by residents upon the fences between residential blocks in Nasr City "photo captured in June 2013 at Hassan Maamoun St., Nasr City" (Researcher, 2013)

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Sometimes, for the absence of security in some places after the revolution, people live in the ground floor try to increase the height of the fences using bricks, metal bars and sometimes the barbed wires along strands that used in the military buildings. The Urban collective memories for the people who live or use these districts were affected, as the habit of people are changed, the fences and gates affect both the visual and physical permeability between inside and outside, in addition, the change of feeling towards level of security.

5.6.

Invasion of street gardens

“Habits related to a specific physical setting resist the forces tending to change them. This resistance best indicates to what extent the collective memory of these groups is based on spatial images.” (Halbwachs, 1950).In Nasr City there are a lot of cafes installed after the revolution in the middle street gardens. These cafes were recently razed by the local authorities. However, in mater of few weeks these cafes were back again by the people. For two years Inhabitants used to come from all over Nasr City to enjoy being in the open air. After getting used to this activity in this place, it was normal that they will resist its eradication. This is why it is back again. From our point of view this phenomenon can be considered as positive as well as negative. From the one hand, the appearance of these cafes -and the way they were installed- had provided the inhabitants with an affordable recreational activity that they really needed. Moreover, the public gardens, where these cafes were installed, were neglected, malplanted and not maintained. On the other hand, the installation of these cafes in the public street middle gardens is depriving other users from this public utility. In other words, now people have to pay to be able to use a public space.

Figure 8: Chairs and tables for private cafes are placed inside public gardens in Nasr City - "photo captured in October 2011 at Zaharaa District, Nasr City." (Researcher, 2011)

This case is common in many Cairo's post-revolutionary green and open spaces, these spaces gave up their character as a public space that serves all the residents and users, to leave this personality behind for a certain group of people who change the use and visual image of the space. This phenomenon existed before the Revolution, especially in commercial street, people used to invade residential gardens and transform them into retails, after the Revolution this phenomenon expanded severely even in quiet streets.

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6. CONCLUSIONS This research offered an inventory for some of the changes that took place in the postrevolutionary Cairene urban space. It also offers a conceptualization of the interrelations between these changes and the urban collective memory; and how they can affect deeply the urban harmony of the built environment. From our point of view, these actions oscillate between positive and negative according to their effect on people’s reaction. For example, the massive graffiti production -as a way of political and social expression- is considered as a positive and peaceful way of communication. During a period when social media is politically directed, this method reflected the real pulse of the Egyptian streets, and could reach a diverse audience. It’s true that this phenomenon affected in a certain way the urban harmony of the Cairene space, yet it was inevitable during this phase. It was very important for Egyptians to register their own Revolution in their collective memory, to express their anger and list their demands and their hopes over the walls. We believe that this artistic action has helped people to keep their peacefulness for a very long time and during some real hard situations. And the struggle between the power of regime authorities and the resistance voices can be seen clearly on the graffiti walls. Some other transformations that hit the Cairene urban space will affect negatively its harmony and the collective urban memory of the inhabitants: the massive appearance of street vendors as well as the eradication of old buildings. These two phenomena will also participate in changing the social melange as they will welcome different users to the urban space. The first one will take a tremendous effort in order to be controlled. As for the second, it occurred mainly for the benefit of some people, individuals who used the non-application of the law after the revolution in order to gain money tremendously. This phenomenon is the most dangerous one, as it will hit the residents of what we call it urban amnesia. It will destabilize the equilibrium of the inhabitants as in the case of Heliopolis. We highly believe that the appearance of the two remaining actions -the installation of fences and the illegal parking spaces- is considered as normal reactions from the population during this phase. People wanted to protect their assets and to feel secured at the same time, especially when they felt a certain deficiency from the local authorities. From our point of view, the first one will remain as it is, or it will be easily legalized at a certain moment. The second action can be controlled along with a governmental reform. We suppose that if People feel secured to leave their cars in normal parking spaces, this action will eventually diminish. Moreover, if the law is severely applied this action can ultimately disappear. In brief, depending on the action and on people’s reaction, the post-revolutionary effect on the Cairene urban space harmony is considered sometimes as disturbing and some other times as constructive. On the one hand, in some cases the collective memory of the population will certainly be deformed, thus their urban equilibrium in the living space; and this is the most dangerous reaction. On the other hand, the appearance of street art will revive the Egyptian artistic sense and will help registering different phases of the Revolution in the collective memory of the Egyptian population. Finally we suggest some directions for actions that can help controlling these phenomena. We think that applying the regulations concerning the demolition of unthreatened buildings and the conservation of the architectural heritage -according to the law no. 144 for the year 2006, by the National Organization of Urban Harmony “NOAH”, as well as the Urban Harmony Law no. 119 for the year 2008- will surly help controlling some serious and dangerous phenomena that 192


threaten our urban memory and harmony. Moreover, activating the role of municipalities in the application of laws will deter profoundly the offenders. Gaining back our national security will help to eradicate some phenomena like installing fences haphazardly. Providing practical solutions for car parking areas and regulating the usage of street gardens will also help to diminish these wide spread phenomena that got out of control even more after the Revolution. Further studies regarding our observations: -

Rectification of the urban collective memory of the population after the Revolution;

-

Urban challenges that face the municipalities after the Revolution.

7. REFERENCES Assmann, J. (1995), Collective Memory and Cultural Identity, in Jan Assmann and John Czaplicka Cultural History/Cultural Studies No. 65, New German Critique, pp. 125-133 Confino, A. (1997), Collective Memory and Cultural History: Problems of Methods, in the American Historical Review Vol. 102, No. 5, Oxford University Press, pp. 1386-1403 Crane, S. A. (1997), Writing the individual Back into Collective Memory, , in the American Historical Review Vol. 102, No. 5, Oxford University Press, pp. 1372-1385 Dovey, K., Woodcock, I. and Wood, S. (2009), A Test of Character: Regulating Place-identity in Inner-city Melbourne, Urban Studies Journal Limited, pp: 2595–2615 Dovey, K., Woodcock, I. and Wood, S. (2009), What is Urban Character? The Case of Camberwell, Faculty of Architecture, Building & Planning, University of Melbourne, 14 P. Funkenstein, A. (1989), Collective Memory and Historical Consciousness, in History and Memory, Vol. 1, No. 1, Indiana University Press, pp. 5-26 Halbwachs, M. (1980), The Collective Memory, Harper & Row, 186 P. Halbwachs, M. (1997), La Mémoire Collective, Albin Michel, 304 P. (in French) Jive’n, G., Larkham, P. J. (2003), Sense of Place, Authenticity and Character: A Commentary, in Journal of Urban Design, Vol. 8, No. 1, pp. 67–81 Klein, K. L. (2000), On the Emergence of Memory in Historical Discourse, in No. 69, Special Issue: Grounds for Remembering, University of California Press, pp. 127-150 Olick, J. K. (2007), Collective Memory, International Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences, 2nd Edition, pp: 7, 8 Martinez, L. (2013), Graffiti: the art of revolution in Egypt continues, Article in your Middle East on line Nora, P. (1989), Between Memory and History: Les lieux de Mémoire, in No. 26, Special Issue: Memory and Counter-Memory, University of California Press, pp. 7-24 Ruiter, A. (2012), Imaging Egypt’s Political Transition in (Post-) Revolutionary Street Art, Utrecht University (thesis), 84 P. www.googleimages.com. (2013).

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© SB13-Cairo 2013 Democratic Transition of Architectural Language in Egypt after Revolution Al-Tawansy. Ali Kamal

Democratic Transition of Architectural Language in Egypt after Revolution Al-Tawansy. Ali Kamal October 6 University, Department of Architecture 6th of October City, Central Axis, Giza, Egypt e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract: Urban in Egypt has suffered from the distortions resulting from irregularities of laws, which greatly increased significantly after 25th Jan. revolution in Egypt. Research focus on one of the main reason for this problem, is using the only existing community discourse, which pursue punishment strategy for offenders. Research touch on some of these violations such as: building on agricultural, government land, aggression on private or public urban spaces, breaches of Egyptian construction law terms, and local code norms. It proposes another additional policy "language" depend on conviction and enlightenment of benefits and objectives of these architectural constrains. Through many approaches, such as: aesthetical, logical, quantitative and environmental approach. Research applies these approaches through comparative methodology on case study to explain how we can convince peoples with many of architectural decisions avoiding the hard way. It proposed some tools to activate this strategy between architects, country belonging authorities and community. Keywords: Architectural Language, Architectural Policy, Architectural Strategy, Democratic Architecture.

1.

INTRODUCTION

"You must see just what I see" It is an ancient pharaoh rule consisted for a long past time in Egypt the main policy "language" of sequential governments to manage and organize the architectural process on building, urban and planning scales. This policy depends mainly on punishment strategy against architectural law violators, to push citizens to submit the official vision of architecture. But, the great increase of architectural legislation breaches which, occurred on the absence of country executive power at 25 Jan. revolution in Egypt, demonstrate clearly the fiasco of using this policy alone. Therefore, these violations must be reduced to prevent destruction of local urban environment, before it becomes a reality may be difficult to change for many 194

THREAT

INTIMIDATION PUNISHMENT

Figure 1: Ancient Pharaoh Strategy (Ross, 2012)


coming years. It also cost the treasury a lot of money to overcome the consequences of these violations, such as: cost of upgrading the infrastructure networks (sanitary, water supply, electricity, telephones and roads) to meet the needs of these unlicensed facilities; cost of raw materials wasted in construction; cost to remove these violations. I do not pretend that, these irregularities emerged after the revolution, but its percentage increased significantly after it, which necessitated revision of the political discourse of society. The research aims to present a solution for this problem depending on a new parallel democratic architectural policy “language” adopted the principle of persuasion and awareness of the harmful effects of these irregularities on the individual and society, in line with the democratic transition, which formed after the revolution and it was impossible to adopt the language of deterrence and punishment alone as in the past. It uses multiple scientific approaches enabling the evaluation of the community itself and not by regulators.

2.

BACKGROUND & METHODOLOGY

Many researches present and develop many urban strategies, polices and mechanisms to apply. Overall, they talked to decision-makers, actors, designers, planners etc. However, they didn’t focus to address society, to simplify their language for it, convince others of what they offer to them. Some studies revise and develop laws and penalties for offenders. In fact, we prep researches and develop strategies to address ourselves, while community has another trend.

2.1.

Methodology

Research follow a comparative methodology to explain the deference between violation and the correct situation should be exist at one of the common breaches through proposed scientific approaches; aesthetically, logical, quantitative and environmental approach to achieve mentioned goal.

2.2.

Historical Background

Paradoxically, one of the oldest democratic urbanism strategies found in ancient Egypt. Many ask why the ancient Egyptians didnot build themselves a dam protects them from floodwaters such as Ma’rib dam at Sapa civilization in Yemen (built in 8th century BC - fall dawn in 575 AD), despite all those great architectural pylons? One of them, Al Hassan Ibn alHaytham's mathematician and optics scientist (965 – 1040 AD), came from Iraq to Egypt for this reason but he retracted. The answer of this question will interpret; how they preserve agriculture land over thousands of years and limiting urban sprawl on it. How they were able to provide workers to build more than half of the existing world’s monuments? I found three benefits for that: a) b)

Flooding of agricultural land in the flood season makes it impossible to construct on it. So, they built houses at the top level away from the flood (figure 2), this preserve arable land. In this period (between June and September) farmers stopped cultivation and transferred to build their giant buildings. So there was no need to forced labor as some references have mentioned, (figure 3→5) 195


c)

This flood enrich the agricultural land = more healthy foods for Egyptians without chemicals as the case now.

It should be noted that, the High Dam in Aswan (1970) saved Egyptians from many famines and floods, but the failure of the existing strategy to prevent construction on agricultural land has led to the erosion of agricultural land over the years. This enhances the importance of this research.

Flood high level

Houses built away from the flood danger level

Food med level

Nile Regular level

Figure 2: houses built at the top level away from the flood range (Ross, 2012)

Fig. 3

Fig. 4

Fig. 5

Figure 3→5: Flood Season increase number of workers for construction (web network, 2013)

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2.3.

Existing Democratic Experience in Arch.

Recently, some countries such as; G. Britain, Germany and Scandinavian countries use stimulus strategy towards environmental aspects, to encourage the community to use environmental solutions, which are usually more costly than using minimum standards of traditional legal solutions. U.K. use tax exemptions to incite this polices, such as: climate change levy (CCL) tax exemption for activities, equipment and buildings that use renewable energy; minimize carbon tax, which is determined according to the amount of carbon in the fuel used to produce construction materials to push using of Eco-friendly raw materials (Ref. 10). In Egypt: there are proposals to stimulate investors to build environmentally friendly buildings by giving them a grace period to pay the premium price of the project land, forcing them to use solar heaters; but it still under study.

3. ACCOMPANIMENT VIOLATIONS TO 25 JAN. REVOLUTION: This section monitors the most common urban irregularities in Egypt, which increased during and after the revolution, and mentions the main reasons for its spread.

3.1.

Common Violations

3.1.1. Construction on agricultural or desert lands The agricultural land on Nile banks considered a great national wealth inherited from our ancestors, but we did not stop bulldozing land, and building on it. Increase of these infringements due to the projects that regulate the flow of river water, and control its level. Such as: Isna, Qanater aqueducts, Aswan low Dam and High dam. So, the water no longer flooded agricultural land as before on flood season. Total violations on agricultural land from 25th Jan. revolution to 23 July 2013 = 652,901 cases ≈ 27,529 acre (Figure 6→8), and on desert land ≈ 400,000 case with total area ≈ 1 million acre (Ref. 9, 13) Despite the sanctions and laws that criminalize this action, but it still on the rise (Figure 6).

Figure 7: Urban spread through Nile delta (web network, 2013)

Fig. 6: Violation on agriculture land (Ministry of Agriculture 2013)

Figure 8: constructions on agriculture land (AlTawansy, 2013) 197


3.1.2. Aggression on urban spaces Completely or partially aggression on private or public urban spaces such as: build an extension for ground floor at surrounded open area (Figure 9); deduct area from public urban space for another unlicensed used (Figure 10, 11). Bags Exhibition

Gr. Extension Coffee Shop Extension Cigarette Kiosk Bags Exhibition

Figure 9: Unlicensed extension at residential building (Al-Tawansy,2013)

Figure 10: Aggression on public urban space at Gamaet Dowal St. (Al-Tawansy,2013)

Storage Zones

Figure 11: Gov. closed office used with surrounded public area by neighbour shops at Gamaet Dowal St. (Al-Tawansy,2013)

3.1.3. Building scale, violations Commission one or more breaches of Egyptian construction law terms and local code norms, such as: building maximum heights, number of floors, limits, minimum area of open courts and its ratio, change of space or building use ignoring license adaptation, and new function requirements: security, safety rules, and use proper materials….etc. (Figure 13→15) Height violation

Can you open this window ?

No Comment !

Figure 12: Building has two additional un licensed floors (Al-Tawansy,2013)

3.2.

Figure 13: wrong design for window and elevation (AlTawansy,2013)

Main reasons of these violations

a) Unawareness or ignorance of these laws and rules.

198

Figure 14: St. lighting column cross building terrace (AlTawansy,2013)


b) Lack of social awareness of the harmful effects of these irregularities on society and urban environment c) Weakness of the regulatory bodies and mechanisms d) Loss of the responsibility, because of multiplicity of supervising authorities e) There is no acceptable alternative in many cases. If the government offer lands, facilities and services for citizens, with an affordable cost, they will not violate. f) Administrative corruption, disregarding part of these irregularities. g) weakness and non-dissuasive of penalties h) Absence of deterrence power after revolution, which has the authority to remove irregularities

3.3. x x x x x x

Punishments “Penalties” These sanctions represent the existing basic strategy for dealing with mentioned violations (imprisonment, fines, stop work, not give license for building activity, demolition and removal …etc.) Imprisonment and a fine not exceeding 2000LE or one of them for encroachment on agricultural land in conformity with article (372 bis) of the Agrarian Act No. 122 of 1980 One year's imprisonment or a fine or one of them when trespassing on desert land in accordance with article 23 of Act No. 143 of 1981 Imprisonment and/or a fine and write-off of varying union records in accordance with articles 98→110, 5th section, of the unified Egyptian construction law No. 119/2008 The penalties stipulated in the disciplinary regulations of the Egyptian syndicate of engineers such as: notice, warning, stop enrolment in records...etc. Sanctions of “Egyptian federation of construction and building contractors” against contractors who have judicial sentences

Despite the sanctions and laws that criminalize these actions, it is still on the rise, demonstrating the failure of this strategy alone.

4. APPROACHES TO APPLY THIS PROPOSED STRATEGY These approaches are means to implement proposed democratic strategy based on comparative methodology between right and wrong conditions through some comparison criteria to help the architect to explain his point of view to the others

4.1.

Aesthetically approach

Beauty touch or artistic sense is one of the most important criteria to evaluate architectural work. But it is relative; varies from one person to another, what you see beautiful may be not beautiful for me. Often, the offending situation is worse at all levels. However, there are some criteria can be logically invoked to evaluate the beauty of building. To help architects and clients as well 4.1.1. Achieve a logical aesthetic criteria: It is non-measurable criteria, but it could be inferred logically. Such as stability and steady of pyramids shape, symbolism as Ron champ church form symbolize the nun bonnet, abstraction such as office building of Johnson wax company by “Frank Lloyd Write” abstract mushroom shape, expression, this mean building form and exteriors must reflect its function, such as Dubarah palace at san bolivar square in Cairo, which had been reused as a primary school, but 199


elevations still only reflect the original activity. While, must of the ugly violated constructions do not reflect building use (Figure 15→22).

Fig. 15

Cheops pyramid

Johnson company office building by Wright

Ron Champ church

Fig. 18

Fig. 16

Fig. 21

Fig. 19

Fig. 17

Fig. 20

Dubarah palace, Cairo

Fig. 22

Figure 15,16: Pyramid Shape more stable & steady

Figure 17,18: Ron champ church form symbolize the nun bonnet

Figure 19,20: Company design abstract mushroom shape

Figure 21,22:This violated construction doesn’t reflect its use unlike the above palace

Stability, Steady

Symbolism

Abstraction

Expression

Figure 15→22: logical aesthetic criteria (web network, 2013)

4.1.2. Use of regular geometric concepts or shapes Symmetry, harmony, contrast, repetitive, unity, suitable proportions, scale and use regular geometric shapes all of these criteria contribute to make building design more beautiful. These criteria are tangible or measurable. It usually is missing in illegal constructions (Figure 23→25).

Symmetry

Regularity

Proportions

Figure 23: regular geometric concepts and shapes (Al-Tawansy, 2013)

200

Harmony


4.1.3. Use decorative elements or distinct structural system This is the lower level than mentioned above. Building could be more beautiful by using: a) b) c) d)

Attractive finishing materials or colors such as: marble, granite, aluminum sheets...etc. Decorative elements such as: cornice, frieze, classical column orders, landmark...etc. Special construction system such as: shell construction, suspended structure...etc. Design tools such as: natural or artificial lighting, greens and landscape...etc.

These elements often miss in illegal constructions (Figure 24→26).

Fig. 24

Fig. 25

Fig. 26

Figure 24,25: Irregular & Inconsistent openings = ugliness (Al-Tawansy, 2013) Figure 26: Violated construction exterior without finishing materials = ugliness (Al-Tawansy, 2013)

4.2.

Logical approach

The logical approach is comparative method uses better than or worse than, while some things are difficult to measure or calculate. This way is the easiest one. It could be apply on many cases. And, it can be used by non-specialists and for society discourse. For example: ventilation, lighting and solarization calculation at case study could be calculated, but it will take more time, it needs to be aware with calculation methods and relevant computer programs. Therefore, using comparative method with some simple graphics could be adequate (Figure 27→32)

4.3.

Quantitative approach

This approach use profit and loss language according to numbers or measurements, to clarify difference between wrong condition “violation” and right condition. This language understood and respected by the people. Such as: cost of construction maintenance, energy, operation and running cost. This method requires that architect must aware with the electromechanical systems in the building and how it work, in order to design the appropriate space for it. But, this way is more difficult, need specialist. After all, there are many assumed variables give approximate results, but it acceptable to explain the difference.

4.4.

Environmental approach

It depends on the environmental aspects to justify decisions and laws such as: ventilation, lighting, solarization and choose eco-friendly materials. Environmental solutions are often more

201


expensive, so, this approach usually used parallel to one or more from the previous approaches, to convince others with its economic feasibility in the long term.

5. CASE STUDY Open court was selected as a case study, because it is one of the most widespread violations in Egypt. And for its environmental importance to the building, such as: thermal comfort, natural ventilation, lighting...etc. Case study has two conditions for open court one of them has wrong dimensions (1m x 1.5m), and the other is right with correct dimension (3m x 3m), at building consist of ground and three typical floors. It has many comparison criteria using the above mentioned approaches to explain the difference between the two conditions, to find out the best. (Figure 27→33), (Table 1, 2)

Right condition

Figure 27: Open court case studied conditions (Al-Tawansy, 2013)

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Wrong condition


Figure 28: Ventilation at wrong cond. (AlTawansy, 2013)

Figure 29: Ventilation at right cond. (Al-Tawansy, 2013)

203

Figure 30: Bad efficiency for A/C units (Al-Tawansy, 2013)


Figure 33: Noise more closer (Al-Tawansy, 2013)

Figure 31: Lighting & Solarisation at wrong cond. (Al-Tawansy, 2013)

Figure 32: Lighting & Solarisation at right cond. (Al-Tawansy, 2013)

Figure 34: Visual Privacy is missing more (Al-Tawansy, 2013)

th

Fig. 35: Total cost of both cases reach break-even point at 8 year, while running cost of wrong case still rising (Al-Tawansy, 2013) 204


Table 1: Cost comparison between the two alternatives of open courts using the quantitate approach ( Al-Tawansy, 2003)

Lighting Cost

Area Cost

Comparison Criteria

Wrong condition

Assuming: m2 price = 2000LE price cost and inflation rate will be constant Required: Cost of wasted space at open court = open court area x cost per m2 Assuming: x Lighting (just for 2 rooms) x Room area = 12m2 x two rooms x Window area 1.2m x 1.2m x Using Luminary with florescent lamps x 40w / lamp for every room x Lamp life time = 1000 running hours x Lamp price = 10 LE x electricity segment price/kw = 20 piaster/kw (note: this is the common segment price but, this value is variable according to consumption) Required: x Luminary cost (similar factor so, neglected) x Annual replacement cost for lamps = (lamp annual running hours / lamp life time) x lamp price x 8 lamps per luminary x Annual Energy consumption cost = (lamps power/hr x running hours/month x electricity segment price/kw) x 12 months

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Right condition

= 1 x 1.5 x 2000 = 3000 LE

= 3 x 3 x 2000 = 18000 LE

x

Running hours ≈ 16 hr/day Annual running hours = 16 x 365day = 5840 hr/year

x

x

Annual replacement cost = 5840hr / 6000hr x 10LE x 8 lamps ≈ 78 LE

x

x

Annual Energy consumption cost = (8 x 0.040kw x 16hr x 30day x0.20) x 12 ≈ 368 LE / year

x

x

x

Running hours ≈ 8 hr/day Annual running hours = 8 x 365day = 2920 hr/year Annual replacement cost = 2920hr / 6000hr x 10LE x 8 lamps ≈ 39 LE Annual Energy consumption cost = (8 x 0.040kw x 8hr x 30day x0.20) x 12 ≈ 184 LE / year

© SB13-Cairo 2013

HVAC (Ventilation & A/C) Cost

Democratic Transition of Architectural Language in Egypt after Revolution Al-Tawansy. Ali Kamal

Assuming: For A/C unit: x Cooling Capacity ≈ 12,000 BTU x EER “energy efficiency rating” ≈ 10 BTU/kw Input Power = 1.15kw x Device working rate ≈ 0.55% This ratio is variable according to the actual working time for external compressor and condensing unit and it’s time off by thermostat. It is affected by operation condition and A/C unit efficiency (So, It has been measured from an actual similar case) x Annual A/C working months ≈ 7 months x electricity segment price/kw = 29 piaster/kw (note: this is segment no.4 between 351→ 650kw/month) x annual maintenance cost per unit ≈ 100LE For Fan: x electricity segment price/kw = 20 piaster/kw (note: this is segment no.3 between 201→ 350kw/month) Required: Annual energy consumption cost for two units = (energy consumption for each unit kw x 2 units x running hours x 30day x unit working rate x electricity segment price/kw) x 7 months

Mechanical Air conditioning system may be required Proposed: DX Split unit ≈ 1.5hp Cooling unit only

Mechanical ventilation system may be required Proposed: Fan = 40w

x

A/C price cost = 3700LE x 2units = 7400LE

x

Fans price cost = 300LE x 2units = 600LE

x

Monthly energy consumption for two units = (1.15kw x 2units x 8hr x 0,55 x 30day) = 303.6kw Annual energy consumption cost = 303.6kw x 7months x 0.29LE = 616.3 LE / year

x

Annual energy consumption cost for two units = (0.040kw x 2 units x 8hr x 30 days x 7months x 0.20LE ≈ 27 LE

Maintenance cost = 100LE x 2 = 200LE

x

Maintenance cost (Neglected)

Total running cost

1262 LE / year

206

x

x

250 LE / year


Table 2: Comparison conclusion between the two conditions of case study using the mentioned approaches ( Al-Tawansy, 2003)

Ventilation & Thermal comfort

Lighting & Solarization

Cost

Comparison Criteria

Right Cond.

Preference

Wrong Cond.

Approach

Ref.

3000 LE

Quant.

Table 1

78 LE / year

Quant.

Table 1

Quant.

Table 1

Quant.

Table 1 Fig. 35

Logical & Env.

Fig. 31,32

Cost of wasted space at open court

18,000 LE

Industrial lighting

39 LE / year

HVAC

600 LE =Fans price cost

Running cost of lighting & HVAC

250 LE / year

Natural

Sunlight reach all floors

>

7400 LE =A/C units price cost 1,262 LE / year break-even point th reached at 8 year Sunlight doesn’t reach the lower two floors

Industrial

Luminaries turn on at night only

>

Luminaries turn on most of the day

Quant.

Table 1

Natural (Stack effect of open court working as passive solar vent. & cooling system)

Better efficiency

>

Bad efficiency

Logical & Env.

Fig. 28,29

>

x A/C will be needed x Bad efficiency for A/C units, they will be more closer = shorter lifetime = more running cost

Logical & Quant.

Fig. 30

Noise source will be closer

Logical & Env.

Fig. 33

Distance between windows = 1m

Logical

Fig. 34

Aesth.

Fig. 27

Logical & Env.

All previous

Mechanical

Noise

Visual privacy

x Fan may be needed x More efficiency & lifetime for A/C if used Relatively, sound source beyond Distance between windows = 3m

< > > >

> >

General appearance

Scaffolding is easier to build here to finish the surface

>

Heath

Better vent., lighting & solarization Less noise

>

Usually, there is no finishing for surface (difficult to put scaffolding at this narrow space) Worse vent., lighting & solarization more noise

Env. (Environmental Approach), Aeth. (Aesthetically), > (Better than), < (Worse than) Conclude from this study, that the wrong condition is the worst and more costly in the long term. 207


6.

CONCLUSIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS

We can reduce urban irregularities using democratic strategy through above mentioned approaches, parallel to the existing used punitive strategy. We recommend the following mechanism to activate this language: 6.1.

Simplify the language of Architectural discourse society, and maybe required for architects as well as, under the avalanche of laws and engineering codes issued periodically. And may be had not exposed in their studies. 6.2. Educate architects this language through training courses and curriculum to explain the laws and its amendments; engineering codes and their significance 6.3. Use media tools to serve these objectives, and awareness of the harmful effects of these irregularities, on the individual and society 6.4. Increase awareness of some basic urban concepts through the stages of primary education. Student study many fundamentals and principles of other engineering branches such as: mechanics, physics, chemistry and so on, but architecture hasn’t the same attention despite its importance. 6.5. Recommend for further research to treat this strategy through other case studies explain existing common violations Research contributes to develop the practical field by reducing the irregularities; and to knowledge by cognitive awareness of architects and the community, using this language.

7.

REFERENCES

ASHRAE, (2009), “Hand Book Fundamentals”, ASHRAE, pp. F14-F23 Egyptian Central Agency for Public Mobilization and statistics, Annual book, 2012 Ellickson, R. and Thorland, C (1995) “Ancient Land Law: Mesopotamia, Egypt, Israel”, Faculty Scholarship Series. Paper 410. (http://digitalcommons.law.yale.edu/fss_papers/410) Morcos, R. (2005) “Strategies to Create a Unique Sense of Place-Identity for Pedestrians”, Journal of the Egyptian Society of Engineers, No. 1-4, Vol. 44 Ross, S. (2012), "Ancient Egypt", General Egyptian Book Organization, Cairo. Soliman, M. (2010) “An Evaluation Checklist for Housing Strategies to Improve Living Conditions in Traditional Environment”, Journal of The Egyptian Society of Engineers, No. 4-1, Vol. 49, Cairo. Zaki, R. etal, (2011) “Land Use and Land Cover Changes in Arid Region” Journal of Geographic Information System, 3, 173-194, (http://www.SciRP.org/journal/jgis) http://www.cheops-pyramide.ch/khufu-pyramid/pyramid-workers.html ‫ ﻋﺪﺩ ﺍﻷﺭﺑﻌﺎء‬،"‫ ﻭﺯﺍﺭﺍﺕ ﺗﻌﺪ ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻧﺎ ﻟﺘﺠﺮﻳﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺪﻳﺎﺕ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻷﺭﺍﺿﻲ ﺍﻟﺰﺭﺍﻋﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺼﺤﺮﺍﻭﻳﺔ‬6" ‫ ﻣﺘﻮﻟﻲ ﺳﺎﻟﻢ‬،‫ ﺟﺮﻳﺪﺓ ﺍﻟﻤﺼﺮﻱ ﺍﻟﻴﻮﻡ‬.9 .2013 ‫ ﻳﻮﻟﻴﻮ‬24 ‫ ﻣﺠﻠﺔ ﺟﻤﻌﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻬﻨﺪﺳﻴﻦ‬، "‫ ﺍﻟﺘﻄﻮﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻘﻨﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎﺩﻳﺔ ﻋﺮﺑﻴﺎ ﻭﻋﺎﻟﻤﻴﺎ‬-‫ " ﻣﺼﺎﺩﺭ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺠﺪﺩﺓ‬،(2006) ‫ ﻫﺸﺎﻡ‬،‫ ﺍﻟﺨﻄﻴﺐ‬.10 .‫ ﺍﻟﻘﺎﻫﺮﺓ‬،4-1 ‫ ﻋﺪﺩ‬،45 ‫ ﻣﺠﻠﺪ‬،‫ﺍﻟﻤﺼﺮﻳﺔ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻤﺆﺗﻤﺮ ﺍﻷﻭﻝ ﻟﻔﺮﻉ ﺍﻟﺮﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﻴﺔ‬،"‫ "ﻣﺤﺎﻛﺎﺓ ﺃﺩﺍء ﺍﻟﻤﺒﺎﻧﻲ ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﺍﻟﺘﻬﻮﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﻴﺔ ﺑﺄﺳﻠﻮﺏ ﻣﻌﺎﺻﺮ‬،(2013) ‫ ﻣﺤﻤﺪ‬،‫ ﻋﺒﺪﺍﻟﺒﺎﻗﻲ‬.11 ‫ ﺍﻟﻘﺎﻫﺮﺓ‬- ‫ ﻧﺤﻮ ﺑﻴﺌﺔ ﻣﺸﻴﺪﺓ ﺧﻀﺮﺍء ﻭﻣﺴﺘﺪﺍﻣﺔ‬- ‫ﻟﻤﺤﺎﻛﺎﺓ ﺃﺩﺍء ﺍﻟﻤﺒﺎﻧﻲ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺼﺮ‬ .‫ ﺍﻟﻘﺎﻫﺮﺓ‬،"2008 ‫ ﻟﺴﻨﺔ‬119 ‫ "ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﺒﻨﺎء ﺍﻟﻤﺼﺮﻱ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺣﺪ ﺭﻗﻢ‬،(2013) ،‫ ﻭﺯﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻹﺳﻜﺎﻥ‬.12 ‫ ﻳﻨﺎﻳﺮ" ﺍﻟﺜﻼﺛﺎء‬25 ‫ " ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺪﻳﺎﺕ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﺭﺍﺿﻲ ﺍﻟﺪﻟﺘﺎ ﻭﻭﺍﺩﻱ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﻞ ﻣﻨﺬ ﺍﻧﺪﻻﻉ ﺛﻮﺭﺓ‬،‫ ﺍﻹﺩﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﻛﺰﻳﺔ ﻟﺤﻤﺎﻳﺔ ﺍﻷﺭﺍﺿﻲ‬،‫ ﻭﺯﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺰﺭﺍﻋﺔ‬.13 “http://www.agr-egypt.gov.eg/NewsArticle.aspx?artID=1040” .2013 ‫ ﻳﻮﻟﻴﺔ‬23

208

©SB13-Cairo 2013 The Haussmanization approach and the Egyptian revolution Serag, Y.M.

The Haussmanization approach From a counter revolution urban fabric to a success factor for the Egyptian revolution in Cairo

Serag, Y.M. Ain Shams University, Faculty of Engineering, Urban planning and Design department 1 El Sarrayat street, Abbassia, Cairo, Egypt e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract: In the 19th century, Napoleon III commissioned Baron Haussmann, to make a new planning for Paris to prevent any future protests or revolts, after the successful revolutions of 1830 and 1848. Barricading was heavily applied to sustain both revolts in the old urban fabric of the city. Haussmann applied strategic surgical interventions that cut through the urban fabric, to prevent any future protests. In constructing the "Ismaili Cairo" in the second half of the 19 th century, the urban fabric was transferred but not by cutting through the old city fabric, rather it was copied on a vacant land next to the old city. In 2011 this urban fabric witnessed protests to topple the regime in Egypt. The urban fabric introduced in Paris in the 1800s to ensure the control of the state, was the same witnessing the Egyptian revolution. This paper attempts to identify the mechanism of the protests that took place during the revolution and how they unfolded within the Haussmanian urban fabric. The main focus is on January 28th 2011, a day that witnessed major demonstrations in Cairo and was called the "Friday of anger". The aim of the research is to analyze the impact of 19th century French urban planning influence on the Egyptian revolution. It attempts to examine whether the urban fabric in downtown Cairo made it difficult to hold the protests as this was supposedly the logic in the original Haussmannian approach applied in Paris and transferred later to Cairo or otherwise. Finally the study looks at the post revolution period that witnessed several protests many of which took place in the downtown area in the vicinity of governmental building. It looks at how this period witnessed the construction of "walls" as physical barriers between the protestors and these buildings, opposing totally to the original logic of the Haussmannian urban fabric that introduced the concept of boulevards to oppose the construction of barricades. Keywords: Haussmanization; revolution, urban fabric, urban planning,..

1 Introduction After the French protests in Paris at the first half of the 1800s, and since most of these protests started from the backstreets and the narrow alleys of Paris, Napoleon III commissioned Baron Haussmann, to make a new planning for Paris, in order to facilitate the mechanism for crushing any future protests. Accordingly, Haussmann applied strategic surgical interventions that cut through the urban fabric of Paris, and introduced the new Haussmannian approach of wide boulevards and large nodes (squares). The approach was transferred to Egypt by Ali Mubarak pasha who was commissioned to build the new Cairo "Ismaili Cairo" by Khedive Ismail in the run for the opening ceremonies of Suez 209


Canal. A century and a half later in January 2011, the Egyptian revolution erupted and this urban fabric witnessed the angry masses protesting to topple the regime in Egypt, after seizing control over some Key squares notably Tahrir square. In that sense the urban fabric introduced in Paris in the 1800s to ensure the control of the state, was the same urban fabric that witnessed the topplingof the regime in Egypt. As such, the aim of the research is to analyze the impact of 19th century French urban planning influence on the Arab spring Egyptian revolution tracing the original doctrine and ideologies for applying a specific approach of space management, and examining whether it hindered or helped in the course of revolution.

1.1

Research sequence

The paper starts by looking at the causes for re-planning Paris in the 19th century and applying the Haussmannian approach in planning. The focus is made on the Paris revolutions of 1830 and 1848, which witnessed the use of barricades in the old urban fabric to sustain the revolts. The study then shifts to examine how the Haussmannian approach in planning was transferred to Cairo and how it was applied within the Cairo context in the second half of the 19th century. Moving forward to the 21st century the study then looks at the Arab Spring Revolution in Egypt in January 2011 and briefly discusses its causes and how it all started. It then tries to identify the mechanism of the demonstrations and protests that took place in the first days of the revolution and how they unfolded. The main focus is on January 28th 2011, a day that witnessed major demonstrations in Cairo and was called the "Friday of anger". The study then attempts to analyze and examine whether the urban fabric in downtown Cairo made it difficult to hold the protests as this was supposedly the logic in the original Haussmannian approach applied in Paris and transferred later to Cairo or otherwise. Finally the study looks at the post revolution period that witnessed and still witnessing several protests many of which took place in the downtown area in the vicinity of governmental building e.g. Ministry of Interior and the Parliament. It looks at how this period witnessed the construction of "walls" as physical barriers between the protestors and these buildings, opposing totally to the original logic of the Haussmannian urban fabric that introduced the concept of boulevards to oppose the construction of barricades. The paper then gives some conclusions on the outcome of the discussion and research.

1.2

Research Methodology

In conducting this research several methods were used, these included the following: - Literature review was used throughout the research but mainly when retrieving the necessary data and history concerning the 19th century Paris revolutions and the introduction of the Haussmannian approach in Paris and later in Cairo. It was also used to review relevant studies on the Egyptian revolution and the course of its protests. -

The online Facebook pages of opposition groups that organized and participated in the revolution were used specifically to understand the timeline of the unfolded events in January 2011. Such pages provided good overview on the paths and routes of the different protests that took place at that time, and was later related to downtown Cairo.

- Internet based search was made to reach for the digital manual of protests that was circulated prior to the revolution and giving a "how to" approach on the course of demonstrations, their routes and how to deal with security forces.

210


- Interviews were held with some participants who joined the demonstrations in the first days of the revolution, giving eyewitness accounts on the course of demonstrations. The interviewed were either urban planners or architects who managed to reflect in a more professional way on the course of the demonstrations and protests in relation to the urban fabric. They were asked to give their accounts on how the demonstrations poured in Tahrir square, the main square in Cairo that witnessed the large sit in during the revolution and what was the impact of the urban fabric in later holding the square. - Own experience in terms of being a resident in Cairo during and after the revolution, hence, living the daily events, as well as several visits to downtown Cairo during the post-revolution demonstrations and sit ins, thus having a clear idea on what happened and is happening. - Finally, map analysis of the downtown area in relation to the constructed barricades and walls in the post-revolution period. It is important to note that the scope of this research focuses mainly on downtown Cairo as it is the only district in Cairo to which the Haussmannian approach was introduced, hence sharing many similarities with the urban fabric of Paris. Although the Egyptian revolution took place in all of Cairo and many other cities in Egypt, yet the reference to that is only relevant to arguments related to the research.

2. PARIS REVOLUTIONS: THE BARRICADES Following the 1789 French revolution, France witnessed other revolutions that followed in 1830 and 1848, due to political and social conflict and unrest. These revolutions were again popular uprisings against the ruling governments demanding social justice and political reform. In 1829 King Charles X caused resentment in the French middle class and its press when he formed a new ministry that was objected by the chamber of deputies. As a reaction of this objection Charles dissolved the chamber and new elections were held in 1830, which brought even more objection and opposition in the chamber, causing Charles to dismiss it again. Following this, Charles X issued the "July Ordinances" which imposed strict control on press and reduced the electorate. Within the next few days the French revolted and blockaded the streets. Charles X abdicated and later was succeeded by Louis Philippe (Kohn, 2007). Eighteen years later, the French revolted again. According to Duiker and Spielvogel (2010) a severe economic depression that started in 1846 brought a difficult time in France. When the government of King Louis Philippe failed to provide solutions and relief and rejected to make proper changes, this angered segments of the middle class as well as workers, eventually leading to revolt and the abdication of Louis Philippe and his government in February 1848. The main tactic of sustaining these revolutions until they yielded their demands was mainly through barricading, especially in Paris. Owing to the fact that the urban fabric of Paris at that time was characterized by its narrow streets and alleys, this formed an appropriate

Figure 1: Barricades were used extensively during th the French revaluations of the 19 century. Source: http://urbantimes.co , 2013 211


context for revolting. The rebels would start constructing the barricades to block the advance of governmental troops within the streets and alleys. At the beginning they did that with whatever available materials, from barrels, wood, furniture and even paving blocks that were torn apart from the pavements, and then the process became more systematized. According to Douglas (2007) 4000 barricades were built during the 1830 revolution and 6000 barricades during the 1848 revolution. In a comparison done by Traugott (2010) on the locations of the Barricades in one of the Parisian districts (the Saint Merri district) within the two revolutions, it was found that in both events there had been a large percentage of identical locations , since the same tactic of barricading was used in both revolutions within the same urban fabric.In both cases, the revolution started from within the Parisian urban fabric, and was sustained and succeeded by using the barricades to stop the advance of troops and to keep hold of the inner city territories.

Figure 2: Location of barricades in Saint Merri district in Paris. Circles indicate identical locations of Barricades in 1830 and 1848 revolutions. Source: Traugott , 2010

2.1

Boulevards versus Barricades

Through the course of the 19th century that witnessed the revolutionary years, France alternated between revolutionary governments and centralized imperial rule, among which was the second empire of Louis Napoleon (1852-1871). Having been aware of the recent revolutions before his reign and how were they sustained, Napoleon III commissioned Baron George-Eugene Haussmann to make an urban restructuring plan for Paris. Haussmann, who was the prefect of the Seine for almost a decade and a half, did apply strategic surgical interventions to the city. He did so by ruthlessly imposing a network of boulevards, formal parks and squares that cut through the urban fabric of the city and demolished whatever stood on its way. The clearing up of space around important monumental and historical buildings such as the Notre Dame and the Louvre was also done. Parallel to that; municipal utilities had been introduced on a grand scale including the famous sewers of Paris (Abulughod, 1971).

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This plan was in fact an explicit response to any future threat of revolutions. On one hand the plan aimed to improve sanitation, built environment, improving infrastructures and alleviating social pressures. On the other hand with his surgical intervention, he aimed to make the construction and defense of barricades impossible.Setting the barricades and holding ground took place on an effective place in 1871.They appeared twice afterwards in 1945 during the Nazi occupation of Paris and 1968 during the students' revolution throughout Europe, yet on a less effective scale. This is because the Haussmann interventions and the advance in artillery and military techniques made affected the use of the barricades (Douglas, 2007).

Figure 3a: Haussmann boulevards ruthlessly cut through the urban fabric erasing

3.anything Haussmanization of Cairo that stood in its path. Source: http://380mcparis.wordpress.com , April 2013.

Fig3a: Haussmann applied a network of Boulevards, parks and squares over the existing urban fabric of Paris. Source: http://dystopolitik.blogspot.com , 2013 213


3.

Haussmanization of Cairo

The construction of the Suez Canal was a mega project that took place in between 1859 and 1869; it was mainly based on a French design but totally constructed by Egyptian labor. As the completion of the Suez canal approached, Khediv Ismail , who was highly influenced by the European and French culture and learning, had his own vision of transforming Cairo to a European like capital to represent a modern country along the banks of the Nile from Alexandria to Khartoum. He aimed that by the time of completion of the Suez Canal, his new capital would be ready to hold a legendary and unforgettable ceremony hosting the monarchies of the world (Ali, 1997). Initially, Egypt at the turn of the 1860s was in a good economic position, despite the fact that a mega project was being constructed at that period. The American civil war was at its peak at the other side of the globe, which affected the exports of the American cotton to Europe. An evident alternative at that point was the Egyptian cotton, which flooded the European market, hence increasing Egypt's income from such exports (Abu-Lughod, 1971). Accordingly, there were appealing settings to embark on a large scale development for the new capital. The French educated governor of Egypt was impressed by the construction of Paris, which he was following earlier in contemporary French journals, even before his visit to Paris in 1867. The Haussmannized Paris was introduced to the world in the "Exposition Universelle" in 1867in Paris. Among the visitors was Ismail Pasha who received a personal invitation from Napoleon III himself. In June 1867 he was received by Haussmann who was his personal guide (AbuLughod, 1971). However, Ismail could not intervene in the old city because of its complicated urban fabric, as Hasussmann intervened in Paris with a time span of two years till the opening ceremony of Suez Canal. In addition he conceived the idea of keeping the city's positive attributes for its inhabitants and keeping the historical city out of his interventions.

3.1

A New Development

The decision was made by the Khedive to construct a new quarter of Cairo "the Ismaili Cairo" West of the existing Fatimid Medieval Cairo at a vast vacant land suitable for city expansion. This was to be the modern façade that the Khedive will receive and show his royal guests during the opening celebrations of Suez Canal. As such a second Modern and healthy Cairo was constructed next to the historical unsanitized one (Ali, 1997).Accordingly, the Khedive commissioned Ali Moubark pashahis minister for public works to set the plan for the new city. Together with his crew, influenced by the plan for Paris, they came up with the plan for the new city (Abu-Lughod, 1971). The plan stressed on the following: - Introducing new street networks, with wide, straight, and long streets (compared to old Cairo), connected to each other with squares modeled upon those of Paris. 214

Figure 5: The New Ismaili Cairo along the Nile with its new urban fabric adjacent to the Medieval Cairo. A map by Alexander


- Realizing a sanitized city, by constructing proper water supply networks and proper sewage systems. - Introducing a new green network of public parks and avenues in the new city. - Creating a beautiful city, as delightful as European cities especially in their architecture with Paris as the reference city of inspiration. - Making a whole series of public works and administrative reforms along the city, and linking the two banks of the Nile together via bridges , initiating the future development towards the west bank of the Nile. The city went through successive phases of Figure 4: Strong similarities can be found in development in the 19th and 20th century. the urban fabric of Cairo and that of Paris, as Ismaili Cairo that was considered a new shown in the above picture with Tahrir square development in the 19th century became the on the left and Charles de Gaulle etoile in core for Greater Cairo in contemporary times Paris. Source: (ZaaZaa, 2009) playing the role of the modern downtown.Accordingly, the new urban fabric of Paris was the source of inspiration for Cairo, with strong tangible similarities and characteristics between the two. The implementation of this new urban fabric in Cairo did not have the intention of stopping any future protests or revolutions as was the case in Paris; its main aim was to have a modern European new downtown.Nevertheless, it is argued that the Haussmann characteristics of the urban fabric including those of preventing protests were all unintentionally inherited in the Ismaili downtown Cairo.

4. ARAB SPRING REVOLUTION IN EGYPT The anger revolution in Egypt (January 2011) , the second in the Arab Spring revolutions after Tunisia, aimed to eradicate corruption and to reduce disparities within the different strata of the Egyptian society as well as creating a better and prosperous lifestyle. The revolution aimed at its early stages in January 2011 to overthrow the government. This was up scaled later to overthrow the president and the whole regime. The revolution started by a series of protests on the 25th of January 2011 and escalating to reach a peak on the 28th of January gaining the status of a revolution. The protests were organized by different activist groups using the different means of social networking. To encounter such protests, clashes erupted with the security bodies of the government, ending by a total retreat of the police forces from most of the cities and villages in Egypt, followed by a military intervention to protect the people and public properties from criminal acts, while the revolution continued for 18 days before achieving its main political goal (at that point).

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4.1 Prelude to the protests In the decade preceding the revolution, growing discontent from President Mubarak's rule and the successive Egyptian governments became tangibly evident in the society. Meier (2011) notes that opposition groups and campaigns emerged during that decade starting with Kefaya (2004), 6th of April movement (2008) and Khalid Said campaign (2010). These groups and movements were mostly influenced by the writings of Gene Sharp who advocates that change can be done through nonviolent protests and persuasion; this approach could be enlarged in the 2000s with the use of modern information telecommunication technologies (ITC) (Meier, 2008). In the aftermath of the Tunisian revolution and with its initial apparent success that flooded the media, several calls appeared among the social networking sites calling for a similar revolution in Egypt that was scheduled to take place at a national public holiday that is the police day on the 25th of January 2011.As a contemporary eyewitness and resident in Cairo at this period, the author like millions of others received the calls for a peaceful protest via Facebook, the so called "scheduled event" asking to join a "Day of Anger" on the 25th of January. Synchronized with these calls, the circulation of different information on the peaceful techniques of protesting and resistance took place as well through the social networking websites such as facebook and twitter. Among the information circulated at that time was a short manual " How to protest intelligently: important information and tactics", this manual gave instructions on how to conduct the protests in a peaceful way based on the ideas of Gene Sharp(El Menawey, 2012).The instructions Figure 6: How to protest intelligently is a provided in this manual were carefully illustrated manual of 26 pages and was circulated in a professional way. Meier (2011) refers that this prior to the protests in January 2011. is due to the influence and the exchange of information and training between some Egyptian groups and the Otpor opposition group in Serbia, as new tactics as well as adapted tactics were introduced. Some of the instructions within that manual will be referred to in the discussion.

4.2 The protests On January 25th 2011, thousands of Egyptians went for protests in different locations in Egypt. The initial success on that day encouraged for a further call to organize a "Friday of Anger" on January 28th, since Friday is a weekend in Egypt. The calls for that day were again circulated via the digital media, which proved to be highly effective in reaching a wider internet public. The discussion in the coming sections focuses mainly on the protests that took place on that day, with some later references to events that took place since the ousting of President Mubarak.

4.3. The urban Fabric and the protest mechanism Some interviews had been conducted with some of those who participated in the protests and marches of January 28th 2011 and the days that followed, as well as the author's own contemporary experience of the events. The interviewed agreed on some common aspects / events that took place on that day.Hence, the protests' mechanism can be described as follows: 1- They received the calls for protests on facebook and twitter in the days following up January 25th. These calls stressed on starting the protests and marches after the Friday prayer while coming out from the mosques. Some key mosques and churches (35 in number) were 216


identified in a note that was circulated over the facebook. The end destination of these protests would be Tahrir square (in Cairo) and certain governmental buildings and the ruling party head quarters in other cities. 2- People after the prayer gathered in front of mosques to see what might happen in reference to the internet call. In most cases, there would be someone or (many) who would start shouting slogans and start marching; such acts encouraged people would follow and join up in a demonstration. In other cases, some people interrupted the preacher in the Friday prayer accusing him that his pro-government and that he is a liar, most of the preachers were instructed by the government to preach against violence and protests, and marched out of the mosque and others followed. 3- Depending on the location and residence of the interviewed, after gathering in front of the mosques, especially those mentioned in the internet call, people went marching towards Tahrir as the destination, while the protest leaders guided them with directions. In most cases protests masses started small in number but would pour in a larger protest moving in a wider street or boulevard. In most cases the protests started at distant origins from Tahrir square reachingin average 12 kilometers. 4- On the way to Tahrir square, many of the protests had encounters with police and security forces. In some cases granting them the right to path before circling them few moments later and attempting to distract them by force. However, owing to the growing number of people, many managed to continue on their way. 5- Some of the interviewed who reached Tahrir square at an early time in comparison to Figure 7: One of the major protests heading other marches, explained that they had been towards Tahrir square with confrontations almost arrested by security forces in the with security forces. square and were only released when people coming from other protests smashed in the security forces, hence, outnumbering them. 6- Being outnumbered and almost running out of teargas canisters, security forces retreated from Tahrir square and simultaneously from other squares in most of Egypt. 7- Following that day, a "sit in" in Tahrir square took place until the ousting of President Mubarak 18 days later. Throughout this period the square witnessed some ìn" period a considerable mass of protestors was always present in the square to make sure that it would not fall back to the pro-regime groups.

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The sequence mentioned above by the interviewed can be explained from the following perspective: 1- The fact that most protests started small in size in secondary streets and squares and poured in into a larger street; this was actually explained by Meier (2011) in light of the protests manual discussed earlier. The explanation for this was given as Figure 8: A diagram from the protests manual follows "Starting in the alleys was not a showing the building up of significant number random decision. Starting small and away of protestors through converging from small from the main protests is a safe way to streets to larger ones. pool protesters together. It’s also about creating an iterative approach to a “strength in numbers” dynamic. As more people crowd the smaller the streets, this gives a sense of momentum and confidence. Starting in alley ways localizes the initiative. People are likely neighbors and join because they see their friend out in the street". This pooling of protestors also helped in building a critical mass that was later culminated in the "sit in" in Tahrir square. 2- The urban fabric of the downtown leading to Tahrir square, a copy of Paris's urban fabric, could not generate enough masses of protestors. The reason for that is the gentrification and change of building uses in most of the downtown area. Most of the downtown buildings changed their uses from residential to business and office space (Serag, 2002). Hence, it is argued that since the protests were taking place on a Friday (weekend), the numbers of protestors that could had been generated only from the downtown fabric, could had been easily distracted by police and security forces. Thus, a critical mass of protesters was needed to ensure the continuity of such protests. 3- In 2011 an interesting poster research project was made using the GIS tools to map the most strategic routes for protests that would have led to Tahrir square. The mapping criteria was based on identifying points of gathering (mosques), the mosques being far from police stations and their distance from Tahrir square. Therefore the protests' routes would pass on streets with high population density to feed up the protest march, as well as being wide enough to contain the protesting masses, and points of convergence to pour in the square. The findings showed indeed, that most of the proposed routes would start outside the downtown area to gain enough protesters (TUFTS, 2011). Despite that the research was based on fixed assumptions and did not take into consideration changes on the ground, the findings of such routes were more or less conforming to a large percentage with actual events.

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Figure 9: The use of GIS to analyze the possible routes for the protests showed that the origins of such protests would take place outside the Tahrir square and not from within.Source: November, https://wikis.uit.tufts.edu,


4- According to the protest manual Tahrir square was selected as a final destination of the protests that started in Cairo. It is argued that this was donefor several reasons: the parliament, the seat of the government and several ministries are either overlooking the square or in one of its secondary streets, hence the symbolic meaning of the square. The square provided the necessary space needed for containing the protesters and ensuring that together with its surrounding connected spaces would allow for the formation of a critical mass of Figure 10: An aerial view of Tahrir protesters to be reached. Despite the media square and its feeders including the claims at that time that the number of protestors nearby spaces. Source: Google Earth, November, in Tahrir square reached at a certain period during the protests 2 million people, Shachtman (2011) argued that in view of Dr. Clark McPhail calculations, one of the godfathers of crowdsizing science, the square and its surrounding spaces and streets can hold a maximum of 250000 persons, which is still considered a massive number of people in one place at the same time. 5- Tahrir square and its surroundings spaces are considered as a plug-in to the downtown fabric, in terms of scale and size the square could be considered of a larger scale than the squares of the downtown. One of the interviewed argued that the surrounding streets to Tahrir square provided a buffer zone to the protesters who in many cases would occupy them to drive any possible attack from the security forces away.

5.

POST REVOLUTION BARRICADES

After the revolution, Egypt passed and is passing (at the time of writing) through a turbulent transitional period. The country was ruled by the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces (SCAF) from February 2011 until July 2012. During this period there had been growing opposition among civil political groups against the military rule and the call for a civil president and government. Owing to this and other factors as well, demonstrations occurred in multiple incidents escalating sometimes to reach the state of a sit in. With the experience gained from the early revolution days, Tahrir square became a symbol of protest, and the physical container of a large critical mass.Bruer (2011) recalls that during a July 2011 major demonstration and "sit in" in Tahrir square; a huge canopy was constructed and donated by a wealthy civil engineer to provide shade and shelter for the protesters from the hot summer sun. In such a case opposition leaders knew that a sit in will take place in a considerable mass. Such incidents and several following others , showed the change in perception towards Tahrir square and also introduced the culture of protesting in large squares not afraid of being dispersed by security, police or other political forces provided that a considerable critical mass is present.

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5.1 Not Barricades but Walls Unfortunately, some of the demonstrations that took place in the post-revolution period turned into confrontations between the demonstrators and police forces. In November 2011, a sit in of 200 protestors in support of those who were killed or injured during the first days of the revolution and asking for state's support, had been dispersed by the police. This action sparked another wave of demonstrations and activists poured into Tahrir square and started making their way towards the Ministry of Interior that controlled the Figure 11: The clashes in November 2011 and police. targeting the Ministry of Interior by angry protesters, Al-Jaberi (2012) describes how these led to the construction of walls and barricades by the demonstrations turned into clashes with army in the streets surrounding the Ministry (Trew et the police and lasting for five days. These al, 2012). clashes ended after the army constructed a concrete wall across "Mohamed Mahmoud Street" where the Ministry is located. Not only this wall was constructed but few other walls were constructed to block the path towards the Ministry of interior in front of the protestors.The initial logic for the urban fabric applied in Cairo was initially formulated and applied in Paris, and that logic aimed to alleviate and minimize the possible use of barricades by the people to stop any possible revolution. It is argued that what happened in the streets of downtown Cairo was a reverse attitude by the police and military forces to protect their key establishments against the protestors. Of course what were built here were walls which were assembled by cranes from concrete blocks and not random barricades built of whatever material found. In this case the barricading (or walling) was done by the governing authorities to stop the protesters, especially that there were thousands of protestors in Tahrir square who were backing those clashing with the police forces in Mohamed Mahmoud street.In that sense, the fabric whose initial logic of planning stood for preventing barricades, ended up in Cairo with building concrete barricades i.e. walls.

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Building walls by the authorities became a standard solution to separate the protestors away from the government buildings. Starting from November 2012 and until the time of writing this article, several protests and demonstrations took place, although they might differ in intensity many of which took place in downtown Cairo. Malsin (2013) recalls that protests first started in September 2012 against the YouTube anti Mohamed clip taking place near the US embassy in Cairo. Then in November against a set of presidential decrees giving the president sweeping powers, Figure 12: In April 2013, concrete barricades (walls) causing a wide range of anger that was still exist in downtown Cairo especially near the followed shortly with angry protests Ministry of Interior. These walls were mostly erected against the then intended in the period between November 2012 and February constitution.Amid ongoing fighting 2013, with only few remaining from 2011. Source: Mapped by A. Osama in April 2013, an urban between riot` police and demonstrators, the protestors took Tahrir square and started a sit in turning the square into a protest camp. Consequently the security forces built several walls to make a physical separation between the square and the nearby government buildings especially on the streets leading to the Ministry of Interior, and other institutions. (ibid). Constructing these walls to block the streets had been very disadvantageous to many residents who got affected in their daily commuting routes and shop owners who got directly affected in their daily income. According to a downtown resident's account, more than six walls had been built since September 2012 bisecting the urban fabric of downtown Cairo in the surrounding area of Tahrir square.With their main sources of income affected, many shop and company owners in the walled area started to protest themselves against the presence of such walls.

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6.

CONCLUSION

The interventions in Paris's urban fabric through the process of its re-planning by Baron Haussmann in the 19th century aimed mainly to prevent future protests and revolts that could be sustained through barricading to hold ground in front of the state's forces and troops. Accordingly, wide boulevards were introduced in Paris cutting through the existing urban fabric and allowing for the swift intervention of state's forces to enter most of the city districts in a proper time, hence controlling and preventing the spread of protests. When the Ismaili Cairo was constructed shortly after Paris, its urban fabric was strongly inspired by the Parisian one;however, it was constructed next to the medieval Fatimid Cairo without intervening in the existing fabric. Despite that the urban fabric was copied without the intention of preventing possible revolts or protests, rather to give Cairo a more modern shape, the fabric still possessed the main characteristics of Haussmann's original fabric in Paris. Despite this, the Egyptian revolution of 2011 took place as well as its consequent demonstrations, protests and sit-ins and could not be stopped. Based on the discussion within the research, the following conclusions could be made: - Protests of the Egyptian revolution did not start from downtown Cairo, they rather started from distant locations outside the downtown in predefined routes initiating from relatively small squares and streets to pour into larger protests passing through wide streets, hence building up a considerable mass. - The urban fabric of downtown Cairo was not considered a main origin of protests, only Tahrir Square was set as the strategic destination for protestors. This is due to its large area that could hold up to 250000 persons combined with the surrounding and spaces. - According to the initial Haussmann intervention in Paris, wide streets were to allow for troops to swiftly march in and disperse the protestors, this was not the case in downtown Cairo. As the incoming protestors were pouring in from different directions towards a single origin that is Tahrir Square, the numbers of troops present were soon overwhelmed by the protestors , thus reversing the scenario that should had taken place and driving the troops out of the square. - Although the original reasoning for the Haussmann urban fabric in Paris was to prevent barricading, the actual events during and after the Egyptian revolution led to the construction of barricades and more over concrete barricades (walls) bisecting through the urban fabric in many streets. One can conclude that despite the original logic behind the urban fabric in downtown Cairo and its relation with the urban fabric in Paris, it could not stop the protestors, it could not stop barricading and it could not stop the revolution. Planning and intervening in the urban fabric could not and will not stop protests or revolutions.People got used to the urban fabric of their city and districts and adapted to it. Perhaps the protests got delayed for a considerable period of time; however, when people decided to make a change, they planned for it and overcame the difficulties within the urban fabric. A final word, instead of using planning as a tool for control, planning should be used for the people to meet their needs. This should be the way to prevent protesting and revolting through planning.

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7.

REFERENCES

Abu-Lughod, Janet L.; Cairo: 1001 years of the city victorious. New York: Princeton university press, 1971. Al-Jabri, Abulkasim. "Out of sight, but not out of mind: Mohamed Mahmoud remembered". Egyptindependent.com (on-line) (February, 2012) [Date accessed 25.4.2013] http://www.egyptindependent.com/news/out-sight-not-out-mind-mohamed-mahmoudremembered Ali, Arafa A.; Cairo in Ismail's reign. Cairo: Al Dar Al Masreyah Al Lubnanyah, 1997. Asar, Mohamed; Meanings of Streets: A comparative study of Haussmann's Paris and Ismail's Cairo. Leuven: unpublished MSc thesis, The University of Leuven, 2000. Bruer, Wes. "Egypt's second revolution". The Weekly standard. (July, 2011) [Date accessed 22.4.2013] http://www.weeklystandard.com/blogs/egypt-s-second-revolution_576848.html Douglas, Carl; "Barricades and Boulevards: Material transformations of Paris, 1795-1871". Interstices 8, (October 2007) pp 31-42. Duiker, William J.; Spielvogel, Jackson J.; World History; Boston: Wadsworth, 2010. El-Manawey, Abdel Latif; The last days of Mubarak: 18 days. Cairo: Al dar Al masreya Al Lubnanyeh , 2012. Kohn, George Childs; Dictionary of war, New York: InfoBase publishing, 2007. Malsin, Jared. " Cairo’s New Normal: Protests Spawn a World of Walls and Barricades". World.Time.com. (January, 2013) (on-line) [accessed 12.4.2013] http://world.time.com/2013/01/08/cairos-new-normal-protests-spawn-a-world-of-walls-andbarricades/#ixzz2RyNondr8 Meier, Patrick. "Civil resistance tactics used in Egypt's revolution # Jan 25". IRevolution: From innovation to revolution (February, 2011), (on-line) [Date accessed 18.4.2013] http://irevolution.net/2011/02/27/tactics-egypt-revolution-jan25/ Meier, Patrick. "Gene Sharp: Civil resistance and technology". IRevolution: From innovation to revolution (December, 2008), (on-line) [Date accessed 18.4.2013] http://irevolution.net/2008/12/25/gene-sharp-civil-resistance-and-technology/ Serag, Yehya; Urban Gaps in Cairo: the case of the vacant housing stock downtown. Leuven: unpublished MSc thesis, The University of Leuven, 2002. Shachtman, Noah. "How many people are in Tahrir square? Here is how to tell". Wired.com (online) (February, 2011) [Date accessed 21.4.2013] http://www.wired.com/dangerroom/2011/02/how-many-people-are-in-tahrir-square-heres-howto-tell/ Traugott, Mark; The insurgent barricade; University of California Press, 2010. ZaaZaa, Ahmed; "El Tahrir early establishment and planning" in the Blog: Cairo the multi schizophrenic city. http://cairomsc.blogspot.com/2009_11_01_archive.html , April 2013. "Identifying strategic routes for civil resistance: An analysis of optimal approaches to Tahrir square in Cairo". TUFTS University (June, 2011) (on-line) [Date accessed 19.11.2012] https://wikis.uit.tufts.edu/confluence/display/GISatTufts/2011+GIS+Poster+Expo+Gallery

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© SB13-Cairo 2013 Fallacy of Greening the New Egyptian Cities Abdelkhalek Awad Ibrahim

Fallacy of Greening the New Egyptian Cities Abdelkhalek Awad Ibrahim Faculty of Urban and Regional Planning Cairo University- Giza- Egypt Email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT: It is widely agreed that the spatial development strategies adopted by the Egyptian government in the new cities were not environmentally, socially or economically sustainable. The layout of these settlements ignores the traditional planning principles for the desert environment, which have been established in the area over many centuries. To be precise, looking for the typical Egyptian urban form reveals that the compact city pattern with high density, high diversity of activities and mixed uses is the common form. However, the new cities take a very different, extreme pattern that of the scattered city. Many current problems experiencing these cities are related to this modern or western urban form. Part of green urbanism ideology, developing and operating massive areas for green gated communities in such an arid zone would obviously create unsustainable patterns in terms of water scarcity and energy consumption. Water scarcity has become one of the most important current and future challenges in Egypt, especially when coupled with the implications of climate change. Despite that, the planning policy have been applied for the new cities has not considered these challenges. The recent government starts to develop new green communities in the desert but the dimensions and principles of green urbanism for these cities are ambiguous and there is an erroneous belief between decision makers in defining these dimensions. In response to this alien urbanism, many scholars have emphasized the need to investigate, analyse, preserve and even reactivate the underlying processes of traditional urban form. This paper therefore extends the soundness of the available literature to explore an eco (green) city concept that is sustainable for the new development. This is mainly based on a critical comparison between different cases from the new cities and measures their sustainability. An appraisal sustainable framework is produced for testing this hypothesis according to a theoretical base and a critical feedback from the local experts. Keywords: eco-city, energy consumption, green urbanism, urban sustainability, water scarcity

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1.

BACKGROUND

Many resources have identified several problems facing the sustainable development of the new cities in Egypt and some of these problems are related to the adoption of an urban form seemingly unsustainable (Ibrahim 2009). Looking for the typical Egyptian urban form it can be revealed that the compact-city pattern with high density, high diversity of activities and mixed uses is the common form for the majority of Egyptian cities (Acioly 2000). In contrast, the new cities have not only been built on a different pattern but also this pattern has no design reference to the Egyptian context (Shalaby 2003).That is the reason for describing these cities as modern (Becard 1985) or western (Hegab 1985) pattern. The strategy for the development of new settlements in Egypt was new (Shalaby 1999) and the Egyptian planners were not sufficiently aware of planning principles (Becard 1985) or process (Hegab 1985). Foreign professionals therefore were responsible for the development of the first generation of these cities (Ahmed 2003). Yet, arguably, the overseas experiences affected the city shape and form and made it dissimilar from the general case. Inviting western design principles in developing the new Egyptian cities definitely creates a good quality built environment but not sustainable (Ibrahim 2011). The achievement of green urbanism philosophy is one among these principles. A new urbanism that is considerably more ecological in design and functioning and that has ecological limits at city core is highly recommended for the urban development (Beatley 2000) and was a strategic approach for the new cities in Egypt (Soliman 2004). The shortage of green spaces in the Egyptian existing cities was the main reason for the greening urbanism movement at the early stage in developing the new cities (NUCA 1989). This is also matched with the recent international Initiatives of greening urbanism especially in the Middle East. Nonetheless, this approach creates a low density city and an urban sprawl that is not a common in the Egyptian urban system (Ibrahim 2009). This also contradicts with the calls for urban compaction in the developed and developing world (e.g. Jenk & Burgess 2000) Preliminary testing for the sustainability of urban form has suggested that future sustainable cities should be compact, high density, diverse and highly integrated (Breheny 1992; CEC 1990). Other dimensions such as greening and more effective use of passive solar energy have also been promoted (Jabareen 2006) for the eco city model as a sustainable form (Kenworthy 2006). Getting behind this consensus, the European Commission report, Green Paper (1990), broadened the debate over sustainability when advocating that the compact city produces a sound environment and higher quality of life for residents (citied in Breheny 1992a) which can help to solve the common problems created by old policies. Hence, it is argued that sustainable or eco-city model should be a compact pattern besides to the greening functions (Jabareen 2006). Yet, debatably, how compaction and greening are worked in the same model? Basically, the potential for urban greening in the city depends significantly on the merits of low- versus high-density environment. In this context, some argue that the eco-city should be a high density city having sufficient green spaces between the dense urban centers that bring nature into the life of city dwellers through a diversity of open landscapes (Elkin et al., 1991). Yet, the application of a compact or eco-city model may find different circumstances between developing and developed countries. Bearing in mind, in the developed world, cities are located in a natural green landscape environment. The eco-city is strongly recommended as a pattern of high density development that mean less land devoted to sprawl and hence preserve the existing green landscape surrounding or inner cities (Kenworthy 2006). Quite the opposite, in the hot region where a high rate of evaporation, great variation in daytime and night-time temperatures, and relatively intense solar radiation, especially during the summer (El-Zamly 1999) the green urbanism has 225


some challenges. Hence, eco-city concept in this context should be a compact pattern with very limited green spaces (Golany 1978). The misleading planning process in Egypt has created large green spaces in the new cities many of them have not successfully functioned (Ahmed 2003) in the time that the country faces several problems related to water scarcity and energy consumption. Consequently, this paper hypothesis a fallacy between planners and decision makers is existed in greening the new development in Egypt. This paper, adopts an argument that links the disjuncture of the current development process and its product in the new Egyptian cities. It starts by giving a short literature review of the topic and continues by presenting research questions for the study on green urbanism. After describing the methods and data used in the study, the paper opens the discussion to define the phenomenon of urban greening via reviewing of the planning process and urban products at the new city context. The last part of the paper presents the findings and examines the sustainability of green urbanism movement by using water and energy consumption as two main pillars in testing the environmental sustainability.

2.

GREEN URBANISM: PLANNING FOR URBAN BIODIVERSITY

Biodiversity is a common terminology used extensively in environmental science that refers to the variation of all life on earth (biological diversity) (Gaston & Spicer, 2004). Urban areas are highly modified and complex landscapes in which biodiversity is considered as having many opportunities for citizens (Natura 2004). In turn, like a natural biodiversity, urban biodiversity presents a dogma in making a balance between human settings and natural environment. A number of challenges are argued for the urban biodiversity: higher population densities, diversity of uses and coherent green networks (Brennan 2008). All of these challenges reduce the depletion of the natural resources needed for urban development (Breheny 1992a) and, most importantly, save the consumption of energy. In this context, green networks, belts and wedges are recommended as biodiversity resources in cities (Girling and Kellett 2005). Green areas provide the built environment with a diversity of flora and offer an ever-expanding human population with direct access to nature (Brennan 2008). That is why green urbanism appears to be an important design concept for the sustainable urban form (Jabreen 2006). Greening urbanism is an old traditional motivation that was early suggested by Ebenezer Howard’s (1850-1928) as a model of a self-sustaining town. Howard promoted the idea of planned satellite settlements outlined by greenbelts, containing carefully balanced areas of residences, industry and agriculture (Brennan, 2008). Since then, the garden city movement was internationally influential and many well-known planners, politicians and researchers were influenced by it. However, our modern environment and the way we understand it is profoundly different from the milieu in which Howard formed his ideals (Gallanter 2012). Today, garden city principles have provided a conceptual basis for modern urban planning charters such as Principles of Intelligent Urbanism, New Urbanism, and the Sustainable Cities movement. Environmental City, Green City, Sustainable City, Eco-City, Ecological City, Sustainable Urban Living, Sustainable Community and Sustainable Neighborhood all of these concepts emphasis greening urbanism as approach for the urban sustainability (Jabreen 2006). These designs use green urban infrastructure as a main item in formulating a solution to the urban problems they address (Gallanter 2012). Yet, there is an inherent conflict between scholars whether the green cities low or high density. Eco-city appears as a recommended model to deal with this conflict. 226


There are widespread claims in academia that eco-city is different than green city (e.g. Wong, and Yuen 2011). An eco-city is an urban area that makes a minimal impact on the natural environment, often with features designed to regenerate and preserve natural resources (Gallanter 2012). The eco-city is suggested to preserve land resource, saving lands, infrastructure and energy cost (Kenworthy 2006) and these targets harmonized with the concept of urban biodiversity. Hence, based on the urban diversity challenges, the application of high density and concentration form are recommended as significant dimensions of the eco-city. In contrast, the green city provides the opportunities living in more naturalistic locations. Open space is part of the urban fabric where nature is brought close to every home (Gallanter 2012, Girling and Kellett 2005). Accordingly, eco-city and green city are difficult to combine, as ecocities need a relatively high density of development but urban greening needs uncovered ground for water infiltration, naturalistic feel, and in turn low density profile. Yet, some critics suggested the eco-city concepts as greening and passive solar design principles (e.g. Jabreen 2006). For sustainability, urban development tries to shrink, consolidate, or dense the city leaving more natural areas undamaged. Compact city model is suggested here. A high density or monocentric development in limited green areas in cities provide benefits for some natural habitat, air quality, water quality, and human education (Gordon and Richardson 1997). This model is very significant for the hot and arid regions where the natural green landscape are very limited and therefore the using of compact centers separated by few green spaces are welcomed (Ibrahim 2001). Reviewing the conventional urban form may provide some successful lessons for the green urbanism in the hot and arid regions.

3.

GREEN URBANISM IN THE TRADITIONAL URBAN FORM

Egyptian arid lands are commonly described by the high mean duration of sunshine, minimal rainfall, high level of solar radiation and high level of temperatures (El-Zamly 1994), water scarcity and deficiency of suitable land for agriculture (Agrawala et al. 2004). Generally, planners of arid zones should design different physical urban configurations to meet the stress of climate (El-Zamly 1999). There are endless varieties of urban patterns for arid and hot regions that are suitable for both the social and natural environment. From an environmental viewpoint, basic urban form in arid zones should provide maximum shade, allow minimum reflection in streets and open spaces and minimize indirect solar radiation to avoid heating the air (Golany 1978). The narrow, winding alleys and streets, which lack sunlight, and also break stormy winds, are relatively cool in these zones (El-Zamely 1999). A proper design of the compact city model was suggested to reduce dusty or cold nocturnal winds and solar radiation (El-Wakeel & Serag 1989). A good design would show the neighbourhood as residential mixed with non-residential units to reduce daily walking distances (Golany 1978). For Egypt, in traditional planning, the popular neighbourhood is mainly structured by Harah, a small narrow alley grouped by a number of housing units allocated around a space (Ghannam 2002). Daifallah (2004) described this neighbourhood as the major determinant of the community dynamic that implies the prevalence of some social and cultural dimensions. The designing of Harah is based on proximity functions: building close to the street, close to shops and green parks because of the environmental (El-Zamly 1999; Golany 1978) and social limitations (Ghannam 2002; Golany 1978). The population size of a Harah community usually varies between 150 and 300 inhabitants and the neighbourhood comprises between 20 and 40 Harah units (GOPP 1989). In their model, Yousry and Elsadik suggested that the net residential density of Harah fluctuates around 550 inhabitants/acre with a site coverage more than 45% and building height of 2–5 storeys (GOPP 1989). Through their proposal, the Harah community was obviously planned in the first generation cities through using the residential group in the city 227


hierarchy. It was suggested that each neighbourhood should be structured around a number of residential groups, around 10–20 units (GOPP 1989). Each unit is a homogenous community that usually has similar socio-economic characteristics with determined visual and natural boundaries (Mansour & Farg 2007). For its design, houses are placed around small-size green spaces which may include a kindergarten and one or two local ground floor shops in some blocks, as shown in figure 1.0. Nevertheless there are significant differences between all of these principles and the real conditions that were developed in practice and therefore there is a need to focus more on the analysis of both the planned and actual states as stated in the next sections. The discussions above have highlighted the green urbanism ideology in the traditional design principles. To mitigate with environmental restrictions, the urban form with its interior alleys courtyards is conceived as compact islands surrounded by desert landscape. Shaded areas are created in the landscape due to the vegetation. The shading of public areas contributes to make places more pleasant for social interactions. The design should also encourage a pedestrian oriented lifestyle by providing a large pedestrian surface and a good access to public transportation. The development therefore should be based on a creation of a high dense and mixed use neighborhoods separated by small green corridors that are functionally as breather for the built environment and as linkage through coherent public transportation and pedestrian networks, figure 2.

Figure 2: Urban structure of the green development suitable for the arid zones (The author based on ecotownz.co.uk)

4.

Figure 1: Design of the residential group for the new cities based on Harah model (The author)


In an earlier section, this paper questions whether the application of green urbanism would make the new cities sustainable or not. In order to answer this enquiry, the first task is to review the planning strategies in Egypt and hence identifies to what extent these strategies contribute in greening the new cities. The study uses a number of statistical measurements of the urban form (e.g. percentage of green and grey areas) in order to examine the level of urban greenery of the new cities using a number of different cases. The study includes cases from the luxury communities "gated communities" where the green urbanism is highly monitored and also other low income cases. The analysis is based on measuring the urban sustainability of these cases to illustrates how sustainable is the green neighbourhood?

228


Using sustainability as a concept in evaluating urban form is of considerable significance. Without a doubt, sustainable development indicators have been widely discussed since the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (Earth Summit) in Rio de Janerio, 1992, the first global gathering related to sustainable development. Since then, sustainability indicators have been developed and tested and many indicators have been produced to measure sustainable development. This apparent acceptance and unanimity of sustainability is, however, misleading because there is no precise definition (Satterthwaite 1997). Therefore, sustainability has become a “fuzzy buzzword” (Palmer et.al, 1997, p.87) and this is very obvious when considering urban sustainability (Colantonio 2007). This discussion emphasizes the value of using the sustainability concept in the evaluation of urban form, but the question remains, how to select the proper indicators among a group of multiple frameworks suggested by many agencies and researchers. In this paper, much focus is given to the environmental quality due to the future risks predicted by the climate change. The relationships between urban form and environmental quality have long been debated (e.g. Berheny 1992). The recent environmental debate has given major questions about the contributions of certain urban forms to lower energy consumption and water scarcity levels. Therefore, it can be indicated that there are three main indicators that may be used for measuring the efficiency of the cases: (1) reducing the consumption of energy; (2) decreasing emissions and pollutions and (3) water management.

5.

TALE OF GREENING THE NEW EGYPTIAN CITIES:

In the first generation of the new city programme the New Urban Communities Authority in Egypt (NUCA) employed a comprehensive planning approach in developing all new cities. The product of this process was a general scheme determining the distribution of uses, the number of people, services and industrial uses for a period up to 20 or 25 years (NUCA 1989). The development of cities was undertaken by the Ministry of Housing with the cooperation of national and international advisory offices (Hegab 1985). Nonetheless, the participation of foreign officers was very obvious because the new settlement strategy in Egypt was relatively new and seemingly borrowed from Western experiences (Shalaby 2003). As a consequence, consulting offices from Western countries were invited through the NUCA to plan and develop the first generation of new cities in accordance with governmental regulations (Ibrahim 2009). This produced low density cities featured by a low percentage of footprint which explain why these cities have been considered greenery. Recently, towards the end of the twentieth century, the planning processes in Egypt witnessed considerable changes in their framework. Significantly, Egypt was pushed into transforming its economy into a more free-market economy model because of the huge pressure from outside forces (Stewart 1999). The Egyptian government, therefore, sold large un-reclaimed areas to real estate developers to finance the housing development (Denis 2008). Most of the new cities’ assets are sold to the private sector, “leaving the arena of developing these towns in the hands of private enterprises”(Bayoumi 2009, p. 7). Kuppinger and College (2004) identified the implications of this “deregulation of some government land” (p.43) through the transformation of desert lands surrounding GCR from public to private ownership, creating new and different policies in designing these cities. Development has shifted to establishing exclusive gated communities for the most profitable luxury housing market by creating new and different urban form. In this respect, the vision anticipated by Becard (1985) describing the new towns according to a modern European model was correct, although this vision has become more 229


obvious in recent times. The speed of the upsurge of the luxury and gated communities has produced other new patterns that are not likely to be found in existing cities and that is the reason for describing the new cities as exclusive greenery. Given the proliferations of these sprouting green communities, the city become as separate green islands grows in the desert in a very low density pattern that negatively affects the city sustainability and increases the environmental problems of GCR.

5.1

New cities: Green or Grey fabric?

Green fabric and gray fabric are two terminologies lately used to distinguish which patterns serve ecological functions and the others serve built and urban functions. Simply, common land uses such as residential, commercial and industrials are gray fabric, and the streets are gray networks. Public open spaces are green fabric, and the open space corridors that connect them are green networks (Girling and Kellett 2005). Understanding the city or part of it as two types of patterns is very significant to recognize its structure. Analyzing the urban form of the new Egyptian cities in terms of green and grey fabric and networks may give some useful facts. Originally, the urban form of the new Egyptian cities was designed to be somewhere between two different patterns: the fine avenues of Heliopolis (A pioneer new development in northern Cairo in 1920) and the fresh and shady streets of the traditional cities (Becard 1985). However, any observer of the new cities development may notice how these cities have been developed in a modern rather than a traditional pattern (Ibrahim 2011). The planning and design of the new Egyptian cities has been established on the concept of Perry`s neighborhood model. Based on that, every neighbourhood has green core (public spaces) in addition to the other private spaces. According to the governmental legislations, public spaces should allocate around 2025% of the total area representing in public garden and pedestrian pathways. Housing usually assigns half of the total area, with a footprint between 45-50%. This reveals that around 55-50% of the housing area are customized for private spaces, figure 3.0. Hence, the green fabric (public and private spaces) has an area equal to or more than half of the total neighborhood area which refer to a high level of greenery compared by the traditional urban form. Any reader of the planning studies prepared for the new cities can notice the different "assumed" purposes of green spaces for local citizen. Surprisingly, the areas assigned for green spaces exceed the user needs (Ibrahim, 2011) and therefore many of green gardens has become neglected or abandoned places (Ahmed 2003), see figure 3.0. The physical modifications of the built environment carried out by residents in many neighbourhoods (Ahmed 2003; Hyalnd, Tipple & Wilkinson 1984) is evidence of the need to change planning and design principles. As Bardaa (1992) highlights in his paper, there are many examples where the built environment has been unable to respond to the changeable socio-cultural needs of its inhabitants. The main reasons for this are the explicit shortcomings of “expert-based design approaches” (Hegab 1985, p. 173) and the non-responsive rigid housing product that is reflected in neighbourhood plans (Ahmed 2003). Another related reason raised by Wilkinson (1999) is that, owing to the cultural and educational gap between low-income users and experts, there is an inability of professionals to reflect correctly users’ socio-cultural needs (Wilkinson 1999).

230


Current situation

Desgin

Figure 4: Green and grey netwoks in the desgin of neighbourhoods (The author)

5.2

Figure 3: Percenatge of landuses in the common neighbourhood desgin (The author)

Exclusive Green Gated communities

Given that the grass is always greener, it comes as no surprise that the upper class in Egypt is nostalgic for a green built environment that makes their life different. The dream of a house surrounded by a lawn where children play is dominant in the majority of young Egyptian minds. The idea of a single-family dwelling in a housing complex surrounded by amenities and greening has come to fit very well the consumer dreams of upper class, who have escaped from the overcrowding and urban chaos in Cairo districts (Kuppinger& College 2004). Therefore, lots of exclusive places for leisure and recreation have been rapidly developed since the late 1990s (Kuppinger& College 2004). Golf courses, luxury residential compounds, boast vast green areas, swimming pools, mini zoos and kids’ corners (Rehab Saad 2002 cited in Kuppinger & College 2004) are becoming normal physical features of some new cities. Western tastes is not only appeared in the design but also in all community aspects to the limit that some communities in Egypt have English names that make these communities distance from Cairo’s social and cultural fabric. For example, the Dreamland Golf Course, located in October city, is currently one of the most famous golf communities in the world that make it a cited example. Nearly 40% of the total area (around 350 acres) is designed for golf villas and golf courses in addition to 50% (around 145 acres) of the residential areas are assigned for green private spaces. Madinaty is another exclusive greening project that is most preferable for the elite nowadays and many of the upper class compete to buy a unit there. It is located on the outskirt of New Cairo City and very close to Badr and Heliopolis new cities. Golf courses are very significant component of this project which consists of three golf districts. As most of the residential compound and due to the governmental regulations, the green areas are designed to be about 11.7% of the total project area (around 940 acres). Yet, by more investigation golf villas and villas represent 28.2% and almost 60% of this area is designed for golf courses and their supporting amenities such as retail village and clubhouses. It is not surprising, therefore, when describing these projects as greenery development and this reveals how the new communities have been developed with no reference to the Egyptian style. By more examinations to the urban fabric of gated projects, with 231


no doubt, these communities are exclusive greenery. Figure (5.0) represents three gated cases that are different in their size in order to identify the level of greenery at the diverse city levels. In all cases, the analysis records large areas allocated for the green fabric and green networks. For example, in Katamya Heights the percentage of green areas is about 73% of the community area where golf courses and related amenities are dominated an unlimited area. The situation is not different at Rehab neighborhoods. As shown in figure 5.0, the analysis of its fabric spots more than 60% of the area for greening which apparently considered a high luxury green built environment.

Arbila Gated community- Zayed New city

Katamya Heights gated communityNew Cairo City

A neighborhood in Rehab community - New Cairo City

Figure 5: Green and grey patterns at some gated community cases (The author)

6.

URBAN GREENERY AND CONSUMPTION OF ENERGY

In hot dry climates the daytime summer temperature are always high and thus the buildings should not be ventilated during the hot hours (Givoni 2010). Moreover, as existed in Egypt, sometimes dust storms making it necessary to close windows regardless the degree of outdoor temperature. Street layout and orientation, open spaces between building and pedestrian pathway should take into account the wind direction and the prevention of sun temperature (Golany 1978). The impact of greening on human comfort in hot areas can be "a mixed bad" (Givoni, 2010, P105). Shading provided by trees or artificial materials is compulsory but the blockage of wind may increase human discomfort especially with the high humidity (Givoni, 1991). According to Potchtere et al. (1999), a combination of small size grasses, low flower beds and shaded tree with high trunks is the most appropriate landscape design in the hot humid climates. When indoor temperatures are uncomfortable due to the outdoor spaces as happened in most of the Egyptian cases, higher indoor air speed produced by ceiling fans or other types of air conditioning would be used to improve the inhabitants comfort. Drawn from literature, the cooling effect of urban greenery creates a ‘park cool island’ (PCI) which can be explained by the oasis effect caused by the vegetation (Spronken-Smith et al., 2000) and this is commonly noticed in the areas having urban heat island (UHI) (SpronkenSmith and Oke 1998). In the hot regions, green areas offer the opportunities for cooling the built environment. Yet, the potential cooling effects of urban parks in the humid regions may have negative impacts on human comfort through the increasing of humidity values (Potchtere et al. 232


1999). Using a plenty of green areas may negatively affect the comfort. The big park is completely exposed to sun radiation while the built-up area is partly shaded by the buildings. Therefore, temperatures in many spaces between buildings are less than at the green spaces and this may find a reason for why people use street for socializing more than spaces (Ibrahim 2011). In few cases, as exited in October city, where spaces are small and building close together, people prefer socializing in street and spaces since they feel comfort in these places. The street life boosts interactions and social networks in this case and thus it is seen as an extension of the home where most indoor activities extend to the outdoors. In other cases, the common prototypes, where spaces are big size and building footprint is low, the empirical studies highlighted something different. The fact that parks with grass often require irrigation has a direct influence on their humidity values is apparently a reason for why spaces become neglected and abounded. Grass parks can be considered as an unfriendly element in the urban environment, owing to increasing air temperature and high black ball temperature accompanied with an increase in humidity values. This affects the level of socializing in this case where people find these spaces are highly uncomfortable. Form a social angle, a big distance between individuals in this case seems to create a “public distance”, where the size of spaces is bigger than the activities needs (Hester 1975, p. 56).

7.

URBAN GREENERY AND WATER SCARCITY

Policy makers and researchers in Nile Basin become increasingly aware of the problems of water scarcity that led to the ideas of ‘water wars’ (Gleick 1993). It is expecting that, by 2025, more than 1.1 billion people, representing two-thirds of the population of the African countries will be in the risk of water scarcity (Conway & Mike 1996). Moreover, climate change will affect demand for water through physical and social effects such as behavioral changes in water consumption in response to higher temperatures (Goulden et al, 2008). In Egypt, due to the harsh climate and global warming, irrigation will be directly affected due to higher rates of evaporation. Improvement of water-use efficiency and recycling of water, sustainable water use practices and use of water markets to reallocate water between uses are compulsory actions to reduce water consumption (Goulden et al, 2008). Water has considerable values in the landscape design of green communities. Therefore, most of the green luxury communities around GCR have used water to provide visual attraction and beauty. Any observer of the green communities in the new cities questions the wisdom of utilizing meager water resources. Golf villas that have been sharply developed around GCR are mostly the second and third homes of the elite (Gauch 2000). Concept of water resource ownership is very significant in this regard. It is not a reasonable that many areas in GCR suffer from the scarce of water in the time that green communities consume much more water even if it is grey water. This raises a question of who manage the water supply to ensure individuals’ rights to access water. Consequently, another erroneous belief of greening the urban communities around GCR from the idea of water scarcity and ownership is existed.

8.

CONCLUSION

Eco-city and other green urban planning endeavors have been widespread claimed in literature, however the link between eco-city and green city still not obvious. There is no universally accepted standard definition to define an ‘eco-city’ since it has various definitions but many of them described it as a green urbanism. What is a sense, the sustainable city models produced 233


in the North have some limitations to be adopted in the arid zones, particularly the model of urban greening. The Egyptian existing cities undergo the lack of greenery due to the extreme high dense built environment. Disappearing of green spaces creates many environmental problems such as pollution and high gas emissions where conflicts are existed between the environment and urban settings (figure 6.0). Accordingly, the new cities offer large spaces for greening to escape from the problems found in the existing cities. Despite that, based on the issues explored in this paper, the study comes out to the sustainable city for the Egyptian context that must be a form of high density with very limited green spaces. The harsh climate of the country and the scarcity of water resources should take into consideration in developing greenery in the new cities. In an earlier discussion, the paper hypothesizes the fallacy of greening urbanism for the new development. The study indicates, first, the level of greenery existed in the new cities. Cities are apparently exclusive greenery appearing in the huge development of green gated communities and also large green spaces offered for the low income. Second, planners and decision makers were not aware enough of the link between climate, built environment and greenery in developing these cities. From an environmental perspective, the expansion of such green areas increases climate rigidity and hence boosts the demand for energy. Besides to this study, many empirical tests predicted that the new Egyptian cities would not be environmental sustainable due to this erroneous belief. Using of greenery indeed decreases the conflicts between urban form and natural environment in some ways but in many aspects increases the clash with climate and environmental sustainability. Therefore, this paper recommends a balance between greening urbanism and compaction levels based on measuring energy consumption, gas emissions and water consumption (figure 6.0).

Figure 6: conflicts between greening, environment and urban form (The author)

Finally, for the future development and research, this involved setting out a list of reasonable standards which emerged from the coherency of the traditional form. These standards should be considered the greening of urban form and support compaction in the same way. Developing the new cities should be done on a high density and mixed-use concept and using of green corridors and areas between these dense centers. Yet more research and tests are required to define more accurate the level of sustainable greenery for the different social and environmental contexts.

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9.

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El-Wakeel, S. & Serag, M. (1989) Climate and Arid Zones Architecture (in Arabic), Alam Elkotob, Cairo. El-Zamly, H.A. (1994) Arid Zones: A New Trend in Planning Education, Cairo University CairoEgypt. El-Zamly, H.A. (1999) Arid Zones: A New Trend in Planning Education, 2nd International Symposium, Planning Education in the 21st Century: Past Experiences and Future Responses Faculty of Urban and Regional Planning- Cairo University Cairo-Egypt. Gaston Kevin J. & Spicer John I. (2004) Biodiversity: An Introduction, Wiley-Blackwell Gauch, Sarah (2000), A widening class divide in Egypt A surge in luxury communities outside chaotic Cairo reflects the huge gap between rich and poor,Special to The Christian Science Monitor Ghannam, F. (2002) Remaking the Modern Space, Relocation,and the Politics of Identity in a Global Cairo, University of California Press, Berkeley. Girling, Cynthia and Kellett, Ronald (2005),Skinny Streets and Green Neighborhoods: Design for Environment and Community, Washington, DC: Island Press. Givoni, B. (1991) ‘Impact of planted areas on urban environment quality: A review’, Atmospheric Environment,vol 25B, no 3, pp289–299 Givoni, Baruch (2010) Thermal comfort issues and implications in high –density cities in Edward Ng (eds) Designing High-Density Cities for Social and Environmental Sustainability, Earthscan,London, P 87-104 Gleick, P. H. (1993). Water and Conflict - Fresh-Water Resources and International Security. International Security 18(1), 79-112. Golany, G. (1978) Urban Planning for Arid Zones; American Experiences and Directions John Wiley & Sons, New York. GOPP (1989) Planning of Settlement No.5, vol. 5, Ministry of Development and New Communities, Housing and Utilities, Cairo-Egypt. Goulden Marisa, Conway Declan & Persechino Aurelie (2008) Adaptation to climate change in international river basins in Africa: a review, Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research 2008 Gordon, P. & Richardson, H.W. (1997) 'Are Compact Cities a Desirable Planning Goal?', Journal of the American Planning Association vol. 63, no. 1, pp. 95 - 106 Hegab, M.S.E. (1985) New Towns Policy, The Expanding Metropolis:Coping with the Urban Growth of Cairo, ed. A. Amin, Concept Media, Singapore, pp. 171-175. Hester, R.T. (1975) Neighborhood Space, Halsted Press, Stroudsburg. Hyalnd, A., Tipple, A. & Wilkinson, N. (1984) Housing in Egypt, University of Newcastle Upon Tyne, School of Architecture, Newcastle Ibrahim, A.A. (2008) Using of Compact Urban-form for the Sustainability of the New Settlements in Developing Countries, 48th Congress of the European Regional Science Association, Liverpool. Ibrahim, A.A. (2009) Egyptian Compact-City Veracity: The Fallacy and Credibility of Mixed Use and High Density for a Low Carbon City, Low Carbon Cities - 45th ISOCARP International Congress Porto.

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© SB13-Cairo 2013 Towards an Integrated Neo-vernacular Living Environment Makhlouf, N. N. and Eid,. Y.Y.

Towards an Integrated Neo-vernacular Living Environment: physical and socio-cultural aspects Makhlouf, N. N.1 and Eid, Y.Y.2 1

Cairo University, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Architecture M.Sc. IUSD student (Integrated Urbanism and Sustainable Design) dual degree program Stuttgart University, Germany and Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt e-mail: [email protected] 2

Ain Shams University, Department of Urban Planning and Design 1 El-Sarayat st., 11517 Abbasiya, Cairo, Egypt

Abstract: Meeting the growing contemporary needs of the remote desert and less developed communities has become an inevitable challenge. Not only because of the difficulties of providing those areas with the elements of development, especially if they are in one of the developing countries, but also because it is inherited with its distinctive traditions and indigenous lifestyle. Hence, it is threatened by the urban invasion and the blind usage of the industrialized materials, while the vernacular architecture of those communities expresses accumulative attempts of acclimating the living environments to their needs. This paper is part of a master's research based on a case study methodology. It discusses an integrated neo-vernacular approach for the current developments in one the distinctive remote desert areas in the Western Desert of Egypt. The integration between advanced high- and traditional low-techniques as an approach to achieve the contemporary needs of its segregated community is one of its significant results. The study is conducted to outline the responses towards the contemporary living needs, through physical and socio-cultural factors, by tracing the architectural development of its housing typologies. The research is based on a fieldwork survey conducted in Qarat Um-Asaghier Village. Participant-observation, direct and guided observations, in addition to interviews with the villagers and the different governmental entities, had been its pillars. The analysis of the different living environments is based on sets of criteria affecting the house design such as; traditions, lifestyle of the villagers along with an analysis of the vernacular houses and its deficiencies for future aspirations. The results of the analysis of the different typologies suggested recommendations for the future developments for providing an integrated contemporary neo-vernacular living environment in remote desert areas. Keywords: high-tech and low-tech; integrated neo-vernacular; living environment; remote desert, Qarat Um-Asaghier

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1.

RESEARCH BACKGROUND

In the remote indigenous areas in Egypt, the unique vernacular architectural character is threatened by the blind usage of the industrialized building materials. Distinctive desert settlements are being endangered by the modern urban invasion of the current industrialized developments; especially in the housing sector. Thus, indigence for a compromised neovernacular approach for the current developments in those distinctive areas is important. In an attempt to save its distinction and to provide its indigenous community with their present desires. In order to achieve that, understanding of; what are the inherited bases of the unique indigenous living environments in those areas? and; how to incorporate the socio-cultural and physical indigenous bases into an integrated and compatible neo-vernacular living environment? is inevitable. The research claims, one can achieve a neo-vernacular approach for the living environment; by integrating both contextual low-techniques and advanced industrialized techniques, in competence, in the remote isolated areas. Hence, to provide the contemporary needs of its communities, along with respecting their socio-cultural inherited requirements. The scope of this paper is limited to the socio-cultural and physical aspects in the different living environments, past and present, in a particular case study area. The discussion and analysis of these living environments include their morphological design; in terms of the house internal configuration, satisfaction of cultural needs and the usage of the Photovoltaic (PV) units for power provision. Other aspects related to the architectural appearance of the houses, or the urban scale of the residential settlement, is not considered in this research. This research is a part of master's thesis research submitted to both University of Stuttgart and Ain-Shams University.

1.1.

Primitive, but distinctive "The case study village"

One such remote village in the Western Desert of Egypt stands out with its unique indigenousness, culture, history, ethnic racial group of people and their social structure Fig. (1), in addition to its contextual, climatic and environmental distinction. Qârat Um-Aşąghier (referred to as The Village) is yet a virgin study area in the province of Siwa Oasis. Since The Village is remote and isolated, Fig.(3), research on it is very limited in the fields of architecture, urbanism, and social sciences. In The Village, the old vernacular architecture and the new architectural developments are juxtaposed. This makes the transformations from the vernacular architecture to the present developments are easily recognizable, thus lessons can be concluded. It is a small village, if not the smallest in Egypt, of around 512 inhabitants (IDSC 2012) within a limited area. Furthermore, it is one of the first two remote villages in Egypt that has been provided by the domestic PV systems. Therefore, The Village is wrestling between the existence of the vernacular low-building-techniques and the emergence of the highly-advanced industrialized system of power provision, Fig. (2).

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Figure 1: The Village`s ethnic society

1.2.

Figure 2: High-tech PV units and low-tech building and lifestyle pattern

Figure 3: The Village's location in relation to the closest settled communities

Vernacular vs. Industrialized "The problem"

Yet, the architectural developments in The Village are taking many shapes. Gaps in the different living environments that exist in The Village are evident, Fig. (5). Since the traditional building techniques are facing technical and economical challenges which affect its sustainability. Vernacular houses are being abandoned, replaced by modern ones or left to be deteriorated. The present self-led houses and the governmental provided housing prototypes are erasing the inherited indigenous vernacular living environment. In addition, the governmental housing prototypes ignore other socio-cultural aspects inherited with the indigenous lifestyle of the villagers. Accordingly, adapting the socio-cultural and the contextual needs of its inhabitants are taking many shapes in the different living environments. As observed contemporary needs of the villagers are being adapted in their homes by means of using industrialized materials. Moreover, the governmental efforts of the architectural development in The Village underestimate the comprehensive vision for a good fit between socio-cultural needs and the inherited distinction of its built environment. The research aims at defining an approach for an integrated neo-vernacular living environment in The Village. This approach is inspired by The Village's socio-cultural and physical aspects. Consequently, highlight the architectural distinction in one of the isolated and limitedly researched villages in the Western Desert of Egypt, as a source of documentation. Moreover, study the applicability of integrating low- and high-techniques in a distinctive remote desert village.

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Figure 5: An illustration of the conducted problem statement

2. LITERATURE BACKGROUND 2.1.

Studies on the distinction of the vernacular architecture were made by Paul Oliver's researches.

In Dwellings: The house across the world (1987), he referred to the lack of the field of research that combines anthropological studies and the study of dwellings. While in Built to meet needs (2006), he went through a detailed elaboration on how the different cultures have determined the most appropriate buildings that accommodate their needs and built them in their different way of vernacular architectures (Oliver 2006). Although, these researches did take the cultural factor into account, details on the distinctive spatial configuration in the different cultures were limited in relation to the sociological factor.

2.2.

The mutual interrelationship between people and their surrounding built environment is revealed as a socio-cultural aspect by Amos Rapoport (1976).

He introduced a set of questions into different categories, which by answering, this relationship is revealed. These questions included studying; the characteristics of people which affect the shape of their built environment, the effect of the built environment on human behaviour, and the form of houses along with a description of the space organization (Rapoport 1976). He said "Because building a house is a cultural phenomenon, its form and organization is greatly influenced by the cultural milieu to which it belongs." (cited in Dikmen 2010, 193). Thus, focusing on the socio-cultural aspects in this research is intended, as the main contributor in this man-environment interrelationship.

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2.3.

Research terms and definitions

The expression of living environment in this research refers to the dwelling as part of the built environment. Paul Oliver (1987) has defined dwelling as the process of living and its physical expression. Thus, it is a combination of activities and structure. Furthermore, explaining the term neo-vernacular living environment, requires definitions of neo and vernacular. Neo in the English-English dictionary is defined as "used at the beginning of a word to talk about current styles, beliefs etc that are similar to ones that existed in the past." (Pearson Education 1999: 442), in the same dictionary vernacular is defined by "the language or dialect that the ordinary people in a country or area speak." (Pearson Education 1999: 740). Based on previous elaborations, neo-vernacular living environment, in this research, refers to the contemporary/current style of the activities and structures of housing units, where it is expressed in similarity to the native indigenous ones.

2.4.

Literature on The Village's background

Resources on the architecture of Qârat Um-Aşąghier Village are too limited. However, few resources mentioned about its distinguished folklore and traditions as part of the Siwan culture, such as Suzan Yousef (2007), and others mentioned it in touristic guiding books, such as Cassandra Vivian (2007) and Gabi Thomas (2012). There have been also few newspaper and magazine articles telling about The Village and its society. In addition to exclusive reports at the institutions participated in the development projects of The Village, such as; Matrouh Governorate, New and Renewable Energy Authority (NREA), Environmental Quality International (EQI), North-West Coast Development Authority (NWCDA), and Shell-Egypt for petroleum. Despite those reports were exclusive in terms of the technical information they included and in terms of their affiliation, no publications included the socio-cultural and the architectural distinction of this area.

3. THE CASE STUDY METHODOLOGY 3.1.

Qualitative research methods

These were applied through the case-study methodology on Qârat Um-Aşąghier Village. Three fieldwork trips have been conducted in a span of, almost, four month (Dec.2012/April2013) to Siwa Oasis, Marsa Matrouh City and The Village, plus the period allocated for data analysis and writing the research report. Since resources are limited, the research was mostly confined by the fieldwork. It started with a preliminary investigation visit, and went through focused explanatory phase which had been the most important part included the application of the participant-observation method. Conducting the case-study research methodology has been the most relevant procedure to answer the research questions. Since, Yin mentioned in (2009) "the need for using a case study arises out of the desire to understand complex social phenomena. It allows the investigators to retain the holistic and meaningful characteristics of real-life events, such as; small group behavior, or neighborhood change..etc" (Yin 2009: 4). Accordingly, it guarantees a profound understanding of The Village's current situation, its socio-cultural distinction, and its reflections on the different living environments. Even if the study is particularly applied to one chosen casestudy area, it provides a comprehensible understanding of the situation in many other similar

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cases. At the same time, it maintains a deeper understanding of the case currently studied, which supports much-needed research in the same area.

3.2.

Preliminary investigation phase

An investigation visit to Siwa Oasis, were conducted in Dec.2012/Jan2013. The remote village of Qârat Um-Aşąghier was visited. Direct observations, informal interviews, and community meetings in both Siwa Oasis and The Village, Fig.(6), were the main methods of the field-survey during this preliminary visit. Consequently, preliminary impressions were formed, which contributed in formulating more meaningful research questions. In addition to getting introduced to the governmental institutions, who have previously worked on the development of the living environments in The Village.

Figure 6:. Local community meeting in Qârat Um-Aşąghier discussing its present situation. (Date: Jan. 2013)

3.3.

Figure 7:. Meeting with the head of the local municipality unit of The Village and the general secretariat of Siwa City Council.

Focused explanatory phase

Two field-survey trips have been conducted as the pillars of the focused explanatory phase. During which Marsa Matrouh City (the administrative capital, which The Village belongs to its province) was visited in March 2013, in order to perform a needed institutional survey. The second was performed in Siwa province in March/April 2013, continuing the institutional meetings in Siwa town and performing the intensive fieldwork survey in The Village itself.

3.3.1. Through institutional survey In this stage focused and in-depth interviews were performed with the different institutions' representatives. It was decided according to the importance of their interventions in The Village. 3.3.2. Focused interviews: They were held with representatives from the Cabinet of Matrouh Governorate (in its different departments), and other governmental institutions such as NWCDA, and the Directorate of Housing and Utilities (DHU). These interviews were held for short periods and focused on a set of questions derived from the research objectives as Yin (2009) advised. Consequently, a general introductory census about The Village and its development projects in the housing sectors were gathered. B) In-depth interviews: These targeted administrators (e.g. Head of the Local Administrative Unit (LAU) of The village who have been responsible for the execution of the most development's logistics, Fig. (7)). Accordingly, details on the different development projects that have been implemented in the past four decades in The Village as well as the future housing proposals were gathered. In addition to focusing on the criteria followed by the governmental institutions in 243


order to apply the community's indigenous needs in the housing units they provided, particularly referring to the functional organisation of the unit. 3.3.3. The intensive fieldwork data-gathering This research stage was mainly based on the two full days spent in The Village at the tribe's Sheikh (Head of the tribe) house with his family. Participant–observation, guided and direct observations, along with community interviews were the methods applied during this period. 3.3.4. Participant-observation: During this period three families were visited. Both the researcher and (part of) the informants were aware that theirs is a field relationship, which according to Gold (1985) minimizes problems of role-pretending. Thus, it was a participant-as-observer approach as called by Junker’s cited in (Gold 1958). Accordingly, several daily life activities were shared with Sheikh’s family and the other local villagers. During which the researcher was able to learn and practice type of their unique handcrafts done out of palm fronds, Fig. (8).

Figure 8:. The process of making their unique plates out of palm fronds.

Figure 9: On-site noting for the guided observations

Figure10: The master builder and his two assistance during the interview on-site

3.3.5. Guided and direct observations: Informants accompanied the researcher to the ruins of the vernacular old settlement, Fig. (9). Explanations and clarifications on their lifestyle in the past and present, in addition to the morphology of houses were given. Furthermore, guided explanations on six visited houses were given from the inside with elaborations on the functional configuration, their lifestyle patterns inside their houses and how each house has been developed. Although six houses have been visited, however, this research focuses only on four typologies. 3.3.6. Community interviews: It had been conducted with local villagers such as; natural leaders, master builder and his two assistants on-site Fig.(10), the village’s midwife, employee at the LAU, and others. Around five structured interviews were conducted in addition to the random street talks to children, girls and youth. These interviews addressed their house typology, and satisfaction of the house morphology.

3.4.

Methods of data analysis

Observation notes and interviews outcome had been written either on-site or directly after conducting it in a field-dairy with the interviewee`s contacts, place and date, in order not to miss any important point of it. Few meetings and guided observations have been video or sound recorded. Sketches and photos were also captured on-site. After returning back from the intensive fieldwork, the researcher started visually to conclude and analyze the situation of the village. These sketches have been of a good added value to the recorded notes and pictures.

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Thereafter, a classification for all the data was done according to the topics that are related to the research question. Then, writing the initial report started.

4. THE LIVING ENVIRONMENTS "Results and Analysis" As observed The Village's urban morphology is divided into two different juxtaposed characters. The Old Shali (fortress in the villager's Barbarian tongue) in its compacted urban fabric on the rocky outcropping and the surrounding vernacular houses Fig,(11). Counter to the new developments built on the plain land to the North and in front of the Old Shali, Fig. (12).

Figure 11:. The Old Shali and the surrounding vernacular houses.

Figure 12: The new developments on the plain land

After the tough three days of continuous rains that hit The Village in 1983 (Yousef 2007; Vivian 2007; Hamza 2008; Thomas 2012), vernacular houses and the Old Shali has been devastated and completely abandoned. Houses were destroyed because the dissolvable Karshief material (contextual salty-rock deposits), which the villagers used to build their houses with, did not resist the heavy rains. However, few of the surrounding vernacular houses are yet still inhabited. Since then housing developments have passed through different stages. On contrary, because of the Village's remoteness (no properly sealed roads, in addition to a distance not less 120 km to the nearest settled community (Siwa Oasis) (Yousef 2007; Vivian 2007)) power is mainly provided by two diesel-generator planets* for 8 hours/day'. Nevertheless, in December 2010, the provision of the PV system for the 75 houses existed at The Village at that date is completed (NREA 2011). In addition, the project covered the provision of PV street-lamps and PV units for other public buildings (NREA 2011). Yet, according to the Information and Decision Support Centre (IDSC) of Matrouh Governorate (2012), around 24 houses are not yet provided by PV units; because they have been constructed after the completion of the project. In this paper, four significant living environments are discussed; two of them are provided by the PV units. Juxtaposing the analysis of these living environments, from past and present, is vital in order to position the inhabitants' present needs and the inherited cultural ones. This is intended to track the development of the living environments in The Village to a compatible neovernacular one.

4.1.

The vernacular house

House morphology is a result of a complete phenomenon combining socio-cultural and physical factors (Dikmen 2010). Hence, this typology verifies several aspects of the indigenous living environment of the villagers (socio-cultural and physical factors). These factors are reflected clearly and in their original patterns. The floor plan morphology shows the concept of the multi245


entrances for purposes of gender segregation and household privacy, Fig..(13, 14) Moreover, in addition to, the traditional service spaces such as; kitchen, Estah-Entabent (traditional stoveroom) Fig. (16), Khour (traditional dry toilet) Fig. (15), and the wet area, the house comprise main spaces for the daily life of its inhabitants. Those spaces are; Marbou'a (space where male guests are received), the winter-room (traditional room for family gatherings in winter), bedrooms; for the parents and for the children. This sample has been abandoned; therefore, PV corner is not supplied'.

Figure 15: Traditional Khour with the back outlet opening Figure 13:. The south-western elevation of the discussed vernacular house

4.2.

Figure 14: The ground floor plan for the discussed vernacular house (developed by the researcher as observed during the fieldwork with some clarifications given by its former resident)

Figure 16: EstahEntabent

The governmental prototype

The nucleus core of the governmental prototype consisted of; two bedrooms, a kitchen, a toilet and a central courtyard; as observed and told*', Fig.(19). The core house neither afforded the gender segregation concept through providing more than one entrance, nor provided a living space to gather the family members. However, the toilet was provided in the separated dry/wet zones, similar to the Khour conept. Yet, it is observed totally different after the modifications the villagers have added upon. According to the explanations given by its inhabitants for the step by step amendments, causatives of changecan be concluded into two main reasons; either to adapt it to their lifestyle requirements or, to satisfy the needed spaces for the extended family members, Fig. (17, 20). As observed amendments on the house morphology included; Marbou'a as the essential and firstly' added space. It provided a space to receive male visitors, and a separated outdoor entrance. In addition to enclosing the house's private entrance with a palm leaves trellis Fig. (18), besides a corner from the kitchen space is transformed to the traditional Estah-Entaben. Later on, the PV unit is integrated into Marbou'a space; as the most prestigious space in the house with proper roof construction'. Its indoor equipments are installed in a built-in brick corner and a hanged control panel, Fig.(21). Adding extended family needs takes many shapes in the different living environments. Extended rooms are supplemented for sons if getting married'. In this ample, a complete apartment unit is constructed with its Marbou'a but shared services' Fig. (20).

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Figure 17: Exterior facade after users' interventions

Figure 19:. The nucleus core of the governmental prototype Figure 20:Plan of the house after users' interventions(Read: the original core house, Blue: the added lifestyle spaces, Green: the extended extended family needs)

Figure 18: Enclosed private entrance with palm leaves trellis

4.3.

Figure 21:. Indoor PV control panel is hanged up

The vernacular wanna be

Despite this living environment is recently emerged in The Village, it is polarized towards the vernacular model. In the discussed sample the service and living zones are clearly separated Fig. (23) with an access via a door-case. Family's living needed spaces are provided at the living zone; a parent's bedroom, two bedrooms (accepting their concept of gender segregation), an apartment zone for a newly married couple, Marbou'a, and a living space. In addition, storage room, kitchen, Estah-Entabent, toilets (wet/dry), are included in the service zone.

Figure 22:. The washing basine corner

Figure 23:. Floor plan of the discussed sample with separated living and service zones

Figure 24:. The integrated PV corner at house indoor

Multi-entrances are provided for each zone, in addition to an outdoor space for celebrations along with another separated zone for growing livestock. Two toilets are built; a traditional one with wet/dry zones separation and another modern single zone. Two additional corners exist to apply part of their lifestyle and contemporary needs; the washing basin corner Fig. (22) and the PV corner in its built-in bick corner and control panel Fig. (24).

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4.4.

The limestone-brick house

The discussed sample is not yet inhabited; however, it is completely constructed. The house, in a way, is modern yet vernacular; built in modern materials and construction methods; however, its interior functional organization is still respecting the villagers' lifestyle mores, Fig.(26). It is built to accommodate two newly married couples into two attached apartments with shared services and Marbou'a. Imported design features started to emerge in this typology like; the semi-circular arches, arcade and the recessed entrance, Fig.(27). Each apartment zone in this house consists of a bedroom and a toilet, additionally one of them is directly attached to the Marbou'a, which is used by both families. Circulation spaces (lobbies) separate between the two apartments. The house design applies most of the vernacularly inherited concepts such as; the multi- entrances, Marbou'a, storage room, and dry/wet toilets even if using modern lavatories.

Figure 25:. The discussed Limestone-Brick house

Figure 26:. House floor plan showing the double attached apartments

Figure 27:. Imported features started to emerge in this typology

5. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION The built environment is a behavioural setting where man behaviour is different in the different settings (Rapoport 1976). Thus, the built environment can be seen as a communication mean between its features of walls, doors, furniture, and people (Rapoport 1976). Moreover, people act differently in the different settings with reference to their indigenous values. Space elements of the vernacular house are still maintained in the currently built houses, although, using different building materials and techniques. The provision of the governmental housing units is limited to the available allocated budget^*. Thus, considerations of fulfilling the socio-cultural needs are not priority when compromised with the provision of a higher number of units^. However, suggestions of future extensions might be considered in the unit design. This study shows that there are common modifications in many of the settlement's living environments which try to adapt its inherited values to the contemporary setting and vice versa. Accordingly, villagers are satisfying these values in their self-led houses. It is concluded that the villagers have specific needs according to their lifestyles and therefore they shaped or reshaped their living environments accordingly. Those needs included; 1) Fulfilling specific lifestyle concepts (gender segregation, traditional toilets and kitchens), 2) Providing spaces for extended family needs, 3) Satisfying other contemporary needs. However, satisfying the contemporary necessities for a dignified life can be integrated in their basic setting in order to provide a complementary contemporary living for them. 248


Using the PV systems as a mean for power provision in remote areas such as; Qârat UmAşąghier Village, Fig. (28, 29) is an intelligent solution to compete with the lack of the possibility to provide proper facilities. Integrating highly advanced techniques and contextual basic lifestyles is an approach to fulfill contemporary needs in such isolated areas. The compatibility of this experience in The Village, from the socio-cultural point of view, is merely achieved because of two reasons; the villager's aspiration for a proper facility provision, besides it being recognized by the receiving culture. As Oliver (2003) elaborated "the need for a technological innovation must be recognized by the receiving culture with whose indigenous knowledge any changes may be introduced." (Oliver 2003: 266)

Figure 28: The integration of the advanced hightechnologies with the contextual local lifestyle pattern

Figure 29:. PV street lamps are provided

In The Village, importing fragmented elements from other cultures such as; design features or on building materials, is thought to afford luxurious homes. Despite, The Village is embedding a distinguished embedded architectural value. Therefore, a prudent approach understands and integrates the inherited lifestyle patterns along with the contemporary aspirations is achievable, if it is recognized and expressed properly by the community. This research highlights on several critical research issues which still needs further research . A study of the usage of the different building materials in The Village and its environmental properties in hot arid climate is recommended along with the socio-cultural and physical aspects, in order to provide the most appropriate guidelines/solutions to the context. In addition to a study on the approach of the sustainable architecture integrates low-tech and high-tech for fulfilling the daily life needs is a newly approached solution that needs a holistic assessment study as an applied approach for development in Qârat Um-Aşąghier.

6. REFERENCES Dikmen, N., 2010. User Requirements and Responsible Reconstruction. In G. Lizarralde, C. Johnson, & C. H. Davidson, eds. Rebuilding after disasters: From emergency to sustainability. Spon Press New York, NY, pp. 193–205. Fakhry, A., 1990. Siwa Oasis., American University in Cairo Press. Gold, R., 1958. Roles in sociological field observations. Social forces, 36(3), pp.217–223. Available at: http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/2573808 [Accessed May 8, 2013]. 249


Hamza, N., 2008. Double versus single skin facades in hot arid areas. Energy and Buildings, 40(3), pp.240–248. Available at: http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0378778807000758 [Accessed June 22, 2013]. IDSC Matrouh Gov., 2012. Qârat Um-Aşąghier, Marsa Matrouh, Egypt. New & Renewable Energy Authority-NREA, 2010. Ministry of Electricity & Energy New & Renewable Energy Authority ( NREA ) Annual Report 2009 / 2010, Cairo, Egypt. Available at: http://www.nrea.gov.eg/annual report/annual2010En.pdf [Accessed March 16, 2013]. New & Renewable Energy Authority-NREA, 2011. Ministry of Electricity & Energy New & Renewable Energy Authority ( NREA ) Annual Report 2010 / 2011, Cairo, Egypt. Available at: http://www.nrea.gov.eg/annual report/Annual_Report_English_2010-2011.pdf [Accessed March 16, 2013]. Oliver, P., 2006. Built Meet Needs: Cultural Issues in Vernacular Architecture, Architectual Press. Oliver, P., 2003. Technology Transfer - a Vernacular View. In R. J. Cole & R. Lorch, eds. Buildings, Culture and Environment: Informing local and global practices. Blackwell, pp. 251–256. Pearson Education, 1999. Longman Active Study Dictionary, Egypt: Egyptian International Publishing Company - Longman. Rapoport, A., 1976. Sociocultural aspects of man-environment studies. In The Mutual Interaction of People and Their Environment. pp. 7–35. Thomas, G., 2012. Tour Guide: Siwa natural reserve and Shali the old town (Arabic version), Siwa, Matrouh. Vivian, C., 2007. The western desert of Egypt: An explorer’s handbook, Cairo, Egypt: American University in Cairo Press. Yin, R.K., 2009. Case study research: Design and methods, SAGE Publications, Incorporated. Yousef, S.A.-S., 2007. The Popular Traditions of Siwa Studies in. M. and F. A. National Center for Theater, ed., Cairo: Ministry of Culture in collaboration with Matrouh Governorate. _________ Photos and sketches are captured and drawn by the researcher, unless otherwise indicated. (*) Interview result with representatives from Siwa Town Council and Qârat Um-Aşąghier Local Administrative Unit. (^) Interview result with representatives from North-West Coast Development Authority (NWCDA); based in both Marsa Matrouh city and Siwa Oasis. (') Interview result with the villagers.

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© SB13-Cairo 2013 Flooding as a threat to settlements even in remote areas Gohar. A, and Kondolf. M

Flooding as a threat to settlements even in remote areas Example of El-Sheikh El-Shazli Village – Egyptian Eastern Desert Gohar. A1 and Kondolf. G.M2 1

University of California at Berkeley, Department of Landscape Architecture & Environmental Planning Wurster Hall #2000. Berkeley, California 94720-2000 e-mail: [email protected]

2

University of California at Berkeley, Department of Landscape Architecture & Environmental Planning Wurster Hall #2000. Berkeley, California 94720-2000 e-mail: [email protected] - [email protected]

Abstract: Desert environments are subject to flash floods in wadi floors, but these floods may occur only once every decade or two in a given wadi. In areas of rapid growth, urbanization can occupy flood-prone areas in the time between floods, exposing the new settlements to flood risks. We present a case study of the village of el-Sheikh el-Shazli, in the Eastern Desert of Egypt, which has undergone increasingly rapid development over the past two decades. The village is named for an important 13th century Sufi leader who died at this site en route to Mecca, and whose shrine now receives thousands of visitors, mostly in three weeks leading up to Biran (Islamic Eid al adha). We documented the extent and effects of the last flash flood (1996) in el-Shazli from interviews with long-time residents and local tribesmen, field measurement of debris transported in the flood, and patterns on satellite imagery. We documented the extent of new development in flood-prone wadi floors. In absence of proper planning, the development will likely continue to increase within these “easy-to-build” wadi floors, increasing the potential risks to residents and visitors. We recommend the following measures to reduce the future loss of life and damage from flooding: (i) avoid development in flood plain, (ii) install early warning systems to inform the residents and visitors of impending flooding, (iii) build stairs to climb the steep hillslopes above the wadi floor and shelters for people to wait out storms in safety, and (iv) learn from the practices of the local tribes in selecting suitable sites to build. To date our recommendations have not been implemented. The example of el-Sheikh el-Shazli is compelling but it is not unique, as urbanization is expanding across the region, and easily-worked wadi floors are often used for construction.

Keywords: environment, el-Sheikh el-Shazli’s, Flooding, Red Sea, sustainability

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1.

INTRODUCTION

El-Sheikh el-Shazli town is located at the confluence of four wadis, and experienced damaging floods from Wadi Um Samrah in 1996. Since then, the town has undergone further urbanization, much of which now blocks flash flood flow paths, placing more people at risk and exacerbating the severity of potential flood damage. El Shazli is not unique in the region, as many other towns are experiencing rapid growth in areas vulnerable to flash flooding. Thus, insights into the nature of the flood risk at El-Sheikh El-Shazli and articulation of potential steps to minimize loss of life and property in future floods through land-use planning, structural countermeasures, and early warning to at-risk populations could have applicability elsewhere in the region. Early Warning Systems (EWS) have different levels of sophistication ranging from complex computerized modeling to simple sensors that produce warning sounds for local residents. For example, “UrbanFlood” is a European project investigating the use of sensors within flood embankments to support an online early warning system. This system monitors sensor networks installed in flood defenses (dikes, dams, embankments, etc.) (V.V. Krzhizhanovskaya et al 2011). Another example is the attempt to develop an EWS in Sinai. The Sinai system is based on an inventory of past significant rainfall and flash flood events, the spatial and temporal distribution of the rainfall events, transmission and infiltration losses, and thresholds for issuing warnings (Cools et al 2010).

2. 2.1.

FLOODS AND EL-SHEIKH EL-SHAZLI Physical setting and flash flood

The town of El-Sheikh el Shazli is located in the Red Sea Mountain Range about 60 kilometers (km) southwest of Marsa Alam and about 1,700 km east of Aswan. It administratively follows Marsa Alam city. The town is located at the confluence of four wadis, at the upper reaches of Wadi al-Kharit, which drains westward to flow into the Nile just downstream of Aswan. The landscape is characterized by relatively flat wadi floors bounded by unvegetated, weathered bedrock mountain slopes that rise steeply from the wadi floors. The wadi floors offer the only relatively flat surfaces for simple, non-engineered building construction, and for pitching tents of visitors. Wadis are dry water courses that flow only rarely, in direct response to intense rains, and usually in sudden, potentially destructive flash floods. Because rains sufficient to produce wadi flooding occur in this region only every decade or so, most of the time the wadis are dry. Their lack of obvious flow and their flat surfaces make them attractive sites for development to newcomers to the region who do not understand the episodic flood regime. This is most relevant under the current circumstances, where massive development has taken place since the last major flash flood, and many of the siting and construction decisions have been made by people unfamiliar with the ways of the region. While flash floods are natural phenomena, structures located unwisely in wadis are vulnerable to damage and residents and visitors may be killed or injured. Flash floods occurred in wadis throughout the region in November 1996, causing serious damage in El-Sheikh el-Shazli, among many other places. However, the magnitude and frequency of floods in the wadis are evidently not well understood, as recent development has been sited directly in the main path of high velocity floodwaters, while alternate building sites on higher ground or outside the main path of high velocity floodwaters have not been utilized for development.

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We learned of no direct observations of debris flows passing through El Shazli during the 1996 flood or before, so we do not know if debris flows would reach El Shazli or the flow would be entirely fluvial by that point. The town El-Sheikh el-Shazli is named for the 13th century religious leader, who on his last pilgrimage to Mecca, he fell ill in the eastern desert of Egypt, in a place called Humaithara, and there he died in the year 656/ 1258.The town receives up to 300,000 visitors during the Mouled Abul-Hassan el-Shazli, and can receive more than 3,000 visitors for other mouleds during the year. These large numbers of visitors are crowded on the wadi floors and vulnerable to flooding.

2.2.

Wadis, catchments and urban development

Sa mr a mm

510

580

W ad iU

Wadi Abu Hammad mad

Four wadis converge at El-Sheikh el-Shazli village. The largest is Wadi Um Samrah, which drains about 25 square kilometers (km2) the north. The next largest is Wadi Um Hiraynah, which drains about 7 km2, and comes from the northeast. Continuing in a clockwise sense, Wadi Umm Dihayse drains about 4 km2 from the southeast. These three wadis converge and their combined flow passes through a bedrock narrows, downstream of which the valley floor widens and a fourth, smaller wadi enters from the south. These four wadis are shown in Figure 1. The bedrock narrows naturally constrict flow to a width of only 80 meters (m), and acts as a hydraulic control for flow upstream.

500

Wadi Umm Huraynah W 600

500

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470

Wa di

Um m

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Figure 1 Aerial View of El-Sheikh el-Shazli Village at the confluence of four wadis, elevation showed is in meters (Sat Image, overlaid on topo maps for elevation)

The constriction at the narrows has become narrower because buildings have been constructed there, and this constriction will change the pattern of flood flow, as conceptually illustrated in Figure 2. The constriction causes floodwaters to back up (termed a ‘backwater’ effect), which changes the pattern and extent of areas affected by floods. The local housing—largely shacks— were originally out of the natural flood path, but were damaged by the 1996 flood, evidently because of backwater flooding from the construction in the narrows.

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Figure 2 Conceptual Illustration of Flood Path Before and After Construction in the Village (Gohar, 2007)

In fact, the narrows is the site of the shrine to Sheikh el-Shazli, and the site of a new mosque under construction, which will further constrict flow to a width of only about 23 m. This can be expected to exacerbate the backwater effect and damage to structures upstream. The village ground plan is shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3 Aerial View of the Narrows

2.3.

The 1996 flood

The November 1996 floodwaters came primarily from Wadi Um Samrah, and the main flood flow struck the diesel generator building located on the left (South) edge of the wadi, then turned westward through the narrows, according to eyewitness accounts. Abdul Kader, vice chief of the Ababda group (members of the Ababda tribe comprise most of the local residents), reported that the stage of the 1996 flood was increased over natural levels because building in the narrows had decreased its capacity. He estimated the maximum water depth was about 1.5 m 254


across the wadi upstream of the narrows, which we infer reflected backwater conditions at peak stage. The magnitude of the flood reflects the intensity of rainfall and low infiltration rates in these rocky, unvegetated mountains. Two boulders (about 450 m upstream of the narrows) known to have been transported and deposited by the 1996 flood were measured: one measured 1.9 × 1.75 × 1.2 m, the other 1.9 × 1.75 × 1.1 m (see Figure 4).

Figure 4 Measuring a Boulder Transported and Deposited by the 1996 Flood

The satellite image shown in Figure 5 shows the proximity of these boulders to the northern edge of the village, putting the local shacks and the guesthouse buildings at risk.

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Figure 5 The Boulders Shown in Context (Sat Image)

More detailed topographic information and field evidence would be needed to reconstruct the hydraulic conditions under which the boulders were deposited, but they may have settled at the point that backwater from the narrows caused flow velocities to slow. In light of the channel’s steep slope, it is likely that another flow comparable to the 1996 flood would be capable of deeply scouring alluvial fill, transporting large boulders, and destroying badly-sited buildings. The conceptual section in Figure 6 is presented simply to visually capture the size of these boulders in comparison to the village buildings, either local wooden shacks or concrete guesthouse; and it is obvious that these boulders could put at risk any construction in the village.

Figure 6 Sizes of Typical Buildings in El-Sheikh el-Shazli and Size of Boulders Carried by the 1996 Flood

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3.

FLOOD RISK

Flash floods in this region occur as a result of steep topographic gradients and proximity to the sea, from which moist air masses can stall over the Red Sea Range, producing intense rains, usually between mid-October and late November. The lack of vegetative cover and extensive bedrock exposure combine with intensity of rainfall to produce flash runoff. Although the Red Sea Range receives less than 30 mm precipitation as an annual average, it has a high coefficient of variance—200 percent (Andersen, 2007)—such that the rain that does occur over the course of a decade tends to be concentrated in a few storms, of which one may be sufficiently large to produce flash flooding. The rains that produce flash flooding tend to affect more than a single drainage basin at a time. The 1996 storm produced floods in wadis over about 200 km of coastline. However, the intensity of rainfall at any time will be locally variable, which means that it is unlikely that multiple tributaries to a large drainage network would be producing their peak runoff at the same time. Even if they did, they would each have different travel times to a downstream point due to different path lengths and gradients. So in estimating the peak discharge likely at a given point in the drainage network, we would be overestimating the likely peak runoff to simply sum the potential peak runoff from multiple tributaries. Assuming a debris flow were generated near the headwaters of Wadi Um Samrah and began translating downstream at a velocity of 2 m/s, to traverse the 7 km distance would require only an hour to reach the village. Debris flows that were triggered at closer, downstream sites would reach the village in less time. The Mouled AbulHassan El-shazli occurs each year according to the “Hijri” Calendar, it comes in the month of (Dhu al-Hijjah), the 12th and last month of the Islamic calendar. Because the Islamic calendar is a lunar calendar, eleven days shorter than the Gregorian calendar used in the Western world, the Gregorian date of the Hajj changes from year to year. The festival (mouled) migrates towards the winter every year. The permanent settlers in the town are at risk during winter, but this increases to put settlers as well as visitors vulnerable to flood when the molid is in November, December and January. Thus, the level of risk increases in the next several years, meaning that corrective actions taken today could potentially reduce risk during the higher-risk mouleds in coming years. The seriousness of the future threat cannot be overemphasized. If 300,000 people were present on the wadi floors, it would be difficult or impossible to evacuate them all to higher, or at least safer, ground. The paths leading up to the hills bordering the wadi floors are steep and narrow, and once reaching the top of the hill, there is very little flat ground on which to stand or sit. Even if everyone present understood the danger and cooperated with a vertical evacuation, filing up the hill in a orderly fashion, it could take hours to transfer the population to the hills, assuming (as is not the case) that there was space to accommodate them there. Figure 7 gives a bird’s eye view of the hills and wadis. If we look only at the wadi area upstream of the narrows and assume that this area would hold only 10 percent of the peak mouled population, or 30,000 people, and assume that this population was evacuating up six paths into the neighboring hills, it is hard to imagine that all 30,000 would successfully evacuate in less than an hour . The immediate aftermath of the flash flood would also be problematic, because the paved road connecting the village to the Marsa Alam–Idfu highway would have washed out, so it would be 257


difficult to bring in emergency supplies and to transport injured people to Marsa Alam. Moreover, the current health unit building is likely to be damaged or destroyed in a flash flood by virtue of its exposed location. Thus, it is likely that many people injured in the flood would not receive adequate treatment for some time.

Figure 7 El-Sheikh el-Shazli and Surrounding Hills and Wadis, Showing Main Direction of Flash Flooding

One persistent issue with public perception of flood risk, early warning, and evacuation, is that if a flash flood is forecast (based on best available information) and the populace evacuates, but no flash flood occurs, the next warning may not be heeded because people have a false sense of security, having survived one such warning.

4. 4.1.

RECOMMENDATIONS Reduce flood risk through land use planning

(i) First and foremost, the land-use authority should freeze further development on potentially flood-prone lands. Even on sites for which building permission has been granted, if the sites are in the direct path of high velocity flood flows, construction should be postponed pending determination of the flood risk, and if the site is determined to be at-risk, alternate sites designated and provided to the landowner in compensation for taking permission to build on the original parcel. (ii) Develop a scientifically-defensible map of flood risk zones based on field mapping, detailed topography, and hydraulic modeling. The hydraulic model should be run for different scenarios, including 1996 conditions (to be calibrated based on eyewitness accounts of the extent of flooding), existing conditions, and assuming removal of high priority structures and construction of flood control features such as flood walls. However, there are limits to the reliability of hydraulic models, especially in situations like the episodic wadi floods of El Sheikh el-Shazli, so geomorphic evidence from field and air photos, combined with evidence from past 258


floods, should be used with hydraulic analyses to create a map of areas most vulnerable to flooding. Simply stated, the most reliable, safest, and cost-effective way to reduce flood damages is by not building structures in the path of the floods. (iii) In iteration with the flood hazard analysis, some structural interventions should be considered. For example, the fourth wadi, which enters the village from the south downstream of the narrows, could probably be “trained” with flood walls to make floods avoid sites along the margins of the wadi, which could then afford relatively safe sites for camping. (After a flash flood occurs in this wadi, such “safe” areas should be re-evaluated, because the sediment deposited during the flood could build up the bed of the wadi such that it becomes higher than the adjacent part of the wadi protected by the wall. If it is higher than this adjacent wadi surface, there will be a higher likelihood that the wall will be overtopped or fail, as the next flood in this wadi seeks the lower elevation surface.) (iv) To the extent possible, structures that block the path of the flash flood should be removed to allow the flood to pass. Where the flood is blocked, it will create more problems and further damage. Unfortunately, the new mosque is being built directly in the flood path in the narrows. This is a tragic missed opportunity, but as the mosque is probably there to stay, other opportunities should be sought. The diesel generator building on the south side of the wadi could be moved to a more distant site, out of the floodway, with the added benefit that the noise and diesel fumes would no longer pollute the atmosphere near the shrine. The existing guest houses immediately upstream of the narrows could be moved to safer locations. (v) Water tanks and other essential emergency supplies should be stored on hillsides, above the areas vulnerable to flooding. Although filling the tanks will require pumping, the water distribution system will be simplified by the gravity feed, and tanks will still contain water and be usable after a large flood, provided that emergency shutoff valves prevent the contents from being lost through a failed distribution hose. Emergency health supplies should be located in sites safe from flash flooding. (iv) Building large shelters on the hillsides an easy climb from the wadi floor, perhaps via steps, could provide not only a comfortable, safe place to wait out the rain and possible flash flood, but could also serve as a visible reminder of the flash flood danger. These shelters would require some simple engineering, such as pilings set in the bedrock, a raised platform floor, and could be fitted with parallel rows of benches the length of the shelters. The shelters should be designed in such a way to discourage ‘colonization’ and camping by attendees, so that people’s belongings do not displace people when the need arises. One possibility would be to have the shelters run as coffee houses, so that there is frequent traffic by a wide range of people. The coffee house would provide a comfortable resting place, affording a nice view over the mouled, and exposing the visitors to signage educating them about flash flood dangers and evacuation procedures. If medical supplies were stored in locked units nearby above flood-prone lands, the shelters could serve as makeshift medical clinics during the post-flood period.

4.2.

Evacuate when floods are likely

(i) Implement an early warning system for flash flooding. The upper reaches of the Wadi Um Samrah catchments are only about 8 km from the village, so the rain intensities experienced in the village should be similar to those experienced in the catchments. Equipment required for such an early warning system would include rain gauges (tipping-bucket) in the village itself and 259


possibly in upper Wadi Um Samrah (about 8 km from the village), and a telemeter to a receiving station in the village. Figure 8 shows the data storage and transmission units for typical basic alert stations.

Figure 8 Typical Alert Station Data Loggers and Telemetering Units

In addition to the typical ground station, the “hybird” is an advanced unit that can serve for a better warning system. The hybrid stations consist of an ALERT station integrated with additional sensors and communications peripherals. One or two radio frequencies can be used, as needed. With a single frequency, two-way communications would be avoided during storm events to allow more bandwidth for one-way ALERT communications. However, using two frequencies (one for ALERT and the other for a two-way communications network) provides the advantages of retries of missed packets, diagnostics, clock synching, re-programming from the base station, historical data collection (no holes in the data), interactive control capability, and voice modem call-out of alarms. The ability to measure additional parameters at an ALERT site, or integrate ALERT capabilities with another type of measurement site can lead to collaboration among organizations that can help keep costs down. The hybrid station is shown in Figure 9. If a threshold rainfall intensity is reached, a siren should be sounded to prompt evacuation. (ii) Identify, designate, and clearly mark evacuation routes in the event of a flash flood warning. Safe areas should include not only the limited areas on the nearby hilltops, but also marginal parts of the wadi surface that are outside of the main flood flow and that can be protected by flood walls. (iii) Educate members of the public who attend the mouled. Develop signage that conveys the risk of flash flooding and where to evacuate, not only in script but also through ‘cartoons’ understandable to all. The public needs to understand that in a rainstorm they should not only seek shelter from the rain, but they should evacuate the main flow path for designated safer zones, be they marginal areas of the alluvial floor or on the bedrock hills above. (iv) Empower safety officers for the winter months with highest flash flood likelihood. Several members of the community, preferably drawn from the leadership, could be appointed (and provided a stipend) to implement a public education campaign, monitor weather conditions and rainfall intensities, and to sound evacuation alarms in the event a flash flood is probable. Once the alarm begins to sound, the safety officers and police should immediately circulate and encourage all people to clear out of the designated floodway immediately.

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Figure 9: Hybrid Alert Station

5.

REFRENCES

Andersen, G.L. (2007) “Long-term Dynamics of Wadi Trees in a Hyper-arid Cultural Landscape.” PhD dissertation, University of Bergen, Norway. Ball, J. “The Water Supply of Mers Matnuh,” Survey and Mines Dept. Paper No. 42, Cairo, 1937. Farouk, A. (2007) “Flood-risk Analysis of El-Sheikh el-Shazli Area, Red Sea, Egypt.” Report to the USAID LIFE Project, 2007. Whiting, P. (2003) “Flow Measurement and Characterization.” Chapter 12 In G.M. Kondolf and H. Piégay (eds.) Tools in Fluvial Geomorphology. John Wiley & Sons, New York. Krzhizhanovskaya, V.V., G.S. Shirshov, N.B. Melnikova, R.G. Belleman, F.I. Rusadi, B.J. Broekhuijsen, B.P. Gouldby, et al. 2011. “Flood Early Warning System: Design, Implementation and Computational Modules.” Cools, J., P. Vanderkimpen, G. El Afandi, A. Abdelkhalek, S. Fockedey, M. El Sammany, G. Abdallah, M. El Bihery, W. Bauwens, and M. Huygens. 2012. “An Early Warning System for Flash Floods in Hyper-Arid Egypt.”

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© SB13-Cairo 2013 CITY SCREAM El Gohary. G.

CITY SCREAM A study on using natural soundscape as a barrier for city sounds EL Gohary. G Ain Shams University, Urban Planning & Design Department Cairo, Egypt e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract: Cities suffer from daily Noise and heterogeneity that became “Soundmarks”, like landmarks, of the place. Thus acoustical environment is defined with an essential character; that may be unique in a place and unbearable in another. Since the nineties, different sonic effects were developed in the contemporary urban environment and Soundscape became one of the priorities in the modern cityscape, which has to sit in the front raw of impacts’ thoughts. This research overviews the different Soundscape turbulence and noise pollution in cities. It discusses the installation of natural landscape ecotones and elemental characters that may be considered a true habitat and a frontier one. It explains city soundscape and sonic effects. This coherent collection produces sound pollution and city soundscape turbulence. Scientists have thought of landscape solutions such as creating sound barriers from sound absorption materials, but they are non-environmental, non-economical and unsustainable. This research aimed to find sustainable solution to reduce city sonic effects using only geophonic and biophonic sounds. After reviewing some international soundscape barriers for landscapers and architects and taking eight case studies areas from the most crowded areas in Cairo that were chosen in 2011 to be sound studied for; noise, vibration levels, and traffic volume count measurements through 24 hours for the third Metro proposal in Cairo. Egyptian ecosounds were recorded then analysed by spatial sound analysis equipment called “Modular Precision Sound Analyzer”, comparing the frequency graph of each sound to those of the studied areas, finding sound barrier solutions by raising the sound level of specific landscape elements, forming filter sustainable acoustical special effects that may save our screaming city from our SCREAM. Keywords: acoustic ecology, biophonic, ecotones, frequency graph, geophonic,

1.

INTRODUCTION

Historically City Planning gave privileged qualities not only on visual perception, but the same consideration has not been given to the ear and nose or the sense of touch. Sounds and odors have been considered disturbing elements and were marginalized and covered for years. Sanitizing the Urban environment is an idea that started in the mid eighteenth century. (Sennett and Richard, 1994) These hygienic and visual factors have transformed the quality of urban planning into sensorial urbanism for modern cities. (Zardini and Mirko, 2005) The traditional notion of visual landscape has begun to recognize the identity of the city by its unique colors, smellscape and soundscape. 262


Ecoacoustics or Soundscape study is the relationship, mediated through sound, between living beings and the surrounded environment called Acoustic Ecology. The Soundscape is the idea of collection of sounds that emanate from landscapes. Soundscape ecology shares many parallels with landscape ecology. (Farina, et al., 2011) Sounds of vocalizing and stridulating birds, insects, animals and the non-biological sounds of falling and running water of streams, fountains and rustling wind emanate from natural landscapes. In contrast, urban landscapes are dominated by human sounds produced from a variety of sources, such as sirens, planes, machines, trains, people, and the friction of tires on pavement (Barber, et al., 2010). City soundscape includes; biophony, which is the sound vocal non-human animals create in each given environment, geophony, which is non-biological natural sound that vary according to many environmental cases and anthrophony, which is sound of traffic as shown in figure1.

Figure 1: Multiple sources of sound in Landscape. (Farina, et al., 2011)

The research problem is the environmental noise caused by; traffic, industrial and recreational activities and ways to reduce or overcome its turbulence. These effects and unpleasant sounds have been recognized since 1970s. Planners have recognized that; noise pollution has a bad impact on our health as it put pressure on humans. It can affect people in both physiological and psychological ways, interfering with basic activities such as sleep, rest, study and communication. (EEA, 2012) “Hearing shouldn’t be equated with the sense organ ‘ear’, since our entire body is exposed to sound waves...I sense with my entire body, with my skin, whether or not I can easily speak in a room. That’s an acoustic subconscious that everyone has”, said by Bernhard Leitner. (Blume, 2008) This statement leads me to this research work as, technology has been raised now to its peak levels, (Vitousek, et al., 2000) understanding that we are at a critical juncture in our history. This opportunity had to be used to think of different safer, healthier, sustainable transformative architectural and ecological approaches to solve noise problem. In 2010 landscapers and ecological professionals in Zion National Park in U.S.A. prepared a General Management Plan that identified a desired condition for soundscape management, which was an inspiration thought for soundscape process. (National Park Service, 2010) The research main objective is to think outside the box and form a unique soundscape barrier using natural landscape elements. To obtain this main objective, late physical sound barriers were reviewed to be avoided usage in the final proposal. Exploring soundscape in two ways; biophonic and geophonic, analysing sounds in both directions. To be compared to anthrophonic sound levels in the chosen case studies. The research main aim is to design criteria for reducing this noise, answering some research questions like whether we can design the sound of an area or a neighbourhood. Can you consider sound as a factor in the landscape and urban 263


design process? Expecting by the end to reach that by raising bearable soundscape levels, it can overcome unbearable ones.

2. METHODOLOGY: The research is an analytical research, depending on analysing the data collected as literature review for the research. It is divided into five parts; the first part is explanatory section for defining the main mechanism of soundscape and sonic effects, the second part is reviewing the latest ideas of architects and landscapers for sound barriers, the third part is analysing the Egyptian case studies’ anthrophony 1/3 octave band, the fourth part is analysing the recordings of biophony and geophony sounds and finally the fifth part is a comparative analysis finding out the proper equation to reduce the noise naturally and sustainably and the sixth and final part is the conclusion.

3. HEARING CITY SOUNDSCAPE: Our hearing mechanism creates the impression of space. (Kloos and Spaan, 2012) Each community, place or environment, has a different soundscape depending on the sounds of the weather, the animals and the people in that place at any given time. (Norman and Rachelle, 2012) This part of the research explains the outdoor hearing mechanism and how the human being transforms his city outdoor environment to please his sense of hearing.

3.1.

Outdoors Hearing Mechanism

Among the five senses, hearing is unique as a result of properties of sound waves. Hearing is always active, dynamic events flow around any obstacle without permission. (Schafer, 1977) Outdoors man’s hearing mechanism began evolving which means that every sound heard by us is heard only once if there are no reflecting objects in outdoor landscape. 3.1.1

Received Wavelength

The two ears correlate the signals received from the sound direction from, as an example, a specific street or activity. The ears can do this as long as the wavelength of the sound is within the range of 5cm to 50cm, which is approximately the size of human head. 3.1.2

The Audible Frequency Range

Sound travelling in AIR has a frequency equivalent to 700 to 7000 Hz in the range of natural speech and the mid range of musical sounds. (Kloos and Spaan, 2012) It is more fundamental for the behaviour of surrounding sound to keep its frequency level in the range of human scale. As sound is our communicating tool with the surrounding world, a normal human ear is able to hear sounds with frequencies from 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz. This range is called the audible frequency range. (SAR, 2103)

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3.1.3

Binaural Deconvolution

It is a process that creates the mechanism of space; a correlation process for the original signal and is repeated multiple times. We receive extra information and that is how we “hear the space”. We get impressions about the space’s size by analysing its reflections’ repetitive pattern as shown in Figure 2. Sound wavelengths have no straight lines so there is no clear acoustic picture. (Brandon, 2007)

Figure 2: Original sound signal & the same signal reflect on some objects. (Kloos & Spaan, p.32, 2012)

3.2.

City soundscape and sonic effects

Soundscape takes a top-down approach, built on the ideas of John Cage, of the whole world as composition. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soundscape) 55% of those living in urban areas with more than 250 000 inhabitants in the [EU-27] almost 67 million people endure daily road noise levels above the lower EU benchmark [55 Lden] for excess exposure. (EEA, 2009) In a general conceptual framework of Landscape ecology as shown in Figure 3, natural and human systems are interacting to form spatial-temporal patterning of city sound in landscapes. Humans transform landscapes to improve the ecological quality of urban green spaces to be changed to more environments to please the EAR. (Irvine, et al., 2009)

Figure 3: Conceptual framework for soundscape ecology. (Liu, 2007)

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4. SOUNDSCAPE CONTEMPORARY BARRIERS: Landscape designers and orthogonal ecologists have been working on noise tranquiller designs and trials. Everyone has their own point of view, design eye like Franck Gehry, health caring and sound barring as the wards of EU Awards, or preservation of species of animals as Almo Farina. They are intended to raise awareness of the health impacts of noise and recognise initiatives that help create more tranquil environments.

4.1

Hong Kong Forest Corridor

Forest Corridor proposal has won one of the 2nd prizes in the Open International Competition 2012, for Noise Barrier and Enclosure organized by the Hong Kong Government. The design is Chinese by BREAD Studio infrastructure office. It gives an alternative insight to noise mitigation structure design in the dense urban environment of the city. The climber plants on the barrier hide the barrier and the highway, but drivers still see their surroundings through it. The pendulum system generates electricity from surrounding wind and turbulence from the passing traffic supplying lighting for park facilities and podium of adjacent residential block see Figure 4. (Furuto, 2012)

Figure 4: Forest Corridor Highway Sound Barrier. (Furuto, 2012)

4.2

Miami Beach Park

Frank Gehry, a famous Canadian architect designed, Miami Beach Convention Centre and the New World Symphony’s New World Centre (NWC) campus and Park. This public area is about music, sound, art, culture, landscape and people. It was opened in 25th of January 2011. (Soflanights Magazines, 2011) Gehry designed the park to reflect the musical function of the building with soundscape impacts. He designed venue incorporates glass walls to allow people observe the performances in a magical sonic soundscape area. At night the walls turn into a lattice of musical performance that show all music performed inside see Figure 5. (Kristin, 2011) He achieved to alter aspects of the Park’s choreography detail, pacing, palette, rhythm, geometry and pattern of Soundscape. (Rosner, and C.E.B. Reas, 2010) The Music at night isolates the public from the whole city sound; they concentrate only on the musical concert and the performance seen on the lattice walls to relive the people from their everyday stress, calming their ears. Gehry used musical soundscape ambiance; as a sustainable barrier that doesn’t harm the environmental aspects, and at the same time very enjoyable to the audience and creating reflecting surfaces in the park to enhance the soundscape in the area.

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Figure 5: Musical Miami Beach Park by Franck Gehry Day at Night. (Soflanights, 2011) & (Kristin, 2011)

4.3

Berlin City Park

A City Park in Berlin by Prof. Dr. Brigitte Schulte-Fortkamp has won the European Soundscape Award in 2012 for its creative design which overcomes on the traffic noise and creates a more attractive acoustic environment see Figure 6. It had a high participatory approach, involving residents and people working in the area, creating a new attractive Park. Unfortunately traffic could still be heard in Nauener Platz, but users feel that the park has a more pleasant atmosphere than usual. The landscaper installed devices in sculptures and benches playing recorded sounds of birds and water. The consortium also built a 1.5 m Sound Barriers made of stone and plants at one side of the park close to playground. Benches for parents were placed behind the wall to increase the noise reduction effect. It also included attractive sports areas (EEA, 2012) It is very creative idea to use human sounds’ activities to overcome external noise. Using birds’ and water’s sounds is an inspired idea, even if they are recorded sounds.

Figure 6: The Soundscape Berlin Park [First prize winner]. (Berlin Park Flyer, 2012)

5. EGYPTIAN CASE STUDIES: Sound is a rapidly varying pressure wave travelling through a medium. (SAR, 2013) Environmental noise is collective sound, caused by traffic, industrial and recreational activities and is one of the main local environmental problems. 20 % of the EU’s population suffers from unacceptable noise levels. 170 million citizens are living in so-called "grey areas" where noise levels cause serious annoyance during the daytime. (European Commission Environment, Sep.2012) Noise effects can trigger premature illness and, in extreme cases, death. To measure these noises spatial equipments have to be used which are owned by universities or sound consultants. So when thinking of analysing the frequency levels of Egyptian natural

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soundscape (biophonic & geophonic sounds) the choosing sites have already been professionally anthrophony analyzed.

Figure: The Chosen study locations. (The Egyptian Co. for Metro Management & Operation, 2011)

In September 2011, the study of the Cairo Metro Line 3 project included noise and vibration measurements for environmental purposes. The measurement locations are selected by the National Authority of Tunnels for the proposed Metro line, trying to reduce the level of traffic noise in such places by inserting the Metro from Cairo east to the west [Airport] see Figure 7.

5.1

Chosen Location Analysis

The chosen locations are Naser, Maspero, Zamalik, Kitkat, Monera, Ring Road, Gamat ElDewal El-Arabia, Cairo University see Map1. These locations are pre-studied areas that have noise problems and were chosen to find solutions for noise reduction that are natural, economical and sustainable. Then analyzing the latest sound analysis for the third line (phase 3) to our recent noise level in Cairo and this number of case studies was enough to give sound indications to the research. The number of pressure variations per second is called the frequency of sound, and is measured in Hertz (Hz). The entire audible frequency range can be divided into 8 or 24 frequency bands known as octave bands or 1/3 octave bands for sound analysis. (SAR, 2013) After reviewing measurements parameters in the 24 hours site activities (10 minutes each hour), the peak noise hour was chosen to be studied and compared by the natural analysis. In the frequency graph outputs, the colour red represents the minimum levels of sound pressure level or dB (Decibel Weighted), the colour green represents the maximum sound levels, while the colour blue represents the equivalent level as shown in Table 1.

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Table 1: Locations of study points in Cairo and their chosen peak time frequency graph. (The researcher)

5.2

Acoustic Egyptian soundscape process

The acoustic process was in three steps as shown in Figure 7; -

First: most of the natural soundscape in Egypt’s gardens were recorded, regardless of the location as the biophonics and geophonics sounds don’t depend on it. Recording with a distance of 2 meters between the recorder and landscape element and timing of 2 minutes. Using the same (Modular Precision Sound Analyzer Type 2260)

-

Second: Analysis of the natural sounds in the form of frequency graphs.

-

Third: Overlapping the output natural frequency graphs and that of the case studies.

Figure 7: The research acoustic process (The researcher)

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5.2.1

Egyptian Biophony Analysis

After recording the natural sounds of; birds and animals see Egyptian birds species in Annex I, see Table 2 for analysed biophonic landscape sounds’ 1/3 octave band. Animals and birds’ species were not put in consideration, as it was noticed that each bird prefers spatial kind of trees, this issue needs further research work. For example; Crows in Egypt prefer to stand and chirp on red flowered trees called “Bombax”, see Figure 8, they cause good visual impact but unpleasant sound see Annex II. As a result crow were excluded from the study, as it won’t be used in the concluded equation. Birds sing at night for the higher noise levels at daytime and in breeding seasons of some species such as; February, spring and early summer (Marcum, 2008) and nocturnal birds such as Mockingbirds, Nightingales, Curlew, Whippoorwills, and Owls.

Figure 8: Bombax tree crows in the International Park and wavelength analysis of a crow (researcher)

Table 2: Egyptian Biophonic sound analysis frequency graph (1/3 Octave Band). (The researcher)

5.2.2

Egyptian Geophony Analysis

I recorded the geophonic sounds in the Egyptian Landscape from waterfalls, fountains, sea sounds, waves, rain, wind and thunder. Water sound is the most playable element in soundscape as it is flexible and it is easy to manage its sound level quality. After recording I analysed the sounds to find out its frequency graph (1/3 octave band). 270


Table 3: Egyptian Geophonic sound analysis frequency graph (1/3 Octave Band). (The researcher)

5.3

Comparative Analysis:

Each case study is compared to all analyses natural sounds according to its’ peak time of noise, sounds are chosen according to their preferability and their high LLeq. This analysis is done to all eight previous analysed case studies. 5.3.1

1/3 Octave Band Overlapping

Overlapping the 1/3 Octave band of each of the previous biophony and geophony studies on that of the eight case studies, chosen sounds are that with higher than the LLeq of the site. Table 4 shows the selective elements that are suitable for each site, where purple & brown are the overlapped areas. Table 4: Comparative analysis between soundscape & case studies’ frequency graph. (Research work)

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5.3.2

Findings

Further research needed to specify kinds of trees needed to attract spatial species of birds, an example will be mentioned later. The late comparative analysis produced the following -

The most economical and sustainable solution is using dense trees like (Ficus) that attract morning, summer and spring birds = economical and sustainable.

-

Using Peacock & Flamingos > Normal birds = pleasant sounds ≠ economical for its high cost.

-

Waterfalls a have high sound level > All noise.

-

Fountains have a lower sound level < waterfall sound level.

-

Artificial and natural rain > All noise ≠ economical

-

Wind sculpture > Noise ≠ economical

-

Sea sound and waves > noise ≠ applicable

6. CONCLUSIONS Soundscape is the sound of our lives; everyone deserves to have a beautiful soundscape. (Norman, Rachelle, 2012) Soundscapes are the aural landscapes of our world. (Wild Music, Apr. 2012) Thinking of “hear-able” elements of an environment that make up a soundscape of a place. There are un-controllable natural elements such as rainfall, wind and laughter. Other elements are those added to our environment such as music for more aesthetically pleasing.

6.1 Proposed Noise Equation The research has a different aspect to use these uncontrollable elements with spatial qualitative and quantitative choices to control soundscape as shown in the proposed Equation 1; it suggests using the biophony and the geophony sounds together in high quantities to be higher in sound level than the anthrophony ones. Equation 1: Proposed soundscape equation to overcome noise by sustainable landscape elements

6.2 Sustainable Noise Reduction Recommendations -

Applying this soundscape equation to any noise measured site anywhere in the country.

-

Using the analysed natural sounds as a recorded prototype to be compared with.

-

All Egyptian species can be analysed to form a sound library of frequency graphs.

-

Use Human activities to raise sound level in some areas,

-

It is recommended to design computer software that can compare any soundscape to the preserved 1/3 Octave bands of all Egyptian soundscape and solve noise problems.

-

Integrating contemporary sculptures to produce wind sounds see Figure 9.

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Figure 9: Wind sculptures.

7. REFERENCES Barber, JR.; Crooks, KR.; Fristrup, KM. (2010), The costs of chronic noise exposure for terrestrial organisms, Trends in Ecology and Evolution Journal, Vol. 25: 180–189, Cell Press, © 2013 El Sevier Inc. Blume, Eugen, (2008), Klan gals Bau-material, Conversation with Bernhard Leitner, Berlin Press, Germany. Brandon, La Belle, (2007), Background Noise, Continuum Press, U.K. Chapin, FS., et al. (2000), Consequences of changing Biodiversity”, Nature, Vol. 405: 234–242, http://ec.europa.eu/environment/noise/greenpap.htm#situ 28-Apr-13 European Environment Agency, (7 Nov, 2012), Berlin park wins award for its soundscape design, Last modified: Nov 13, Nature Publishing Group, Macmillan Publishers Limited. ECE, (14 Sept. 2012), Noise: The Green Paper on Future Noise Policy, European Commission Environment, europa.eu/highlights/berlin-park-wins-award-for, 26-Apr-13. ECE, (18 Sept. 2012), Noise: The EU Policy on environmental noise, European Commission Environment http://ec.europa.eu/environment/noise/home.htm, 28-Apr-13. EEA,

(8 June 2012), Noise, European http://www.eea.europa.eu/themes/noise/intro, 28 -Apr-13.

Environment

Agency,

EEA, (20 May2009), Turn down the noise - softening the impact of excess transport noise, European Environment Agency, 27-Apr-13. Farina, A.; Bryan, C.;., (2011), Soundscape Ecology: The Science of Sound in the Landscape, Bioscience Journal, Vol. 61, No. 3, March 2011, University of California Press, USA. Furuto, Alison, (2012), Forest Corridor – Highway Noise Barrier / BREAD Studio, Published: 22 Oct. 2012, © ArchDaily 2008-2013, 07-July-13 Kloos, Maarten and Spaan, Michiel, (2012), Music; Space and Architecture, Architectura & Natura Publishers, © 2012 Amsterdam Academy of Architecture, Netherlands. Kristen, (2011), Wallcasts in Miami Beach SoundScape Park, Miami Beach magazine, Issue of May 02, 2011, Liu J., (2007), Complexity of coupled human and natural systems, Science 317: 1513–1516. Irvine, K. N.; Devine-Wright, P.; Payne, S. R.; Fuller, R. A.; Painter, B.; Gaston, K. J. (2009), Green space, soundscape and urban sustainability, Local Environment 14 (2): 155. Marcum, D. (2008), Cause of birds singing at night probed, McClatchy Newspapers 24/8/2008 MB Consultants, (2011), Cairo Metro Line 3 Study Phase 3; Noise & Vibration Measurements, MB Consultancy, Egypt. 273


National Park Service, (2001), Finding of No Significant Impact Soundscape Management Plan, National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior, Zion National Park, Utah, USA. National Park Service, (2010), Soundscape Management Plan for September 2010, National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior, Zion National Park, Utah, USA. Norman, Rachelle, (2012), Soundscape Music Therapy serves the Kansas City metropolitan area, © Rachelle Norman and Soundscape Music Therapy 2010-2012, Kansas City. Rosner, Tal and C.E.B. Reas, (2010), What is on the Wall: Chronograph 2010, New World Symphony Press, USA, http://www.newworldcenter.com/whatsonthewall.aspx, 23-04-13 SAR, the Government of Hong Kong (2013), Environmental Noise, Characteristics of Sound and the Decibel Scale, Environmental Protection Department, Sennett, Richard, (1994), Flesh and Stone: The Body and the city in Western Civilization, W.W. New York, USA. Schafer, R., (1977), The Soundscape: Our Sonic Environment and the Tuning of the world, Keva Books, New York, USA. Soflanights Magazines, (2011), Opening of Miami beach soundscape, Issue of 22 of January 2011, SoFlaNights, South Florida, USA, http://www.soflanights.com/?p=4712, 22-Apr-13. The Egyptian Co. for Metro Management & Operation, (2011), The Third Line of Cairo Metro, Cairo Metro, Egypt. http://cairometro.gov.eg/uipages/thirdline.aspx, 04/07/2013 Vitousek, PM.; Mooney, HA.; Lubchenco, J.; Melillo, JM., (1997), Human domination of Earth’s ecosystems, Science Magazine, Vol. 277: 494–499, Highwire press, USA. Wild

Music, (2012), Explore Soundscape: Sound http://www.wildmusic.org/soundscapes, 29-Apr-13.

&

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Wikipedia the free Encyclopaedia, (2013), Soundscape: Soundscapes and noise pollution, last modified on 2 March 2013 at 12:37, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soundscape, 26-Apr-13. Zardini, Mirko, (2005), Sense of the City: An alternate approach to Urbanism, Canadian Centre of Architecture, Lars Muller Publishers, Canada.

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© SB13-Cairo 2013 Global Tourism as a Tool for the Preservation of the Local Urban Heritage Elewa, A.

Global Tourism as a Tool for the Preservation of the Local Urban Heritage (Greater Cairo case) Elewa, A. Department of Architecture, faculty of Fine Arts, Helwan University, Egypt 8, Ismail Mohammed St, zamalek, Cairo, e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract: Globalization through the last decades has impacted the main cities of the world to be global cities, which was and still a real challenge to the historical cities to prevent their local urban heritage, while those cities has to play their role in the globalization era as global cities attracting the global tourism flows by providing the global urban facilities and the traditional local urban heritage as well. Many global great cities like Paris, London, Rome, Istanbul has represented distinctive urban experiments of the preservation of their own local urban heritage and at the same time to be global hubs attracting the flows of the global tourism. The research problem is how to appropriate between the responses to globalization urban needs as an attracting factor of the Global tourism flows and to be used at the same time for the preservation of the local urban heritage. The main aim of this study was to set urban policy recommendations from practical experiments of how to use the global tourism as a tool for the preservation of the local urban heritage. An analytical study of diverse examples of great global cities urban experiments were done about how to appropriate between the needs of the global tourism and the preservation of the local urban heritage, studying the case of Greater Cairo, applying an analytical comparative study between the local case and the global cases. The study found that there is a possibility to achieve the integration between the local urban heritage and the global tourism, the globe great cities experiments have shown that the global tourism could be used as a tool for the preservation of the local urban heritage, Greater Cairo has the potential to be a main destination to the global tourism flows and at the same time to preserve its local urban heritage which will lead to more specialized future studies. Keywords: global tourism, local urban heritage, preservation.

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1.

INTRODUCTION

Travelling abroad for shorter periods was something very exclusive and reserved for the upper classes well into the twentieth century, in the last decades Global Tourism have become an integral part of daily life in the heart of the leading global cities, the figures announced by the World Tourism Organization (WTO) shows that, despite the worldwide crisis, tourism around the world increases its number of visitors and travels more and more each year, there were 983 million international tourist arrivals, with a growth of 4.6% as compared to 2010 (WTO, 2011). Global tourism has certainly become a defining characteristic of global cities where the urban features that make them global such as central business districts are converged with the local urban heritage, within these cities, tourists got off at the same subway stops as corporate personnel, window-shopped at the same stores, ate in the same restaurants, and so on, In the last decades, European global cities destinations like Paris, London and Rome have been leading the list of most visited cities. But new destination cities such as Bangkok, Singapore is coming as Asian contender Istanbul, a pity none of the African and Middle Eastern cities have made it to the top ten of the list, this is could be an important indicator about studying the reasons that Cairo as African and Middle Eastern city is not amongst them. The research problem is about the conflict between the city responding to the globalization impact on its urban spatial structure and the preservation of its local urban heritage, while both of them are considered as an initial factor of attracting the global tourism. The methodology of the study has based on an analytical study of diverse examples of great global cities urban experiments on how to appropriate between the needs of the global tourism and the preservation of the local urban heritage. The Greater Cairo case has been analyzed as the main case study, and has compared with the global cases. The main objective of this study is to set policy recommendations from practice which provides guidance to help those in authority to apply policies that makes benefits of global tourism as a tool for the preservation of the local urban heritage, a brief description through questions and sections that this paper intends to discuss: Section1: What is the global tourism and the urban local heritage definitions? Section2: How to use the Global tourism as a tool for urban heritage conservation? Section3: Why Cairo as a global city with significant local urban heritage is not among the top destination for Global tourism? Section4: What is the conclusion of practice?

2. OVERVIEW ON GLOBLIZATION, GLOBAL TOURISM, URBAN LOCAL HERITAGE Globalization through the last decades has spread as a new era with new concepts and theories in economy, new systems of production, finance and consumption, new transnational of global cultural patterns, new global political processes, new unprecedented multi directional movement of people around the world, global tourism, therefore there is a direct connection between globalization and the city spatial structure as "globalization takes place in cities and cities embody and reflect globalization. "Global processes lead to changes in the city and cities rework and situate globalization" (Short and Kim, 1999), these changes had led to a real challenge to the historical great cities as there is a conflict between the urban needs of being global city and to prevent their local urban heritage. Many great cities tried to move in a new direction that may be described briefly as "the globalization response", this response means that 276


almost all cities are likely to have some urban features that make them global, such as central business districts with high rise buildings and skyscrapers as headquarters for global corporations, financial firms, cultural, transportation facilities which provide easy global connections. Some urban experiments of global great historical cities like Paris and London had showed early recognize of the unavoidable urban changes in order to catch up with the new economical system which started in the first half of the 20th century in the main cities of the United States notably in New York with the new order of the urban spatial structure, La Défense in Paris and Canary Wharf in London were early examples of "the globalization response". Global tourism is one of the most dynamically growing sectors of the global economy in the last decades, also have become an integral part of daily life in the heart of the leading global cities, many global great cities like Paris, London, and Istanbul has represented distinctive urban experiments of the conservation of their own local urban heritage and at the same time to be global hubs attracting the flows of the global tourism. Urban local heritage is a part of the local cultural heritage, so it is not only the buildings and other urban features; but also it represents the multi-faceted historical, political, spiritual, and artistic contexts which considered as all aspects, even the site intangible elements such as cultural and spiritual traditions, music, dance, theatre, visual arts, local customs and culinary heritage, these give life and vitality to the image of the local urban heritage.

2.1.

Globalization impact on tourism

The unprecedented multi directional movement of people around the world as an impact of the Globalization has turned the tourism into a common activity in diverse communities, creation of a global society means that tourism businesses have the ability to operate globally, global enterprises view the world as their operating environment and establish both global strategies and global market presence (Knowles et al. 2001, 177). 2.1.1. The Global importance of Tourism Tourism businesses operate globally; technology, information and reduction of boundaries have created the new trend global tourism, Globalization has increased the interdependence between countries, economies and people; in the year 2002 715 million people travelled abroad, by the year 2020 this number is expected to increase to 1.6 billion, the tourism turnover is 3500 billion US$ and accounts for 10 percent of global trade (WTO, 2004), the global importance of tourism is represented through some facts and figures of Global tourism announced by the World Tourism Organization (WTO): x In 1997, the number of international arrivals (including business trips) stood at 613 million. Based on annual growth of 4.3 %, WTO expects the figure to rise to 1,600 million international arrivals by the year 2020. x The tourism industry employs an estimated 212 million people world-wide (directly and indirectly) and its total turnover volume is around US$ 3.4 billion, which represents 5.5 % of the global GNP (WTO, 2011)

2.2.

Local urban heritage as a global interest (World Heritage Sites)

The importance of local urban heritage sites is not a local issue; it is a global interest, world heritage sites were created by the UNESCO’s convention concerning the protection of the world cultural and natural heritage, these include the unique sites of the local urban heritage. The local urban heritage is what giving cities its identity, the urban image of the European cities centers which representing the traditional classical architectural styles of Europe since the 277


Middle Ages is what makes these cities attractive to the global tourism flow, cities like London, Paris, Bangkok, Singapore, Istanbul has showed clear examples of the Global cities and at the same time cities with significant local urban heritage, these cities were among the top 10 visited cities in 2012 (WTO).

3. GLOBAL TOURISM AS AN URBAN HERITAGE PRESERVATION TOOL Global tourism is closely linked to development as it has experienced continued growth and deepening diversified to become one of the fastest growing economic sectors in the world, These dynamics have turned tourism into a key driver for development progress. Today, the business volume of global tourism equals or even surpasses that of oil exports, food products or automobiles. Tourism has become one of the major players in international commerce and represents at the same time one of the main income sources for many developing countries. Global tourism should bring benefits to host communities and provide an important means and motivation for them to care for and maintain their local urban heritage, the involvement and cooperation of local and/or indigenous community representatives, conservationists, tourism operators, property owners, policy makers, those preparing national development plans and site managers is necessary to achieve a sustainable global tourism industry and enhance the protection of local urban heritage sites for future generations.

3.1.

Types of Global tourism

The importance of recognizing types of Global tourism is to have a deeper understanding of which type has the most impact and interaction with the local urban heritage. There are several classifications of global tourism types, many types of tourism classified by typical features of spending time in the destination such as Seaside tourism, Mountain tourism, Sport tourism, Health tourism, Ecotourism (Rural tourism), Event and gastronomic tourism, Shopping tourism, Business tourism, Religious tourism, Cultural tourism, and many other types. Cultural tourism is the most global tourism type which has a significant impact on the local urban heritage as this type depends on historical sites, buildings and monuments, places of local urban heritage. 3.1.1. Definition of Cultural tourism One of the most diverse and specific definitions from the 1990s is provided by ICOMOS (International Scientific Committee on Cultural Tourism): “Cultural tourism can be defined as that activity which enables people to experience the different ways of life of other people, thereby gaining at first hand an understanding of their customs, traditions, the physical environment, the intellectual ideas and those places of architectural, historic, archaeological or other cultural significance which remain from earlier times. Cultural tourism differs from recreational tourism in that it seeks to gain an understanding or appreciation of the nature of the place being visited.” (ICOMOS Charter for Cultural Tourism, 1997)

3.2.

The dynamic interaction between cultural tourism and local urban heritage

The local urban heritage is a life part of the local culture of a city, and cultural tourism continues to be among the foremost vehicles for cultural exchange, not only of that which has survived from the past, but of the contemporary life and society of others. It is increasingly appreciated as a positive force for cultural conservation; it can capture the economic characteristics of the urban heritage and harness these for conservation by generating funding, educating the 278


community and influencing policy, it is an essential part of many national and regional economies and can be an important factor in development, when managed successfully.

3.3.

Cultural tourism as a tool for the preservation of the local urban heritage

The dynamic interaction between cultural tourism and local urban heritage is the key to understand how to use cultural tourism as a type of global tourism and as a tool for the preservation. Local urban heritage is the past made useful in the present, therefore it is incumbent on analysts to consider the contemporary values of urban heritage activity as well as the historic ones, We make a heritage part of our lives and our cities in myriad ways, urban heritage investment should be expected to generate social, economic, environmental benefits and at the same time to fund the preservation of urban heritage sites. As described before global tourism generally is one of the most important sources of national income, in some global cities cases culture tourism is what gives economic prosperity, these cities is characterized by having a living local urban heritage sites, and at the same time they are global cities having the urban facilities of globalization such as financial facilities, advanced roads and transportation network, communication… etc.., These are what makes many European cities on the top ranked destinations for the global tourism. So the problem is not how to use global tourism as a tool for the conservation of the local urban heritage, but how to appropriate between the globalization urban needs and conservation of the local urban heritage?, This understanding of the relationship will be necessary both to foster economic globalization and to mitigate local urban heritage globalization, urban heritage preservation has often been portrayed as the alternative to economic development. It is absolutely a false choice to assert that “either we have historic preservation, or we have economic growth.” Increasingly around the world, urban heritage preservation is becoming a uniquely effective vehicle for economic growth, see figure 1

Figure 1: The relationship between global tourism, the city, urban heritage and the preservation

3.4.

Global urban experiments cases

Theses global experiments cases of using the Global tourism and particularly cultural tourism as a tool for the preservation of the local urban heritage have showed urban policies and decisions which was taken by governmental institutions, the main concept that these policies depend on was to appropriate between Global tourism needs and the preservation of the local urban heritage and were representing the solutions from an urban perspective. 3.4.1. Urban solutions for organizing the urban spatial structure The concept of this solution depends on organizing the land uses functional zones of the city in order to avoid the conflict between the local urban heritage sites and land uses that are not matching, for example the central business districts which characterized with contemporary 279


architecture, high rise buildings and the economical activities, this urban feature is not matching with the local urban heritage, it is a clear example of the conflict between the urban areas affected by globalization and the local areas with significant urban heritage. There are some successful global urban experiments cases, the experiment of La Défense in Paris has showed an early governmental authorities understanding of the economical changes which were an indicator of the beginning of the Globalization era, With its 560 hectares area, and 3.5 million square meters of office space, La Défense is Europe's largest purpose-built business district, La Défense contains many of the Paris urban area's tallest high-rises, and is home to no fewer than 1,500 corporate head offices (Jon, 2005). The project is an urban lesson of the organizing of the city urban spatial structure in order to achieve the following: x

x x x

The visual separation between the unique urban heritage of the central Paris with its classical style's character and the urban character of the main (CBD), and at the sometime the project has created a new visual axis which connected the new (CBD) with the historical axis of Paris, which starts at the Louvre in Central Paris, and continues along the Champs-Élysées, well beyond the Arc de Triumph before culminating at La Défense. Provide the protection of the heart of the Paris local urban heritage by providing a new urban area for the global urban needs with all facilities. Emphasize the urban functional zones of the city which let the globalized land uses find an urban space well connected to the city center. Supporting the global tourism flow, culture tourism in Paris beside its role in the conservation of the local heritage, La Défense is also visited by 8,000,000 tourists each year, and houses an open-air museum, see figure2

Figure 2: The axis which connects La Defense with central Paris (Elewa. 2010)

3.4.2. Urban solutions for the economy needs The most significant impact of the globalization on the local urban heritage is the responding to the new economic urban needs inside the urban heritage sites, this issue is causing real challenge to the Global cities with a local urban heritage, therefore the problem is how to appropriate between the economic activities growth and the urban heritage areas, the urban experiments have shown different solutions as follow: x

Allowing the appropriate land uses of economic actives to take place in the urban heritage sites. In many cases achieved automatically as the inhabitants of those areas through the gained experiences often practice the traditional crafts and socioeconomic actives which belonged to the culture of the heritage site, the essential necessary 280


x

x

services for the global tourism like the banks, exchange currency, restaurants, beverage shops etc. These activities are playing several roles, acting as an attracting element of the cultural tourism, complete the visual image of the urban heritage site, there are many good examples like in Paris, London, Rome, Istanbul, Bangkok. Using protection legislation in order to protect the urban heritage, but it has a negative impacts that the area of the urban heritage will turn into a nature reserve or protected area. Which means to be less attractive for the global tourism. The case of São Cristóvão in Rio de Janeiro representing the case of a traditional area which applied the protective legislation, but at the same time to avoid the negative impact, from primarily emphasizing and conserved exceptional value of architecture and historical monuments. Towards an urban conservation and rehabilitation approach, São Cristovão’s case summarizes the multiple challenges of central areas urban conservation in a global city, The equation of preservation interests with global urban interests should converge to urban ordinances through integrated management strategies, as integrated conservation principles, in 2010 it was selected as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO, which will attract more global tourism, (Sampaio, 2007). The re-use or changing of the land use, this solution depends on the management of land uses in order to achieve the best benefit through a better use of the urban space, usually the spreading of economic needs in the urban heritage areas is a common problem in the Global cities, the example of Canary Wharf, London is a successful experiment of the re-using of the West India Docks to be a business district accommodate the continuous demand of the economic activities, reducing the pressure on the local urban heritage of the historical heart of the city (Jon, 2005)

3.4.3. Urban solutions for social needs The process of the appropriate between the globalization urban needs and preservation of the local urban heritage should regard the social needs. The areas with local urban heritage gaining its vitality from the local society. The social needs as urban elements are the public spaces and facilities which represent the daily life activities of the city inhabitants, these urban spaces is a vital component of the visual image of the local urban heritage, Istanbul is a good example of the importance of the urban social needs, the city has been already rich of its unique local urban heritage notably the monuments and the sites of the Ottoman Empire, but the city was suffering from the neglect of the public spaces and facilities. One of the main targets of the city master plans during the nineteenths of the 20th century was to improve the public spaces and facilities, this includes the non-benefit (free of charge) spaces like parks, squares, plazas, street furniture, landscape… etc., The result was that the city became one of the top ten visited cities during the last years (WTO, 2012).

4. CAIRO, A SIGNIFICANT CASE OF A GLOBAL HISTORICAL CITY Cairo is a significant case of a global historical city, as a city in a developing country the priority to provide funding is always going to the improving of the infrastructure, But Cairo is a very rich city with its local urban heritage, the city still contains urban areas represent the original spatial structure of the Medieval Islamic era, with some Roman, Coptic monuments, also most famous Pharaohs monument the pyramid's west of the city in Giza. The global tourism numbers to Cairo are not representing the historical importance of the city, the city still away of the top visited city ranks. In the last decades the awareness of the importance of the local urban heritage has led

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the government to establish a new authority responsible of the urban harmony, the preservation of the local urban heritage is among its tasks.

4.1.

Brief of Cairo urban spatial structure and the local urban heritage sites

The goal of this brief is to understand the current urban spatial structure of the city. How far it had responded to the globalization urban needs as were discussed before, and the location of the local urban heritage sites. The city has no a specific geometric shape, consists of two sides as the river Nile is crossing the city from south to north. It is facing a continuous urban sprawl, the pre-planned areas were not enough to accommodate the population growth, therefore the city now is facing the problem of the slums which even affected the historical core of the city, the main features of the city urban spatial structure are: x Cairo has a central core consists of two adjacent areas, the Khedivial Cairo, the current city center which has a remarkable urban heritage representing the most common European architectural styles of the end of the 19th and 20th century and The Islamic Cairo (Historic Cairo as mentioned by the UNESCO) which includes no less than 600 classified monuments dating from the 7th to 20th centuries, overlooked by the Cairo Citadel, Coptic Cairo and its many old churches and ruins of Roman fortifications. x There is no main (CBD) in Cairo but several (CBD’s) surrounding the city center. x The residential areas, the traditional areas which were developed till the Mid-twentieth century and new planned urban extensions are developed in the last decades. x The city has only one International airport on the east side, there will be another one on the west side according to the city future plans (Elewa, 2010). The city has many urban heritage faces; the Islamic urban heritage in the historic Cairo which also include some Roman and Coptic monuments, and the city center (Khedivial Cairo) which was planned according to the common concepts in Europe in the 19th century, the area is rich with new classic and modern architecture styles buildings, these two urban heritage faces are representing the liveable urban heritage sites where the daily life is taking place in the history forming a significant local urban heritage which attracting global tourism. The UNESCO had considered two sites in Cairo to be World heritage sites. One of them is the Historic Cairo (Islamic Cairo), the other one is Memphis and its Necropolis – the Pyramid Fields from Giza to Dahshur which describing the difference between the local urban heritage in this study and the UNESCO definition. This study concerns the urban life, the sites which still having the common urban functions of the modern daily life in a local heritage site.(reference missing)

4.2.

Cairo local urban heritage and the Globalization impact

Cairo as a Global City has responded to the effects of the globalization. The local government through the last decades had spent high budgets to improve road network, transportation means especially the sub-way. Adding new terminals to the international airport, beside the establishing of new urban agglomerations, these projects in fact are the main evidence of the responding of the globalization urban needs which had ignored the actual local urban needs, the spreading of the slums is the direct result of the government urban policies, which had affected the local urban heritage of the city.

4.3.

Global tourism in Cairo

Cairo is the capital city of Egypt and its cultural economical hub. The city is rich with the cultural attraction sites with a significant urban heritage as described before which make the city an important destination for the global tourism in general and a special for cultural tourism, according to MasterCard’s Index of Global Destination Cities Cairo has been ranked as the top 282


destination city in Africa. The city was expected to have the highest number of total visitor arrivals in 2011, Cairo was going to attract 3.7 million visitors, also expected to receive the highest amount of visitor spending about 3.7 billion $, but according to the current political situation in Egypt, Cairo isn't a placid city two years after the revolution.

4.4.

Assessment of the current status of Cairo through a comparison with global urban experiments cases

This current status assessment is about existing global tourism urban needs like the road network, public transportation, other needed facilities, and the applied policies dealing with local urban heritage as an indicator of the efficiency of the possibility of using the Global tourism as a preservation tool, the assessment has depended on the comparison of Cairo and the cases of London and Istanbul as two of the top 5 ranked cities visited in 2012 (WTO, 2012) 4.4.1. The comparison of organizing the urban spatial structure Cairo has the main components of the urban spatial structure of a global city: x x x x

A city center with a remarkable urban heritage representing the common classical and modern architecture styles of the end of the 19th century till the mid of the 20th century Several (CBD’s) surrounding the city center, but there is no a main (CBD). An advanced road network, a various public transportation means but they are not enough for the inhabitants needs and not covering the whole city, only one exist international airport on the east side of the city The global financial and commercial facilities are available and other common facilities for the global tourism also such as multilevel hotels, restaurants, nightlife.. Etc.

London is a leading Global city; its urban spatial structure is an ideal example of a Global City: x x x x x

The City of London contains the ancient area of London; has a significant urban heritage not only buildings but also the street furniture and the other urban elements. City of London is the main financial district, and Canary Wharf has recently developed into a new financial and commercial hub in the Docklands to the east, also the city has another three major business district. The road network is very advanced, the city has various public transportation means, was the first to use the railways and underground trains, cycling is an increasingly popular way to get around London. London is a major international air transport hub, it has eight international airports. The city hosts over 100 of Europe's 500 largest companies (Jon, 2005)

Istanbul is a global city and the second-largest urban area in Europe: x x x x

The city is a linear urban development for more than sixty kilometers along the Marmara shores, divided almost equally between the two sides, Europe and Asia. The city center is at the same time the historical heart of the city located on a natural peninsula to the south of the Golden Horn. Beoğlu district forms Istanbul's commercial and entertainment center around Taksim Square, Levent and Maslak are Istanbul's primary economic centers. The city has an advanced road network and public transportation means, also the city has two international airports (Elewa, 2012), see figure 3. 283


Figure 3: urban spatial structure and urban heritage sites of the cities of comparable (Elewa. A.2012)

4.4.2. The comparison of the local urban heritage sites and the applied policies Cairo has many urban heritage faces as follows: x The Islamic urban heritage of the historic Cairo (World heritage site) which also include some Roman and Coptic monuments. x The city center (Khedivial Cairo) was planned according to the common concepts in Europe in the 19th century, rich with new classic and modern architecture buildings. x Memphis and its Necropolis – the Pyramid Fields from Giza to Dahshur (World heritage site) which considered as protected areas. The master plans of Greater Cairo beginning of 1984 till the Cairo 2050 master plan (not formally adopted) had not considered the urban heritage as a prior issue, the urban problems of the rapid sprawl, the growth of slums, the improvement of transportation, infrastructure, and the establishing of new satellite cities had the priority, government recently established a new authority called the National organization for urban harmony, responsible of the issues of the preservation of urban heritage (Elewa, 2012). London although its buildings are too diverse to be characterized by any particular architectural style, partly because of their varying ages but the city center has a unique local urban character which depends on the city spirit as a whole, not only the buildings but also the street furniture, urban elements like the Double-decker bus. London contains four World Heritage Sites: the Tower of London; Kew Gardens; the site comprising the Palace of Westminster, Westminster Abbey, and St Margaret's Church; and the historic settlement of Greenwich. The Plan of the 1994 Unitary Development plan was an extension of the previous plans in 1989 and supplementary guidance for London on the protection of strategic views in 1991 (which is the main element of the urban heritage), has a duty consider whether it should designate preservation areas, which are defined as “areas of special architectural or historic interest, the character of which it is designed to preserve or enhance”. The City also has a duty to review the boundaries of its preservation (Elewa, 2012). Istanbul the urban heritage of the historical heart (world heritage site) is which makes Istanbul distinctive among the world cities, the old city still characterized by its cultural, historical, and architectural monuments of Roman, Byzantine and much of the Ottoman architectural heritage, In addition of extensive pedestrian walks and open spaces. The Turkish government realized 284


the importance of the local heritage, this was clear in the urban policies of the master plans of Istanbul, since 1994 plan there was a direction towards the preservation of the historical sites of innovation programs aimed not to preserve the historic building but also to revive the whole context, the historic peninsula is a good example, see figure 4 showing the urban heritage of the cities of comparable (Elewa, 2012)

Figure 4: The urban heritage of Historic Cairo (left), London (middle), Istanbul (right)

4.4.3. The comparison of dealing with the economy needs Cairo: The new satellite cities and agglomerations has reduced the economic activities pressing and the continuous demand of urban spaces in the areas of urban heritage, but the city still has not a main (CBD) as exist in other Global cities. London: The City of London is the largest financial center in the world; it has five major business districts, one way to get an idea of their relative importance is to look at the relative amounts of office space 27 million m2 of office space in 2001, the recent (CBD) of Canary Wharf has reduced the economic activities pressing on the urban heritage areas (Jon, 2005) Istanbul: The new (CBD’s) out the historical area and the significant urban heritage like "Levent" and "Maslac” characterized by high rise buildings and showing a clear example of the globalization economic urban effects and the growing economic urban needs. 4.4.4. The comparison of dealing with social needs Cairo: The city in general and the heritage sites in particular are suffering from the lack of the public open spaces, and the neglecting of the public facilities like street furniture, public water closets, but recently a Garbage dump in the east of the Historic Cairo turned into El-Azhar Park. The problem of the privatization, the available open spaces are usually private, and the public spaces are facing the process of privatization which affected the inhabitants and the tourists. London: The city is characterized by the variety and abundance of the public spaces such as The Royal Parks and gardens, squares and plazas… etc.; The city enjoys a high quality of life which appears in the public areas where the public facilities is available. Istanbul: The city is rich with the public spaces and facilities; the city has managed to improve the public facilities through the last decades.(reference missing)

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4.4.5. The comparison of the current global tourism to the city Cairo: is not among the top ranked cities by international visitors, but in the Middle East region it was ranked as the second destination for international visitors in 2012 after Dubai. London: is a popular center for tourism, one of its prime industries; London attracts over 14 million international visitors per year, making it Europe's most visited city and world’s most popular destination city for overseas travelers. Istanbul: Dynamic Istanbul has made huge strides in recent years and now ranks as the fifth most popular destination in the world (WTO, 2012)

5. CONCULOSION FROM PRACTICE The global tourism is not a direct tool for the preservation of the local urban heritage. There is a dynamic interaction between global Tourism and local urban heritage; global tourism can capture the economic characteristics of the heritage and harness these for preservation by generating funding. Cities which are top ranked as the most visited by international visitors are those which managed to achieve the requirements and urban needs for both the globalization and the preservation of its local urban heritage. This means that the possibility to use the global tourism as a tool for the preservation of the local urban heritage is depends on achieving the appropriating between the globalization urban needs and preservation of the local urban heritage, Cairo as a global city with unique urban heritage still in the need to modify its urban spatial structure to be more globalized and to give more concern to the preservation programs which deal with the whole urban context not only the buildings and monuments.

5.1. Policies recommendations in the case of Cairo According to the previous comparison the reasons that Cairo is not among the top international visitor destination in spite of its unique local urban heritage are as follows: x The city urban spatial structure needs to complete its urban functional zones in order to be able to compete with the other destination and attract the global tourists. x The public transportation is in need to be improved to catch the latest systems applied in other advanced global cities and to look forward to the friendly environment transport. x The importance of adding another airport in the west of Cairo will improve the city's ability to host more tourists and to reduce the crossing traffic through the city as the only exist airport is in the city east side. x The government's future urban plans for Cairo should consider the preservation of the urban local heritage as a priority issue as it is the main element attracting the global tourism and particularly the cultural tourism. x The improving of the quality of life in Cairo and to provide the social needs is an essential issue in the process of attracting the global tourism; the city needs more public spaces and improving of the public facilities.

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6. REFERENCES Brkovic, M. B. (1997). Urban heritage between historic preservation and development: Planners perspective. The scientific journal. Vol.1, No 4, 1997 pp. 483-492 Elewa, A. (2010). A procedure for Organizing the Great Cities Downtown, Cairo city Downtown Case. (Unpublished PhD thesis), Egypt.(can this be a reference) Elewa, A. (2012) Appropriating the urban spatial structure of the great city's future plans and the local heritage, conference, Istanbul ICOMOS, International council on monuments and sites, (1999). International cultural tourism charter, Managing Tourism at Places of Heritage Significance. Mexico Knowles, T., Diamantis, D., El-Mourhabi, J. B. (2001) The Globalization of Tourism and Hospitality: A Strategic Perspective. London Jon, L, (2005). Urban design a typology of procedures and products: 219-225. London, U.K Marcuse, P. And Van Kem, R, (2000). Globalizing cities, a new spatial order. London, U.K Sampaio, A. R. (2007). Heritage protection, Urban conservation and planning: The case of São Cristovão, Rio de Janeiro. Short, J.R. And Kim, Y. -H. (1999) Globalization and the City Regional Studies, 36, (6), 711-712 Steinberg, F. (1996). Urban heritage in developing countries. Habitat. Vol. 20, No.3, pp 463-475, Pratt, A.C. (2011). The cultural economy and the global city. International Handbook of Globalization and World Cities World Tourism Organization (UNWTO). (1999). Tourism and sustainable development, the global importance of tourism. New York World Tourism Organization (UNWTO). (2012) statistics and rankings, International tourist arrivals by country of destination 2011: http://www2.unwto.org/

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© SB13-Cairo 2013 Historic Parks in the Face of Change: The Merryland Park, Cairo, Egypt Shetawy, A. and Dief-Allah, D.

Historic Parks in the Face of Change: The Merryland Park, Cairo, Egypt Shetawy, A.1 and Dief-Allah, D.2 12


2


Abstract: Tracing the evolution in the conceptual frameworks of Conservation theory, the domains of conservation have dramatically changed since Athens Charter 1931. It has become more diverse and inclusive. Starting with the concepts of historic, artistic and archaeological monuments, the domains expanded to include, among many others, historic parks. Moreover, contemporary trends of conservation theory also expanded to include new dimensions as cultural, social, economic, spiritual, sentimental and symbolic values. This has resulted in the emergence of consequent new concepts as cultural landscape, urban environmental structures and intangible heritage. Historic parks and Gardens contribute to the setting of historic buildings and are valued as ‘works of art’. They are also valued for their horticultural interest and association with a notable person or event. It amplifies, in many cases, community identity and belonging. In the face of economic, social and political change; Egypt is struggling as any other developing country to attain the balance between development and urban transformation on one hand, and holding on to its local values, and heritage on the other hand. Within the Egyptian context, recognizing, conserving and protecting historic parks face more challenges than those faced by built heritage. The concept of conservation has not practically shifted to embrace its local cultural landscapes; while still concentrating on individual historic buildings and monuments. This paper aims to explore and documentthe development process of Merryland Park, Heliopolis, Cairo, Egypt with specific reference to the conflict between urban development, tourism and heritage conservation.

Keywords: Heliopolis, historic Parks, landscape heritage, Merry land Park

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1.

INTRODUCTION

The scope of heritage and the categorization of conservation have dramatically changed since the Athens Charter 1931,to become more diverse and inclusive. Starting with the concepts of historic, artisticand archaeological monuments, the category expanded to include sites and surroundings,groups of buildings, movable heritage and collections, urban or rural settings andsettlements, historic villages and their surroundings, underwater findings, historic townsand gardens, natural and man-made settings and whole urban or natural areas. With the shift within the scope of heritage, new concepts of cultural landscape, urban environmental structures andintangible heritage had to be embraced (Zancheti and Jokilehto 1997). Following the expansion of conservation objectives, values related to cultural heritage has become more complex and dynamic. Values have expanded from historic and artistic categories to include cultural, social, economic, spiritual, sentimental and symbolicvalues among others.Institutions and practitioners tend to refer to the charters in official documents, reports and projects as to follow their recommendations, instead of having them as paradigms to bediscussed and criticized. In a certain way, this diminishes the pace of change in theory andpractice(Pereira, 2007). International conservation charters should be understood as documents thatsummarize past and present contributions, bringing to light aspects that may have not beenpreviously questioned and providing suggestions for future practice and theoreticalthinking. They should not, however, be considered documents to be blindly followed. Consequently, heritage conservation practice got caught in an extremely complicated body of theory and affiliated charters while completely ignoring the development of a workable framework and/or practical methodology. Practitioners suddenly discovered the lack of a practical approach in dealing with heritage but rather than un-common and un-unified projectstailored frameworks. Such context puts heritage conservation practice in wider complicated conflicts with urban and cultural tourism development and policies(Pereira, 2007). This has been even worse in the case of Egypt.In the face of economic, social and political change; Egypt is struggling as any other developing country to attain the balance between development and urban transformation on one hand, and holding on to its local values, and heritage on the other hand. Within the Egyptian context, recognizing, conserving and protecting historic parks face more challenges than those faced by the built heritage. The concept of conservation has not practically shifted to embrace its local cultural landscapes; while still concentrating on individual historic buildings and monuments (Fahmi, 2011). Egyptian historic urban areas, like Heliopolis, have continuously struggled to attain the balance between urban change and development, local tourism and preserving its local values and heritage. Furthermore, its open spaces, squares, parks and gardens(e.g. Merryland Park) have been more vulnerable to face this up-beat change. The development of Merryland Park, Heliopolis, Egypt, is considered a vivid case of such context presented in this paper.

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2. CULTURAL HERITAGE AND URBAN CHANGE Cultural heritage can be regarded as any existing element that is a part of the traditions, lifestyles, knowledge, and ideas of a group of people. Of these, ‘built heritage’ implies monuments and works of architecture that are of historical and artistic importance. The physical and social transformation of any city has been always coupled with shifts in its demography and economy. This transformation, at the cusp of the forces of globalization, is happening in a more widespread and rapid manner, moving too fast to allow adaptation and therefore encouraging a direct grafting of an alien built environment into an ill-fitting context. Built and landscape heritage connects an individual to the past and conveys a sense of rootedness and identity. It has always been a function of our lifestyle and traditions, and its decay and loss implies a similar disconnect with ideas and practices which were our own (Ouf, 2001). It could have been very easy to simplify our scope of cultural heritageconservation and strictly consider it as only the preservation of inherited man-made artefacts. For decades, the field of cultural heritage conservation has been object-oriented and its scope has mainly been limited to single buildings (Pereira, 2007).However, being a part of any urban fabric within our consciously evolving and towns and cities, cultural heritage management had to shift to a broader and complex scope. In a context in which local inhabitants are trying to find a suitable framework for changingsocial, cultural, and economic demands and needs, continuous pressure arises on the local urban heritage;a new layer of “historic legacy, authenticity and identity”had to be added to on-going changing urban forms. The concept of heritage has dramatically expanded to include urban culture and life styles of individuals in addition to the use and practices within urban spaces(Mitra, 2009). Adding more layers to the concept of heritage conservation, attaining the balance between ‘Continuity and Change’ has been much harder. Scholars have continuously emphasized on repositioning the scope of cultural heritage through the analysis of the well-known ‘preservation and change conflict’. Nasser (2003, p.267) picks on the scope of cultural heritage as follows: ‘A conflict between the preservation of the character of existing historic towns and “change” has formed the central argument for conservation. More recently, heritage has superseded conservation, where marketing of heritage as a product according to thedemands of the consumer, mainly tourists, has resulted in the commercialisation of heritage over conservation values. Today, the symbiosis of both tourism and heritage places has become a major objective in the management and planning of historic areas” Managing change within our cities has always been one of the most challenging political, intellectual and social challenging issues. International cultural bodies, such as the United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the international centre for study of preservation and restoration of cultural property (ICCROM), the international Commission on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) and others could have easily fixed and focused its efforts on producing clear guidelines for the protection and restoration and management of built heritage and monuments. Broadening the definition of ‘heritage’, the guidelines, recommendations of these international bodies had been essential in order to be strongly embedded within the planning and management process of cities. New definitions and 290


sub-categorization of ‘what we need to protect and hand to our future generations’ had to be recognized, adding more pressure on the urbandevelopment process(Steinberg, 1996).

2.1.

Cultural Landscape

As any landscape shaped by its human activities shaping around its visual elements can be referred to as ‘cultural landscape’. The role of nature and culture has been re-defined in a Cultural Landscape as follows: “The cultural landscape is fashioned from a natural landscape by a culture group. Culture is the agent, the natural area the medium, the cultural landscape”(Anschuetzet al 2001cited in Khanna, 2006) Meanwhile, the concept of cultural landscape had to embrace a dynamic understanding of its history in order to connect the past, present and future of its grounds. Agha Sanmaniet al (2012) stress on the dynamic vision of cultural landscape in their words: “Cultural landscape consists of dialectic between the natural physical setting, the human modifications of the setting, and the meanings of the resultant landscape to insiders and outsiders. Continuous interaction takes place between these three elements over time” (ibid, 2012) Consequently, a new paradigm had developed to address the conservation of historic cultural landscapes in order to reinforce the balance between developing andsustaining the urban landscape. Furthermore the inclusion of Cultural Landscapes on the World Heritage List was the result of the new anthropological dimension acknowledged in the definition of cultural heritage of ‘outstanding universal value’ (Titchen and Rossler 1995).Cultural landscapes have been classified in the context of world heritage. Based upon these concepts; the World Heritage Convention 1995 included Cultural Landscapes on the World Heritage List under mainly three categories, as discussed in the Operational Guidelines for the Convention. The first category of Cultural Landscapes is the ‘clearly defined landscape’, which is designed and created intentionally by humans. The gardens and parkland landscapes, in this section, are often associated with religious or other monumental structures of this category are the Garden Tomb of Humayun (India), the Shalimar Gardens in Lahore (Pakistan) and Studley Royal (UK).” are clear example of this category(Khanna, 2006) Furthermore, a second category was introduced that clearly respected the ‘social, economic, administrative or religious imperative of any organically evolved landscapes’ (Cleere, 1995).Thiscategory focuses mainly on the on-going evolutionary process of the landscape, where material evidence of that process still remains. This category has been referred to as ‘relict or fossil landscapes’. A sub-category of this type of landscape presents the ‘continuing landscapes’ that represent the ‘on-going evolutionary process of a social and economic function in the contemporary society closely associated with a traditional way of life. The Rice Terraces of the Philippines fits with this example of ‘continuing landscapes’. Furthermore, a third category of ‘associative’ cultural landscapes emphasizes the powerful religious, artistic or cultural dimensions of the natural element instead of depending on only material, which in many cases may be absent of insignificant. This category can be applied on sacred mountains or even ancient religious settlements located on outstanding landscapes(Khanna, 2006).

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2.2.

Tourism and Cultural Heritage

Integrating the cultural heritage in the development process of human urban activities, tourism industry introduces itself as a main promoter of any local cultural heritage. Heritage tourism, a sub-category of tourism, refers to tourism within the boundaries of cultural Heritage Sites including World Heritage Sites (WHS). This term expands to combine cultural and eco-tourism was a clear heritage conservation theme. Furthermore,as heritage widened its scope to accommodate tangible and intangible entities of local cultures and identities, the concept of heritage tourism has experienced a major shift in definition and practice. Although heritage tourism activities is considered a main source of funding and protecting heritage, its strategies and outcome activities are feared to be a main threat, specially where conflict of aims arises between the protection of the local identity and tourism development(Shetawy and El-Khateeb 2009).The level of exploitation of any cultural heritage site has always been considered the main area of conflict. Conservation strategies seek to sustain the level of exploitation, while tourism aims towards to maximum exploitation through the number of visiting trips and associated activities (UNESCO, 2002). Manipulation of history and the fear of loss of authenticity and self-identity in order to meet the requirements of the demanding tourism market has also been a real concern.

3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY As a first step in the exploration, analysis and documentation of the current context of this unique culture heritage, the authors divided the study into six distinct groups: Government officials (i.e. Ministry of culture, ministry of tourism, Cairo Governorate, Local Government), surrounding residents, owners and workers of tourism activities, users of various ages and gender; academic and professionals, and finally NGOs (i.e. Heliopolis Services Development Society). The fieldwork was carried during a period of 2 months. Semi-structured interviews were used to collect primary qualitative data to a sample selected through different sampling techniques (see Table 1). Semi-structured interviews were judged more appropriate than structured interviews due to security and other resource limitations (i.e. time, funding, safety and security context), as well as the type of data required.

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Table 1:Study population, methods and sampling techniques Study Population

Government Officials

Ministry of Culture Ministry of Tourism Cairo Governorate Local Public Council

Residents

Surrounding residents of the Park

Workers and owners of tourism activities

Restaurants, Cafés, Cafeterias, vendors

NGOs Academic and Practitioners

Users

Methods

Semi-structured interviews

Heliopolis Services Development Society Academic and practitioners

Semi-structured interviews Direct observation Group discussions Semi-structured interviews Direct observation Group discussions Semi-structured interviews Semi-structured interviews

Males (various age groups) Females (various age groups)

Semi-structured interviews Direct observation Group discussion

Sampling technique

Purposeful then snowballing

Purposeful Stratified random sampling then snowballing Stratified random sampling then snowballing Purposeful then snowballing Purposeful then snowballing Stratified random sampling then snowballing

Briefly, a total of 47 interviewees of all groups were interviewed. This was in addition to direct observation and group discussions over a total period of 2 months (April-May 2013). The researchers have also made use of several secondary data sources, mainly documentation and archival records, while seeking to triangulate data to confirm the validity and reliability of both primary and secondary data collected.

4. The Merryland Park: The Past and Present Through the modern waves of expansion of Cairo, new models of urban development were created, adding to its urban fabric unique entities that were not familiar to the well-known and familiar Islamic neighbourhoods. In an attempt to imitate the European lifestyle and encouraged by the increase in the number of foreigners, entities such as parks, outdoor spaces and squares recreational areas open to the public were introduced, adding new dimensions to the social pattern of locals (Rabbat,2004). Merryland Park of Heliopolis presented one of the very vivid examples of such new style developments at the time. According to Roger Owen (1972) who analysed the waves of urban expansion of Cairo, originated during ‘Khedive Ismail’s attempt to make Paris by the Nile’. The second wave of expansion started around the 1890’s as a direct result of the ‘growth in the number of foreigners, both residents and tourists, and the great enlargement of government activity’. In the midst of the height of its economic boom (1897- 1907), the project of a new suburb, 12 293


kilometres far from the centre of Cairo was initiated in 1905 , as seen in figure (1). Heliopolis, or the city of the Sun, was to be the name for a new neighbourhood created in the northern east of the old city of Cairo. A unique creation by the Belgian Empian Baron of an ‘oasis within the desert’ that revolves around creating garden cities, while celebrating an architecture that marries oriental and European styles.(Hussien, 2005)

1906

1931 Figure 1: Heliopolis Plans (Herzog, 2010)

The project was faced by two main challenges; first, to promote the suburb as a better and unique alternative for accommodation and relocation, and second to reduce its desert-look. The Heliopolis Oasis Company (HOC) had to be established in order to bring the place to life and to address such challenges. The suburb was to be linked to the heart of the city by an electric tramway. Competitive renting and purchasing prices were introduced with efficient systems to facilitate the construction and re-selling processes. In an attempt to attract a cosmopolitan client, new social and recreational entities had to be embraced within the suburb construction plan.Heliopolis, as referred to by the memories of its old residents as ‘a reminiscence of a romanticized hideout from the chaos of Cairo’s old quarters, presented a European life-style in a magical oriental context. (Hussien, 2005) Many of the old residents pinpointed the double success of Heliopolis; on the urban and social levels as quoted; “Heliopolis used to be a beautiful and intelligent suburb with wide streets at a time and manifested an outstanding architectural style and urban form [...] it is a suburb that was originally planned to be a luxurious oasis, and that turned out to be a mixed social classes one [...] A cosmopolitan suburb where people of different national origins, ethnicity, religions and language lived together in a peaceful and joyful way” (Fieldwork 2013)

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Horse Race Course

Luna Park

Palace Hotel (i.e. Etihadya Palace)

Figure 2: Heliopolis Main recreational Urban Landmarks (Egy, 2013)

As seen in figure (2), the suburb embraced the entertainment and recreational dimension in its new urban settings, manifesting ‘a significant point of attraction, but a reason for the uniqueness of the city’ as an academic pointed out. The Heliopolis Palace Hotel offered ‘giant elevators, billiard rooms, Turkish baths and afforded a distant view of the pyramids’. The funfair, named Luna Park, was considered to be the biggest in the Middle East and Africa at that time, attracted visitors from the heart of Cairo. A variety of cinemas offered its residents and visitors a wide selection from open cheap summer cinemas (i.e. Normandy open-air cinema), to deluxe cinemas (i.e. Heliopolis Palace hotel cinema). Later on, private open air clubs with regulated membership was introduced to the recreational entities of the suburb. Moreover, thehippodrome or the race course, which is recently the Merryland Park, was the meeting point for race goers every Sunday (El-Ghitany, 2005). From a pure national capitalism perspective, the suburb was criticised to be haunted by the colonial character, not open to the indigenous population, creating a voluntarily maintained segregation. The suburb was mainly dominated by foreigners emphasised by its foreign outlook.

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Figure 3: The Political Time Line of Egypt (Gabr, 2010 cited in Ayyad and Gabr, 2012)

Furthermore, its activities also reflected this concern. Excluding classes form certain activities was a symbol of inequality within the society. As for example, while the race course was exclusive to a certain upper social class, people from everywhere used to come and watch it from outside, as they could not afford the price of the tickets (Hussein, 2005). Throughout time, the Heliopolis suburb has been affected by the political, social and economical changes in the Egyptian context, seen in figure (3). Uses of buildings and activities within its different urban spaces had to re-adapt to these changes. As for example, during the Second World War, the Heliopolis Palace Hotel was to be transferred gradually into to a military hospital(Herzog, 2010). Moreover, the pre-revolution era (after 1952) came with very high-beat waves of change within the suburb’s context. Heliopolis Oasis Company (FOC) as many Foreign companies, was to be nationalized and renamed ‘Heliopolis Company for Housing and Development’. Most of the foreign population left the country, and new Egyptian residents from different social classes arrived. New urban development ideologies adopted from Russian socialist models were to be applied within the undeveloped areas (i.e. housing blocks) offering high density residential blocks contradicting the originalEmpians vision. The pre-1950’s not only represented major historic dividing years in the political and economic context of Egyptians, for heliopolitans it reflected a dramatic change in the way their urban spaces were to be managed and administrated. Scholars have tried to document the changes within this pure colonized suburb throughout the dramatic transfer of the political Egyptian context (El-Akkad, 2011). Local residents and visitors describethese changes in their words as follows: “As years passed, the White Tram disappeared, the British had left, and internal migration had increased, bringing into the suburb new social classes with different and unrelated attitudes to our beloved suburb. Three new tramway lines now called the ‘Metro’. During the years, continuous assault has occurred to the gardens and the sidewalks to make way for small commodity stands ‘kiosks’ or parking lots for the increasing number of

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cars. The ground floors of the distinguished, old, spacious buildings have been transformed into all kinds of shops” Following the bold ideologies of nationalization, the nationalized Heliopolis Company based its policies throughout the 1960s on attracting national investment through decreasing the land prices. Activities revolved around economic buildings to serve the masses contributed to the change in the general outlook of Heliopolis. As a result, the empty plots of land, open spaces served widely to achieve the company’s clear policies (e.g. the construction of an entire residential area on area that used to be Heliopolis’s Golf course- Almazah) (Herzog, 2010).

Figure 4:Location Merryland Park in Heliopolis Suburb (Herzog, 2010; Egy, 2013)

Fortunately, the open space of the horse race court was saved from this housing construction invasion. However, the once famous horse race court was to be closed by Nasser’s government. Based on the common view of nationalist, its closure was based on the concept that ‘it does not coincide with our traditions... it is gambling’. As a result, the race course was to be turned into a public park in the early 1960s, seen in figure (4). Designed by the architect, Sayed Ibrahim, the Merryland Park, was to be one of the main open public spaces to entertain residents and visitors. The building that was once King Farouk’s villa where he used to stay and view the races was turned in the park’s Granada casino that stands in front of the park’s main gates. (El-Ghitany, 2005) The beginning of these drastic changes of the initial functions of the area can be considered the main trigger for more transformations on one hand, and the start of gradually erasing the area’s unique identity. The following era of ‘open-door policy (Infitah)during the 1970s and 1980s, the boom in real-estate and the foreign capital that flooded the country, directly added new transformations to the urban fabric, while omitted more from the original identities of its places and spaces (Ayyad andGabr, 2012) By the eighties, Heliopolis Company’s main scope was to raise the margin of its profit from selling land and mainly housing units. Heliopolis was to face the reality of its company. Deterioration along the years has been the main point that many of the old residents and visitors have pointed out, as one resident state: “It is heartbreaking to watch our beloved and well- planned city of Heliopolis has all disappearing under the ongoing slaughter

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by unqualified developers whose only concern is a quick financial return” Engaging with Sadat’s new development polices, especially after the October War, 1972; most of the public open spaces like the Merryland Park were to be promoted as attractive, modern touristic outing sites. Profit from entry tickets, entertainment & recreational activities were considered major revenue. While, this might seem that physically the area that was historically know as the race course area has been from the ongoing transformations surrounding it, but commercializing the park as a touristic entity, while ignoring the history and original identity of the place was of great concern to historians and conservation groups. As a public park, the Merryland managed to gain collective memory for its visitors. Its trees, lush greenery and ponds create a unique and memorable experience. “During the 60’s and 70’s, Cairenes came to enjoy the sun amidst its lush vegetation, paddled in the artificial lake and sipped tea and lemonade at the ‘casino..... children played on the artificial lake, fed the ducks, went for boat-rides, bought balloons at the gate and cried when it was time to leave”‘(ElGhitany, 2005) Heliopolis , like all Egyptian urban areas have had to face the direct effect of successive ideologies, conflicting policies of the changing political, economic and social Egyptian context. Its company that at one point was with high municipal powers, by the 1980’s with the introduction of new laws (i.e. law 3, year 1982), had to hand some of its authorities to the Ministry of Housing and Cairo Governorate. The company’s function has been limited throughout time to dividing land and selling, where it has no longer any executive authority in its area (Herzog, 2010) As Hosni Mubarak comes in to power in 1981 and moves into the suburb, Heliopolis Palace Hotel changes its function once more, to serve as the president’s office. As the power literally transfers to the area, recognizing Heliopolis and its various entities (i.e. buildings and spaces) as a part of local heritage was highly sounded. High class commercial activities, many foreign labels and banks were attracted to relocate in the historic part of Heliopolis, next to the main symbol of power and the essence of history of its old urban environment. Furthermore, law 117, introduced in 1983, emphasised the role of the Council of Antiques (CSA), as the main institution responsible for the heritage preservation, and protection of historic buildings and sites of Heliopolis. CSA had to be consulted first prior to the demolition of any old building in the area. More awareness to the area’s heritage and its incorporation into the urban heritage was achieved especially after an international conference organised by the Aga Khan foundation on Cairo (1984) pinpointed the situation of the 19th and early 20th century heritage(El-Kadi, 2000). However, the market-led attitude towards development, followed by major economic structural reforms aiming to foster the expansion of the private sector to promote investment and growth had obviously added more layers of challenges in the face of any practical steps towards the recognition of the old Heliopolis rich history and heritage. As a mid-way solution to resolve the conflict between continuity and change, the development of urban voidsof this suburb was considered as the only compromise. Privatization of different sites and encouraging the establishment of high class economic activities in the suburb were the main tools to promote Heliopolis as a well-preserved urban heritage site offering a high quality of life to locals, and

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visitors.While a blind eye attitude was given to the attitude towards the open spaces that complement and enrich the urban fabric of any urban heritage. Unfortunately, the Merry land park, with its rich history, after serving as the main attraction point of local tourism and recreation for many of its local residents, it began to gradually deteriorate and went through an accelerated ageing process. By the end of the 1980s, private membership clubs was the substitute for high and middle class local residents to full fill their free-time, sports and recreational needs (i.e. Heliopolis Sporting Club, El- Shams Club, Al- Ghaba Club, Al-Nasr Club...etc). Lower class residents and visitors were left with a poorly managed public park and neglected and deteriorated facilities. One local resident summed up the parks deterioration sarcastically in his words: “If you like wild dogs, mosquitoes and drug dealers, Merryland is the place to go[...]The once ‘merry’ walkways were anything but pleasant, the trees showed signs of neglect, the lush greenery grew wild and dusty, and the ponds filled with weeds. The benches now crumbled and cracked” (Fieldwork 2013) In 1998, Privatization of the park was inevitable. ‘Merryland New Generation’ project, a project co-owned by one of Mubarak’s sons was introduced in the late 1990s to turn the neglected park into an exclusive green spot competing with the surround facilities. Positive as it seems in regenerating a neglected urban site, it totally disrespected the fact that it is a main heritage site. Bypassing laws and regulations to regulate any heritage areas, a large area of the park was aggressively transformed to a high- class exclusive recreational beverage and food outlets, blocking the broad cliental to enter major parts of the park. The privatization of Merryland Park was considered as ‘a very negative example of changes taking place in Heliopolis’ (Herzog, 2010) The old casino was renovated to accommodate several international and national chain restaurants. More cafes and restaurants were added around the old casino. Furthermore, a Dolphin show stadium & aquarium with a capacity of 1000 seats as a part of a children’s amusement area was introduced. This was followed by privatizing more areas of the park to locate additional cafes and restaurants (i.e. TGI Fridays, located at a different section than the old casino area). Getting access to these private areas was a privilege unattained by many middle-class families that find spending a day at the ‘New generation requires an independent budget. This has been summarized by one of surrounding residents as follows: ‘Merryland used to be our favourite picnic area, but most restaurants served expensive dishes and even cafes had a minimum charge of 20 LE. We could not afford to pay LE100 every time for dinner. Then we had to pay the games and dolphin show fees. Not many people could afford this kind of outing on a regular basis” (Fieldwork, 2013) Next to the fenced ‘New Generation’ zone, low- income families spread their sheets on the ground of the public zone of the park with their home-made picnic baskets. Consequently, some improvements were to be observed in this set-aside area; promenades were being paved, seats and benches and fences mended, statues restores and a new lighting system installed. Small kiosks and cafeterias were to provide food and drinks at affordable prices. (El-Ghitany, 2005)

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1960s-1970s

1990s- early 2000s

Present Time

Figure 5: Merryland Park Through Time (from early 1960s till Present)

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By 2010, which could be considered too late for any actions to rescue any previous identity of this historic park, and after realizing the negative effects of the up-beat development on the park and its surrounding environment, a new re-development plan of Merryland was to be thought of. Cairo Governorate and Heliopolis Company had to work on a new vision for the park to limit the physical and social segregation the previous development imposed on the park. It also aimed at decreasing the problems of traffic congestion and noise. The new plan proposed reviving the old 60’s identity the park through its old Casino, and artificial lakes, and decreasing the built-up area of the park to a limited 10% of the parks total area. The project went on to propose a staged cultural park on an area of 3.7 feddan, a revival of the run-down botanical park and plants’ nursery (6.5 feddan), and the development of the restaurant and kids areas. Moreover, recognizing the traffic congestion the previous activities created on the main streets, the new development plans offered underground parking solutions that could accommodate around 200 instead of only 70 cars.(Akhbarway, 2011) Paradoxically, the demolition of many of the unlicensed buildings and activities in the park had started even before this revival plan was approved and licences for new construction obtained. However, the 2011 Egyptian revolution and the period of political, institutional and economic unrest that followed, gave no chance for any revival plans to start. The listed historic park has been left with ruins and traces of a once-aggressive development and a neglected cultural landscape. Figure (5) shows some photos of the Merryland Park through time from the early 1960s till present. The case study of Merryland Park is a clear example of the widening gap between the views and concerns of the different bodies devoted to the protection and preservation of urban heritage and sites on one hand and the practical actions executed by the institutions aiming at addressing the change within its local environment on the other hand. Bodies related to heritage such as the Ministry of Culture (MOC) and its council of Antiquities (SCA) and the national organization of urban harmony have been supported with successive laws in order to maintain the urban heritage. Law 119 introduced in 2008 presented the guidelines and regulations to deal with listed areas, not just buildings. Furthermore, law 114 introduced in 2006 gave the upper hand for these bodies to intervene and supervise any actions when it comes to listed parks, gardens and natural landscape. Looking at the date of these laws, it can noted that these laws came into action ‘very late’ to be able to rescue any of the left cultural environment. While, on the other hand, institutions concerned with local development of Heliopolis suburb (i.e. Cairo Governorate, Heliopolis Company for housing and development) have acted with a blind eye towards the unique historic value and original identity of the park. Successive development plans of the park have boldly developed the place into a recreational outing area and vital economic revenue. Throughout the process of preparation for this paper, documents, and newspaper articles have rarely mentioned that the park is a listed heritage site. Reading the history of the suburb and the changes that occurred to the main sites, especially the Merryland Park, pinpoints the derailment of the development process from the ideal sensitive process of management within heritage areas. Delay in the wide recognition of the site as ‘listed’, passive actions towards negative development within the whole area, are many of the reasons that lead to the recent critical situation of the Park’s cultural landscape. Documenting the recent status of the park; a disappeared lake, neglected green areas, ruins and traces of demolished buildings, and a project that hasn’t started, the Merrylandpark is way too far to be recognized as a listed cultural landscape. Unfortunately, as the development process and management actions of Merryland Park ignored the authenticity and identity of its 301


site, this takes back the entire Egyptian heritage management process to an initial naive conservation scope. The reality is that the process has been confined to the preservation of listed buildings and monuments, while leaving its surrounding environment, sites and spaces vulnerable to face the never ending needs of change and development. Moreover, with great efforts in the 1970s to gain the international community’s recognition and support through the inscribing a number of its monuments and sites on the World Heritage List (WHL), the Egyptian authorities haven’t been sustained by any efforts to promote any of its various historic parks ( El-Kadi, 2001).

5. CONCLUSION It has been a major milestone in the heritage conservation discourse when adding the conservation of complete zones and areas within and around cities to the heritage conservation efforts. This has led to forming a collective front all over the World to conserve heritage landscape within cities. Landscape heritage like Giza plateau of Egypt, Parthenon of Athens and Trafalgar square of London are considered to be of great heritage value that has vivid marks in the lives and memories of city residents. The urban area of Heliopolis is one of the most valuable heritage areas in Cairo, Egypt. Promoted by Baron Empain as one of the first Cairo suburbs, Heliopolis area has a distinctive architecture as well as urban style. It was not only the architecture and urban form of the area that captured the heart and mind of Cairens but rather the special entertainment and outdoor activities and public services. One of such entertainment activities was the horse race course. By the early 1960s, horse racing was relocated and the inner court of the race ring was transformed to a magnificent piece of landscape, Merryland, in the heart of the city suburb at the time. The aim was to provide affordable elegant entertainment and local tourism activities to all social classes. For the following twenty years, Merryland was the centre of entertainment activities not only in Heliopolis area but rather in Greater Cairo Region as a whole. Two generations were raised having the visits to Merryland as part of their lives and regular weekend activities. Major change and deterioration Merryland has started to experience since the early 1980s when some investment activities were promoted by the government at the time. The aim was to produce more and more revenue for the state and continued to be the aim till this very date. Such activities (i.e. expansion of tourism activities and later on knocking down all building on site apart from the old casino paving the way for a new development) had major impact on the memories and part of identities of Heliopolis residents. After was being considered as a major source of joy and happiness it turned to be a subject that causes more and more stress and sadness.It can be fairly said that Merryland was caught in the middle of a classic conflict between urban development, tourism and heritage conservation and the looser of this conflict was eventually heritage conservation by far.

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6. REFERENCES Agha EbrahimiSamani, F. et al (2012), Conservation of Historic Urban Landscape: in the context of Dynamic Landscape Vision, International Journal on Technical and Physical Problems of Engineering, 12 (4), pp: 89-94 Akhbarway (2001), June: the opening of Merryland Park, Heliopolis, retrieved from http://economy.akhbarway.com/news.asp?c=2&id=123733 on 6, June, 20013 Anschuetz K F, et al (2001) An Archaeology of Landscapes: Perspectives and Directions, Journal of Archaeological Research 9(2), pp 157 – 211 Ayyad, K. &Gabr, M. (2012) Social Influence on Architectural Styles in Egypt (1952-2012), Sustainable futures: Architecture and Urbanism in the Global South, Kampala, Uganda, 27-30 June 2012 Cleere, H (1995) Cultural Landscapes as World Heritage, Conservation and Management of Archaeological Sites Vol.1, 63-68. El-Akkad, F. (2011), Street Smart: Heliopolis, a walk to remember, retrieved from http://english.ahram.org.eg/News/26947.aspx, on May 24, 2013 ElGhitany, M. (2005), A Place for everyone, retrieved from http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2005/745/fe1.htm, on may, 15, 2013 El-Kadi, G. (2001), HERCOMANES: Heritage Conservation and Management in Egypt and Syria, retrieved from http:// www.hercomanes.com on March 11, 2004 Fahmi, W. (2011), Sustainable Tourism and Rehabilitation of Cairo’s Historic Districts: The case of the Bazaar Area and the Cities of Dead, 2nd World Sustainability Forum, 1-30 November 2012 Herzog,J. (2010), ‘Heliopolis: City in a city, ETH Studio Basel Hussien, D. and Attalah, L. (2005), A Brave New City, Heliopolis: Place, Business and People, Economic and Business History Research Centre, The American University in Cairo, MESA Khanna, N. (2006), Cultural Landscapes: An approach to Heritage Management in India, 9th US/ICOMOS International Symposium, April 19 - 23, 2006, Newport, Rhode Island. Mitra, V. (2009) Conservation of the Urban Identity: Part 1: Urban architecture, retrieved from http://www.sramanamitra.com/2009/11/01/conservation-of-the-urban-identity, April 23, 2013 Nasser, N. (2003), Planning For Urban Heritage Places: Reconciling Conservation, Tourism, and Sustainable Development, Journal of Planning Literature 17(4), pp:267-279 Ouf, A., (2001), Authenticity and the Sense of Place in Urban Design, Journal of Urban Design 6(1), pp: 73-86 Owen, Roger, “The Cairo Building Industry and the Building Boom of 1897 to 1907" in ColloqueInternational surl'Histoire du Caire: 27 Mars5Avril 1969. Ministere de la Culture: Cairo, 1972.p.337. Pereira, H. N. (2007) Contemporary trends in conservation: Culturalization, significance and sustainability. City & Time 3 (2), retrieved from http://www.ct.ceci-br.org, on 20 May, 2013 Rabbat, N. (2004), A Brief History of Green Spaces in Cairo: Revitalising a Historic Metropolis. (Stefano Bianca and Philip Jodidio, eds.) Turin: Umberto Allemandi& C. for Aga Khan Trust for Culture, 43-53, Cairo 303


Shetawy, A and El Khateeb, S. (2008) The pyramids plateau: A dream searching for survival, Tourism Management xxx (2009), pp: 1-9 Steinberg, F. (1996), Conservation and Rehabilitation of Urban Heritage in Developing Countries, Habibat International 20 (3), pp: 463-475 Titchen, S and Rossler, M (1995) Tentative Lists as a Tool for Landscape Classification and Protectionin Droste, B et al (eds.)Cultural Landscapes of Universal Value, pp:420-429. Stuttgart: Jena, Gustav Fischer Verlag. UNESCO (2002)A proposed framework for the development of joint cooperation on nature conservation and sustainable tourism at World Heritage Natural sites between the tourism industry and the UNESCO, World Heritage Centre. Zancheti, M &Jokilehto, J, (1997), Values and Urban Conservation Planning: Some reflections on Principles and Definitions, Journal of Architectural conservation, retrieved from http:// www.urbanconservation.org/textos/values.htm

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© SB13-Cairo 2013 Connecting Cairo to the Nile G.M. Kondolf et al.

Connecting Cairo to the Nile: Opportunities for Public Access and Alternative Transportation G.M. Kondolf, R. Marzion, L. Mozingo, K. Balakrishnan, and A. Gohar University of California, Berkeley Department of Landscape Architecture and Environmental Planning Berkeley, California, USA e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract: If Egypt is ‘the gift of the Nile’, certainly the Nile is the heart of Cairo, Egypt’s greatest city. Ironically, however, over the 20th century, the Nile became inaccessible to ordinary Cairenes along most of its banks, which are now occupied by private clubs, restaurants, hotels, police and military installations, and other uses off-limits to the public. Cairo’s densely-packed inhabitants face a severe lack of public open space. The few points of access to the river (including bridges) are heavily used. Elsewhere, we see the world’s great cities are increasingly developing their waterfront as great public spaces and building continuous trails that serve as alternative transportation routes. What is the potential for Cairo to reconnect with its river? As an initial step, we explored whether it would be feasible to complete a continuous bankside trail along the Nile from Maadi to the city centre, to improve lateral connections from the river to nearby neighborhoods, cultural sites, and metro stations, and to expand ferry service on the river. In a collaboration between Cairo University, American University Cairo, and University of California, Berkeley, 23 faculty and students systematically surveyed 12 km of the east bank of the Nile from Maadi to the city centre, measuring river-bank topography, recording adjacent building heights and conditions, and assessing existing and potential connections to adjacent neighborhoods, cultural sites, and transit nodes. Based on these data, the team developed plans for a continuous bankside trail (from Maadi to Tahrir Square) and expanded ferry service, and illustrated the potential for connecting adjacent parts of the city to the river with detailed plans for Old Cairo and Athur El Nabi neighborhoods. Our field data and analysis demonstrate that a continuous trail is feasible, as is a series of riverside parks. Our results demonstrate that significant benefits could accrue from increased access to the waterfront, environmental improvements, pedestrian pathways, and attractive public spaces. Next steps would involve community, stakeholder, and landowner outreach, and development of detailed plans to implement the vision. Reclaiming the banks of the Nile for the people of Cairo will provide much needed green space and make the river once again the heart of a dynamic and richly-textured city. Keywords: Cairo, Nile River, public access, river restoration, urban rivers

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1.

INTRODUCTION

As the largest city in Africa and the Middle East, Cairo struggles with increasing urbanization, traffic congestion, a large informal housing sector, and inefficient planning entities strategies. Located on the Nile River 150 km south of the Mediterranean Sea, just upstream of the Delta, Cairo has historically relied upon the Nile for recreation, commerce activities, and transportation. Throughout history, “Corniche Al-Nil,” the wide boulevard running alongside the Nile, has played a central role in transportation along the river corridor, and currently serves as the primary north-south artery for Cairo’s congested traffic. The Corniche is also the site of private hotels, businesses and industrial facilities, deteriorating and inadequate pedestrian promenades, informal housing settlements, and dilapidated ferry stops. In recent years, the city has effectively been cut off from the Nile by barriers such as heavy Corniche traffic, metro rail lines running parallel to the river, and the growth of private establishments along the river banks. Remaining public stretches of the river are plagued by trash, litter, debris, and other forms of human waste. In spite of degraded river conditions, however, city residents continue to flock to the Nile’s riverbanks and its overcrowded ferry platforms. Ferries teeming with people and their market purchases, and heavy public use of the remaining accessible short reaches of bank demonstrate the tremendous potential for a riverside trail and increased use as a transportation corridor. Although certain existing planning proposals envision a revitalized central Cairo (e.g., the Cairo 2050 plan), these plans have yet to capitalize on the Nile’s potential as a central, unifying resource, or to consider opportunities for recreational benefits and traffic alleviation. Little has been published about existing conditions of the Nile’s urban waterfront or its potential for revitalization (Gabr 2004) even though its banks and traffic-congested bridges are regularly occupied by people seeking out some form of public space for congregating, socializing, and recreating. In this study, we undertook a systematic evaluation of current conditions of land use and river bank characteristics, as well as existing circulation routes, to inform plans for a revitalized Nile as a cornerstone of urban improvements in Cairo. Students and faculty from three institutions worked collaboratively in teams to complete synoptic field documentation of conditions along a 12-km stretch of the Nile banks in central Cairo, to analyze circulation patterns, and to develop a strategic plan for a longitudinally continuous trail network and improved ferry transportation system. We presented our results to the academic community, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), local residents, and the central government.

2. LITERATURE REVIEW As many urban waterfronts around the world de-industrialize, cities in Europe, North America, and increasingly, Asia, have redeveloped these formerly important city centres as districts for leisure, capitalizing on opportunities to provide open space and alternative commuting routes along riverbanks, bringing residents and visitors back to the waterfronts (Breen and Rigby, 1993; Breen and Rigby, 1996; Marshall, 2001; Souers and Otto, 2005; Kibel, 2007). These revitalized waterfronts provide recreational opportunities, green space, and transportation corridors for residents of dense, crowded cities. In each of these examples, the city’s waterfront is perceived as an essential element of urban vitality, and often includes riverside trails linking 306


the city centre with nearby neighborhoods (Otto, 2004; Graham et al, 2000). Specific restoration and revitalization methods from many precedent cities are directly applicable to a potential revitalization of Cairo’s waterfront (Table 1). Table 1: Precedent cities with urban waterfront revitalization strategies relevant to the Nile River waterfront in Cairo. City Melbourne, Australia Munich, Germany

Bangkok, Thailand London, England

Description Pedestrian promenades along the Yarra River provide public access to a waterway formerly severed from the city by railway tracks (Dovey 2005). Formerly channelized sections of the Isar River in the city center have been reconnected to the floodplain; riverbanks and trails have made easily accessible to city residents (Neruda et al 2012). A water taxi commuter service on the Chao Phraya River provides city residents with an alternative to driving in Bangkok (Salter 2011). The Thames River, declared “biologically dead” in the 1950’s, now supports an aquatic ecosystem and attracts numerous visitors to the waterfront for socializing, walking, recreation, and art or cultural exhibitions (Francis et al. 2008).

Minimal research exists on the potential of the Nile waterfront to provide such benefits specifically for the city of Cairo. Gabr (2004) provides some indication of Nile user preferences by having subjects (i.e., users of the river banks) rank photographic images of various river bank treatments. The preferred attributes included picturesqueness, neatness (evidence of care for the site), and proximity to the water. Subjects reported psychological benefits and physical comfort (e.g., the river breeze) as reasons for visiting the river banks. Gabr’s results are consistent with studies from other cities, which cite the large-scale benefits of river restoration and public access to waterfronts (e.g., Marshall 2001; Tunstall et al 2000), and support the notion that Cairo, too, would benefit from opening its waterfront to citizens and visitors.

3. METHODS To assess potential for a continuous Nile waterfront trail, expanded ferry system, and increased open space along the waterfront, we researched Nile history and hydrology, and compiled examples of precedent revitalized urban waterfront cities that have opportunities and constraints comparable to the opportunities and constraints we observed in Cairo. At representative crosssection locations throughout a 12-km reach of the Nile in central Cairo, we measured widths of existing flood plains and sidewalks, identified current land uses on the flood plains, and examined current circulation patterns. Four teams (each consisting of 4-6 students and faculty) focused on one of four subreaches for detailed field observations along the river’s east bank and portions of four islands (Roda, Zamalek, Dahab, and “canal” islands) (Figure 1).

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Figure 1: Four study reaches along the Nile River in central Cairo (Kondolf et al 2011)

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We also measured airborne particulate matter at selected locations along the Corniche to assess air quality and determine if gradients were measurable from the waters edge and riverbank top to the center of the Corniche. Following field data collection, teams reconvened at AUC to assemble data, discuss findings, conduct opportunities and constraints analyses, and present results for each subreach to the larger research group. Students generated maps and figures to document and communicate each category of collected data, and to assess potential for placement of a riverside trail. We then created a conceptual strategic plan for a riverfront trail, highlighting potential opportunities reduce traffic congestion, and to reestablish historical connections between the Nile and Egyptian communities.

4. RESULTS Cross-section measurements of sidewalk and inset floodplain widths demonstrate that space exists for a riverside pedestrian and bicycle trail. Low, wide flood plains along much of the Nile bank (5-30m wide and 2-4m above river level) hold potential to be reconfigured into accessible and active public spaces (Figure 2). Air quality measurements along the river bank showed that particulate matter levels along the flood plain were on average 30% lower than street level measurements. The presence of historic landmarks and tourist attractions along the Nile provides significant opportunities to connect urban revitalization and economic development. Many of the currently degraded waterfront locations provide exceptional views of the Nile and Pyramids of Giza; strategic interventions could transform these locations into pedestrian promenades and plazas. Vacant lots along the Corniche provide opportunities for improved open space connectivity. Visible public interest in the existing, limited ferry routes along the river illustrates potential for the Nile to function as a significant public transportation corridor (Figure 3).

Figure 2: A cross-section diagram shows the width of a typical inset floodplain along the Corniche in central Cairo (Krishna Balakrishnan, 2011).

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Figure 3: Existing ferry terminals in central Cairo are frequently used and overcrowded in spite of dilapidated structural conditions (Rachael Marzion, 2011)

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Building on the identified opportunities and challenges, our strategic plan proposes to establish a continuous pedestrian and bicycle trail running north to south along the right bank of the Nile (Figures 4-6), beginning with the reach from the central business district to the suburb of Maadi, but eventually such a trail should extend along the entire Nile in greater Cairo and could be linked to other areas through a greenway network. The plan also calls for expansion and upgrading of the ferry system expansion along the Nile. The river effectively provides a natural transit corridor through the congested city centre. Only six dilapidated ferry stops now exist (five on the east bank, one on the west bank). The proposed system incorporates greater east-west connectivity across the Nile, and adds an express commuting service that runs north to south. The strategic plan design takes advantage of existing infrastructure, such as discontinuous pedestrian promenades and sidewalks, by linking them to the trail. Most existing Metro stops lie within 500 m of the proposed trail location along the bank, facilitating pedestrian access from the proposed trail to many areas of the city. The plan’s east-west trail connections link cultural, touristic, commercial, and civic centres with existing and proposed multi-modal transit centers. In the cultural district, for example, the trail network opens in certain locations to accommodate gatherings for concerts and other events. In the business district, light structural development provides space for vendors and outdoor markets along the waterfront. In the historical district, open space along the trail accommodates religious gatherings. By situating the trail on the former flood plain (i.e., at a lower elevation than the roads), the strategic plan promotes public health by reducing pedestrian exposure to traffic-related pollutants, and by reducing overall automobile traffic.

Figure 4: View of the Nile River corridor in central Cairo showing (from left to right) the Corniche, vegetated flood plain with space for a riverfront trail, and Nile main channel (G. Mathias Kondolf, 2011)

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Figure 5: Existing pedestrian zones along the riverfront (left) and proposed continuous trail (right) (Kondolf et al 2011)

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Figure 6: Existing green spaces (left) and proposed green spaces with improved waterfront connectivity (right) (Kondolf et al, 2011)

The full document is available online at: http://laep.ced.berkeley.edu/research/cairo/publication/

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5. DISCUSSION The basis of our strategy is to re-conceive the river as an essential component of civic improvements, especially with respect to pedestrian and commuter circulation patterns in Cairo. Because of historical hydrologic modifications of the Nile, investments in public access, recreation, transportation, and economic development can occur along the river with more predictable outcomes than usually associated with a river of this scale. Although the historical hydrologic modification has altered its original ecological conditions, the low floodplains that are now above water year-round present significant opportunities in the context of urban design and planning. The Nile and its river edge have the potential to alleviate some of the overwhelming traffic congestion of central Cairo, by providing alternative, more sustainable means of north-south movement through the city. The Nile has a wide, serene expanse perfect for an expanded, robust, and reliable ferry system to move large numbers of people quickly and efficiently. Our preliminary studies show that the Nile edge—the ample cross section of the right-of-way between the first row of buildings and the water’s edge—has significant capacity to provide other means of movement along the Nile rather than just automobiles through reconfiguration of the existing roadways, sidewalks, and embankments. Pedestrians and bicycles can have their own thoroughfares to provide safe and pleasant non-automobile routes through the city. Cities with revitalized post-industrial waterfronts often use the river corridor as a backbone for extended east-west bicycle and pedestrian routes through the city. The Nile corridor can serve as this backbone for Cairo, while also providing refuge from some of the street-level air pollution. Similar to precedent cities, a revitalized waterfront in Cairo could provide access to open space and enable residents to establish personal connections to the river. The potential construction of pedestrian paths through, alongside, or between the existing nurseries that are prevalent alongside the river, provide clear opportunities for city residents to access existing vegetated areas alongside large stretches of the waterfront. Ecologically restored sections could provide both access and education about the Nile’s potential. Increased connection to the river and environmental awareness could result in motivation to protect the river from further environmental degradation. Based on the experience of city dwellers around the world, longterm watershed planning requires community involvement and ownership (McGinnis et al 1999). As citizens become invested in the Nile’s health, water quality might improve and the preponderance of trash currently lining the riverbanks could gradually decrease.

6. CONCLUSION With its Mediterranean climate, rich culture and history, vibrant urban life, and tradition of leadership in the Arab world, Cairo is well-positioned to contribute new solutions to urban problems. Our analysis demonstrates the tremendous potential of the Nile as a fundamental, unifying structure in the regeneration of Cairo’s civic spaces and urban environmental improvements. In a new period in history, it can serve the city’s citizens in ways that can transform everyday urban experiences for the better. Around the world, urban rivers that seemed to be in a hopelessly degraded state have been brought to fresh social, economic, and environmental vitality by incremental yet persistent improvement, usually over decades. The Nile can be a global model for a river renewed, a reflection of a city and nation meeting the challenges of the future. 314


7. REFERENCES Breen, A., & Rigby, D. (1993). Waterfronts : cities reclaim their edge. New York: McGraw-Hill. Breen, A., & Rigby, D. (1996). The new waterfront : a worldwide urban success story. New York: McGraw-Hill. Dovey, K. (2005). Fluid city: transforming Melbourne's urban waterfront. Sydney, NSW, Australia, University of New South Wales Press. Francis, R. A., Hoggart, S. P. G., Gurnell, A. M., & Coode, C. (2008). Meeting the challenges of urban river habitat restoration: developing a methodology for the River Thames through central London. Area 40(4), 435–445. Gabr, H. S. (2004). Perception of urban waterfront aesthetics along the Nile in Cairo, Egypt. Coastal management 32(2), 155–171. Graham, B, Ashworth, G J, and Tunbridge, J E. 2000. A Geography of Heritage – Power, Culture and Economy. London: Arnold. Kibel, P. S. (2007). Rivertown: rethinking urban rivers. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press. Kondolf GM, et al. (2011). Connecting Cairo to the Nile: Renewing life and heritage on the river. Institute of Urban and Regional Development Working Paper No. 2011-007. University of California, Berkeley. http://laep.ced.berkeley.edu/research/cairo/publication/ Marshall, R. (2001). Waterfronts in post industrial cities. London, Spon Press. McGinnis, M. V., Woolley, J., & Gamman, J. (1999). Bioregional conflict resolution: rebuilding community in watershed planning and organizing. Environmental Management, 24(1), 1– 12. Neruda, M., Tichonova, I., & Kramer, D. (2012). Theoretical and Practical Aspects of Rivers Revitalization. Journal of Earth Science and Engineering 2(3), 145-154. Otto, B., McCormick, K., & Leccese, M. (2004). Ecological riverfront design: restoring rivers, connecting communities. American Planning Association. Salter, Robert. (2011). Description of Concrete Mitigation Technologies and Practices in the Transport Sector: Low Carbon Air and Water Transport: Water Transport, in Salter, R. and Dhar, S. and Newman, P. (ed), Technologies for Climate Change Mitigation: Transport Sector. pp. 188-199. Roskilde, Denmark: UNEP Riso Centre. Souers, A., & Otto, B. (2005). Restoring rivers within city limits. Open Space Quarterly. Tunstall, S. M., Penning-Rowsell, E. C., Tapsell, S. M. and Eden, S. E. (2000), River Restoration: Public Attitudes and Expectations. Water and Environment Journal 14: 363– 370.

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© SB13-Cairo 2013 Egypt; Nile Island Heterotopias Fouad, H., Redeke,. C. and Aly, M.

Egypt; Nile Island Heterotopias: Urban Agriculture potentials vs Urban Sprawl

Fouad, H.1, Redeker, C2 and Aly, M.3 1

German University Cairo, Department of Architecture and Urban Design New Cairo City, Main Entrance El Tagamoa El Khames, Egypt e-mail: [email protected]

2


3

American University in Cairo, Department of Construction and Architectural Engineering AUC Avenue, P.O. Box 74, New Cairo, Egypt., Egypt e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract: If 700m2 of cultivated land is needed to feed one inhabitant, Egypt needs to increase its cultivated area by 60% only to feed its current population of 83 million inhabitants. The arable Nile valley, the delta and the Nile islands represent only 3.5% of the total area of Egypt whereas the rest is mainly deserted. In this context urban agriculture can provide a set of sensibilities and practices to trigger sustainable urban development. Starting from a macro-definition of existing potentials and problems, three scales are investigated to understand the complexity of urban agriculture as an urban process. On the river scale a total of 105 islands were surveyed to illustrate the impact of on-going urbanization processes on agricultural land using ArcGIS, Google Earth and through selective site visits. Secondly, the comparative analysis of islands in Cairo highlights different situations within the same urban context. Finally, the so far minimally urbanized Dahab Island in Cairo, serve as case studies. Strategic design interventions on multiple scales are proposed to study and promote urban agricultural practices as a means to combat further urbanization. The tactical interventions aim to exemplify the practice of urban agriculture throughout the Nile valley, delta and on the islands to retrofit an existing urban conditions and to promote sustainable development for the unpopulated islands. Further research of the socio-economic aspects related to urban agriculture within the same context of the Nile islands is highly recommended.

Keywords: Nile River Islands, Urban Agriculture, Urban Sprawl, Sustainable Development

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1.

INTRODUCTION

1.1.

Urban age

Thousands years ago, humans were hunter-gatherers who moved searching for their food sources. With the discovery of agriculture permanent settlements emerged and, later imperial cities were found. Since then, "Urban Areas" which could be identified as areas of high population density, but could vary from one city to another, and man-made features are widely spread.. All attempts to prevent or slow the growth in the world's cities have failed. The Urban Age has started. An age which surpasses our limited global resources, leading us to assume that less people in rural areas will be responsible for sustaining, i.e. providing food, more people living within urban context. The prevailing conventions of both architectural and urban practices have demonstrated a limited capacity to respond to the scale of the current ecological crisis. For decades now, many critical situations related to different aspects of our "Urban Age" indicate the difficulties that face us and our environment. Because of this rapid "Urbanization" process which surpasses our limited global resources, many sustainable and ecological design strategies have appeared calling for "Sustainable development". Most of these strategies were mainly concerned with specific issues which are limited to the architectural project and not with the wider issues of our cities and its infrastructure. The "urban" with its complexity is in need for, not only a normative "urban ideal" but a multiple yet a highly focused strategy to resolve the relation between our natural environment and the built one. (Mostafavi and Doherty, 2010) In this context urban agriculture can be seen as a means of providing a set of sensibilities and practices that can help enhance our approaches to sustainable urban development. This utilizes a multiplicity of old and new methods, tools and techniques in a cross disciplinary and collaborative approach towards urbanism developed through the lens of ecology. These landscape practices shall address the retrofitting of existing urban conditions as well as our plans for the cities of the future. There are many ideas these days about how to enhance the status of our urban life. These ideas associated with terms such as ecological urbanism, sustainability, or smart growth; seek to reorient the urban policies to limit cities' impact on the natural resources. 1.2.

Urbanized Nile Valley/Islands

If 700m2 of cultivated land is needed to feed one inhabitant, Egypt needs to increase the cultivated area by 60% in order to feed the current population of 85 Million inhabitants. The arable lands represent 3.5% of the total area of Egypt where the rest is mainly deserted (Tamburelli, et al., 2009). This tiny percentage represents the Nile valley, delta and Nile islands. The density of Egypt's population in the River Nile valley varies in different resources but ranges around 2000 person/km2 (see fig.1) considered one of the highest in comparison to other countries. This high density is a reflection of the massive increase in population with a growth rate of 1.96%, and historically having a predominantly rural population where the percentage of rural inhabitants estimated at about 58% (World Factbook, 2011). Within same context, Cairo receives 60 percent of all rural-urban migration, swelling by 150,000 migrants annually (serageldin. M, 1979), facing one of the highest population densities world-wide around 32,000 person/km2 whereas in some neighbourhoods more than 100,000 people live on one square kilometre (Gertel and Samir, 1999). When the economic situation and the conditions of urban/rural poverty are considered the remarkable significance of the problem of urban sprawl over agriculture and food production is revealed. "Urbanization of agricultural land was the result 317


of a horizontal extension of villages surrounding the capital, combined with a form of urbanization from the city of Cairo itself. In spite of the good productivity of agricultural land, their sale for building was more remunerative than the revenues from farming, a fact that encouraged farmers to sell their parcels (Al-Kadi, 1987)" (Kipper and Fischer, 2009) In such an overpopulated environment lacking services and facing severe economic problems, in addition to the erosion of agricultural lands due to inconvenient agricultural techniques and urban sprawl, Nile islands did neither receive adequate studies to highlight the potentials of its natural resources, nor were adequate developing efforts done to improve its local society, intentionally - or not- forgotten Heterotopias (Farag and El-Alfy, 2013).

Figure 8: Comapring Nile Valley Density internationally (Tamburelli, et al., 2009)

This paper is a part of an intended long term research project to document the current status of the Nile islands starting from Cairo north reaching Aswan south, meanwhile developing strategic sustainable approaches to upgrade these islands with respect to its ecological value. The objective of this study is to explore the potentials of Nile islands as green natural entities opposing the exponential increase of urban sprawl, and the possibilities of preserving the existing agricultural practices within dense urban contexts. In addition to highlighting the different possible practices of urban agriculture throughout the Nile islands (Cairo to Aswan) in order to retrofit an existing urban condition or for future sustainable development of other unpopulated islands. 318


LITERATURE REVIEW

2.

2.1.

Urban agriculture

Because of the history of agriculture in the European context, many people consider agriculture and the city as separate and distinct, but this has never reflected reality. Urban agriculture has always existed. Just as settlement patterns rely on good arable land in order to secure a nearby productive food source, as cities grow, their footprint paves over agricultural land. Therefore, a city’s expansion means there is an ongoing need for more sources of food. The classic and widely used definition of UA (Mougeot, 2000); "Urban Agriculture is an industry located within (intra-urban) of a town, or on the fringe (peri-urban) of a town, a city or a metropolis, which grows and raises, processes and distributes a diversity of food and non-food products, (re)using largely human and material resources, products and services found in and around that urban area, and in turn supplying human and materials resources, products and services largely to that urban area". The definition tackles three main key concepts; first, considering urban agriculture as an industry refers to the complexity and the need for integrating several stakeholders to coproduce an efficient cycle of food production. Second, specifying the location of the practices being within the border of a city/town, which brings to the fore the issue of saving transportation energy from and to the city in comparison with rural agricultural practices. Finally, highlighting biodiversity and recycling to ensure the role of urban agriculture in enhancing the quality of urban life. In 2000 appeared the first, formally recognized by Food and Agriculture organization (FAO), roof gardens project in Egypt, which is considered one major practice of urban agriculture on the domestic scale. The project was initiated under the leadership of the Research Unit for Agricultural Lands and Ain Shams University, in collaboration with several local NGOs. The positives of the “Green Food from Green Roofs” project in Cairo could be summarized as: -

Micro/Roof-gardens are a suitable alternative to keeping poultry on houses’ roofs, a traditional practice in Cairo.

-

Producing crops for domestic uses, to decrease the food expenses.

-

Micro/Roof-gardens offer families new opportunities to live on the roofs in a fresh and green environment, instead of neglecting this valuable space and filling it with hundreds of satellites and wasted materials.

-

Home based investment offering an income for unemployed housewives.

Succeeding this experience another initiative organized through civil society NGO “Sunaa AlHayah” or (Life Makers) succeeded in installing several productive green roof tops on top of both residential and institutional buildings, i.e. schools. All these initiatives came to an end within few years or even months due to the lack of official and formal support from the government. Not till recently, this form of initiatives are being reformed as profitable business such as “Schaduf” company which aims to move low income individuals out of poverty by providing them with the opportunity to own rooftop farms using micro-finance systems.

2.2.

Nile islands; formal and informal visions

Due to several political, economic and environmental limitations the Nile islands in Egypt currently represent a strong evident existence of urban agriculture within most of the cities on 319


the Nile waterfront. Although the decision of the Prime minister No. 1969 of 1998 had identified the 144 islands within Egypt as natural reserves or protected area which are defined as "any area of land or coastal or inland water characterized by special flora, fauna and natural features having cultural, scientific, tourism or aesthetic value" (Farag and El-Alfy, 2013), the formal governmental plans represented through new planning visions of “Cairo 2050” identified "Waraa" and "Dahab" islands which lie within the greater Cairo region as an ideal location for a large new recreational zone. Including mixed use and touristic high rises, clamming to bring green to polluted and congested central Cairo. Similarly, private investors are keen to transform the island into new residential and business quarters due to its high land value. Meanwhile, the current inhabitants are not only continuously building their own informal residential buildings burying parcels of the most fertile lands in the Nile basin, but also fighting to resist these futuristic visions which would at least mean their eviction from the islands. Their fears were transferred to a wider portion of the civil society and recently became the focus of several NGOs and even international educational/research institutions. Several documentaries were filmed on the islands declaring the local community needs for development without being evicted from the middle of the Nile to remote desert cities. Publicity campaigns became a source of funding for some initiatives to develop these rural islands within Cairo greater region.

3. METHODOLOGY AND FRAMEWORK To understand the complexity of urban agriculture in terms of an urban process, a multi-scalar framework is proposed (see fig. 2); starting from a macro scale which primarily defines the existing potentials and threats. The proceeding level is meant to analyze Cairo islands to highlight different situations of the agricultural lands in relevance to urban sprawl within the same urban context. Finally, identify the peri-urban Dahab Island as a specific case study to propose a strategic sustainable urban development, through discussing different scales and interventions of urban agriculture.

Figure 2: Proposed Framework; Multi-scalar approach (Fouad. H et al., 2013) 320


3.1.

Nile Scale

The main objective of this survey is to illustrate the current status of the islands and enclose an overview on the environmental and economic potentials of the islands. Several aspects were pointed to demonstrate the impact of urbanization process on the islands. Unfortunately a good deal of the information in circulation addressing Nile islands not all trustworthy and contradict by source. Where Central Facility for Mobilization and Statistics (CFMS) had estimated the islands number by about 163 islands, in the reports of Nile Research Institute (NRI) the number became 128 islands, whereas the General Authority for Survey (GAS) had estimated the number to increase to 181 islands, the Land and Water Research Institute(LWRI) has estimated the number of islands by about 209 islands, the Ministry of Water Resources had reported that the number is 197 islands, while the decision of the Prime Minister No. 1969 of 1998 had identified 144 islands. These islands are located in 16 governorates, namely as follows: Aswan- Quena- Sohag- Assuit-Minya- Beni Suef- Giza- CairoQualyoubbeya - Menouffeya- Gharbbeya- Kafr El-Sheikh- Behaira- Dakahlleya- LuxorDamietta. (Farag and El-Alfy, 2013). Important to note, that counting the Nile islands shall vary in relevance to the flooding seasons, because several islands gets either partially or completely submerged during high flooding seasons. A total of 105 islands (see table 1); excluding ones in the delta region, were surveyed using ArcGIS, Google Earth and selective site visits. Where only two islands out of the total survyed islands are currently completely urbanized and those are the ones located within the administrative borders of Cairo greater region.

Figure 4: Percentages of Landoccupation (Fouad. H et al., 2013)

Figure 3: No. of islands Vs Surveying Criteria (Fouad. H et al., 2013)

The numbers and statistics mentioned above (fig. 3 and 4) are based only on Google Earth and ArcGIS maps, and few selective site visits within greater Cairo region. Nevertheless, this primary survey highlighted several potential uses such as; agriculture practices spread widely, tourism facilities especially in southern Islands, fish farming, few public gardens and natural wetland peripheries. On the other hand, car accessibility indicated spread of urban settlements, most of the islands are partially submerged during high flooding seasons which limits the agricultural production, and no existence for formal/planned ferries (also see Environmental problems of Nile islands; Farag and El-Alfy, 2013).

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Islands Projection

Car Accessibility

Hotel

Village

Fish Farms

Wet Lands

Built area

Rocks

BrownField

Unused

Green Field

Greenhouse

Traditional

Agriculture

Public Garden

Table 1: Surveyed Nile islands ; Cairo to Aswan (Fouad. H et al., 2013)

Nile Islands (from Cairo to Aswan)

Cairo

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3.2.

City Scale; Cairo Islands

Les s

Accessibility

More

El Waraa island

2.

El Zamalek Island

Less

Distance from City center

3.

El Rowda island

4.

El Dahab island

More

Less

Les s

Les s

Agriculture

Agriculture

More

More

Less

1.

Les s

Agriculture

Agriculture

More

More

From these four main islands, put in order Waraa to north and Dahab to south (see fig.5), lying within the administrative borders of greater Cairo region, the urban history of Cairo can be read. For the first period in the history, it can be seen from Rawda how the city grew since the seventh century, from the moment the first bridge was realised, farmers started to settle on the islands. Zamalek was urbanized since 1800s, started with few villas because by then its was still seasonally flooded which limited the inhabited areas and also reflects later the transformation through modernization according to the masterplan in Khedive Isma'il era where Zamalek was connected to downtown with bridges crossing the Nile East . Dahab and Waraa close off the urban history; these two islands along with few smaller ones are still preserving its agricultural productivity beside recent rural settlements with no urbanization as the situation on Zamalek and Rawda (Studio-Basel, 2010).

Environmental Delight

More

Less

Social Class

Figure 5: Comparative Analysis of Cairo Islands (Fouad. H et al., 2013)

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More


This historical background indicates several factors which either supported or blocked the process of urbanization on the islands within greater Cairo. Bridges, either pedestrian or vehicular connecting islands to the city attracts inhabitants to settle on the islands. On the other side the seasonal flooding mechanism used to block the emergence of permanent settlements, the situation which Dahab reflects as it was only inhabited since the realisation of the Aswan Low Dam in 1902 (Studio-Basel, 2010). Political visions claimed as plans of development had, is currently and probably will affect the urban growth on islands. Khedive Ismail inspired by European cities, enforced a major shift in the urban history of Cairo and consequently Zamalek after connecting it with the "Modernized" downtown. Although Zamalek was completely urbanized since seventeenth century, yet preserves quite a high quality of environmental delight in comparison to Rawda Island due to the presence of AlJazeera club which had a historical background since the colonial period. Unfortunately, the club access is restricted to its exclusive members who represent the higher social class of the community. The comparison (see fig.5) illustrates the direct relationship between the distance between the city center and the island, where land price increase in favour of construction investments and agriculture shrinks. Whereas accessibility is clearly inversely proportional to the existence of agriculture on the islands, as mentioned earlier bridges does support the urbanization process of the islands. 3.3.

Case Study: Dahab Island, Village within metropolis

3.3.1.

Status quo

Dahab Nile Island (see Image 1) is located within the margin of the city center - Cairo. According to earlier outdated references from GOPP approximately 5400 inhabitants reside on the island, mainly farmers. The same reference reported the absence of almost all infrastructure facilities including; water supply, water drainage, electricity, paved roads, and barely one elementary school with one classroom. Dahab can only be accessed by felukah (traditional boat), owned by private investors. Agricultural lands occupies more than 70% of the total area of the island while built areas represents only 7 % (see fig. 6), based on Google Earth images 2012.

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Image 1: Dahab Island within context, ring road crossing over (Google Earth, 2012)

Figure 6: Dahab Island; Percentages of land occupation / total area (Fouad. H et al., 2013)

3.3.2.

Proposed strategy; Urban Agriculture practices

The proposed strategy tackles different scales of interventions, were the island was divided into three main zones responding to the morphology of the island;

The first zone, dedicated to dense investments south and north the island. Where vacant brown-fields replaced with high rise investments and other vacant green-fields are replaced public allotments based on the British experience.

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The second zone forms the linear edges of the island. Public promenades, fish-farming (integrated with existing wetlands), food markets, and ferry stops. The third zone represents the main body of the island, were public facilities and infrastructure shall be located.

4. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION Figure 7: Partial view of the proposed strategy - South Dahab Island (Fouad. H et al., 2013)

4. DISCUSSION and CONCLUSION 4.1.

Proposing a generic strategy

The proposed strategy aims to integrate both formal and informal goals; the ambitions of “greening Cairo” with the needs and concerns of the already present social fabric, while maintaining the islands food productivity. To achieve this, preserving the existing agricultural practices is required as first step followed by utilizing urban agriculture practices on different scales to invest the greenery and produce income which could potentially allow competing with the construction investments. The complexity of this process is not only bounded with the economic aspect and land prices, but it should also address social and environmental factors in order to reach further beyond the conventional development and achieve sustainable development. This approach is intended to provide a generic resilient strategy that could potentially be applied upon different Nile islands, based on one basic parameter which is the morphology of each island. The three different zones identified earlier would directly reflect the

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needs of each island individually. For instance, developing a narrow tall island could mainly be done within the zone of "edges". Table 2: Morphology based, development strategy (Fouad. H et al., 2013)

4.2.

Nile islands acquire Urban Agriculture

"with fair access to resources and services, urban agriculture can be an integral component of income and employment" (Mougeot, 2005). In developing countries two major forces driving, particularly those on low incomes and the poor, to cultivate the city; food security and income generation while in developed countries the major enforcements are formal governmental regulations to apply these urban agriculture practices within the city aiming for environmental enhancements in the first place. In the case of Egypt Nile islands probably would require implying both situations because limited land, limited water and rapidly growing population require continuing intensification of production on a limited natural resource base. Intensification requires ensuring high yields, greater input efficiencies, reduced negative environmental effects, a greater knowledge base and efficient management. (A. El-Nahrawy, 2011) There is a growing awareness of the need to re-orient our urban environment to value natural resources for the sake of both social and physical wellness. Reference is made to urban agriculture in relation to the recent and important issues affecting the world economy and the environment, regarding climate change, water scarcity, food shortage and energy demands. This paper intends to raise awareness of all the stakeholders involved in urban life; decision makers, planners and local communities introducing the different aspects of urban agriculture, which entails a broad range of activities, related to the food production, biodiversity, and natural resources planning. The paper further illustrates ongoing initiatives that substantiate how urban agriculture can, in different scales, play its role as a source of employment, income and food which are the indicators towards poverty reduction and improved food security against urban sprawl.

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5. REFLECTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH Three main axes would potentially provide a necessary background to facilitate further initiatives and researches aiming to highlight the potentials of urban agriculture as a means of develop livelihood islands; firstly, (urban wise) due to its central location within cities on the Nile waterfront one of the main challenges that need to be addressed is how to keep the island physically isolated with no bridges, meanwhile providing sufficient infrastructure facilities and integrating both green and social fabrics with the city. Secondly, socio-economic studies including funding and loan systems are highly recommended to improve the applicability of urban agriculture activities on the Nile islands. Finally, (environment wise) although seasonal flooding could be utilized to limit urban encroachment over islands, but it also decreases the productivity of the agricultural lands therefore a detailed study of agricultural techniques in relevance to the flooding seasons is needed.

6. REFERNCES Dr. Mohamed El Nahrawy, FAO, (2011). Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profiles Jörg Gertel, Said Samir, (1999). Cairo: Urban Agriculture and Visions for A "Modern" city Kipper, R. Fischer, M. (ed.) (2009). Cairo’s Informal Areas - Between Urban Challenges and Hidden Potentials Visions. GTZ Egypt Participatory Development Programme in Urban Areas (PDP) Luc J. A. Mougeot, (2005). Agropolis, The Social, Political and Environmental Dimensions of Urban Agriculture Mohsen Mostafavi, Gareth Doherty. (2010). Ecological Urbanism Mona Serageldin, Najeem Azadoi, Wayne Barwise, Felix de Amesti, Therese Vien, Joy Hect, Olivier Leser, Edith Griffin. (1979). Cairo: 1800-2000, Planning for the Capital City in the Context of Egypt's History and Development Nermin M.M. Farag and Ayman M.H. El-Alfy (2013). The Role of Nile Islands, in: Tourist Attraction Development. World Applied Sciences Journal 21 (4): 578-592, 2013 P. P. Tamburelli, O. Thill, (2009). 900 km Nile City, Berlage Institute Research Report n. 31, Rotterdam. http://www.studio-basel.com/projects/cairo/student-work/islands-of-the-nile.html https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/eg.html

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© SB13-Cairo 2013 Wasta Nile km 82.5-87.5 Redeker, et al

WASTA BENI SUEF NILE KM 82.5-87.5 km Encroachment mechanisms, consequences and possible solutions

Redeker. C.1, Fouad. H.2, El Ghayesh, H.3 1

German University Cairo, Department of Architecture and Urban Design e-mail: [email protected]

2


3


Abstract: Wasta Nile km 82.5-87.5 is a pilot project instigated by the Egyptian Ministry of Water and Irrigation to develop integrated solutions for tackling on-going informal urban development along the Nile. Urban development of the Nile embankments outside of the so-called management line, defined by an extreme flood event with a discharge of 350 million cubic meters per day at the Aswan High Dam, is prohibited. In the light of the current situation this remains a technocratic concept. The investigated 5 km pilot strip on the western bank of the Nile in Wasta, Beni Suef 120 km south of Cairo is framed by the landscape conditions of the Nile. After the construction of the Aswan High Dam a reduced fluctuation in water levels and therefore a reduced area annually affected by flooding is enabling at this point uncontrolled, highly dynamic urban development in the flood plain. Within the regulated flood plain the dynamic landscape of the partially submerging Nile islands remains. This provides rare landscape qualities, while at the same time limiting agricultural production. Life along the banks is closely related to the river in a very archaic way: men fishing, women washing clothes and dishes along the waterfront, children swimming. This romantic image of waterfront life is degraded by a diminishing water quality, large amounts of solid waste dumped on the banks and buildings lacking proper foundations. With a building expansion into the river that capitalizes on existing structures, such as the installed bank alignments, any further built demarcation to visualize this line, such as a wall, will most likely prove counterproductive. Urban upgrading may be a strategy to protect the Khur (discharge channel) and the Nile and its islands from further encroachment and consequently induced erosion. This paper explains the mechanisms of encroachment found and anticipates their further implications to then propose strategies that ideally enable for a community-based urban upgrading process that avoids further encroachment. Keywords: community-based design, informal urban development, Nile, Nile islands, urban upgrading

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1.

INTRODUCTION

Context Wasta Nile km 82.5-87.5 is a pilot project to develop integrated solutions that tackle on-going informal urban development along the Nile. Urban development of the Nile embankments outside of the so-called management line, defined by an extreme flood event with a discharge of 350 million cubic meters per day at the Aswan High Dam, is prohibited. In the light of the current state and on-going dynamic this remains a technocratic concept impossible to implement. The investigated 5 km-pilot strip on the western bank of the Nile in Wasta, Beni Suef 120 km south of Cairo is framed by the current landscape conditions of the Nile. Life along the banks is closely related to the river in a very archaic way: men fishing, women washing clothes and dishes along the waterfront, children swimming. After the construction of the Aswan High Dam a reduced fluctuation in water levels and therefore a reduced area annually affected by flooding is enabling at this point uncontrolled, highly dynamic urban development in the flood plain. Within the regulated flood plain the dynamic landscape conditions of the partially submerging Nile islands remain. This provides rare habitat qualities, while at the same time limiting agricultural production. The romantic image of waterfront life in Wasta is degraded by a diminishing water quality, large amounts of solid waste dumped on the banks and buildings that lack proper foundations. The management line is not easily conveyable to the inhabitants, as the annual floods do not affect any of the existing buildings and water levels are rather expected to decrease in the future. Deconstruction as a radical measure to meet encroachment is not only morally questionable, but also highly unrealistic due to the shear quantity of buildings. With a building expansion into the river that capitalizes on existing structures, such as the installed bank alignments, any further built demarcation to visualize this line, such as a wall, will most likely prove counterproductive. It will hardly hinder building activities, but probably be incorporated in future developments. The objective of the research was therefore revised at the beginning of the project as it became clear that the number of existing buildings and the dynamics of urban development as found made an enforcement of prohibiting development outside of the management line obsolete. The joint revised strategy was to find solutions that could hinder further development while improving the existing situation both for the people as for the environment.

Background and objectives of the project Wasta Nile km 82.5-87.5 is a pilot project instigated by the Egyptian Ministry of Water and Irrigation as an interdisciplinary study to develop prototypical strategies. The project aims at finding solutions that could become applicable to different sites along the Nile suffering from ecological degradation as a consequence of informal urban sprawl. The project partners are botanists, social scientists, hydraulic engineers, nanotechnologists and architects/urban planners. As this is an on-going project this paper focuses on the contribution to the study conducted by the authors (architects and urban planners) with only selected references to the other team members’ results. To study the situation the interdisciplinary team went on several site visits. Apart from speaking with the inhabitants, the two local agencies, the Nile Directorate Beni Suef located in Wasta and the Gehaz, the local building authority explained the current situation of developments. Workshops to discuss the different teams inputs took place at the Nile Research Institute as the

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PI of the project, who is also currently writing a combined report of the different teams findings and proposals that have recently been presented to the Minister. As architects and urban planners we visualized the found mechanisms of encroachment as well as the agencies involved in the process to then propose strategies that ideally enable for a community-based urban and ecological upgrading process capable of avoiding further encroachment. The proposal focuses on potential small-scale strategies embedded in a longterm transformation process. The process aims to enhance the qualities found both within the community that lives with the water and in terms of the dynamic landscape qualities found.

Building into the Khur The informal urbanization process of the western Nile and Khur waterfront is not only filling the gaps between existing buildings that have been erected outside of the management line, but is actually expanding into the river by landfills. This is leading to a reduction of the Khur width. Along the western banks of the Nile km 82.5-87.5 currently around 624 buildings are positioned outside of the management line (Attia, 2013). In addition to the alignment measures by the Nile Directorate, informal expansions are encroaching agricultural land and newly acclaimed land that is created by expanding into the khur and riverbed by dumping rubble and waste into the river and reinforcing it (Figure 1).

MANAGEMENT LINE

URBAN EXPANSION

EXPANSION INTO RIVER / KHUR

URBAN EXPANSION ON AGRICULTURAL LAND

NATURAL WATERFRONT

ENFORCEMENT

Figure 1: Buildings erected outside of the management line and encroachment mechanisms (Redeker, Fouad, ElGhayesh, 2013)

The Khur serves as a drainage canal for excess irrigation water, but is severely polluted by different kinds of effluents and waste from disperse sources. Between 2004 and 2012 the Khur 331


width decreased by 55%. If the urban expansion into the river continues, the Khur with its diverse functions as a discharge channel, but also as a breeding ground for fish and a social meeting place will be lost. In addition, the adjacent peninsula already today suffering from erosion to the decrease in channel width will be even more threatened by urban encroachment. The same applies for expansions of the Nile waterfront opposite the submerging island to the south.

2. URGENCIES While complex systems demand for long enough time scales to enable change (Kay, 2009), we are confronted with an accelerated building process that will hinder a long-term approach. Furthermore, the statements of the inhabitants show x x x x x

lacking trust in governmental bodies clan structures that provide social control economic pressures due to a degrading environment and lacking governmental support the riverfront is a social meeting place for the women who have no income lacking awareness regarding flood-related topics

x

New Beni Suef at a distance of 33 km is too far away to consider moving

Therefore, inevitably, any long-term regional strategy demands for immediate short-term and small scale interventions capable of providing a basis for communication, improving the ecological situation and providing economic incentives while ideally stopping further encroachment. Living with the water as the people are is therefore seen as a potential versus something that should be met with restrictive measures. Within the discourse, there is a general consent to intervene in self-generating developments with incentive strategies based on community involvement. The conveyance of the management line to the community is difficult, but also issues related to ecological degradation demand for a communication strategy to reach a largely illiterate population (Zaki et al, 2013) that has been exposed to the negative environmental side effects of their uninformed life style, but has limited ecological awareness and tools to improve the situation in their own cause.

Introducing small scale strategies Solid waste management as an economic capacity (Le Cartois) would not only improve the environmental situation, but also serve as a source of income for garbage collectors on a microscale (GIZ, 2009). Micro-farming techniques can do the same. Apart from improving thermal comfort, rooftop gardening could provide an additional income (see Shaduf microfarms) and constructed wetlands in the form of floating islands could cleanse the water while serving as a source of income by horticulture and aqua culture and use recycled plastic as a building material (see floating island international). Especially for the women in Wasta who are currently lacking income opportunities (Zaki et al, 2013), these small-scale interventions could provide for those while at the same time ensuring the women’s involvement in the participation process. Moving communities is not a viable solution as businesses are reliant on the local network and commuting is economically not feasible (Sims, 2009). Resettlements have proven unsuccessful. New Beni Suef as an alternative site for (re-)settlement is also formally not a solution. According to the Informal Settlements Development Facility only communities that are living in unsafe areas (land-slides, floods, etc.) can be moved. The general strategy of ecologically and socially 332


upgrading informal urban development on site is therefore applicable in multiple contexts along the Egyptian Nile.

3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Visualizing the situation One of the main tasks was to visualize the situation. The physical section was therefore further informed by data about the agencies both involved and responsible and economic activities found to then propose potential strategies (Figure 2). The sections were used as a tool to illustrate the heterogeneity of the western waterfront profile and of the position of the buildings as a consequence of the on-going and linked alignment and encroachment process. It also poses a challenge regarding the design of the waterfront as a new public space for Wasta to counteract building activities, as the continuity of open spaces is not given due to encroachment. The agencies involved in and affected by the on-going encroachment process are the x

administrative bodies that are currently not (capable of) enforcing the building restrictions in the designated floodplain

x

private developers (presumably two families being responsible for the majority of the building development)

x

and the inhabitants who live and often also work in jobs that are linked to the river (fishing, agriculture, and currently also the construction sector)

Multiscalar Approach as a Strategy Not all problems found can be addressed on site. To provide a strategy for the 5km Wasta pilot project demands for a multi-scalar approach that not only involves the waterfront, but also the local and the regional scale. We were told that the encroachment is a consequence of lacking urban development possibilities on a local scale due to the adjoining desert site for antiquities to the west that prohibits development and the distance of 33 km to New Beni Suef being too far away for local families to move to. The strategy to protect the Nile flood plain, the khur and the Nile island and peninsula focuses on protecting the remaining open spaces and to stop further expansion and encroachment processes while ecologically upgrading the existing situation. This upgrading relies on a desperately needed local solid waste management strategy (collecting, sorting, recycling, energy production, etc.) and the improvement of the water quality through different interventions (such as nanofilters, bioremediation, deepening of the khur) while capitalizing on the dynamic landscape qualities by promoting ecotourism (also see Nermin et al, 2013). In the context of the currently lacking enforcement of regulations, all measures are reliant on the support of the inhabitants. Apart from an improvement of the living conditions (ecological upgrading) economic incentives are therefore needed to create a supportive environment. This can for example involve local investment strategies in eco-tourism programs, agricultural diversification, and solid waste management linked to energy production.

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Figure. 2: Agencies, processes and potentials (Redeker, Fouad, ElGhayesh, 2013) 334


Eco-tourism on the island and peninsula To position Wasta on a touristic map for local and international tourists singular flood-adapted developments could be permitted on the submerging island. Financed by local investors, this development should ideally also cover the open space design. Also for the flood-adapted ecolodge for bird watchers, duck hunters, Nile travellers and tired Cairenes sewage treatment could possibly be solved via water cleansing plants. The proposed eco-lodge on the submerging island and a Nile cruise stop on the peninsula play with the different height levels to enhance the dynamic landscape qualities. They can be part of a regional tourist development. It could include the Meidum pyramid to the west of Wasta (one of the oldest pyramids, commissioned by Pharaoh Huni (2637-2613 BC)) and Fayoum with Lake Qarun. The Nile cruise stop and local activities on the island such as cycling, bird watching and other activities do not have to interfere with the current agricultural use. As part of an ecotourism concept for the region, transport to Fayoum from Cairo by train would end in Wasta. This offers occasions for a stay in Wasta to visit the islands.

Expansion to the West On a local scale urban expansion strategies to the West may be needed to provide demandoriented housing and to take pressure off the waterfront. A new development area could also include a solid waste management plant that offers employment opportunities and energy for the urban development and a sewage treatment plant that could irrigate a tree grove for wood production (see documentation Bani Ghalib, ETH Studio Basel 2009). Floating Islands in the Khur Strategically positioning water-cleansing islands may improve the water quality of the Khur and potentially offer washing basins for the women. By connecting the open spaces along the waterfront, it could serve as a public space that links the city of Wasta to its waterfront. By occupying the open spaces it may also pose a hindrance to future building activities. Further, geotextiles may offer an alternative to the current lime stone embankments (Figure 3).

Figure 3: From regional to local (Redeker, Fouad, ElGhayesh, 2013)

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4. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION Community-based design based on small-scale strategies Political instability, lacking data availability and a missing institutional capacity to change existing processes and to develop integrated approaches are hindrances to any transformation process proposed. The current situation in Egypt provides a breeding ground for an unprecedented dynamic in informal urban development while weakening the formal agencies involved. At the same time, the situation in Egypt remains existential in terms of livelihood for a large part of the population. Self-help should therefore hardly be punishable, but should be considered as a potential for steered approaches. Embedded within a long-term strategy of sustainable development, applied small scale measures can help to bridge the gap between formal and informal agencies while enable a learning process. These measures would however demand for M&E measures and the involvement of the inhabitants to maintain the floating islands, rooftop gardens and SWM measures. It is not only necessary to develop a spatial design, but to develop a community-based design strategy that will seek for opportunities rather than restrictions. It should further link the river landscape with the infrastructure and land uses in a way that will improve the ecological condition of the landscape while improving the traditional way of living that should be preserved. This demands for a moderated participation process informed by this interdisciplinary study and should involve, the inhabitants, the local government and administration as well as social and environmental NGOs. Further research The Wasta project aims for implementation. As an applied research project it is framed by the current condition of flux. To improve the water quality, on the high-tech end of things, currently a working group is being set up to study nanofiltration applications on coliform bacteria and other pollutants found in the Khur. In parallel, the implementation of constructed wetlands and their multiple benefits (improving water quality, aqua- and horticulture, reducing erosion and potentially hindering encroachment) and a potential combination with nanotechnology are being discussed.

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5. REFERENCES Attia, K. (2013). Presentation Wasta 5 km Pilot Project. workshop NRI, May 09, 2013 Kipper, R. Fischer, M. (ed.) (2009). Cairo’s Informal Areas - Between Urban Challenges and Hidden Potentials Visions. GTZ Egypt Participatory Development Programme in Urban Areas (PDP) Le Courtois, A. (unknown). Municipal Solid Waste: turning a problem into a resource. World Bank Central Urban Advising Unit. www proparco.fr Gunz, M. Mueller Inderbitzin, C. Jenni, R. ed. (2010). Nile Valley – Urbanization of Limited Resources ETH Studio Basel: Contemporary City Institute, Basel Kay, J.J. (2009). An Introduction to Systems-Thinking, in: Waltner-Toews, D.Kay, J.J. Lister, N.M. (ed.), The Ecosystem Approach, Columbia University Press, New York Nermin M.M. Farag and Ayman M.H. El-Alfy (2013). The Role of Nile Islands, in: Tourist Attraction Development. World Applied Sciences Journal 21 (4): 578-592, 2013 Sims, David (2009). Understanding Cairo-The Logic of a City out of a Control. The American University Press, Cairo Zaki, M. et al (2013). NCSCR survey Wasta pilot Nile km 82.5-87.5 http://www.floatingislandinternational.com http://www.isdf.gov.eg http://www.schadufmicrofarms.com

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© SB13-Cairo 2013 Impacts of Ethiopia’s Cascade Dams on Egypt Kantoush, Sameh A.

The Downstream Impacts of Ethiopia’s Cascade Dams in the Upper Blue Nile on Egypt Kantoush. S.A. German University Cairo, Civil Engineering Program, Faculty of New Cairo City, Main Entrance El Tagamoa El Khames, Egypt E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract: The Water National Security of Egypt is already under stress and is faced by several challenges. One of these challenges is the newly planned and under construction Blue Nile cascade dams, especially in Ethiopia, the Grand Renaissance Ethiopian Dam (GRED). One of the most controversial issues of the water sensitivity of Transboundary Rivers as Nile River in recent years is the construction of large dams in the upstream and its impacts on the downstream countries. Proponents (upstream countries) of large dams have claimed that such structures are essential to meet the increasing water demands of the country and that their overall societal benefits far overweigh the costs. In contrast, opponents (downstream countries) claim that downstream countries will face a sever reduction in water quantity and social and environmental costs as consequences of such large dams far exceed their benefits and that the era of construction of large dams is over. All four cascade dams Karadobi, Beko Abo, Upper Mandaya and GRED classified as “Large Dams” according to the guidelines of the International Commission on Large Dams (ICOLD), and the safety risks linked to large impounded volumes and dam heights along with catastrophic dam failure. Dam construction dramatically influences the river basin balance with respect to water sediment inflow and outflow, which upsets downstream reaches. Dams and their reservoirs are constructed and operated for multipurpose including power generation, flood protection, drinking water, agricultural water supply, recreation, fishing, and others. Until now the common engineering practice has been to design and operate reservoirs to fill with sediment slowly. With such an approach, the consequences of sedimentation and project abandonment are left to be taken care of by future generations. In this study, a total of twenty scenarios have been developed and simulated and compared with the base condition. In the dam scenario four cascade dams (Renaissance, Beko Abo, Karadobi and Mandaya) are included in the upperBlue Nile. For drought scenario the annual average flow at High Aswan Dam is reduced to maximum 47.9% from the base scenario respectively. For the combined scenarios the annual average flow is reduced to maximum 50 %. To address and cope with this reduced flow, it is essential to design adaption measures accordingly. Keywords: Nile Basin Countries, Nile River, Renaissance Dam, Water Resources in Egypt

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1.

INTRODUCTION

The history, culture, current and future socio-economic status, and environmental sustainability of Egypt and its people is intricately linked with the River Nile. The Nile River provides nearly all of Egypt’s freshwater for a multitude of strategically important water uses such as drinking, fishing, industrial use, livestock and irrigation. There is a critical need to ensure the security of the Nile River against any natural or anthropogenic threats and to develop an effective Water Resources Management System. However, the combination of population growth, economic development and climate change pose to reduce the available water per person in the region and shift the dynamics of power in the basin. Egypt is faced by many challenges in water resources management and planning. These challenges are mainly due to the rapid increase in population growth, the need for increase in horizontal expansion areas and development in the industrial sector to improve Egyptian economy food production, and environmental security. The Nile River is the main source of water for the eleven countries that make up the Nile basin as shown in Figure 1. The climate and hydrology of the Nile Basin (NB) ranges from Equatorial in the White Nile headwaters to arid in the desert region of northern Sudan and Egypt. Thus, for much of its course, the Nile is an exotic river (Woodward, et al. 2007). Its catchment‘s area covers 10% of Africa‘s landmass and is shared by 11 riparian countries. Figure 1 shows a map for the Nile River and its tributaries and their sub-basins. The Nile Basin includes two main sources: The Blue Nile; originating from Lake Tana, Eastern Nile sub-basin, Ethiopia and the White Nile; originating from Lake Victoria the Equatorial Lake sub-basin, Uganda. With an area of almost 3,176,543 km2 extending over different geographical, topographical and climatological regions, the basin spans over ten African countries: Burundi, Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, Sudan, S. Sudan, Tanzania and Uganda, (Figure 1). Hassan et al., 2013 described that Eastern Nile Basin (ENB) is divided into four subbasins that include the Main Nile, the Baro-Akobo-Sobat-White Nile, the Abay-Blue Nile, and the Tekeze-Atbara-Setite. The Blue Nile sub-basin, located in the middle east of the ENB, is the largest contributor–of the system (56Bm3/year) accounting for 67% of the inflow at Aswan (ENTRO, 2006a).The Baro-Akobo-Sobat-White Nile sub-basin is located in the southernmost portion of the ENB.The Tekeze-Atbara-Setite sub-basin, located at the most north-eastern portion of the ENB, covers an area of 227,128 km2 including the Mereb-Gash basin.

Table 1: Proposed Hydropower Projects on the Blue Nile (Abbay-Ethiopia) (ENTRO, 2009)

Site Dam

Height (m)

Full Supply Level (m)

Gross Storage (million m3)

Installed Capacity (MW)

Energy Output (GWh/year)

Border

90

580

13,300

1400

6011

Mandaya

200

800

49,200

2000

12,119

Beko Abo

110

906

NA

800 - 1000

NA

Karadobi

250

1146

40,200

1600

9708

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Several cascade dams are planned in the upper Blue Nile particularly in Ethiopia. Recently, several controversial issues specially related to the under construction and planned mega projects in Ethiopia. Nour El-Din, 2013 elaborated that studies of the Eastern Nile Technical Regional Office (ENTRO) updated a previous one by United States Bureau of Reclamation (USBR); that was carried out in 1964, to develop land and water resources of the Blue Nile river basin in Ethiopia. This study identified 4 major hydropower development sites on the main stream of the Blue Nile, namely: Border, Mandaya, Mabil, and Karadobi. The key features of these projects are defined in the following Table 1. All four cascade dams classified as “Large Dams” according to the guidelines of the International Commission on Large Dams (ICOLD), and the safety risks linked to large impounded volumes and dam heights along with catastrophic dam failure of the cascade development would pose a significant risk to populations in Sudan living along the banks of the Blue and Main Nile. In 2011, Ethiopia started construction of the Grand Renascence Ethiopian Dam (GRED) replacing border dam.

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Figure 1: Map of the Nile River Basins showing basin sources, the Nile course and location of large

Nour El-Din, 2013 elaborated that soaring grain prices in 2007/2008 led to countries worrying about their national food security and buying up overseas land. Then speculators and investors started piling in on the back of that. The net result is that poor farmers and cattle herders across the world are being thrown off their land. Land grabbing is having more of an impact on the lives of poor people than climate change. This lead agribusiness, investment funds and governmental agencies acquire long-term rights over large areas of land in Africa. Government concerns about food and energy security and private sector expectations of increasing returns from agriculture underpin much recent agricultural investment. These huge grabbed lands if developed for agriculture will have serious implications on water availability for Egypt, and this 341


issue should be taken seriously and to be solved at the highest level; regionally and internationally, and must be considered in future planning. Also, these figures should alert us regarding the real functions of the Ethiopian dams: are they really for non-consumptive use of water by Hydropower production or for heavy water consumption by irrigated agricultural activities. Downstream impacts develop through discontinuity in downstream gradients, e.g., sediment supply, water quality, temperature, flow and sediment regimes. Sediment deficit is not only an environmental issue but also a socio-economic problem, for instance due to loss of reservoir capacity (e.g., Fan and Springer, 1993). In addition, dams alter the downstream flow regime of rivers (Williams and Wolman, 1984), which controls many physical and ecological aspects of river form and processes, including sediment transport and nutrient exchange (Poff et al., 1997). Morphological effects on the river channel (e.g., Kondolf and Matthews, 1993; Kantoush et al., 2010) that includes riverbed incision, riverbank instability, upstream erosion in tributaries, groundwater over drafting, damage to bridges, embankments and levees (e.g., Kondolf, 1997; Batalla, 2003), and changes in channel width. Hydrological effects caused by dams include changes in flood frequency and magnitude, reduction in overall flows, changes in seasonal flows, and altered timing of releases. If flows released from dams have sufficient capacity to move coarse sediment, water becomes ‘hungry water’ (Kondolf, 1997), which may transport sediment downstream without replacement from upstream and the ecological effects on the fluvial and deltaic systems. The necessity for the reservoir sediment management can be summarized as: (1) to prevent the siltation of intake facilities and aggradations of upstream river bed, accompanied by the sedimentation process in reservoirs; (2) to maintain storage function of reservoirs, and realize sustainable water resources management for the next generation; (3) to release sediment from dams as a perspective on comprehensive sediment management in a sediment routing system. As the Ethiopian Highlands are the main source of suspended sediment in the basin with sediment load of 250 million ton per year, the river systems have witnessed some of the most severe sediment management problems since the construction of large dams. The sediment itself is an important component for the river healthy index and trapping sediments have several negative impacts on DS reaches. There are several sediment management techniques in reservoir to reduce such impacts on the water quality, ecosystem, and biodiversity in the system. Sediment bypass and flexible dam operation could be one of the mitigation measures to assure conservation of flow and sediment regimes. The Blue Nile Cascade dams will have 86% trapping efficiency. Therefore, new delta of sediment deposition will be formed and will put another stress on the DS countries. If the reservoir sedimentation will not be managed dam commissioning will be one of the possibilities and the reservoir will be as Runoff River. In order to avoid such case, should the operation of the cascade reservoirs be coordinated with the DS reservoir in Sudan and Egypt? It can be concluded that the operation of the reservoirs should be coordinated in order to reduce the flood peak observed in the Blue Nile and augmented the low flows with an amount that will not reduce the operation pool level in Nasser Lake and would not be affected on the supply to Egypt according to the 1959 bilateral agreement. The main beneficiaries are hydropower and irrigation in Ethiopia and irrigation in Sudan. However, the economy of the Ethiopia is not ready to absorb such a huge generated power. There are a potential to expedite cooperation between 3 countries to avoid and reduce risks associated with major drought events. There are win-win scenarios for ENBC and it is important to understand that there are lose-lose scenarios as well. The question is how these newly constructed dams will influence on the Aswan High Dam (AHD) operation and Delta formation. The upstream dams in the upstream countries will reduce the sediment yield to AHD

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and the water quality in Nasser Lake will be questionable. Moreover, the inflow discharge to AHD reservoir is questionable and important issue for Egypt

2. DAMS ON THE NILE RIVER BASIN Summarized by El-Hinnawi (1980), the Nile River control measures started in the early 19th century when a series of barrages were built to transform the old recession irrigation system to perennial irrigation so that instead of growing one crop per year, two or three corps could be grown on the same land. The Delta Barrage was built just below Cairo to control the Rosetta and Damietta branches of the Nile together with the Zift a Barrage on the Damietta branch. Constructed in 1902 and enlarged in 1938, a dam at Assiut was built to provide perennial irrigation in central Egypt. In 1908, the Esna Barrage followed by Nag-Hammady in 1930 was constructed on the Nile River to improve the water supply for irrigation schemes in Upper Egypt. Figure 5 shows the large dams on the Nile and the location of one of the planned dams as well. The new Aswan High Dam, designed to be never drained, caused a revolution in the Egyptian irrigation system. Practically, all the fertile sediment from the Ethiopian Plateau was deposited in the reservoir. Although the missing suspended particles created certain disadvantages, the extra stored water and the reduction of silting in the irrigation channels allowed the perennial irrigation as well as a significant in-crease in irrigated area. About 45 km south of Kharthoum, the Jebel Aulia reservoir was constructed in 1937 to hold back part of the White Nile flow during rich discharge of the Blue Nile. Since the Nile valley upstream of Jebel Aulia is very flat and open, a large quantity of water is being lost due to evaporation and seepage. The Owen Falls Dam completed in 1954 was the first control work on the upper White Nile. With a primary goal of producing hydroelectric power, the dam controls the outflow of Lake Victoria and therefore created the largest reservoir in the world. In 1999, after a year-long debate, the Ugandan Parliament approved the construction of the Bujagali hydropower dam as a private hydroelectric power plant project in Uganda. The project is one of several hydropower plants planned to be scattered along the upper reaches of the White Nile including Owen Falls, Busowoko, Ralangala, Raruma, Ayago North, Ayago South and Murchison Falls. Situated 1’100 m a.s.l. at Bujagali Falls, about 8 km north of Lake Victoria, construction of the Bujagali plant was due to begin in January 2003, but was initially delayed after vocal protests by environmentalists and residents of the area. In February 2005, the Ugandan Government announced that the project will go ahead. With a volume of up to 750’000 m3 and a vertical drop of 30 m, the reservoir water will feed four turbines with a total installed capacity of 250 MW. On the Blue Nile, the Sennar Dam completed in 1925 serves the needs of Sudan by providing the basis for the Sudan’s agriculture economy. Its main function is to store water for the Gezira irrigation scheme during the flood season of the Blue Nile. Further upstream, near the SudanEthiopian border, the Roseires Dam was completed in 1966 with the two primary purposes of increasing the storage capacity of the Blue Nile water and producing hydropower. Far above Roseires, below the Blue Nile Gorge, Lake Tanna (Ethiopia) was considered for many years as a good place for a storage reservoir to hold back a large proportion of the Blue Nile flood. The first one is the Chara Chara weir that regulates the Lake Tana outflows to the 5 Tis Abbay power complex, located some 32 km downstream the Lake. Then, the Tana-Beles scheme (started operation in May 2010) consists of an artificial link be-tween the Lake Tana and the Beles river to generate hydroelectricy and aims at irrigate around 150 000 ha in the future. In the upper Ethiopian part of the Atbara sub-basin (Tekeze river in Ethiopia), the largest Ethiopian 343


hydraulic infrastructure. With an over year storage capacity and an installed capacity of 300MW, the Tekeze dam started to generate hydropower in 2009 and aims to produce around 30% of current total national electric production. A large hydropower and irrigation project is newly constructed on the Tezeke River in the Tigray Re-gion of northern Ethiopia. The Tezeke Dam with a height of 185 m will be 10 meters higher than the highly controversial Three Gorges Dam in China. In his study Aforki (2006) reported that 40% of the reservoir storage capacity is provided as a room for the sediment inflow throughout the 50 years design life time of the dam. Therefore the dead storage is about 3.7 billion m3. Recently constructed, the Merowe Dam on the Nile River, about 800 km north of the capital Khartoum (Sudan) is the largest contemporary hydropower project in Africa. Merowe dam will submerge the Fourth Cataract of the Nile and form a 200 km long artificial lake. Monenco (1993) estimated the storage capacity of the reservoir at level 298 masl as 11.05 billion m 3 equivalents to a pool reservoir surface area of 724 km2. The low supply level (290 masl) corresponds to 476 km2 surface area and 6.17 billion m3 i.e. live storage of 4.88 billion m3 would be available. However recently it was decided to raise the full supply level to 300 masl, which correspond to a storage capacity of 12.4 billion m3. The dam is 67 m high with 1250 MW hydropower generation capacity, which was completed on 2009. Estimates of sediment from Monenco, (1993) study indicated aver-age suspended sediment load into Merowe reservoir as 134 million t/yr for the period 1929 to 1964, 121 million t/yr in 1971 and 181 million t/yr in 1990. Monenco (1993) added 25% to the estimated sus-pended load as bed load, which resulted in 180 million t/yr total sediment load received by Merowe reservoir. It was then concluded that over 50 years after the project implementation the total deposited sediment into the reservoir will be 4.24 billion m3.

2.1.

Hydro-Politics

The Nile water supplies are extremely limited by the 55.5 billion cubic meters at High Aswan Dam (HAD), and projected to become even more limited due to the increased competition on water resources among the Nile basin countries. Annual water share of Nile water per capita in Egypt has decreased from 2500 m3/capita/yr in the 1950s to about 680 m3/capita/yr in 2012, and is projected to drop to about 350 m3/capita/yr in 2050. Historically, Egypt never opposes development projects for any of the Nile Basin countries. Egypt, the lowest riparian country uncharacteristically controls the Nile. This was achieved mainly through the influence of England during the colonial period. El-Khodarin, 2003 explained that in the early 1900's, a relative shortage of cotton on the world market put pressure on Egypt and the Sudan, then under a British-Egyptian condominium, to turn to this summer crop, requiring perennial irrigation over the traditional flood-fed methods. The need for summer water and flood control drove an intensive period of water development along the Nile, with proponents of Egyptian and Sudanese interests occasionally clashing within the British foreign office over whether the emphasis for development ought to be further up-stream or down. With the end of World War I, it became clear that any regional development plans for the Nile Basin would have to be preceded by some sort of formal agreement on water allocations. In 1920, the Nile Projects Commission was formed, with representatives from India, the United Kingdom, and the United States. The Commission estimated that, of the river's average flow of 84 BCM/yr., Egyptian needs were estimated at 58 BCM/yr. Sudan, it was thought, would be able to meet irrigation needs from the Blue Nile alone. The Nile flow fluctuates greatly, with a standard deviation of about 25%. In recognition of this fact, an appendix was added which suggested that any gain or short-fall from the average be divided evenly between Egypt and Sudan. The most important treaties that still control the Nile are: the 1902 treaty (between Great Britain and Ethiopia) and the 1929 treaty. 344


2.2.

Ethiopian Cascade Dams

Ethiopia plans to build four more hydroelectric dams on the Nile Rver. The four cascade dams to be built on Blue Nile are Karadobi, Beko Abo, Upper Mandaya, and Grand Renaissance Ethiopian Dam (GRED) dams as shown in Figure 2. The major threat was the Ethiopian unilateral announcement in 2013 the diversion of the course of the Blue Nile marking the actual start of construction of the (GRED) without consultation with the downstream countries; Egypt and Sudan.

Figure 2: Location of the cascade dams in the Upper Blue Nile, Ethiopia (MWRI, 2013).

3. SCENARIO DEVELOPMENT AND ANALYSIS A scenario is a coherent, internally consistent and plausible description of a possible future state of the world (IPCC, 1994). It is not a forecast; rather, each scenario is one alternative image of how the future can unfold. It is used in estimating the probable effects of one or more variables, situation analysis and long-range planning. There are two types of scenarios; exogenous scenarios and endogenous scenarios. The exogenous variables are natural events such as droughts, floods and others which are not expected. The endogenous scenarios include water resource management in which there is uncertainty over decision making regarding implementation. In this study, a total of twenty scenarios have been developed and simulated and compared with the base condition. In these twenty scenarios eight exogenous, three endogenous and nine combined scenarios have been simulated. The exogenous scenarios include two drought scenarios (Ex01: Drought: Repeat 1979 to 1984 hydrological condition and Ex02: Drought: Repeat 1984 condition for 3 years), two climate change scenarios (Ex 03: Climate change: A2 Emission scenario with 80 percentile ensemble 18 GCM results and Ex 04: Climate change: A2 Emission scenario with 20 percentile ensemble 18 GCM results) and the combination of two. The endogenous scenarios include dam scenario, irrigation scenario, land use change scenario and sediment management scenarios. In the dam scenario four dams (Renaissance, Beko Abo, Karadobi and Mandaya) are included in the Abay-Blue Nile sub-basin. The three endogenous scenarios are En 01: Existing Condition + Renaissance dam, En 02: 345


Karadobi +Beko Abo Low + Mandaya + Renaissance Low (620) Dam and En 03: Beko Abo High + Mandaya Relocated + Renaissance high (640) Dam (Table 1). A total of nine combined scenarios have been tested here. The changes of monthly stream flow that come to Aswan High dam for various scenarios are shown in Figure 3. For exogenous scenario, the monthly flow decreases for all scenarios except Ex03. The monthly flow for endogenous scenarios also decreases but there is a delay of peak flow and for the combined scenarios, the impact on flow is more significant.

3.1.

Water Balance Analysis

The calibrated and validated model has been simulated from 1960 to 2000 to estimate the water balance and their distribution among the four sub-basins of the ENB. From long term simulation results (Figure 4), it has been found that annual average flow was 49,503 Mm3 for the AbayBlue Nile sub-basin, 28,247 Mm3 for the Baro-Akobo-Sobat-White Nile sub-basin and 11,762 Mm3 for the Tekeze-Atbara-Setite sub-basin. The annual average flow that comes to the Aswan High Dam is 84,727 Mm3 among which the Abay-Blue Nile sub-basin contributes 55%, while 32% comes from the White Nile sub-basin and 13% from the Tekeze-Atbara-Setite sub-basin. In the Blue Nile, 80% of flow is observed during July, August, September and October and the peak is found in August. In the White Nile, the flow does not vary widely throughout the year and the minimum flow is found in July. In the Tekeze-Atbara-Setite sub-basin, 95% of flow is found in July, August, September and October, the peak is found in August-September and the flow is almost zero in the dry season. In the Main Nile, 70% of flow is observed in July and November and the peak is observed in August-September. The average annual precipitation for the Abay BN, BAS-WN, TAS and MN sub-basin is 988 mm, 729 mm, 425 mm and 40 mm respectively. The water falls as precipitation, losses through evapotranspiration and percolation and rest of the water contribute to stream flow as surface runoff. The evapotranspiration loss is 848 mm, 560 mm, 311 mm and 257 mm respectively for the above four sub-basins. The evapotranspiration for the Main Nile sub-basin is higher than the precipitation because the Main Nile sun-basin receives inflow from other three sub-basins of ENB and the evaporation from rivers and reservoirs also counted to estimate total evapotranspiration. The rest amount of water is percolate and contributes to stream flow.

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The Eastern Nile Basin is a complex hydrological system which includes four sub-basins: the Abay-Blue Nile, the Baro-Akobo-Sobat-White Nile, the Tekeze-Atbara-Setite and the Main Nile sub-basin. To understand this complex hydrological system, an operational hydrological model SWAT has been developed, calibrated and validated for this study. Model performance has been evaluated using four objective functions. In most of the cases the objective functions have been found within the good to very good range during both the calibration and validation periods. In the case of calibration, the objective functions have proven to be very good for all the sub-basins except the Abay- Blue Nile. During validation the objective function has not been satisfactory for one station mainly due to the short period of observed data. Later, the calibrated and validated model has been simulated for forty years (1960-2000). From long term simulation (1960-2000) results, it has been found that annual average flow was 49,503 Mm3 for the Abay-Blue Nile sub-basin, 28,247 Mm3 for the Baro-Akobo-Sobat-White Nile sub-basin and 11,762 Mm3 for the Tekeze-Atbara-Setite sub-basin. The annual average flow that comes to the Aswan High Dam is 84,727 Mm3 among which the Abay-Blue Nile subbasin contributes 55%, 32% comes from the White Nile sub-basin and 13% from the TekezeAtbara-Setite sub-basin. For drought and climate change: the annual average flow at High Aswan Dam is reduced to minimum 17%, and maximum 47.88% from the base condition. Only the climate scenario shows 22.9% increase with respect to the base condition as about 8% precipitation increases and 20C temperature decreases for the Abay-Blue Nile sub-basin. For water reservoir, irrigation, land use change and sediment management, the annual average flow is reduced to minimum 0.7%, and maximum 1.2%. Due to evaporation and seepage loss from the reservoirs in the Abay-Blue Nile sub-basin, it has been found that about 1% flow has been reduced at High Aswan Dam. As a whole the annual average flow is reduced to minimum 17.8% and maximum 50.23% for the combination of all the above condition. Based on these results showing the change in water availability and its spatial and temporal distribution, a climate change adaptation framework has been developed and it has been demonstrated how its adaptation reduces stress on water resource. In addition to this, by disseminating the results, this operational model can be 347


improved and updated for different scenarios and interventions. In this way, it will be possible to ensure equitable utilization of and benefit from the common Nile basin water resources while safeguarding the ecosystem in the near future.

4. CONCLUSIONS Assessing issues, depending on each case, of dam security, sustainable management of water resources and sediment management in a sediment transport sys-tem, we have to draw up an effective sediment management plan with a limited budget and take specific action. Needless to say, of course, our best endeavours should be exerted to minimize negative environmental impacts involved in sediment management. A successful sediment management proceeds from a permanent change in river management: Sediment management is a relatively new issue which is neither well understood nor accepted. The current design capacity of GRED of 74 Billion cubic meter will have significant impacts on the water quantity and quality to Egypt and also on the production of electricity from the AHD during the filling period of the reservoir and during operation. This impact is severe during drought scenario the annual average flow at AHD is reduced to maximum 47.9% from the current situation wherein the water supplies to both Egypt and Sudan shall conflict with the water needed to produce the electricity from the GRED. For the combined scenarios the annual average flow is reduced to maximum 50 %. To address and cope with this reduced flow, it is essential to design adaption measures accordingly. One of the serious issues is the lack of detailed information on the design capacity of low level release facilities for cascade development dams. For instance, reservoir parameters for planned projects Karadobi, Beko Abo, Upper Mandaya, limited information on GRED parameters and design and changing the design without a detailed feasibility study or a detailed hydraulic model tests to assess the viability of the arrangement of dam, reservoir and power intakes specially during high floods. The model should investigate the blocking of bottom outlet and the efficiency of the existing design to release the design discharge. The hydraulic tests should be conducted with the purpose of optimizing the geometry of the dam arrangement and investigate the simultaneous behaviour of the reservoir, bottom outlet, spillway, power intake system, so as to conclude the feasibility of the proposed arrangement. Moreover, there is lack of detailed information on the potential timing of the cascade development, specifically the filling phase. In most of international large cascade dams cases as in China Chowrangi and Three gorges dams, and Kurobe River dams in Japan, they start to construct the upstream dam first and then going to DS. The three countries should agree on the amount of environmental flow and release additional flow from GRED, in the event that water levels in AHD and Roseires reservoirs reach or fall below agreed levels in the forthcoming months. The Key finding is the need for urgent trans-boundary co-operation between Egypt, Sudan and Ethiopia in order to manage the potential risks and impacts and maximize the opportunities associated with the cascade development. Sediment management techniques and sedimentation in reservoirs should be included in the equation and discussion. Dam failure and dam safety issue should be clarified before starting completion the dam. It is unacceptable to continue or on-going in the construction while you are discussing the possibility to change the dam height, dam operation or even not to construct such dams. A huge sedimentation and new delta formation may cause some earthquakes and cause huge social impacts on DS countries. I can understand the needs of Ethiopian for development projects, but we have to agree on win-win scenarios not on loselose scenarios. Therefore, benefit sharing is favourable not only for DS but also US counties as well. May be stop or reduce the power generation during two months to reduce or eliminate the impacts on Egypt that can be a possible solution. Dam’s ownership between three countries is 348


preferred but after a clear check and design. Strong institutional arrangements are vital and sharing approach will produce better outcomes. Environmental and social matters need to be built-in to projects from their initiation with independent and transparent institution responsible for the public interest in the shared water resources. There is a need to inform population downstream of GRED that the annual flood will disappear (possibly from 2015); but you cannot inform people without a compensation and mitigation package. In order to prepare that package you need to know how many people are impacted and how, baseline data is needed as well as a filling strategy. Filling strategy should be agreed between Ethiopia, Sudan and Egypt and designed to ensure downstream flows are maintained during the construction and filling. Operational rules for cascade development should be agreed to between Ethiopia, Sudan and Egypt and should prioritize water delivery for human and agriculture, specifically during drought conditions. Representative inter-governmental body should be appointed to monitor filling and operation of the cascade development. Establish a Dam Safety Panel to review and monitor key issues associated with the cascade development. Identify key social and environmental issues, risks and opportunities associated with development of the cascade development on the Blue Nile. Finally, produce a document to facilitate discussion and dialogue between key stakeholders in Egypt, Sudan and Ethiopia.

5. REFERENCES Abdelbary, M. R. 2004. Physical and environmental impact of Aswan High Dam on the Nile River. Proc., 9th Int. Symp. on River Sedimentation, Vol. 1, Tsinghua University Press, Beijing, 170–175. Abdelsalam, A.A. 2008. Sediment in the Nile River System. UNESCO-IHP. Aforki H. G. 2006. Sediment Studies for Tekeze Hydropower Development, University Library (BIBSYS), Norwegian Centre for International Cooperation in Higher Education. Batuca, D. G. and Jordaan, J. M., 2000. Silting and desilting of reservoirs. A. A. Balkema, Rotterdam. Batalla, R.J. 2003. Sediment deficit in rivers caused by dams and instream gravel mining. A review with examples from NE Spain. Cuaternario y Geomorfología 17 (3–4):79–91. Conway, D. 2000. The climate and hydrology of the Upper Blue Nile River. The Geographical Journal, 166(1), 49–62. El-Hinnawi, E.E. 1980. The state of the Nile Environment: An Overview. Water Supply & Management 4: 1-11 El-Manadely, M.S., Abdel-Bary, R.M., El-Sammany, M.S. and Ahmed, T.A. 2002. Characteristics of the delta formation resulting from sediment deposition in Lake Nasser, Egypt: approach to tracing lake delta formation. Lakes and Reser-voirs: Research and Management, 7, 81–86. Elsheikh, S., Kaikai, A. and Andah, K. 1991. Intensive sedi-ment transport from the Upper Nile Basin and water re-sources management in Sudan. In: Hydrology for the Water Management of Large Rivers (F.H.M. van de Ven, D. Gutknecht, D.P. Loucks and K.A. Salewicz, Eds.). IAHS Publication No. 201, 291–300.

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Fan, S., and F.E. Springer. 1993. Major sedimentation issues at the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission. In: Fan, S., Morris, G. (Eds.), Notes on Sediment Management in Reservoirs. Water Resources Publications, Colorado, USA, 1–8. Kondolf, G.M., 1997. Hungry water: effects of dams and gravel mining on river channels. Environmental Management, 21(4): 533–551. Milliman, J.D. and Syvitski, J.P.M. 1992. Geomorphic, Tecton-ic control of sediment discharge to the ocean: the im-portance of small mountainous rivers. The Journal of Geol-ogy, 100, 525–544. Morris, G. L. and Fan, J., 1998. Reservoir sedimentation hand-book: Design and management of dams, reservoirs, and watersheds for sustainable use. McGraw-Hill. Monenco 1993. Merowe multi-Purpose Hydro-Project", Feasi-bility Study, Volume I -VI, MOIWR, Sudan. Poff, N.L., J.D. Allan, M.B. Bain, J.R. Karr, K.L. Prestegaard, B.D. Richter, R.E. Sparks, and J.C. Stromberg. 1997. The natural flow regime: a paradigm for river conservation and restoration. Bioscience 47(11):769–784. Shahin, M.1985. Hydrology of the Nile Basin. Elsevier, Am-sterdam, 575 pp. Sumi, T. and Kantoush, S. A. 2010. Integrated Management of Reservoir Sediment Routing by Flushing, Replenishing, and Bypassing Sediments in Japan River Basins, 8th International Symposium on ECOHYDRAULICS (ISE 2010), COEX, Seoul, Korea, pp. 651-673. Sumi, T. and Kantoush, S. A. 2010. Stochastic sediment depo-sition processes of large reservoirs in Japan, 11th Int. Symp. on River Sedimentation (ISRS), South Africa, pp. 111. UNESCO, 1978. World Water Balance and Water Resources of the Earth. UNESCO Studies and Reports in Hydrology No. 25, Paris. ICOLD. 1989. Sedimentation control of reservoirs. Internation-al Committee of Large Dams. Williams, G.P., and M.G. Wolman. 1984. Downstream effects of dams on Alluvial Rivers. US Geological Survey Profes-sional Paper 1286. Woodward JC, Macklin MG & Welsby DA (2001) The Holo-cene fluvial sedimentary record and alluvial geoarchaeology in the Nile Valley of northern Sudan. In: Madday D, at al. (Eds) River Basin Sediment Systems: Archives of environmental change (pp 327-355). Rotterdam, Balkema

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© SB13-Cairo 2013 Wet Landscape El Gohary, G.

Wet Landscape: Using Sculptures to Form Underwater Landscape El Gohary, G. 1

Ain Shams University, Department of Urban Planning and Design e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract: The last two years have seen Egypt in a touristic crisis as an outcome of the 25th of January revolution, 2011. Other reasons for the drop in the economy regarding tourism are due to the threats that face Egypt’s sea life reserves such as in a dolphins’ reserve known as «Samadaa» in city of Marsa Alam on the Red Sea where large numbers of dolphins were at risk of escaping the protected areas because of divers and random tourists’ visits. After the wave of the 30th of June 2013, a futuristic hope rose for new criteria in the touristic management of the country. Our duty is to gather and think in a creative scope for attracting tourists once again to Egypt and lure tourists away from the natural reserves for the wildlife’s safety. The research aims to raise awareness of the touristic attractions in the Egyptian coastal underwater heritage. The main objective is to design criteria for a sustainable underwater recreation museum attraction. The sub-objectives are; studying a similar international case study in Cancun and exploring materials used in the project and its equivalent environmental circumstances in Egypt diving spots as well as studying the main preserves in Egypt to choose a location for the proposed project. The first part of the research is visual study to the international trial in Mexico for the first underwater museum created by a British artist called Jason Decaires Taylor. The second part is exploring the Egyptian elemental mixture of sea water and its environmental gradients in Sinai’s diving preserves and the issue of: biogeography and biodiversity of species in the Red Sea. Finally ending by a proposed project for an underwater museum and the conclusion is a proposed criteria for creating any artistic sustainable landscape underwater and thus, can be called “Wet landscape”.

Keywords: coral reefs, eco-tourism, environmental gradients, salinity, underwater archaeology.

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1.

INTRODUCTION

Tourism in Egypt occupies an important place in the national economy, accounting for over 11% of GDP, it used to employ 1.2 million persons. (EEAA, 2012) The fall in tourist numbers over the past few months, has been heartbreaking for all touristic media, even the horses who work around the pyramids. Lately the Foreign Office advised Britons to avoid all but essential travel to all parts of Egypt excluding the Red Sea resorts. They forced tour operators to cancel thousands of packages and US State Department issued a similar advisory. Egypt attracted around 11.5 million overseas tourists in 2012, up from 9.8 million in 2011, but still down from around 14 million in 2010, see Figure1. It was reported that during Easter, which is one of Egypt’s peak periods for tourism, the occupancy rates in Luxor hotels fell to 17%. (Smith, 2013) Thankfully, the Red Sea resorts have remained fairly resilient, that why our creative thinking has to focus on the stable parts in Egypt to start with. Tourists enjoy coming to Egypt for diving as it is an internationally recognized sport and recreational pastime.

Figure 1: Number of Overseas Tourists in Egypt the last three years. (Research work)

While reading on this issue, it was noticed divers around the world are not only interested in coral reefs and natural underwater creatures, but also un-natural circumstances like historical shipwrecks occupied by fish, monuments and statues. For example, an Egyptian spot called SS Thistlegorm Wreck was ranked as the most popular wreck dive in the world after Barracuda point in Malaysia and Yongala shipwreck in Australia. (Bremner, 2012) It is located near Ras Muhammad by and it is 128-meter-long British transport ship, which was attacked and sunk in 1941 on its way from Glasgow to Alexandria see Figure 2. The ship was carrying a variety of rifles, motorbikes, trucks, vehicle parts, rubber boots and radios. (Kean,2009)

Figure 2: The SS Thistlegorm wreck. (Kean, 2009) 352


Additionally, a mysterious Chinese warrior statue was discovered in La Jolla Cove in San Diego in 2011 50 feet underwater.(Mowad, 2012) And in the Harbor of San Fruttuoso Italy, artist Guido Galletti created a bronze statue “Christ of the Abyss”, which was an idea of Italian diver Duilio Marcante for depicting Christ offering a blessing of peace, with his head and hands raised skyward.It is submerged 17 metres underwater see Figure 3. (Wikipedia, 2013) Divers find it interesting exploring monumental underwater statues.

Figure 3: Chinese statute in La Jolla Cove (Swimmer, 2013) & Christ of the Abyss. (Wikipedia, 2013)

In 1986 one of the greatest discoveries in the history of underwater archaeology was discovered. A diver near the island of Yonaguni Jima, off the southern tip of Japan came across some strange structures about 25 metres below sea level. Geologists proved that the ancient city is 14000 years old. Some believe it is natural but most people see it is manmade architecture see Figure 4. (Bruhaspati, 2013) Divers come from all over the world for the sake of exploration ancient monuments in an ultra ordinary place underwater.

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Figure 4: Ancient Yonaguni Jima monuments. (Bruhaspati, 2013)

Mexicans also recognized the appeal of artistic and monumental tourist attractions and they made a trial to attract divers by artificial exploration that can be sustainable and economical at the same time as shown in Figure 5.

Figure 5: Statue Man on Fire in MUSA museum Cancun.

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2. METHODOLOGY The paper is a pure collective research depends on reviewing data from an international case study in Mexico and local data about diving sites, then collecting information from both parts for a collective proposed Egyptian project. Cancun will be studied deeply in the first part of the research. In Egypt we have a lot of diving spots that are reviewed in the second part of the research for site selection for the proposed project. The third part is a proposed project for an underwater park that resembles Cancun Park with the Egyptian traditional and monumental attractions. Finally is the conclusion of the research and recommendations.

3. MUSA UNDERWATER MUSEUM IN CANCUN In Cancun, Mexico’s largest touristic destination see Figure 6, Mexicans ecologists formed a monumental underwater museum called MUSA. The underwater museum is located in the waters surrounding Cancun, Isla Mujeres and PuntaNizuc.

Figure 6: Cancun destination in Mexico. (Google earth, 2013)

It is becoming one of the largest and most ambitious underwater artificial attractions in the world. Cancun is a great barrier reef, but like many reefs it faces threats of pollution, warming ocean temperatures and over fishing. The particular spot of Cancun has 750 thousand visitors each year which put pressure on the exiting reefs; this project actually was to discharge people away from the natural reefs. (Taylor, 2011) It consists of over 400 permanent life size sculptures and works of local and international artists. Finally it became the largest and most ambitious underwater artificial attractions in the world. It demonstrates the interaction between art and environmental science to form a complex reef structure for marine life to colonise and inhabit. It is the first underwater sculpture park and landscape in the water. There is nothing theme park there, but you have to interact with it and discover the sculptures yourself.

3.1

Materials

The sculptures are made from specialized materials used to promote coral life. The MUSA museum is formed of cement art work sculptures covered by coral reefs, algae, fish and salt water. The logo and the advertisement brochure of the site shows the materials very clearly in putting a statue full of natural corals as see Figure 7. Wide scope of creating artificial reefs intended to be inhabited by marine life.

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Figure 7: Cancun Logo and advertising brochure. (Skyscrapers, 2013)

3.1.1

Corals Reefs

2008 was the International Year of the Reef. (Wilkinson, 2008) The entire world focused on it and research work found out that coral reefs are dying around the world (The Guardian, 2009) as a result of pollution, coral mining, over fishing and warming oceans. (Science Daily, 2009) Only 46% of the world’s reefs could be regarded as in good health while 60% may be at risk due to destructive, human-related activities. In this case the following artistic solution was conservation for coral reef re-generation. 3.1.2

Art work

Sculptures are made of a special type of marine grade cement “pH neutral clay” see Figure 8, engineered to attract corals, so coral adhere to it and grow, make different formation and that encourage fish and other green life see Figure 9. (Taylor, 2011) promote the growth of coral reef and marine life as if it is underwater garden, with the total installation occupying an area of over 150sq metres and weighing over 120 tons. (Aqua World, 2008)

Figure 8: Cement artistic statutes by Jason Taylor. (Taylor, 2011).

Figure 9: Formation of corals on cement statutes, (Research work) 356


3.1.3

Sea Life

The main body of the museum is called "The Silent Evolution”, it consists of 400 sculptures are nearly in 30 feet of water having formed coral reefs on them and in a few months they attracted a wide variety of life. (Viator, 2013) The second body is “Manchones reef”. The corckal display indirectly helps the natural reefs; the layout is important, Taylor invasions a neighbourhood for fish and other creatures. The configuration attracts fish and coups of fish live over sculptures and if there is any danger they hide under the feet area see Figure 10. Art and the beauty of the natural world together may help to preserve the sustainable marine life, (Taylor, 2011) creating artificial reef, for natural growth of corals and plants.

Figure 10: Art and natural beauty. (Research mix)

3.1.4

Water

Water is shallow no more than 9.144 meters deep, for this dive is made for photo lovers not professional divers. The water temperature in Cancun is constantly warm, with comfortable 25°C as the lowest and warm 28.9°C as the highest so it is optimal conditions for swimming, diving or relaxing see Figure 11 for a whole year water temperature in Cancun.

Figure 11: Average Water Temperature in Cancun. (Water Temperature, 2013)

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4. EGYPTIAN DIVING SITES In Egypt divers can find many different kinds of fish, coral reefs and wrecks. The Red Sea has a fifth area of Coral Reefs in the world 17,640 kilometres square, regardless South East Asia the largest area of corals 91,700 kilometres square. (Wilkinson, 2008) Mainly South Sinai used to account for 17.4% of workers in tourist establishments and 19.1% of total revenues. Tourism in South Sinai is overwhelmingly sea resort tourism and largely mass, for example in year 20002001, 86% of tourists were foreign and only 14% Egyptian. Diving spots includes; Sharm El Sheik, Dahab, Taba, Marsa Alam, Nuweiba, El koseir, & Horghada see Figure 12. This part of the research concentrates on Sharm EL Sheik for its peak touristic level. (Lau, 2013)

Figure 12: Egyptian Diving Areas. (Google earth, 2013)

4.1

Red Sea Water

Water Natural sea water includes over 70 chemical elements and although most of the elements influence the water parameters. Red Sea has provided a better understanding of the balance between the elements found in natural reef water that is essential for the long term. 4.1.1

Red Sea water mix

The NaCl “sodium chloride” is mixed together with other natural materials to provide the ideal balance of major, minor and trace elements that make up natural reef water which is crystallized clear see Figure 13. The major elements in seawater are; Sodium, Chlorine, Magnesium, Sulfur, Calcium and Potassium. All of these elements are in quantities between 0.3 - 20 gram per liter. Minor elements in seawater are; Bromine, Boron, Carbon, Nitrogen, Fluorine, Silicon, and Strontium. Elements are in quantities between 0.001 - 0.1 gram per litre see Figure 14.

Figure 13: Red Sea Coral Reefs. (Red Sea, 2012)

Specific ratio between the foundation elements “Alkalinity” is necessary for coral vitality and the formation of a robust aragonite coral skeleton. There are over 50 trace elements present in natural seawater that are in concentrations of less than 0.001 g/ liter For example one trace element that plays a significant role in marine biology is Iodine, which presents at a level of .06 ppm (6 gram / 100,000 liters). Insufficient levels of Iodine will prevent many corals from growing and too much Iodine (0.09ppm) is toxic. (Red Sea, 2012) 358


50 Trace elements

Figure 14: Balance of Major and Minor elements in Red Sea Water. (Research work)

4.1.2 Water Environmental Gradients The high salinity and water turbidity with low temperatures are the principal environmental gradients affecting the distributions of species and habitats. The low levels of suspended nutrients, facilitating the development of the Red Sea’s coral reefs. In the Gulf of Aqaba wind-driven water circulation is driven by the prevailing north-easterly winds, with south-bound currents. Consequent eddies may produce northward currents along the Sinai coast south of Nuweiba and south of Taba. Typical wind speeds of 5-10 m s-1 generate surface currents of 15 – 25 cm s-1, sometimes higher. The Gulf of Aqaba is more subject to wave action than might be expected. Unprotected north-east shorelines and reefs can be exposed to moderately severe waves up to 2 meters. The most severe wave action is generated by strong storms which blow occasionally from the south. Surface current patterns in the Red Sea generally follow the prevailing north-south winds. There is little difference in either temperature or salinity between the surface and deep water currents in the northern Red Sea. The open Red Sea, tidal currents are generally weak and wind induced currents dominates. In general, the average surface current speed varies between 20 and 30 cm s-1 throughout the year. The tidal current is strongest, at spring tides, at the Straits of Tiran, whilst it almost disappears. (EEAA, 2012)

4.2

Egyptian Diving Reserves in Sharm El Sheik

The aim of most tourists is to enjoy the sun and partake in sea-based activities. Scuba diving in South Sinai has an international reputation. A full 73% of all tourist rooms in South Sinai are found in Sharm el Sheikh, Most diving centres are found in Sharm el Sheikh and almost all boatbased diving is based there. Dahab is the only other centre with a notable diving industry. (EEAA, 2012) One of the favoured places of divers in Egypt is Sharm El-Sheikh which is located in the South of the Sinai Peninsula. Four diving areas are: The Local Dive spots, Ras Mohammed, Strait of Tiran and Strait of Gubal. Between the Strait of Tiran and Sharm ElSheikh there are 17 diving sites, they all have a sheltered position, protected from strong currents and waves. The fringing reef extends all the way along the coast-line creating the perfect ecosystem for coral growth and fish life. These dive sites are suitable for divers at all levels see Figure 15.

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Figure 15: Diving sites locations within South Sinai. (EEAA, 2012)

4.2.1

Ras Mohamed Reserve

Surface waters at Ras Mohamed have a fairly constant salinity of 40.5 parts per thousand (global average 33ppt), and a summer temperature between 26 and 28°C. (EEAA, 2012) It has five diving spots; Ras Za'atar, Jackfish Alley, Eel Garden, Shark Observatory, which is also known as “Ras Mohammed Wall” and Shark Reef with Yolanda Reef & Anemone City. For its geographic position it has strong massive currents which transport large quantities of plankton and other food. As a result of large amount of food in the water, an extraordinary growth of hard and soft corals with huge schools of reef and pelagic marine are attracted. (Lau, 2013) 4.2.2

Strait of Gubal

Strait of Gubal connects the Gulf of Suez and the Red Sea and is bordered to the west by the Egyptian coast and to the east by the Sinai peninsula. Diving Sides here are; Alternatives & Stingray Station, Dunraven Wrack (Beacon Rock), Small Crack and Thistlegorm Wrack. (Lau, 2013)

4.3

Marsa Alam

The north side of Marsa Murena is covered with numerous magnificent fire corals and sharks. Marsa Shagra is the ideal site to dive especially when surface conditions are too rough elsewhere. (Lau, 2013)

4.4

Biogeography and Biodiversity

The Red Sea has a distinctive biogeography within the Western Indian Ocean province. Within the Red sea large marine ecosystem, 209 hard and 16 soft coral species have been reported with diversity generally increasing towards the north. 800 fish species are known from the Red Sea. 23 species of fish common elsewhere in the Indo-Pacific region are not found anywhere in the Red Sea, except the Gulf of Aqaba see Figure 16. (EEAA, 2012)

Figure 16: Different underwater Landscape species. (Lau, 2013)

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5 EGYPTIAN UNDERWAER MUSEUM The proposed project is a marriage between sustainable marine life to artistic Egyptian culture. It can be one of the solutions that can raise the touristic level again in Egypt. This trial was meant to find out the routine to follow when staring such project in the real world, trying to select spatial compositions that show the tranquillity and speciality of both artificial monuments and coral reefs to form a natural beautiful and artistic underwater landscape. This part of the research is explaining the steps taken to produce this project by different compositions.

5.1

Project Location

After reviewing diving sites in the research studies, the location of the project is decided to be in Sharm El Sheik in a distance between Ras Mohamed and Sharm, away from the preserve with a suitable distance to discharge the touristic pressure on the diving sites. At the same time to benefit from the water environmental gradients and suitable elemental mix which is very essential for corals growth. The depth of the museum should be shallow around 10 meters depth, to allow more tourists to explore the site.

5.2

Art Work

Art work that is going to be used in this project needs to be specific, traditional and very Egyptian. Artists and sculptors should mould Pharoanic statues with the pH balance cement pours material that was created by the artist Taylor. Selection of Pharoanic statues distributed according to Historical families or historical stories. Statues are installed in water before the opening of the museum by 6 months to have time to attract corals on them. Plants and corals will grow on the statues forming historical garden in a museum that will attract divers’ tourists from all over the world.

5.2.1 Pharoanic Statue Composition A big collection proposal of Pharoanic statues altogether for crocky display to enhance reefs to grow in-between the monuments see Figure 17 to view the original statute and after it turned into artificial coral reefs. The art work should be scattered with small distances in-between or overlapped to create cave like compositions for the fish to habitat and corals to grow.

Figure 17: Pharoanic proposal for the Egyptian under water museum (Designed by the researcher)

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5.2.2

Garden Like Composition

This proposal deals with individual monument for more detail attraction. This kind of composition gives the sensation of gardens as each element acts alone as a tree or a figure ground in any landscape real garden. The composition starts from one till three maximum and different in sizes and separates the monuments to show its’ unique style of each one see Figure 18.

Figure 18: Garden Like composition proposal. (Designed by the researcher)

5.2.3

Proposes Project Logo

Figure 19: The proposed logo for the project. (Designed by the researcher)

6 CONCLUSIONS From the previous study; to make an artificial coral reefs park depends on an artistic work and installation of natural habitat to it. The proposed design Criteria and preparation process is formed of 12 steps detected from the project itself;

6.1 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

Design Criteria and Preparation Process It is recommended that this project should be under the control of the Ministry of Culture. and the culture centre located in Sharm El Sheik. Choose a reserve site. Study the environmental gradients. Choose an artistic theme for the park or the museum. Design of the park by landscapers and artists. Design an attractive logo and brochure by professionals to be used in advertisement. Advertise in all kinds of media. Sculpture the statues by artists using the right pH balanced cement material. Prepare the underwater site from cleaning, foundations and so on. Install the statues using prepared boats, cranes and professional. Give time to statues to attract corals and fish around 3 to 6 months. Prepare an opening festival covered by media gathering celebrates.

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6.2

Location

Location for any underwater artistic park should be around area of coral reserves, but not in the same spot. To discharge the touristic pressure on the main reserve, for secure environmental sustainability. The area is preferred to be away from the shark reserve to attract more tourists. The environmental gradients should be balanced and neutral for underwater creature’s attraction.

6.3

Advertising

It is very important from the beginning of the design to attract investors for finance purposes and to be well known by tourist all over the world. The advertisement should be in television, tourists’ guides, magazines, internet, radio and spreading brochure in boosts found in malls and clubs.

6.4

Design

The chosen theme should be attractive and artistic. The proposed project was chosen with a Pharoanic theme, but a lot of the traditional and historical themes can be used such as Islamic, Coptic, Roman, Bedwen, farm style and so on. Hundreds of ideas and traditional themes can be designed to fulfil tourist’s interests.

7 REFERENCES AquaWorld, (2008). Cancun Underwater Museum, ©2008 Aquaworld. The Water Kingdom All Rights Reserved, Mexico, http://www.aquaworld.com.mx/ , 20/05/013. Bremner, Jade, (2012). Into the deep: World’s 50 best dive sites, © 2013 Cable News Network. Turner Broadcasting System, Inc, CNN, USA. http://travel.cnn.com/explorations/escape/outdoor-adventures/, 12/07/013. Bruhaspati, (2013). Yonaguni Island, 14,000 years old in Japan, © 2013 Bruhaspati. All rights reserved, WordPress Theme designed by Theme Junkie, California, USA, http://bruhaspati.com/archeology/yonaguni-island-14000-years-old-in-japan, 11/07/013 EEAA, (2012). South Sinai Environment and Development Profile, Ministry of State for Environmental Affairs, Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency SEAM Program, Egypt. Kean, John, (2009). SS Thistlegorm - The True Story of the Red Sea's Greatest Shipwreck, Published by John Kean, UK. Lau, Werner, (2013). Dive Spots: Beautiful Diving Sites in Egypt and the Red Sea, Diving Centers Werner Lau, Egypt. Mowad, Michelle, (2012), Local divers find a mysterious statue off La Jolla Cove in November 2011, Copyright ©2013 Patch, LaJolla Patch, Issue of February 27, 2012, San Diego, USA Red Sea, (2012).A living reef in every Red Sea grain Vitalize your reef with Red Sea’s living reef salt, ©2012 Red Sea, www.redseafish.com, 12/05/013. Revolution25January.com, (2011). Diving tourism "critical of the decision to increase the fee to visit reserves in southern Sinai, Issue of 27th of August 2011, Egypt. Saeid, Mohamed, (2007), Red Sea: Diving and random visits threaten «Reserve Dolphins»,l Egypt Independent Magazine, Issue no. 992, Tuesday the 6th of March 2007, Egypt Independent Press, Cairo, Egypt. 363


Science Daily, (2009), In The Turf War Against Seaweed, Coral Reefs More Resilient Than Expected, Issue of June 3rd 2009 Smith, Oliver, (2013). Egypt crisis takes its toll on horses, Telegraph Travel, issue: 12 Jul 2013, © Copyright of Telegraph Media Group Limited 2013, UK. Skyscrapers, (2013). Su obra promueve el potencial MÉXICO | Cancun| "MUSA" Museo Subacuatico , Copyright©2009-2013 Skyscrapers, http://skyscraper.talkwhat.com, 9/07/013. Swimmer Daily, ( ). Mysterious Chinese warrior statue underwater in La Jolla Cove, Taylor, Jason Decaires, (2011). Interview with Miranda Krestovnikoff, The Underwater Channel TV, USA, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AcAAdIzsXZI, 17/03/013 The Guardian, (2009), Coral reefs around the world, guardian.co.uk, 2 September 2009, © 2013 Guardian News and Media Limited or its affiliated companies, USA. Viator, (2013). Cancun Underwater Museum, © 1997–2013 Viator, http://www.viator.com/tours/Cancun/Cancun-Underwater-Museum/ , 11/07/013. Water Temperature, (2013). Water temperature.com/cancun, 11/05/2013

Temperature

Cancun,

Inc.,

http://www.water-

Wikipedia, the free Encyclopaedia (2013). Christ of the Abyss, This page was last modified on 12 July 2013 at 02:08, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christ_of_the_Abyss, 13/07/013. Wilkinson, Clive, (2008). Status of Coral Reefs of the World: Executive Summary, Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network, USA.

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© SB13-Cairo 2013 Infrastructures: possibilities and potentials in reclaiming public space Shoaib, H. and El Gendy, N.

Infrastructures: possibilities and potentials in reclaiming public space A case study on the Ring Road of Cairo Shoaib, H.1.and El Gendy, N.2 1

Arab Academy for Science and Technology, Department of Architecture Qism El-Nozha, Cairo, Egypt e-mail: [email protected] 2

Cairo University, Department of Architecture Giza, Egypt e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract: Infrastructures are a major component of the city's urban landscape. They form edges, cut through neighbourhoods, and pass by rivers and deserts. The design of infrastructures has been mainly regarded from a functional perspective, linking places and optimizing speed and distance. However, infrastructures have shown to have an impact on the city beyond its functional role. Infrastructures pass through communities, separating them at times, and at times are the space where they engage. Also, they create residual spaces around them. Communities continue to make use of these spaces, appropriating them to their needs and requirements, creating what are called "loose space", according to their own perception, informally making their own public space. Infrastructural urbanism has been chosen as an approach to explore potentials and possibilities that such “arteries” in the city can hold. Cairo, as one of the most dense cities, showing deficiency of public space, and undergoing radical political transformations, shows initiatives and community attempts to reclaim public space. The location of the infrastructure network in Cairo varies in its social, natural and physical characteristics, and according to its location it is perceived and utilized in different ways. Bridges across the Nile act as recreational spaces that engage people with different backgrounds to enjoy the open air and the view. Under bridges are being utilized to accommodate commercial uses, workshops and parking lots. The intersection of the Ring Road of Cairo at two different locations overlooking the Nile and lying between formal and informal communities, when analyzed from an infrastructural urbanism approach, reveals potentials and possibilities in reclaiming public space, and hence reconfiguring urban spaces in the city.

Keywords: infrastructures, public space, residual space, social urbanism

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Driving on the University Bridge, at the Cairo University Complex, with the River Nile lining your left and right sides, you fall into space that is not merely for driving and passing from the University area to Al-Manial area, but rather a pavement bounded by parked cars from the bridge side and a fence from the River side. The pavement is a space alive with people walking, chatting and playing, covered with colourful plastic chairs and tables, the air is scented with the smell of grilled corn webs, sweet potatoes, “hummus al-sham”, and the sounds of peoples’ talks and laughs and spoons hitting the glass cups of tea overwhelm the place. A dynamic space, where people are taking group photos, couples are walking enjoying the Nile view. Even driving at a higher speed on Cairo’s Ring Road, which is one of Cairo’s largest Highways, that cuts the city at different levels, sometimes at the ground level, above, or beneath, however when you traverse the River Nile, you’re again at one of the communities self-created spaces where you find pop-up cafes and group gatherings at the sidewalk of one of Cairo’s highest speed highways. Beneath it you find another hub of informal public space including parking spaces, fruit markets, and cafes. Infrastructural networks of Cairo seem to establish a new role in the public realm and contribute to the community’s struggle to reclaim public space in one of the densest contemporary cities.

1.

INTRODUCTION

Public spaces and infrastructural networks may be thought of as two elements of two different disciplines, one relating to urban studies and the latter to civil engineering. Public space is vital to all city citizens to enhance their quality of life and meet their needs of socialization, recreation, and freedom of expression. Infrastructural networks became a major necessity in the city with the scale of Cairo. Both are publicly owned and compose a large percentage of the city’s urban landscape. The question is can infrastructures play a different role in transforming the typology of public spaces in the city? Public space is the city’s “hub” that reflects the cultural, economic, and political states of its community. Public space is any shared territory in the city’s urban environment where communities find the opportunity to communicate, socialize, recreate, celebrate protest and demonstrate. The formal types of public space that existed in cities are such as plazas, markets, streets, and urban parks (Jeffrey Hou, 2010). In urban areas, and especially in dense cities such as Cairo, with communities of diverse social, economic, and cultural backgrounds, public space becomes the media that conveys the interactions and socio-spatial relations of these communities. In such mega-cities, where space is costly, public space is becoming privatized and limited to access, and within the political transformations, leftover and residual spaces within the city fabric such as spaces below bridges, empty lots, and spaces around railway lines become valuable to the public realm and to the community’s reclaiming of public space. These communal attempts to reclaim public spaces provoked theorists in urban design field to rethink urban design theories and practices in our contemporary cities. Infrastructural networks as they cut through the city fabric with their massive scales create a large percentage of the cityscape. In our contemporary cities, the design of infrastructural networks is merely a functional role, taking into consideration the highest efficiency and safety standards. However, they have physical and social impacts on the city, fragmenting neighbourhoods and creating waste spaces that may be unappealing, oddly shaped and misused. Within this context, urban designers, planners and theorists are reconsidering the role of infrastructures as integral components of the urban design of contemporary cities. They are 366


reconsidering them as socio-spatial structures rather than linear elements linking spaces together (Tatom, 2005) Within this context of redefining the role of infrastructures in the urban environment, and as they are one of the main creators of leftover spaces within the city, which are becoming an asset of the community’s reclaiming of public space, this research is aiming to explore the potentials and possibilities that are inherent in the intersection of the infrastructural networks with the city in reclaiming public space.

2. 2.1.

LITERATURE REVIEW Public Space Reclaimed “In the recent decades, and in cities around the world, there have been small, yet persistent challenges against the increasingly regulated, privatized and diminishing forms of public spaces.” (Hou, 2010 p.1)

In cities around the world there is a deficiency of public space due to many reasons, such as privatization, governmental strategies, and developers’ vision in the urban design of cities. Due to this lack of public space, there are continuous struggles and attempts by the communities to find their own place and field of free expression in the contemporary city. In doing so they are redefining the boundaries, meanings and functions of the official public space and releasing new possibilities in the public realm (Hou, 2010). In the city of Cairo, this struggle of communities is developing and transforming everyday, aided by the political transformations and the community’s increasing belief of their right to exist. One of the striking discoveries and reclaiming of public space was revealed at the time of the Egyptian Revolution 2011.The revolutionary protests at Tahrir square downtown Cairo, have introduced a new concept of reclaiming public space. People from different social, political, economic, and cultural backgrounds, gathered in a space that was intentionally designed to be a roundabout. Through their gathering and interaction, they rediscovered the potentials of the space from a mere roundabout to one of the most remarkable public spaces of the year. The Egyptians created their desired city at Tahrir Square. They lived together, discussed their demands, built their shelter, discussed their beliefs, cooked their food, played, sang, prayed, and protested! The process of reclaiming public space can also be traced in different areas of Cairo with different modifications and adaptations. In Cairo’s streets, you find street vendors, food carts, and pop-up cafes. On top of the bridges, the “marginalized communities” create their own recreational spaces, practicing their right as to enjoy the Nile River view, which are mostly privatised. On official holidays you find people picnicking at the middle pavements of large streets and the waste spaces underneath bridges you find markets, workshops, and sometimes, cultural centres.

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Figure 1: Qasr El-Nile Bridge (Photographer: Doha Magdy, PhD Candidate, 2013)

Figure 2: Qasr El-Nile Bridge (Google Images, 2013)

Figure 3: Qasr El-Nile Bridge (Google Images, 2013)

This type of public space has been a field of focus for the researchers in urban design fields, and has been given several names, such as insurgent public space, tactical urbanism, handmade urbanism, and others. This process of reclaiming is continuing to take place in the contemporary cities, giving spaces values and uses that were not previously intended for these spaces. (Hou, 2010) These types of spaces that are being discovered and reclaimed by the community as public space are referred to as residual/leftover spaces.

2.2.

Infrastructural residual spaces-Potentials and possibilities

In most of the contemporary cities, the urban environment is filled with what you can call residual or leftover space. They are publicly owned spaces that may be oddly shaped, unappealing, underused or deteriorated. Such spaces may be found below bridges, at vacant lots, side walks, parking lots, abandoned buildings, piers, waterfronts, tunnels, and in spaces around railway lines. They have been named by Karen Franck also in his book of Loose space as the negative or void to the city of fixed type of open space; they are the “other places” (Franck, 2006). They have been also described by La Varra 2001 in his book Post-it City as “a fragile and fragmentary network, which filters into the tightly woven structures of urban public space”. These residual spaces have contributed to redefine the concept of public space, as communities have recognized potentials in them to create spaces with new perceptions, uses and activities. The resulting space has been described by Karen Franck as loose space. Loose space is this lost space where people recognize the possibilities inherent in it and make use of the possibilities for their own needs, facing the potentials and risks of doing so. She has given them some characteristics also in order to be loose, such as free accessibility, where there are spaces that were planned for certain functions, yet they legally and physically accommodate other functions as well, and where spaces include kinds of spaces without assigned functions that accommodate unintended and unexpected activities. (Franck, 2006) This phenomenon of lost/leftover/ residual space becoming loose space and how it has configured the perception of public space, has opened the door for the exploration of the hidden possibilities and potentials within the city spaces. This perception of space can be found in space theories, such as that of Lefebvre. Lefebvre, in his theory of space has studied space with its multi-perceptions and possibilities, beyond being only location, material, and social relations, but rather an opportunity for liberation and expression, a potential for unexpected experiences and actions, and an element in the urban and social radical transformations. He regards our existence in space, and through our everyday lives, their lies a potential for what is 368


unexpected, and hence the design of space should take this factor into consideration appropriating space through socio-spatial praxis. (M.Gottdiener, 1988) Infrastructural networks, and especially bridges and elevated highways, create a diversity of “interstices” that have yet more specific features. Ed wall 2011 has described them in, as interstitial spaces, which are found between, under, and over large infrastructural forms. Interstices are fragmented, unsightly open spaces, small, irregular diverse in form, enclosed, empty, abandoned, and contrasting in scale to the infrastructures They are either shaded under storey beneath the structure, spaces captured by the roundabouts and entry/exit roads, and other interstices caught between the motorway and infrastructural network of canals and railway tracks. These spaces appear empty and abandoned at the beginning, but by time communities discover aesthetical and commercial values in them, appropriating these spaces for other uses of their needs.

3. 3.1.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Problem Definition:

Cairo as one of the mega-cities experiences a deficiency of public space, due high-density fabric, privatization, and other political and socio-economic factors. In response to this deficiency communities are struggling to reclaim the public space.

3.2. Hypothesis: Cairo is a city that is majorly divided into formal and informal sectors, and both are deficient in public spaces, that are being extensively transformed into private entities. Hence, Infrastructures form a potential to reclaim public space in megacities such as Cairo. This potential lies in considering infrastructure networks as socio-spatial elements in urban design, and in the re-use of the residual spaces created by them to meet different community needs. Through the integration of these two factors, infrastructures can be a potential to reshape public space in the city and work as spaces of social reconciliation.

3.3.

Research Objective:

This research is an attempt to explore the potentials and possibilities hidden within infrastructures in the process of reclaiming public space. The empirical part of this research will be applied on the city of Cairo as it one of the densest contemporary cities experiencing a deficiency in public space, and undergoing political transformations that have reshaped its urban spaces and transformed their recognition of their rights of the city and reclaiming of space. This objective is achieved as follows: 1. Exploring the state of art of the relationship between the Infrastructures and Public Spaces and conducting an approach for analysis and intervention within such spaces. 2. Defining the process of reclaiming public space and relating it to the city of Cairo. 3. Explaining what type of space is being reclaimed and how it is related to infrastructural networks.

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4. Experimenting how infrastructures have potentials and possibilities in reclaiming public space in Cairo through: a.

Analysis of the previously discussed literature and theories.

b.

Applying an empirical study on one intersection node of a major highway, the Ring Road, with the city, by analysing its existing state and how it was recognized and utilized by people, and by proposing further spaces of potential have not been recognized yet. This study will be conducted through field observations and investigations, in addition to cartographical analysis, observations, mapping and graphical analysis.

4.

INFRASTRUCTURAL URBANISM STRATEGY

Spaces created by infrastructures are opening potentials and possibilities in reclaiming public space in the city. Not only through these spaces, infrastructures are becoming inherent in the process of urban design, but through arising studies attempting to address infrastructures from an urbanistic perspective rather than a functional one. 4.1

Infrastructures-From functionality to Urbanism “Highways are public space writ large, in the metropolitan reach of their network as well as their sheer size.” (Jacqueline Tatom, 2006 p.181)

The role of infrastructures in the urban design of cities has been elaborated in the process of exploration of landscape urbanism. Infrastructural networks; which are streets with their different hierarchies, railroad tracks, and flyovers; elevated highways and bridges, are the most generative public landscape. In the course of the twentieth century, the standardization of infrastructural systems has increased to meet the high standards of technical efficiency. The design of these infrastructural systems within the urban environment was mainly evaluated technically regardless of the social, aesthetical, and ecological aspects. (Tatom, 2006) However, infrastructures have their significant effect on the urban landscape of the city, as they transform the urban fabric, topology and surrounding landscape (Hauck, Kleinekort, 2011). They are massive in scale, and hence they disrupt the physical and social fabric of the neighbourhoods they traverse, and social fabric of the neighbourhoods they traverse. Due to their influence on the urban environment, urban designers and landscapers have started to question their spatial qualities. There is an emerging discourse that requires designers and engineers to shift there design criteria from utility to amenity and from infrastructure to urbanism. Jacqueline Tatom 2006 quotes in her paper that the design of these networks to provide efficient automobile circulation in cities should be considered as an urbanistic opportunity rather than a planning liability. This phenomenon of designing infrastructural networks and especially highways as an integral part of urban design has its roots in history. In the modern era, the creation of boulevard systems, parkways, and highways were an integral part of the city remaking. They were integrated with the design of public and residential spaces, and modern sanitation systems. Paris boulevards were designed taking into consideration public places for pedestrians, leisure and commercial spaces, besides the vehicular and utilitarian uses. Not only the spaces, but the architecture that surrounded the boulevards was also considered as part of the circulation

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system. They were designed to be fit in the urban fabric, allowing social rituals to exist. (Tatom, 2006)

4.2

The Proposed Infrastructural Urbanism Strategy

In this emerging discourse of redefining the spatial quality of infrastructures, and in addition to the potential and qualities hidden in the residual spaces they create, their lies a possibility for infrastructure networks to be a potential for reclaiming public space in the city. This potential is perceived through approaching infrastructures through infrastructural urbanism strategy. In this strategy, infrastructures are considered as socio-spatial structures. Infrastructures are associated with spaces and with communities interacting with them and with these spaces. As previously stated, Lefebvre, in his theory of space, regards that through our existence in space, and through our everyday lives, their lies a potential for what is unexpected, and hence the design of space should take this factor into consideration appropriating space through sociospatial praxis. Due to this perception, and in the emerging discourse of redefining the spatial qualities of infrastructures, infrastructures can be considered as socio-spatial structures. Due to this redefined spatial quality, their role in the urban design process is being re-configured also, to become an integral element in this process. In this research, infrastructural urbanism is being defined as an assessment of infrastructures as socio-spatial structures with the potentials and possibilities of the residual spaces they create as an approach for new urban design strategies of public space in the city. The exploration of how infrastructures can be a potential to reclaim public space is through analyzing infrastructures with an infrastructural urbanism perspective.

5.

CAIRO RING ROAD – CASE STUDY

Based on a reading of the processes of expansion of Greater Cairo and the logic beyond its current form and structure, it is possible to identify a strategy to redefine new insurgent public spaces that can fill the missing relations and re-stitch the gaps that cut the city fabric apart. However, the intervention within Cairo’s fabric is very complicated, as it is a very dense city fabric, with a variety of juxtaposed layers. According to the Japan International Cooperation Agency, Greater Cairo can be considered the most densely inhabited metropolis on earth, at 257 persons per built-up hectare, denser than the metropolitan areas of Lagos, Manila, Tehran, Jakarta, or Delhi. Even higher density estimates of above 350 persons per hectare, are given for Greater Cairo, although some sources put Mumbai just ahead of Cairo as the world’s most dense city. (Sims, 2010) The process of continuous densification due to the governmental policies and the increase of population have lead to a very dense fabric with very scarce open spaces in the formal and the informal areas.

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5.1.1. 5.1.2. 5.1.3.

Figure 4: Cairo MapFormal areas (The Researcher, 2013)

5.1.

Figure 5: Cairo MapInformal areas (The Researcher, 2013)

Figure 6: Cairo Map-Open spaces network (The Researcher, 2013, 2013)

Figure 7: Cairo MapInfrastructural network(The Researcher, 2013)

The Moneeb / Maadi Ring Road Junction

The ring road is one of the major arteries that was initially designed to contain the urbanization process in Cairo as well as serve as a connector between the various neighbourhoods across the city. However, the construction of the ring road encouraged the informal settlements to expand along its periphery, turning it to a divider or a border between the formal and informal cities. The ring road being a massive infrastructural element cutting through the sprawling city has produced a number of residual spaces below its structure as well as its entry and exit points. These spaces provided a potentiality to create a number of public spaces that serve both communities. Our case study was selected at one of the intersections of the ring road with the city fabric at one of the two segments in which it crosses the river Nile. This point serves as an opportunity to clarify how this ring road segment did not only serve as a community public space overlooking the river Nile view, but also how the associated residual spaces can also serve as a public space for the neighbouring communities, turning them into quality spaces regardless of their position underneath or beside a flyover or a highway.

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Figure 8: Cairo Ring Road Crossing the Nile (Google Earth, 2011)

Intersection point of Maadi Ring Road crossing the Nile where the sidewalks are used as recreational areas Intersection point of Moneeb

Figure 9: Diagram showing two intersection point at Moneeb and Maadi (Photographer: Google Earth, 2011)

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The Moneeb Intersection point The site of this junction is the threshold between two parallel neighbourhoods; al-Moneeb (Informal) and Giza (Formal).This point also lies on the intersection of one of the ring road and the Nile Corncihe.This site is a collection of residual agricultural plots within the two parallel neighbourhoods

Figure 10: Diagram of intersection of Moneeb( Google Earth, 2011) Residual Space 1

Residual Space 2

Residual Space 3

Residual Space 4

Residual Space 5

Residual Space 6

Residual Space 7

This space is parallel to the roundabout, irregular in shape, large in size, and existing land uses are residential buildings, green areas, and vacant plots.

Figure 16

Figure 11: Aerial view of intersection of Moneeb( Google Images, 2013)

Figure 12

This space typology is captured by the roundabout, halfcircular in shape, medium in size, and existing land use is vacant plot.

This space typology is at the intersection of entry/exit points, triangular in shape, medium in size, and existing land use is green areas.

Figure 16

Figure 13

Figure 17

Figure 14

Figure 18 Figures 16-18: Images of the use of space under the bridge at the Moneeb intersection (The Researcher, 2011)

This space typology is parallel to the roundabout, irregular in shape, medium in size, and existing land use is vacant l t

Figure 15 Figures 12-15: Snapshots of the residual spaces of the Moneeb intersection (The Researcher, 2011)

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The Maadi Intersection point The site of this junction the threshold between two parallel neighbourhoods; al-Maadi (Formal) and Izbit KhayrAllah (Informal).This point also lies on the intersection of one of the ring road and the Nile Corncihe.This site is a residual space overlooking the river Nile

Figure 19: Diagram of intersection of Maadi( Google Earth, 2011) Figure 20: Aerial view of intersection of Maadi( Google Images, 2013)

Residual Space 1

This space is captured by the roundabout, half-circular in shape, medium in size, and existing land uses are residential building and green areas. Residual Space 2

Residual Space 3

This space is at the intersection of entry/exit points, triangular in shape, small in size, and existing land use is t

Figure 21

This space parallel to the highway, linear in shape, medium in size, and existing land uses are recreational areas. Figure 22

Residual Space 4

Residual Space 5

This space is captured by the roundabout, half-circular in shape, medium in size, and existing land uses are green areas, residential buildings and vacant plots. This space is at the intersection of entry/exit points, triangular in shape, small in size, and existing land use is vacant. This space parallel to the highway, linear in shape, medium in size, and existing land uses are planted areas and vacant plots.

Residual Space 6

Figure 23

Figures 21-25: Snapshots of the residual spaces of the Moneeb intersection (The Researcher, 2011) 375

Figure 24

Figure 25


5.2.

The Case Study Conclusion

Through the site observation and the cartographical analysis of two intersection points of the ring road highway at Moneeb and Maadi areas. A number of relationships have been concluded: A. Both intersection points are thresholds between two formal and informal communities and both overlooks the Nile Corniche, B.A variety of interstices or residual spaces of different sizes, shapes, quality and land uses exist. This variety was according to their location underneath the highway, at the intersection of the entry or exit points, or enclosed within the roundabouts, C. Some of these spaces have been recognized and reclaimed by people, such as the space under the Moneeb intersection which is being used for food markets, micro-buses parking areas and cafés. In addition to the sidewalks of the ring road which accommodate pop-up cafés. Through the approach of infrastructural urbanism, various potentials can be read from these two sites that can be used to re-configure the public spaces of this area: A. The variety of size and shape of these spaces opens up possibilities for a diversity of uses and functions, which can vary from parks, market places and pop-up cafes…etc., B. The intersection of the ring road with the Nile Corniche at these points makes some residual spaces overlooking the river Nile as well as the structure of the ring road itself of a very high value. Hence, adapting the ring road body itself by installing complementary structures such as cantilevers to absorb some recreational activities as well as the associated residual spaces, C. The location of the intersection points between two different communities of the formal and the informal sectors can be considered as an opportunity to create a social interrelationship between two segregated communities. According to the potential of such an intersection point in reclaiming infrastructures, there is a further study for this research suggesting an overall infrastructural urbanism strategy on the scale of city of Cairo, to create a chain of reclaimed public space between the urban fabric.

6.

CONCLUSION

Contemporary cities around the world are experiencing a deficiency of public space. In response to this deficiency, communities are struggling to reclaim their public space. This action of reclaiming is happening through the discovery and re-use of residual spaces embedded in the urban fabric, through urban interventions such as insurgency or tactical urbanism. Through research and observation, infrastructure networks are one of the main creators of this residual space. In this context, the role of infrastructures in reclaiming public space can be questioned. Infrastructures form a large percentage of the public amenity. They are increasingly becoming scope of attention for urban landscapers and designers who started to question the spatial qualities of these structures, and to redefine their role from a functional to an urbanisitic one. This emerging discourse is calling to integrate infrastructures in the urban design of the city. This approach has been referred to as infrastructural urbanism (Hauck, et al., 2011). This research defines infrastructural urbanism as an approach of the socio-spatial quality of infrastructures with the inherent potentials and possibilities in the residual spaces they create in the urban fabric. This assessment was used as an approach to explore how infrastructures can be a potential to reclaim public space in the city. Cairo is one of the densest contemporary cities, with communities of diverse social, cultural, and economic backgrounds. In addition, Cairo is experiencing radical political transformations which consequently affect the recognition of its citizens of their rights to use and reclaim space in the city. The area of the case study was chosen at two intersection points of the Ring Road with the city, overlooking the Nile Corniche, 376


and between formal and informal communities, as it was spotted as one of the major segments that show community recognition of the space. This empirical study has revealed several outcomes, regarding the quality of location of these intersection points, the potentials of the residual spaces that exist, and the social reconciliation that can be achieved between two diverse communities. Some of these spaces have been recognized and re-used by the community, and some spaces haven’t but yet have characteristics and potentials to be further utilized. Through this analysis, it can be concluded that the approach of infrastructural urbanism on such types of intersections opens up limitless possibilities in reclaiming public space. Therefore, it is further proposed to apply this urban strategy at a larger scale on the city of Cairo, taking different intersection points of the Ring Road, and hence reconfiguring the chain of public spaces in the city.

7. REFERENCES Auge, M. (1995). Non-places : introduction to an anthropology of supermodernity. London: Verso. Franck K. and Stevens Q. (2006) Loose Space: Possibility and Diversity in Urban Life, Routledge. Giddings B., Hopwood B., Mellor M. and O’ Biren G (Eds.). (2005) Back to the City: A Route to Urban Sustainability, Future Forms and Designs for Sustainable Cities. Gottdiener M. (1988) The Social Production of Urban Space. Hauck T., Keller R. and Kleinekort V. (Eds.) (2011) Infrastructural Urbanism : Addressing the Inbetween, DOM Publishers. Hou J. (Ed.) (2010) Insurgent Public Space: Guerrilla Urbanism and the Remaking of Contemporary Cities, Routledge La Varra G. (2001) Post-it City. Sims, D. (2010). Understanding Cairo: The Logic of a City Out of Control. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press. Sola-Morales Rubio, I. (1995). Terrain vague. In C. Davidson (Ed.), Anyplace. Cambridge, Massachussets: MIT Press. Trancik R. (1986) Finding Lost Space: Theories of Urban Design. Tatom J. (2006) Urban Highways and the Reluctant Public Realm, The Landscape Urbanism Reader, Princeton Architectural Press. Wall E. (2011) Infrastructural Form, Interstitial Spaces and Informal Acts , Infrastructural Urbanism : Addressing the In-between., DOM Publishers.

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© SB13-Cairo 2013 A Novel Real-Time Traffic Surveillance System for Intermodal Travel Based on Cellular Networks BASYONI, Y. I.

A Novel Real-Time Traffic Surveillance System for Intermodal Travel Based on Cellular Networks A Case Study from Greater Cairo Metropolitan Area (GCMA) Basyoni, Y. I. German University Cairo, Department of Civil Engineering New Cairo City, Main Entrance El Tagamoa El Khames, Egypt e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract: Though, the segregation between design of inter-city and intra-city travel has been sighted as a major development in network planning. On the network-wide level, an efficient transportation network is based on proper coordination between the two travel types to avoid trip planning problems. The problem provokes as the percentage of trips undertaken by public transport systems increase. Similarly, for freight transport, the absence of a planned trip from the origin to the destination is very problematic. The dependence on road modes is very high given the door-to-door service. In cities with high population as most of the main cities in Egypt governorates, no physical networks can be added to alleviate the ever increasing congestion rates. Non-traditional alternatives as the use of Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS), can alleviate a lot of congestion and provide a more reliable system based on the availability of travel information. In Egypt, inter-city travel is not coordinated with intra-city travel. The absence of reliable or any trip schedules of most of the public modes of travel hinders the possibility of any proper trip planning either by network planners or for the travelers themselves. Moreover, the absence of a network-wide traffic surveillance system that serves as a backbone hinders the development of intermodal transportation planning. This paper presents a novel idea for a real-time traffic surveillance system that serves as a backbone to support intermodal travel based on tracking the anonymous cellular phones held by the travelers. The efficiency of the proposed system is measured by the discrepancies between the traffic data as generated by the simulation based network and the vehicular-based traffic data as extracted from tracking the cell phones. The real-time cellular based traffic surveillance system is presented as a cost effective and sustainable solution that does not require a secondary surveillance systems. Moreover, the surveillance system can provide traffic data in both offline and online settings, is calibrated in the offline-setting. In this paper, the design of the online setting is presented along with the results of extracting traffic data in real-time using modified Data Swarm Clustering (DSC) algorithm. Current work is in the prediction phase. However, the possibility of implementing such systems in field depends on legislation and enforcing considerations for data availability. Keywords: cellular phones, intermodal transportation, swarm clustering, traffic surveillance system 378


1.

INTRODUCTION

During the latest years, excessive rates of activities and higher cars’ ownerships have been highly witnessed. On the other hand, and inexpertly, the developments in the transportation network and systems have not been at sufficient rates to satisfy the expanding travel demands given the existing modes of travel. Along with the lack of proper improvement and maintenance of the network and systems, severe aging problems have resulted leading to an inefficient transportation system with very high congestion levels. Congested networks are not necessarily unreliable although congestion increases the likelihood of unreliability. The degree of unreliability increases by many non-recurrent factors as traffic incidents and special events for example. The existence of any information for the travellers, fleet operators and traffic management centers can alleviate and avoid travel time delay reducing traffic congestion. Given that, for many cases, extending the physical network does not solve the problem if any space is available. In Egypt during the year 2010 1,210,000 passenger car units (PCU) travelled the entire network of GCMA at peak hours according to "Cairo Traffic Congestion Study". GCMA is highly dependent on the road network and private modes of travel. 70% of GCMA's daily trips are undertaken by private cars, 15% by taxis, 8% by minibuses, microbuses, and buses and 7% by trucks in 2010. Only 23% of the daily trips are undertaken by public transport. The public transport system in GCMA is inadequate, has a limited capacity & coverage, and a poor quality of service. In addition, the public transport is centralized at few government agencies, most locations have no transport coverage, thus the traffic demand is very high. The total annual congestion cost for Greater Cairo Metropolitan area (GCMA) is about 13-14 billion LE. Passenger cars contribute to about 56% of GCMA congestion and the public transport contributes to 41%. By evaluating the causes of congestion, it was found that 36% of congestion is by travel time delay, 37% by recurrent and non-recurrent congestion & excess fuel cost, 25% due to unreliability, and 2% by CO2 emissions (Cairo Traffic Congestion Study 2010). 23% of the global CO2 emissions from fuel combustion, according to the world bank (WorldBank 2009). Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS) and Services allow a better utilization of the transport networks by sharing vital travelling information by the integration of information and communications technology with transport infrastructure, vehicles and users. ITS enhance the safe mobility for both people & freight, reducing traffic congestion, managing the transportation infrastructure more effectively and economically and reducing fuel consumption and emissions. The deployment of ITS systems is promoted widely due to the rapid diffusion and development of electronic devices, cellular phones and internet services. However, most of the vital effective ITS applications are based on the availability of a traffic surveillance system that provides fundamental traffic information as travel time and speed for instance. A traffic surveillance system is the backbone of any successful traffic management process and present both real time and historical traffic data. The traffic surveillance system can be considered an additional type of vital infrastructures in modern sustainable cities. A surveillance system is based on data collection in real-time from either road side units at fixed points as; radars, loop detectors, and video cameras … etc or from movable stations, well known as probe vehicles (Dalgleish & Hoose 2008) and Global Positioning Systems (GPS) (Turner et al. 1998). The high cost tag associated with large scale traffic surveillance systems hampers their 379


development especially in developing countries as Egypt that doesn't possess an appropriate network-wide surveillance system to this date. Lately, a new method of traffic data collection is the use of CPs' spatiotemporal data. Vehicles with CPs' users on their boards are considered as probe vehicles that could be tracking by tracing the CPs locations and/or positions updates during a trip (Sclaich et al. 2010). Each CP is envisioned as a traffic sensor carried by the user enabling tracking the traveller during his dwell and travel by any mode of transport.

1.1 Traffic Data From Cell Phones An area served with cellular networks is covered by a group of smaller cells with higher transmission intensities grouped to location areas (LA) with unique IDs. As the CP moves from one LA to another, or at any CP activity, the spatiotemporal data of the CP and a LA update (LAU) is exerted through a sophisticated switching technique called "handoff" to ensures that the call proceeds without interruption and the CP is not disconnected (Barbeau et al. 2009; Gur et al. 2009; Chandrasekaran et al. 2010). Handoff occurs for any switched on CP moving from one LA to another or from one cell to another if on call at the LA/Cell border in about 1 to 2 sec (Xiao, Shen & Du 2007). An additional periodic automatic LAU occurs for all CPs at a predefined duration, typically every 2 hrs (Caceres, Wideberg & Benitez 2007). The trajectory of a trip carried out by a vehicle can be simply represented by the trajectory of a CP that exists on its board as built from LAUs or spatiotemporal data. Meanwhile, CPs on-board of the same vehicle have identical spatiotemporal LAUs sequences with almost a scarce probability that two vehicles travel parallel even if at high congestion levels. LAs of each CP can be collected for any posterior analysis. Basically, CPs LAUs can be obtained from two modes, the passive mode and the active mode (with any CP’s activity). The active mode additionally provides a higher frequency of spatiotemporal data with higher accuracies. However, the rate & duration of each CP activity isn't quite long. Using GPS assisted (A-GPS) CPs offer more frequent data at lower spacing intervals. Traffic data can be computed from the aggregated data of all considered CPs and a pre-processing stage is practicable to filter out any undesired estimates prior to any traffic estimations especially in dense urban areas for map-matching to define nearest links (Tao et al. 2012). Using data from other TME sources as loop detectors is to reduce the amount of collected data using clustering methods (Friedrich et al. 2010) as K-means without affecting the model accuracy (LEE 2009). By combining CP data of various modes, a wide spectrum of traffic analysis can be presented. Traffic data extracted from CPs data described well the traffic pattern and were able to detect the normal variations in traffic and also at special events even if depending on a portion of the CP (Wang et al. 2013). Extracting traffic data from CPs has been repeatedly adopted in the literature, to obtain traffic data such as; travel time (Dalgleish & Hoose 2008; YOO, KANG & Park 2005), trip distribution tables (Pan et al. 2006), measure Revealed Preferences (RP), determine actual routing choices (Friedrich et al. 2010) and also in route guidance (Byon, Abdulhai & Shalaby 2011). However, most of the previous researches was built on the existence of a secondary reference system for data refinement and matching. Conversely, Basyoni & Talaat in 2013 presented the idea of using Data Mining and Artificial Intelligence algorithms in extracting reliable traffic data from CP networks with no need of a secondary or referencing surveillance system. The approach was supported by the increasing worldwide penetration rates of CPs that reached about 96.57% in July 2011, of 77.76 Million subscribers in Egypt (MCIT 2011) and recent developments in the fields of Data Mining and Artificial Intelligence to present a cost effective large scale surveillance system (Basyoni & 380


Talaat 2013). The model extracted vehicular counts with temporal dimensions from anonymous passive CPs LAUs in an offline setting using Modified Data Swarm Clustering (DSC) algorithm. A novel idea to identify vehicles' modes from dynamic data of the extracted vehicular counts was also presented. The developed model was evaluated on the 26th of July corridor in Egypt. Results showed very comparative performances; the average the estimated average Geoffrey E. Haver (GEH) value reached 0.19, and the and the Mean Absolute Percentage Error (MAPE) values for the correct vehicle (cluster) occupancy (size) as Boolean, as percentage, correct number of vehicles (clusters), and CPs clustered to correct vehicle are 92.46, 98.63, 97.59, and 99.33 respectively. However, Basyoni & Talaat's model was built on filtered trips of pre-defined OD pairs in an offline setting (Basyoni & Talaat 2013) which deters any real time (online) applications. Furthermore, the model was set only for inter-city travel on the road network. In Egypt, as a substitute for a traffic surveillance system, some recent applications that are based on users' feedback and evaluation have been introduced as Bey2olk, Wassalny, and Elzahma that started by covering GCMA and Alexandria. Those applications serving network and information are limited to the information as received from current active users feedback. The feedback of the user only transfers his qualitative evaluation of the road condition. Bey2olk has attracted about 0.5 million users of the 3 million smart phone users in Egypt till may 2013. Wasalny has received 1,342,978 reports, 17,328 picture, and traced 2,591,456 km travelled by its users. Elzahma application, launched last October, also supports tracing of GPS assisted phones. The application not only presents the current road status, but also has a map based interface and presents aggregated travel speed distributions by road, day, and time of day. Although, these applications depends on the availability of an active user, and lack the scientific methodologies and review of the transportation specialists, they have gained an increasing credibility by the travellers in Egypt.

1.2

Problem Definition and Research Objectives

This paper proposes a novel online traffic surveillance system that is suitable for the nondisciplined Egyptian traffic stream conditions and that can support various modes of transport for multimodal intercity travel and its coordination with the intra-city travel. The approach is based on CP data as a network-wide traffic surveillance, cost effective, and sustainable systems. The approach could be easily used, given a high CP penetration rate. However, the proposed system is hindered by the following problems; 1. The absence of a network-wide secondary surveillance system that is vital for extracting data from CPs. 2. Real-time vehicular data cannot be extracted from anonymous CPs' without knowing their destination and that will cause a time delay. 3. Vehicles are assumed to travel with a constant speed within the LA due to the absence of any data of the vehicles with CPs in passive mode. 4. Assuming the theoretical flow-speed-density relationships is very non-realistic and for the non-disciplined Egyptian traffic streams (travelling in lanes, inter-vehicular gaps, unnecessary lane changing, aggressive drivers' behaviours). 5. Prediction of traffic states based on adjacent sections of the corridor/link isn't realistic. 6. Simulation-based predictions requires the availability of a calibrated network at the very first, and that is not available in Egypt. The main objective of this research is to develop a robust, self learning trip-based travel time online prediction procedure. The procedure extracts network-wide real-time traffic data; merely 381


from CPs networks data based on adopting various Data Mining, Artificial Intelligence, and Machine Learning algorithms. The procedure can also work offline and is adaptively calibrated in an offline setting. Detailed objectives of the research are as follows; 1. Develop a reliable real-time traffic data extraction procedure via CP Networks by tracking anonymous CPs by using Data Swarm Clustering (DSC) algorithm. 2. Develop a reliable trip-based, self-learning real-time travel time prediction procedure based on the vehicular data extracted from the CPs in real-time using State-Space Neural Networks (SSNN) based on previous short-term data. 3. Test the performance of the procedure on extracting real-time travel data on 26th of July corridor in Egypt. 4. Evaluate the enhanced performance of the procedure by using data fusion techniques for both active and passive CPs’ data by simple weighting techniques.

2.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Estimation of real-time traffic data fundamentally depends on traffic state estimation followed by state prediction of sections of a link/corridor of interest at constant intervals (time-steps). A new method presented by Yu et al., is the corridor based approach to reduce prediction errors (Yu et al. 2008). A major problem is that there is a trade-off between accuracy and robustness. Adaptive calibration methods prevail the dynamic nature of traffic to enhance the robustness of the prediction model (Qin & Mahmassani 2006). The use of adaptive models is crucial to correspond to traffic dynamic nature as; Adaptive Kalman Filter (AKF) (Tao et al. 2012) and other higher order continuum model (Qin & Mahmassani 2006). Rather than depending on historical data, short term corrections are used to minimize the stepwise to observe the continuous nature as using the rolling time horizons (Qin & Mahmassani 2006; Ishak & Alescsandru 2003). Reviewing the state of art, traffic prediction methods can be classified into parametric methods and non-parametric methods. Parametric methods are statistical based methods and include; linear & Autoregressive Moving Average (ARMA) models, Nearest Neighbor models, ... etc. While, non–parametric methods, known for their robustness, include; Neural Networks, Regression models, and Kalman Filtering. Simulation software has presented powerful tools and test beds for traffic applications and was also widely adopted for traffic state prediction and testing (Friedrich et al. 2010; Qin & Mahmassani 2006) as PTV VISUM software using its defined models (deterministic user equilibrium (DUE), the stochastic user equilibrium (SUE), and the learning methods) (Friedrich et al. 2010) and CORSIM software integrated with a Cluster-based ANN (Yu et al. 2008). CP-based traffic data has shown significant results and easily detected traffic patterns and variations at both normal conditions and special events from only one CP network provider (17% of the CP users) (Wang et al. 2013). In freeways, reliable speed estimates were obtained from 3% to 5% penetration rates of A-GPS phones used as probes. However, in urban arterials a greater rate than 7% was required (Tao et al. 2012). Travel forecast based on CP data has been adopted on a distinct scale. Travel time was predicted from A-GPS CPs in real-time to determine the traffic state of each vehicle described by the average traffic speed (Tao et al. 2012; Chu, Oh & & Recker 2005). Gayah & Dixit used vehicles’ locations sent by CPs to estimate vehicles' speeds to predict traffic states. A densityspeed relationship was derived from the collected location data sent every 3 seconds by the 382


CPs of only 5% penetration rate. 93.8% of traffic states were correctly identified (Gayah & Dixit 2013). Herring et al. presented the concept of Virtual Trip Line (VTL) that is defined by a pair of GPS coordinates at the upstream and downstream of travel to describe the pace of travel (time/distance). Using VTLs enabled the development of reliable estimations and predictions built on statistical learning methods, given 2% to 5% penetration rates using statistical modelling. The Spatiotemporal Auto Regressive Moving Average (STARMA) model was found to be more efficient than the simple linear regressive model (Herring et al. 2010). CP data used for large scale networks have also shown superior results. Friedrich et al., used trajectories of anonymous CPs built from LAUs and link counts from roadside detectors to develop typical hourly ODs for a network of 100 x 100 km with 115 count locations. A long term forecast of hourly ODs was performed, using PTV VISUM software (Friedrich et al. 2010). Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) present powerful tools and are used for travel-time forecasting as a data-driven self adaptive and non-linear approaches that are stabilized through various learning algorithms as back-propagation (LEE 2009). Various NN traffic prediction models have been adopted throughout the late years. Traffic states can be predicted by NN by feeding it with traffic related inputs from several sources as loop detectors, GPS based vehicles' locations data, accident data, .... etc. Ishak & Alecsandru investigated the performance of four different NNs architectures for short-term traffic speed prediction on freeways under different settings and traffic conditions namely; Multi-layer perception (MLP), the Modular Network, the Principal Component Analysis (PCA) network, and the Co-Active Neuro-Fuzzy Inference System (CANFIS). Ishak's NN model was based on speed data in short term memory (STM) and long term memory (LTM) of historical data that represent the traffic pattern (Ishak & Alescsandru 2003). Yu et al., presented a variation-based online prediction method that reflected the different traffic patterns of speed and volume extracted from historical data on fuzzy membership-value-weighted average approach in an offline setting. Actual fluctuations in traffic were additionally predicted by using a cluster-based ANN model in an online setting (Yu et al. 2008). Chena et al., developed a local linear wavelet neural network (LLWNN) model for timeseries prediction trained using a particle swarm optimization (PSO) algorithm presented as a fast performance approach. The model’s feasibility and effectiveness was prevailed during testing (Chena, Yanga & Donga 2006). State-space Neural Networks (SSNN) as a data driven method has the advantage of learning the non-linearity in congested traffic from the data (Lint, Hoogendoorn & Zuylen 2003). SSNN has both advantages of NN as a generalized approach and a traffic related design based on the SS approach (Lint, Hoogendoorn & Zuylen 2005). Prediction results and accuracies vary according to the type of data and methodology of the prediction tool (Wu, Ho & Lee 2004). Robust models, necessities its training over a complete time horizon with all different possible traffic conditions (states). Training durations vary between 28 days of peak hours (6-10 am) (Ishak & Alescsandru 2003) to 6 month/24 hr duration that includes weekdays/weekends and peak/non-peak hours (LEE 2009) and for 70 days (Friedrich et al. 2010). Long term forecast of hourly ODs of a day performed using PTV VISUM SUE method showed an average GEH value of 4.9 and 40% of the cases exceeded 5 (Friedrich et al. 2010). The performance of the predictor improves as the distance of travel increases. Wu et al., SVR travel-time prediction model errors of greater than 5% had a relative mean error (RME) of 0.96% and a root-mean squared error (RMSE) of 1.33% for a distance of 350 km. However, an RME of 3.91% and an RMSE of 6.79% for a distance of 45 km (Wu, Ho & Lee 2004). Contrarily, as the time horizon increases the model prediction accuracy decreases. Multivariate time-series normal distribution auto-regression models based on log-likelihood maximization for short-term travel time prediction outperformed univariate time series ones (Stathopoulos & Karlaftis 2003). Ishak presented 4 NN models had shown superior results and 383


the CANFIS model outperformed for about 33% of the cases. At a rolling horizon of 5 mins, the average absolute relative error (AARE) was 7% and reached 15% in some cases. While at 10 mins horizon, the AARE was 10% and reached 28% in some cases (Ishak & Alescsandru 2003). Yu et al. Cluster-based ANN model showed a root mean square percentage (RMSP) error of about 0.087 (1.29 mins) during peak and off-peak hours, (Yu et al. 2008). Chena et al., presented a Local Minear Wavelet NN (LLWNN) for time-series prediction that has an RMSE ranged from 0.025 to 0.048 (Chena, Yanga & Donga 2006).

3.


This paper presents a novel idea of a trip-based travel time online prediction procedure for intercity travel and its coordinated intra-city travel. The procedure extracts network-wide real-time traffic data; merely from anonymous CPs data by adopting modified DSC and SSNN algorithms for state-space estimation and prediction respectively as a robust self learning method. The procedure is adaptively calibrated in an offline setting. Unlike other methods, the model is based on the corridor's upstream/downstream links conditions besides the current states to genrate online predictions. A pre-processing stage is implemented to define travel routes between the different zones of interest by a unique sequence of LAs IDs through projection of the cellular network map to the transportation network. Each LA covers a section with a measurable traffic state. The procedure followed in this research is presented in Figure 1. Real-time traffic data is estimated in an online setting from CP-based partial trips data using modified DSC. The traffic states are then predicted using SSNN. In the offline setting, traffic data is re-computed from the same CP-based data but for the whole trip of the vehicles as they reach their destinations. Discrepancies between the estimated and predicted vehicular data in the online settings and that in the offline setting is used for model adaptive calibration by using Reinforcement Learning algorithms.

Figure 1: Research Methodology Flow Chart

The development and testing of the proposed procedure requires the availability of a data set of handoffs locations & timestamps together with the corresponding traffic data. Obtaining such data in Egypt is extremely difficult and needs many security permits. As a substitution, the model is trained on the 26th of July corridor in Egypt previously developed using PARAMICS

384


traffic micro-simulator by the Center for Intelligent Transportation System (CITS) at Nile University (NU), Egypt (Basyoni & Talaat 2013).

3.1

Modified DSC for Online Clustering CPs into Vehicles

Modified Data Swarm Clustering (DSC) algorithm belongs to the family of Swarm Intelligence (SI) algorithms is used to cluster the CPs on-board of the same vehicle to represent a corresponding vehicle. SI is a metaheuristic approach and the SI algorithms are known to be efficient, adaptive and robust and are mainly used in stochastic search and optimization problems (Veenhuis & Koppen 2006). DSC was originally introduced by Veenhuis & Koppen that combined both Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) and Flock Algorithms. DSC clusters a mixed set of data into homogenous clusters (sub-swarms) based on the similarity between the particles within each sub-swarm. Similar objects get closer to each other in the datoid space even if not close in their attribute space. The DSC algorithm was composed of 3 phases; Initialization, Iteration, and Cluster Retrieval as depicted in Figure 2, (Veenhuis & Koppen 2006). Phase 1

Phase 2

Phase 3

Figure 2: DSC Algorithm Structure Flow Chart, (Basyoni & Talaat 2013)

The implemented algorithm has the advantage of clustering data without the need of knowing the number of clusters a prior, which is mandatory in this case to not require a secondary referencing system. CPs on the board of travelling vehicles perform LAUs, a set of LAUs registered at each handoff locations of all the CPs along the vehicle’s trip can be mapped as a mixed swarm containing sub-swarms that of CPs on the board of the same vehicle. Basyoni & Talaat obtained superior results from the DCS model by adding a pre-activation stage of 385


possible CPs based on the similarity values and an additional receptor function. The similarity between the CPs was based on the timestamps of LAUs of CPs along the predefined trip. CPs on-board of a vehicle have maximum similarity. While, the receptor function was based on the sum of the Euclidean distances between each two CPs' LAUs time stamps at each handoff along the predefined trip length. CPs onboard of the same vehicle shall have the minimum distance, (Basyoni & Talaat 2013). To get near real-time data, CPs are clustered from partial trip-data in an uninterrupted section of the corridor. The modified DSC algorithm was trained on the data, and an update to the receptor function was necessary to substitute the less number of LAUs as considering partial trips data. The receptor function measures the maximum possible Euclidean distance between 2 CPs' handoffs at a single LAU and the differences in the total travel time of CPs on board of the same vehicle. Three measures were used to evaluate the clustering performance; GEH value and the MAPE values for the percentage of correct vehicle (cluster) occupancy (size) as, correct number of vehicles (clusters), and CPs clustered to correct vehicles.

3.2

Study Case

The study case of this research is built on the same model used by Basyoni & Talaat of the 26 th of July corridor in Egypt. The model was augmented by the cellular data and handoffs locations are assumed and set every kilometre based on the feedback of field engineers working at that location. A random cell boundary variation noise was deliberately introduced to take into account any slight spatiotemporal variation (about meters and secs) (Basyoni & Talaat 2013). The vehicles travelling from October Governorate to Lebanon Square are traced between points A & B as the selected section with non-interrupted flow that possesses 3 LAs with 4 handoffs for LAUs as depicted in Figure 3. Cairo-Alexandria Desert Road Interchange Zone 3

Zone 4

A Zone 5

B

to October Governorate

to Lebanon Square Ring Road Interchange

Zone 6

Zone 2

Zone 1

Figure 3: The 26th of July Corridor Paramics Test Bed and the Defined Zones, (Basyoni & Talaat 2013)

CP data was simulated through an ad-hoc procedure. The adopted procedure is based on the specification of a number of on-board CPs according to each vehicle type and based on a uniform probability distribution. An assumption was made that almost every user is carrying only one CP based on the high penetration rates of CPs that reached 96.57% in 2011. A warm up period was set to load the model, only 8 hrs of simulation is tested in this research as 3,251 vehicles were released augmented into CPs using uniform probability distribution with ranges of: 386


one to 5 for passenger cars, one to 3 for trucks, 7 to 15 for minibuses, and 25 to 80 for buses (Basyoni & Talaat 2013).

4.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

The results for extracting vehicles with temporal dimensions from partial trip data were very comparable with considerable expected decreases from the offline setting presented by Basyoni & Talaat (Basyoni & Talaat 2013). Results showed very comparative performances, the average GEH value reached 0.27±0.24 that is very superior, and the MAPE values for the percentage of correct vehicle (cluster) occupancy (size), correct number of vehicles (clusters), and CPs clustered to correct vehicle are 94.81±2.28, 95.65±3.55, and 97.82±2.43 respectively. The vehicles The results of extracting vehicular data from CPs' in real-time from partial trips' data is compared to those of computed from whole-trip data previously in Basyoni & Talaat's offline model as presented in Table 3. The results are very promising, traffic data can be extracted from partial trips CPs' LAUs data without the need to process after the vehicles reach their destinations enabling online models. Vehicles counts with temporal dimensions were obtained with an average accuracy of 95.65 that ensures the model significance with a very slight decrease of about 2.19 %. The number of clustered vehicles from the online model was less by only 90 vehicles which is quite acceptable over an 8 hrs duration. However, further development is needed to enhance the model performance.

Table 3: Comparison Between the Performances of Extracted Vehicular data from Whole & Partial Trips' Data of CPs Difference Partial Trip Complete Trip STD Average STD Average STD Average Percentage of Correct Number

1.18

-4.15

2.28

94.81

1.09

98.96 of CPs per Vehicle (Cluster)

1.03 -

-2.19 - 90

3.55 -

95.65 3,085

2.52 -

97.84 of Clusters (Vehicles) 3,175 Extracted no. of Vehicles

1.63 0.12 0.10

-1.57 0.02 0.15

2.43 0.12 0.24

97.82 0.02 0.27

0.80 0.00 0.15

99.39 to Correct Vehicle 0.00 Fitness 0.13 GEH

Percentage of Correct Number

Percentage of CPs Clustered

5.

CONCLUSIONS

The congestion cost in Egypt is very high. Sustainable networks and modes of travel should be introduced. The lack of a traffic surveillance system hinders adopting ITS applications. The utilization of cellular networks for traffic data collection is postulated as a promising substitution for traditional TME as a very promising cost effective and sustainable source of traffic data. CPs are also supported by both advantages of wide coverage and high CPs subscribers’ penetration rates along with the continuous progressive improvements and upgrading of the 387


cellular networks and the CPs themselves. However, as any other traffic system, continuous research and development is needed to enhance the accuracy of the data extracted by CPs. Using the modified DSC algorithm for extracting vehicular data from partial trips CP data resulted comparable performances to that from whole trips data with a slight lower acceptable accuracy & higher standard deviation. State estimations and predictions from both active & passive modes will be combined by data fusion techniques as simple weighting that is expected to enhance the overall estimation and prediction performances.

6.

REFERENCES

Barbeau, SJ, Labrador, MA, Georggi, NL, Winters, PL & Perez, RA 2009, 'TRAC-IT - A software architecture supporting simultaneous travel behavior data collection & real-time locationbased services for GPS-enabled mobile phones', Transportation Research Board 88th Annual Meeting. Basyoni, Y & Talaat, H 2013, 'A Bi-level Traffic Data Extraction Procedure via Cellular Phone Network for Intra-city Travel, In review'. Byon, Y-J, Abdulhai, B & Shalaby, A 2011, 'GISTMARG: GPS and GIS for Traffic Monitoring and Route Guidance (Doctoral Dissertation)', University of Toronto. Caceres, N, Wideberg, JP & Benitez, FG 2007, 'Deriving origin–destination data from a mobile phone network', The Institution of Engineering and Technology. Cairo Traffic Congestion Study 2010, World Bank, Cairo. Chandrasekaran, G, Varshavsky, T, Gruteser, M, Martin, RP, Yang, J & Chen, Y 2010, 'Vehicular speed estimation using received signal strength from mobile phones', In the 12th ACM international conference on Ubiquitous computing, Ubicomp (Vol. 10). Chena, Y, Yanga, B & Donga, J 2006, 'Time-series prediction using a local linear wavelet neural network', Neurocomputing 69 (2006) 449–465. Chu, L, Oh, S & & Recker, W 2005, 'Adaptive Kalman filter based freeway travel time estimation'. Dalgleish, M & Hoose, N 2008, 'Highway Traffic Monitoring and Data Quality', Artech House, Boston, London. Friedrich, M, Immisch, K, Jehlicka, P & Schlaich, J 2010, 'Generating OD matrices from mobile phone trajectories', In Transportation Research Board, 89th Annual Meeting. Gayah, VV & Dixit, VV 2013, 'Using Mobile Probe Data and the Macroscopic Fundamental Diagram to Estimate Network Densities: Tests Using Micro-Simulation', In Transportation Research Board 92nd Annual Meeting (No. 13-1493). Gur, YJ, Bekhor, S, Solomon, C & Kheifits, L 2009, 'Use of Massive Cell Phone Data to Obtain Inter-City Person Trip Tables for Nationwide Transportation Planning in Israel', TRB. Herring, R, Hofleitner, A, Amin, S, Abou Nasr, T, Abdel Khalek, A, Abbeel, P & Bayen, A 2010, 'Using mobile phones to forecast arterial traffic through statistical learning', In 89th Transportation Research Board Annual Meeting, Washington DC.

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Ishak, S & Alescsandru, C 2003, 'Optimizing Traffic prediction Performance of Neural Networks under Various Topological, Input, and Traffic Condition Settings', TRB 2003 Annual Meeting. LEE, Y 2009, 'Freeway Travel Time Forecast Using Artifical Neural Networks with Cluster Method', 12th International Conference on Information Fusion Seattle, WA, USA. Lint, JWCV, Hoogendoorn, SP & Zuylen, HJV 2003, 'Toward a robust framework for freeway travel time prediction: Experiments with simple imputation and State-Space Neural Networks', TRB. Lint, JWCV, Hoogendoorn, SP & Zuylen, HJV 2005, 'Accurate freeway travel time prediction with state-space neural network under missing data', vol 13. MCIT 2011, Ministry of Communications and Information Technology, Egypt. Report of the ICT Indicators in Brief, < HYPERLINK "http://mcit.gov.eg/Indicators/indicators.aspx" http://mcit.gov.eg/Indicators/indicators.aspx >. Pan, C, Lu, J, Di, S & Ran, B 2006, 'A cellular-based data extracting method for trip distribution', Proceedings of Transportation Research Board 85th Annual Meeting, (No. 09-0168). Qin, X & Mahmassani, HS 2006, 'Traffic Flow Modeling with Real Time Data for on-Line Network Traffic Estimation and Prediction', Doctoral Dissertation, University of Maryland. Sclaich, J, Otterstatter, T, Friedrich, M & Jehlicka, P 2010, 'Generating trajectories from mobile phone data', In Proceedings of the 89th Transportation Research Board Annual Meeting. Stathopoulos, A & Karlaftis, MG 2003, 'A multivariate state space approach for urban traffic flow modeling and prediction', Transportation Research Part C 11 (2003) 121–135. Tao, S, Manolopoulos, V, Rodriguez Duenas, S & Rusu, A 2012, 'Real-Time Urban Traffic State Estimation with A-GPS Mobile Phones as Probes'. Turner, SM, Eisele, WL, Benz, RJ & Holdener, DJ 1998, 'Travel Time Data Collection Handbook', No. FHWA-PL-98-035. Veenhuis, C & Koppen, M 2006, 'Data swarm clustering', Swarm Intelligence in Data Mining, 221-241. Wang, MH, Schrock, SD, Vander Broek, N & Mulinazzi, T 2013, 'The Feasibility of Using Cellular Phone Location Data in Traffic Survey on Intercity Trips'. World-Bank 2009, , viewed 2013, < HYPERLINK "http://www.worldbank.org" http://www.worldbank.org >. Wu, C-H, Ho, J-M & Lee, DT 2004, 'Travel-Time Prediction with Support Vector Regression', IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems, Vol. 5, No. 4. Xiao, Y, Shen, X & Du, D 2007, 'Wireless Network Security', Springer. YOO, B, KANG, S & Park, C 2005, 'Travel time estimation using mobile data', Proceedings of Eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies. Vol. 5. 2005. Yu, J, Chang, G-L, Ho, HW & Liu, Y 2008, 'Variation Based Online Travel Time Prediction Using Clustered Neural Networks', In Intelligent Transportation Systems, 2008. ITSC 2008. 11th International IEEE Conference on (pp. 85-90). IEEE).

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© SB13-Cairo 2013 Design of a Net-Zero-Energy Building in Muscat, Oman – An intermediate Report Rudolph, M., Knebel, N., Werminghausen and M., Frenzel, C.

Intermediate Report on the Design of a Net-Zero-Energy Building in Muscat, Oman Rudolph, MR.1, Knebel, N.K.2, Werminghausen, M.W.² and Frenzel. CF1 1

Transsolar Energietechnik GmbH Curiestr. 2, 70597 Stuttgart, Germany e-mail: [email protected] / [email protected] 2

German University of Technology in Oman, Department of Urban Planning and Architecture Muscat Express Highway, Halban, Barka. PO Box 1816, PC 130 Athaibah, e-mail: [email protected] / [email protected]

Abstract: Until a few decades ago zero-energy buildings were standard practice in Oman. However, the discovery of fossil fuels in the 1960 and the change in lifestyle have led to very high energy consumption per capita today. Can net-zero-energy buildings offer a possible counterbalance to this development? This paper is an intermediate report formulated at the threshold between the design and construction phase of a project for building a net zero energy residential building of 250m² in the hot and humid climate of Muscat, Oman. The integrated design responds to its program, site and climate with the goal of combining high user comfort with zero energy operation, provided by on-site photovoltaics. The design is predicated on ten main strategies: thermal zoning, optimal orientation, balanced glazing ratio and external shading, high performance envelope, hybrid ventilation, dedicated outdoor air system with latent and sensible heat recovery, hydronic radiant cooling, efficient appliances, naturally-treated water, and native plants. After a brief description of the local climate and context this paper focuses on the interplay between energy and daylight simulations and design decisions with the goal to reduce energy consumption to a net-zero level whilst ensuring a comfortable indoor environment and keeping the local building construction industry in mind. The results of this study clearly indicate that the implementation of high efficient active components cannot lead to a net zero building in the Oman without a well-orchestrated design and a high performance envelope. The intermediate conclusion is that for reaching a LowEnergy-Building level the main challenge lies with the implementation and quality of construction, as well as the orchestration of efficient active technologies for cooling. A successful implementation seems possible. Achieving a Net-Zero-Building level seems feasible due to the expected high yields of solar power; however, the legal and financial aspects of a connection to the electric grid are unsure. The results of this study are relevant for the country, the Gulf Region, and places with similar climate. Keywords: hot climate, integrated design process, net-zero energy building, low-energy building, Oman

390


1.

INTRODUCTION

The Sultanate of Oman is currently experiencing three phenomena that make the design of energy-efficient buildings relevant and appropriate: a rapid increase in population, a steep increase in electricity consumption per capita, and a steady decrease in non-renewable fossil energy resources, which is the main source of revenue in the country. Each trend alone will change the country significantly and challenge the status-quo; together they provide more than enough reasons to develop new solutions for the future homes of the Omani people. In order to promote scientific research on and public awareness of energy-efficient buildings, The Research Council of the Sultanate of Oman (TRC) launched the “Oman Eco-Friendly House Competition” in 2011. It gives a grant to university-led teams of academics, students and practitioners, as well as consultants, contractors and administrators to design, build, operate, and monitor an energy-efficient building for residential use on their campuses. This paper is a report from the team coordinated by one of the five universities participating in the competition.

2. 2.1

BACKGROUND Competition Brief

The competition aims at developing prototypes for the most common building type in Oman, the freestanding 200-300m2 single-family house. It shall incorporate all requirements for a typical Omani villa of this comparably moderate size - separate sitting rooms for males and females with separate entrances, as well as bedrooms with attached bathrooms. The competition brief follows the Solar Decathlon Competition, a successful format that over the last decade stimulated student-designed energy-efficient buildings in Europe, USA, and China. The overall aim is to achieve a net-zero energy balance based on site energy (building operation plus equipment) whilst providing a comfortable indoor environment with the cooling set points being 25-27°C operative temperature and 50-70% relative humidity. There are several sub-competitions regarding the architectural quality, engineering rigour, operational reliability, and communication outreach. Moreover, the building shall be within a reasonable budget, not producing out-of-reach solutions but, of course, taking into account the higher costs that come with building a prototype.

2.2

Climate and Site

The Eco House discussed in this paper is located within the humid Batinah coast along the Sea of Oman, embedded into the overall hot desert macro climate of the Arab peninsular. On the meso-climatic level, the Batinah region including Muscat, Oman's capital city, shows some uncommon features of a hot desert climate. The low-altitude and proximity to the coast, causes a more humid climate and less difference between day and night temperatures than is usually experienced in desert areas. The typical weather conditions can be roughly divided into two periods changing over around the two days of equinox, 20th of March and 22nd of September.

391


50 45

40 35 30 25 20 15

10 5 0 367

397.41667427.83333 458.25 488.66667519.08333 549.5 579.91667610.33333 640.75 671.16667701.58333

Outside Air Temperature [°C]

732

Absolute Humidity [g/kg]

Figure 1: Annual temperature and humidity ratio pattern for Muscat [http://meteonorm.com]

In summer, from April to September the monthly mean temperatures vary from 29.6°C to 35.0°C. (Figure ) In this period the maximum daily temperatures can rise up to 49.2 °C. Even night hours can be as hot as 35°C, which is far beyond the comfort range. During summer the humidity ratio is always above the comfort threshold of 11.5 g/kg for conditioned indoor spaces. In winter, from October to March, the temperature is pleasant with monthly mean temperatures between 21.1°C and 29.3°C. Temperatures might occasionally rise, but never to extreme levels. In this period the humidity ratio typically varies between 7 and 13g/kg with temporary peaks of 15g/kg. For naturally conditioned spaces such humidity ratios are still in an acceptable range. Despite the generally high humidity, precipitation is negligible. Rain events in Muscat are rare and of short duration. The global irradiance in Oman of 2021 kWh/m²a is among the highest in the world. The Campus is located on flat terrain with a north-south oriented landscape strip connecting the east and west part. The Ecohouse is embedded on the south side of the strip and will remain as a freestanding building being exposed to the prevailing wind direction, and not shaded by any surrounding structure (Figure 2).

392


Figure 2: site plan of campus and Eco House

2.3

Building standards

In Oman, there are no regulations regarding the energy-efficiency of buildings. Moreover the education, skill development and products related to the building industry do not promote the emergence of energy efficient building design. The Oman Green Building Council has just recently been founded as a quasi-NGO aiming at promoting the introduction of quality standards and incentives for building more energy-efficiently.

3.

DESIGN

The Eco House is a two-storey 210m2 (net indoor area) guesthouse for visiting faculty. The design shown in Figure 3 and Figure 4 evolved from the synthesis of social, contextual, climate and energy efficiency factors. Occupancy is expected to be constant and around the year, thus the monitoring of the building's performance will lead to utilizable data to reflect on building energy-efficient homes in Oman. On the ground floor there are two entrances, one leading to the living room (majilis for men), and the other to the dining room (majilis for women). The centrally located kitchen, technical room and restroom separate these areas. However, they are seamlessly connected without doors and connect to the upper floor three guestrooms with private bathrooms by a double height circulation space. The interior space is structured by four parallel walls, which in the bedrooms and bathrooms contain all functional equipments, which is a reference to the Arab way of furnishing spaces.

393


Figure 3: plan of ground floor (left), plan of first floor (right)

Figure 4: section south/north (left), section west/east (right)

3.1

Passive Design Strategies

The first level of developing a net zero energy building is to reduce the energy demand to a minimum by passive and active design strategies. This chapter describes the design process in regards to passive design strategies such as optimized architectural design, building construction. In the climate of Oman the cooling load dominates the energy demand for building operation. With high outdoor temperatures and humidity as well as an annual solar insolation of 2021 kWh/m²a on a horizontal surface the dimension and quality of the building envelope influences the level of cooling loads by infiltration, transmission and solar gains. 3.1.1 Compact Volume The first passive design strategy is to reduce the amount of building surface, which additionally saves construction cost for insulated walls. The most efficient ratio of surface and volume for a building is a cylinder. This became the starting point for the design of the Eco House. 3.1.2 Optimal Orientation The Eco House is oriented based on the following factors: campus layout, unobstructed view, diffuse daylight, shading form direct sunlight, minimize noise from highway and utilizing wind 394


during winter time for natural ventilation. Figure 5 shows the buildings footprint overlaid the sun path diagram and the wind rose of the site. The Ecohouse’ round solid outer wall faces orientation with highest solar gains: east, south and west. In contrary, the north facade is fully glazed allowing unobstructed view connection to the landscape strip and the campus. The flat north façade catches northern wind to drive natural ventilation in winter. The Ecohouse closes itself to the highway in the south of the campus (noise).

Figure 5: Floor plan of the Ecohouse in the sun path diagram (left), and prevailing wind direction (right)

3.1.3 Zoning The guestrooms, dining and living room are situated near the northern façade. The space between the round opaque wall facing south and northern conditioned unit is double-height and is used as circulation space buffer zone where higher room temperatures are allowed. The ventilation path also follows this strategy, where fresh air is supplied to the bedrooms and transferred into the circulation space. 3.1.4 Solar Shading For daylight and view the south facade is perforated with small vertical openings that are protected by shading devices and the east and west facades are both fully closed. This significantly reduces the cooling loads and thus the energy demand. Figure 6 shows the sun view study for an hourly sequence viewing the building from sun position for the 12/21, 3/21 and 06/21. Everything that is visible receives direct solar exposure; everything not visible in the graph is in shade. The graph displays that the northern façade is well shaded from direct sun until the evening in June.

395


Figure 6: Sun view study of the Eco house

3.1.5 Sufficient Daylight While the main aim of orienting the building is to avoid direct sunlight into the interior, the direct use of daylight is the most efficient way of utilizing the sun as a renewable energy source. Moreover day lit spaces support the wellbeing of the building occupants and has physiologically positive effects. The goal of the building’s design is to create a well-balanced use of daylight throughout the building while reducing solar gains to a minimum. Many design iterations and daylight verification studies were carried out with the result of rearranging and resizing the windows on the South façade from a dozen randomly distributed puncturing holes of 60cm x 60cm to three deliberately placed vertical slits of 600cm x 80cm with horizontal fixed louvers which run over the full height of the double story space at the rear of the building. Figure 7 shows the daylight factor distribution at working height at the ground and first floor of the building. In order to optimize daylight availability, the bathrooms, which are located in the centre of the building, are enclosed with glazed walls. These walls vary in the degree of translucency so that the use of natural daylight is ensured while privacy is maintained.

396


Figure 7: Daylight factor on floor plan

3.1.6 Natural Ventilation When outdoor temperatures are moderate in winter the air tight building envelope opens up and uses natural ventilation to control air quality and thermal comfort in the building. This allows connecting inside-outside and saves electrical energy for mechanical ventilation and cooling. When indoor and outdoor temperatures are close there is no stack effect to drive natural ventilation. restroom extract opening kitchen extract opening

restroom extract opening operable windows

operable windows

kitchen hood recirculation air

Figure 8: Natural ventilation scheme (ground and first floor)

The Eco House is designed for cross ventilation and catches the breeze. The north façade’s flat façade flanked by extended vertical walls acts like a wind catcher for the prevailing wind 397


directions from the north and north-east. Outside air enters the front garden, acting as a dust filter and then enters the north façade through large openings. The ground floor is an open space while the upper bedrooms are connected through transfer ducts to the double storey high circulation area in the north. Openings at the top of the circulation space towards the south allow the wind induced negative pressure to pull air out of the building. The natural ventilation system allows to passively cooling down the building mass during night time of the transitional period reducing cooling energy demand. 3.1.7

High Performance Envelope

Wall construction The designs intend was to use on site fabricated earth bricks as the main building material for the opaque walls. The introduction of thermal insulation on the outer walls has been studied in detail in regards to cooling demand as well as constructive feasibility. The impact of the wall assembly on the annual cooling demand was assessed by thermal modelling of the building as a one zone model without internal gains and without ventilation. The assessment was performed with WUFI [http://www.wufi.de/index_e.html] to evaluate the risk of condensation as well.

The modelling assumptions comprise: Indoor set points: u-values internal gains ventilation rate

25-27°C, 50-70% r.H. roof 0.1 W/m²K, floor 0.17 W/m²K none none

The following wall assemblies had been studied: Case 1:

Single-layered cement-block wall (standard construction system in Oman) thickness: 0.2m, u-value: 2.58 W/m²K

Case 2:

Solid earth brick wall (traditional construction system in Oman) thickness: 0.6m, u-value: 1.4 W/m²K

Case 3:

Cavity wall of cement-block, insulation and earth bricks (from outside to inside) thickness: 0.2m/0.2m/0.2m, u-value: 0.

398


0

Case 1

Case 2

Case 3

-5000

-10000

-90 % -15000

-20000

-25000

Figure 9: Annual sensible cooling energy as a function of wall assembly

Figure 9 shows the annual sensible cooling energy based on wall construction. Case 1 is the reference and represents todays’ typical construction method. Compared to the reference the traditional wall assembly of thick earth brick walls cuts the annual cooling energy in half. Moreover the hygroscopic behaviour of earth brick walls acts as an moisture buffer improving indoor climate in terms of fluctuations of relative humidity. Introducing an additional layer of insulation in case 3 of 20mm further reduces cooling energy by 90% compared to the reference. The wall assembly finally selected for construction is based on this study's results. It consist of a 200mm inner layer of compressed earth bricks, which in addition to their energy-efficient production method have very good hygroscopic capacities and can buffer the relative humidity levels of the indoor climate. Further, the 200mm cavity is filled in with Perlite, a natural material of volcanic origin, with an insulation capacity as good as mineral wool. The outer layer is made of Ponceblocks, a light-weight concrete block that incorporates Pumice as an aggregate, again a natural material of volcanic origin.

Glazing and shading The impact of heat transmission for a double (ug = 1.1 W/m²K) versus triple glazing (ug=0.7 W/m²K) has been assessed by exemplarily modelling the centre bedroom facing north TRNSYS 17 [3]. The results for annual site energy in Figure 10 for a consecutive series of energy optimization scenarios show that replacing double glazing (SHGC=0.44) by triple glazing with the same SHGC does not reduce annual electric energy use. The proposed façade system is double, Argon filled glazing with SHGC=0.25 (South), SHGC 1.9 and a system u-value < 1.2 W/m²K. Shading for the South façade is provided by fixed horizontal louvers with a cut-off angle of 45°.. Although the north facades are well shaded (Figure 6) the ground reflected solar insolation in combination with high glazing fraction lead to high solar zone gains. A moveable external screen in front of the north façade elements with a shading factor f c=0.3 (transmission = 30%) reduces solar gains during the cooling period. With future growth of the garden in front of the façade the reflected solar gains will decrease and in turn the necessary use intensity of the external shading element.

399


Figure 10 - Energy assessment of central bedroom

Air tightness The summer in Muscat is hot and humid and infiltration has to be limited to reduce latent and sensible cooling demand. Even more important the dedicated outdoor air system (DOAS) defines the level of indoor humidity without recirculation air or fan coils. The indoor humidity level needs to be low enough to provide Hydronic based sensible cooling by radiant panels. The performance requirement for envelope air tightness is 0.1 ACH. For leakage detection and commissioning a blower door test on site is part of the quality control process.

400


Ground and Roof slab Given the high ground temperatures the heat transfer coefficient of the ground slab shall be 0.17 W/m2K. This is achieved through 150mm rigid insulation under the concrete slab as well as through insulating the exterior wall all the way down to the foundation level of -1.50m. The roof being most exposed to the high solar irradiation has the highest level of insulation with a total u-value of 0.1 W/m²K. The intended use of Photovoltaic Panels on top of the roof will further reduce solar gains. The alternative use of a green roof below the PV-layer has to be analysed, but its use depends on the availability of water from the decentralized water treatment system still being in the design process.

3.2

Active Design Strategies

Even though the energy demand can be reduced significantly through passive means, there still remains a period of approximately half a year, in which comfortable conditions within the house can only be reached through active means. Reducing the energy demand for cooling and dehumidification requires attention to the components of the technological system as well as the modes of operation. 3.2.1 Ventilation – DOAS The air-handling is limited to providing fresh and preconditioned outside air for hygienic reasons with a total volume rate of 500 m³/h (DOAS - dedicated outdoor air system). The air flow in the Eco House is designed to minimize duct work. Fresh air is provided to the bedrooms and transfers either in to the shower while occupied, or into the double height circulation space. Transfer air is then extracted at the kitchen hood in the kitchen. Additional supply air is provided in the living and dining room at the ground floor transferring to the kitchen as well. This approach allows to account for people occupancy while the occupants can be anywhere in the building. Make-up air treatment energy demand is for dehumidification and sensible cooling in almost equal parts. Therefore the Air handling unit is equipped with an enthalpy wheel for sensible and latent heat recovery with a total efficiency of 0.75. As in the absence of typically used fan coils the indoor humidity level is defined by the amount of outside air from the air handling unit, internal humidity gains and infiltration relatively, there are stringent requirements for an air-tight building envelope, which requires a precise and on-going quality management process during the construction phase. 3.2.2 Hydronic Cooling - Radiant Panels The typical cooling system in Oman is the use of split systems. Split systems (fan coils) typically sub-cool the spaces below set point due to dehumidification needs and therefore combine low thermal comfort with high energy demand. In contrast the proposed use of radiant chilled ceilings in the bedrooms as well as living and dining room combine high thermal (no draft), acoustic comfort with energy efficiency and reduced maintenance. Energy efficiency is gained by operative temperature control, no electricity for fan power and higher chilled water supply temperatures, which in turn potentially increase chiller COP by cascading chilled water temperature use (1. Make-up air dehumidification, 2.radiant chilled ceilings). A radiant cooling system however requires a very airtight envelope to avoid the risk of condensation at the radiant veiling surface. It is important to note that the proposed system is not standard in this region and requires more knowledge for installation and operation, even though the components are off-the shelf technology. This makes the system potentially more expensive.

401


3.2.3 Thermal Zoning In most residential buildings the temperatures in all rooms are equally conditioned. Through a more differentiated approach of the actual requirements in each room a more energy-efficient mode of operation can be established. The function of the Eco House as a guest house for visiting faculty suggests a pattern of occupancy in which the communal rooms on ground floor and the private bedrooms on first floor are used in an almost alternative pattern of day and night functions. While the one area is actively cooled, the other could be on a stand-by-mode. Overlaps of usage in the morning and evening hours can be buffered through the thermal mass of the building's construction elements. Such a differentiation of the actual use of the spaces over time will contribute to the energy-efficient operation of the building. More detailed data will be gathered through monitoring the occupancy patterns in actual use of the Eco House. 3.2.4 Appliances and Lighting Equipping the building with the most energy-efficient appliances for domestic functions such as stove, fridge, and as well as communication systems are an important component of showing state-of-the-art technology for the homes of the future and to achieving the net zero energy goal. While the design of the room layout and façade openings made the provision of sufficient daylight into every room of the house possible, attention still needs to be given to developing a lighting system which is not only energy-efficient, but also provides the necessary comfort. Studies into this topic have just been started.

3.3 Energy Supply 3.3.1 Chilled water The current design of the chilled water system comprises a high efficient 15kW chiller, connected to either an air-cooled condenser and storage tank to shift part of the chilled water production to cooler night times or the use of a geothermal borehole system comprising of three boreholes each being 120m deep for recooling. The challenge of the latter is, that based on current knowledge there is no ground water and the expected ground temperature is in the range of 30°C. Additionally there is no heating period that can be used to regenerate the geothermal system during winter by e.g. heat pump. These leads to the risk of overheating the ground heat exchanger. Further evaluations are in process to assess the viability of this system. 3.3.2 Solar thermal – DHW A solar thermal system with ~ 10m² solar collector area is utilized for domestic hot water production. A standard unit available in Oman with storage tank is installed on the roof and will cover the required domestic hot water demands. 3.3.3 Photovoltaics The step from a low-energy building to a net-zero building depends on the capacity of producing energy on the footprint of the building. A net-zero balance is achieved when the building produces as much energy as it consumes and it is assumed that the grid is used for feeding-in energy in times of oversupply and for taking-out energy in times of undersupply. The un-shaded roof with high solar gains on the Eco House with ~200 m² is used for the integration of photovoltaic panels; however, the usable area is reduced through the zone shaded by the parapet and technical equipment (ducts, chiller). The expected capacity of the PV-system is approx.17 kW p. This system potentially can annually generate 29’500 kWh electricity. Thus with a reference indoor net floor area of 220m the annual energy use intensity of the eco house has to be smaller than 134 kWh/m²a. Figure 11 shows the fine-tuning of 402


annual site energy (all electric) versus the available on-site electricity production by PV. It has to be noted that the annual energy demand of the building has been modelled with a multizone building model in TRNSYS [http://www.trnsys.com] assuming conservatively high use intensity of the guest house. Until today there is no established legal system in Oman of connecting a decentralized production unit of electricity to the electric grid. There is also no financial incentive in terms of subsidies given to do so. So, whereas such a connection is technically possible it is legally and financially discouraged. For the Eco House, the only way out of this dilemma is a connection to the university's campus grid. This solution seems the most convincing because of the lower investment compared to a stand-alone solution and the fact that inside the campus there will always be need for the produced electricity. Furthermore, the project will deliver monitoring of the issue of performance and maintenance of the PV system for a period of one year after completion, since dust is indeed an issue in the region.

specific electricity demand [kWh/m²/a]

250

200

electricity light electricity demand equipment auxiliary electricity demand electricity photovoltaic collector including inverter

electricity fan mech. ventilation electricity demand pumps surface heating/cooling electricity chiller system

150

110.8

110.0

96.5

100 134

50

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15.8 1 17

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Ecohouse, Core Insulated Exterior Wall

Ecohouse, Core Insulated Exterior Wall, Roof with 20cm insulation

Ecohouse, Core Insulated Exterior Wall, Roof with 20cm insulation, Hybrid Ventilation

Ecohouse, Core Insulated Exterior Wall, Roof with 20cm insulation, Hybrid Ventilation, 0.4 ACH

15.8 2 17 7 4 Ecohouse, Core Insulated Exterior Wall, Roof with 20cm insulation, Hybrid Ventilation, 0.4 ACH, Reduced Pressure Drop Mech. Ventilation

Figure 11: Multi-zone building annual energy use intensity - Fine tuning to achieving net zero

403


4 CONCLUSION The results of this study clearly indicate that the implementation of high efficient active components cannot lead to a net zero building in the Oman without a well-orchestrated design and a high performance envelope. In sum the described passive means result in a building that allows to be operated comfortably without any active cooling system during almost half of the year. The design is an example of an architectural identity that represents a well-balanced response to the climate, the site and the local resources (earth brick construction) whilst providing high user comfort and the potential for net-zero operation. On this level, building a low energy residential house in Muscat seems feasible. The challenge lies in rather practical aspects of acquiring the necessary products in the local market, orchestrating the components of active means of cooling, and implementing the required quality of construction under the given skills-level of contractors and consultants. Reaching a net-zero building also seems feasible, however, the questions of using the grid as storage is more of a political than a technological challenge. The Eco House as a net-zero energy building will be the first of its kind in Oman. After completing construction in April 2014 its performance will be monitored and evaluated in order to develop a contribution to finding the best ways of building energy-efficient homes for the next generation of Omanis.

5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The team working on the Eco House project consists of many people and partners; special mention goes to Rumana al Othmani and Rowa el Zain, graduates of our university's Urban Planning and Architectural Design programme. The project leading to this result has received project grant funding from The Research Council of Oman. We are grateful for material donations and services from: Andrew Burton Anderson, Dr. Christof Ziegert, Bauer Nimr LLC, Hoehler & Partner, National Company for Natural Decore Stone LLC, Amiantit, Oman Concrete Products LLC, ReadyMixMuscat, BASF, DOKA, GulfPerlite, Conlux, Rehau, Mywindows, ADGS, Siemens, Caparol.

6 REFERENCES [1] Climate Data Software Meteonorm 6.0 - http://meteonorm.com/ [2] WUFI PLUS 2.5 - http://www.wufi.de/index_e.html [3] TRNSYS 17 - http://www.trnsys.com

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©SB13-Cairo 2013 Solar energy potentials in Egypt Mohamed. Abdelrahman Abdelnaeem Abdellatif

Solar energy potentials in Egypt Solar energy applications as integral multi-functional systems

Mohamed. Abdelrahman Abdelnaeem Abdellatif Housing & Building National Research Center (HBRC), Architecture & Housing research Institute (AHRI) 87 El-Tahrir St., Dokki, Giza 11511, P.O. Box: 1770 Cairo, Egypt E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract: It well known since many decades that, the concentration of urban population on the precious very limited cultivated land is the greatest problem faced Egyptian government. Redistribution population of dense urban regions, therefore, was and still the most important aim for all strategic development plans in Egypt. Many development corridors and axes have been initiated, outwards the Nile valley towards the adjacent desert lands, to realization those planes. New urban settlements were built in desert to absorb the pressure of growing the urban population outside the valley. Many studies and researches concluded that renewable energy especially solar energy has great potentiality in developing process of new communities and should plays a key factor in implementation these plans. To date, this potential has gone largely untapped, owing to a series of policy decisions favoring conventional energy.Many reasons have led to this situation for examples: 1. Lack of series strategy to encourage the investment in renewable energy systems. 2. Limited capacity, high prices and Lack of common awareness of available systems. 3. Finally, lack of series scientific research strategy to evaluate the national experience of utilization renewable energy and its potentialities & limitations according to the conditions of local context. The main purpose of this paper is critically analyses the potentialities and limitations of utilization solar energy in Egypt. Also, introduce some applicable solutions for integrating micro renewable energy supply systems as multi-functional elements in architectural design as examples for sustainable and green building approach. However, the prevailing Egyptian desert conditions also result in extreme summer temperatures and high dust levels, both of which have a negative impact, which lead to rapidly deterioration of recent solar energy appliances. Therefore, it needs more researches to tackle these technological challenges.

Keywords: renewable energy, remote areas, strategic development, sustainable approach.

405


1.

INTRODUCTION

Main urbanization Problem in Egypt is considering the concentration of population (98%) in Nile valley and Delta, which presents only 4% of the total area of Egypt. The rest of the land is vast desert adjust the valley along east and west Nile River. Only 2% of population lives on remote settlements dispread on about 2% of these deserts. This situation makes clear, why main development strategy of Egypt is the redistribution of the population. Thus was planned to achieve through creation many developments axis outwards from Nile valley to adjacent deserts, and initiates new urban settlements away from the precious cultivated land. Renewable energy resources especially solar energy has great potentiality in the near future to play a considerable role by the implementation of development programs and plans in those remote areas and new urban settlements. To date, this potential has gone largely untapped, owing to a series of policy decisions favouring conventional energy. Many reasons have led to this situation for examples: -

Lack of knowhow, professional experiences and availability of appropriate local products in local market. Lack of ambitious marketing policies, which encourage private investments in the renewable energy micro-supply systems. High prices of available systems comparable with their limited capacities. Lack of awareness about these systems among the normal building professions and users.

Considering the new demand for power driven by economic growth and swelling populations, policymakers will have to seek new sources of supply. However, investments in clean energy continued to fluctuate along with oil prices as the 21st century began. (see figure 1) The current global boom in renewable is characterized by four major trends:“Global concerns over accelerating climate change, Energy security, Supply and demand fundamentals, Technological improvements,” (Booz & c, 2009) that are likely to make it a sustainable trend rather than a temporary bubble.

Figure 1: Clean energy global Investments trends and its depending on Oil Prices (Booz, 2009)

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2.

OBJECTIVE & METHODOLOGY

The aim of this paper is to give as possible a broad overview for the future opportunities of utilization solar energy in Egypt; as a source for clean sustainable energy, and why should be a favorite target in its strategic developing plans. The methodological approach based on analytical and empirical study. The main purpose of analytical part is critically analyzed the potentialities and limitations of utilization solar energy in Egypt according to its geophysical context. The empirical study introduce some exemplar projects present the integration of renewable energy supply systems as multi-functional elements in project design as sustainable applicable examples for green building concepts.

3.

FEASIBLE FUTURE OF RENEWABLE ENERGY IN MENA REGION

The MENA (Middle East and North Africa) region has huge potentiality to become one of the world’s foremost producers of renewable energy. The use of renewable energy would have numerous benefits: decreased pollution levels; reduced carbon emissions; create self-sustaining industries; better advantage of oil and gas resources for higher-value industries such as petrochemicals and creation of new, skilled-labor jobs. These considerations should encourage the governments of this region to undertake a full review of their renewable energy opportunities. Yet, there are at least six reasons that the MENA region should be a world leader in renewable energy: 1. 2. 3. 4.

The region has an advantageous geography and climate. The region’s current energy supply may not be sufficient to meet future demand. Renewable energy could help address the region’s environmental problems. (see fig. 2) Renewable energy could generate value in their own right, as well as freeing oil and gas for more profitable uses. 5. Renewable energy could enhance the export value of the region’s traditional energy assets. 6. The renewable energy industry could drive economic diversification and create jobs.

Unfortunately, the lack of renewable energy acquisition activities is rooted to some extent in the region’s abundant supplies of fossil fuels. The recent economic crisis has not helped matters: Cheaper oil has made renewable energy relatively less cost-effective, and a global lack of liquidity has made financing of renewable projects more costly. Countries will need to analyze which technologies are best suited for their geographic characteristics, power needs, and financial resources.

407


Figure 2: Increasing pollution rates as a national scourge (Booz, 2009)

However, not all renewable energy technologies will be viable for the MENA region. Wind and solar offer the greatest potential (see figure 3). Other forms of renewable energy including geothermal and biomass may be promising, but most MENA countries do not have the natural resources to make them viable.

Figure 3: Natural advantages for both solar and wind as renewable energy resources (DLR, 2005)

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3.1 Solar Energy Potentials & Limitations in Egypt The key ingredient for any solar technology -solar radiation- is abundant in Egypt. However, the prevailing desert conditions also result in extreme summer temperatures and high dust levels, both of which have a negative impact on solar energy. Therefore, Egyptian governments should carry out intensive researches to tackle these technological challenges. Despite these difficulties solar technologies could be deployed widely throughout the country (see figure 4).

Figure 4: Solar Thermal Electricity generating potential in Egypt (DLR, 2005)

3.2 Utilization of solar energy in Egypt and the future ambitions In 2011, Egypt has witnessed two important events: Revolution of 25th of January and the first achievements of utilization of renewable energy resource, which was the completion of the first 140 MW solar thermal plants in Kuraymat, and connecting it with the national grid at the end of June 2011. The government planned by with multi international help and support to implement large-scale development of Egypt’s renewable resources with the goal of having 20% of its installed generation capacity in the form of renewable by 2020 (including existing hydropower).Proposed project to implement 20 MW solar Plant in Hurghada in co-operation with JICA: Tokyo Electric Power Service Company (TEPSCO) was selected toconduct the project feasibility study. The solar radiation measurement equipment was supplied beside the supply of two modules to measure the sand effect in the site according to solar cell performance has been erected since October 2011. The duration of the project is 18 month started from 18 January. Also was proposed to implement 20 MW solar plants in Komombo in co-operation with French development agency (AFD). Feasibility study will be prepared through a grant presented from AFD with an amount of 800 thousand Euros; grant agreement to be signed between The Ministry of International Cooperation & AFD is under study. In spite of being an expensive technology, Photovoltaic systems are considered the most appropriate energy application for rural and remote areas of small-scattered loads, which are far away from national grid. The total set-up capacity of PV systems in Egypt is around 10 MW, which is mainly used for lighting, water pumping, wireless communications, and commercial 409


advertisements on highways. The Egyptian "NREA” signed a protocol for cooperation with the Italian Ministry of Environment, Land and Sea to electrify two remote settlements in Matrouh Governorate by PV systems. The project consists of electrifying of 100 houses and 40 street light units, one school, three mosques and two medical clinic units. This project has been supposed to be - completed and operated since December 2010.

4.

APPLICABLE FORMS OF SOLAR-GENERATED POWER

There are two major forms of solar-generated power: x Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) uses mirrors and lenses to concentrate solar energy within plants that are utility-scale generators. x Photovoltaic (PV) solar power directly converts sunlight into electricity using semiconductors, and is often used on a smaller scale.

4.1

Concentrating solar thermal power technologies CSP

Concentrating solar thermal power technologies (CSP) based on the concept of concentrating solar radiation to be used for electricity generation within conventional power cycles using steam turbines, gas turbines or Stirling engines. For concentration, most systems use glass mirrors that continuously track the position of the sun. The concentrated sunlight is absorbed on a receiver that is specially designed to reduce heat losses. A fluid flowing through the receiver takes the heat away towards the power cycle, where e.g. high pressure, high temperature steam is generated to drive a turbine. Air, water, oil and molten salt are used as heat transfer fluids. (See figure 5)

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Figure 5: Different forms of concentrating solar thermal power technologies (DLR, 2005)

Each of these technologies can be operated with fossil fuel as well as solar energy. This hybrid operation has the potential to increase the value of CSP technology by increasing its power availability and decreasing its cost by making more effective use of the power block. Solar heat collected during the daytime can be stored in concrete, molten salt, ceramics or phase-change media. At night, it can be extracted from the storage to run the power block. Fossil and renewable fuels like oil, gas, coal and biomass can be used for co-firing the plant, thus providing power capacity whenever required (see figure 6). This is a key advantage since it addresses the intermittency of solar power and permits power generation even after sunset.

Figure 6: Principle of solar thermal co-generation of heat and power (DLR, 2005)

Possible applications cover the combined production of industrial heat, district cooling and seawater desalination. All concepts have the perspective to expand their time of solar operation to base load using thermal energy storage and larger collector fields. To generate one 411


Megawatt-hour of solar electricity per year, a land area of only 4 to 12 m² is required. This means, that one km2 of arid land can continuously and indefinitely generate as much electricity as any conventional50 MW coal - or gas fired power station. Thus, two main characteristics make concentrating solar power a key technology in a future renewable energy supply mix in Egypt: x it can deliver secured power as requested by demand x its natural resource is very abundant and practically unlimited Solar chimneys are also considered as solar thermal power plants, though not concentrating. They consist of a very large glass or plastic roof with a chimney in its centre. The air underneath the glass roof is heat and by its lower weight forced into the chimney, where it activates a wind turbine for power generation. They can be built in the range of 100 - 200 MW capacity. Heat can be stored in the soil and in water storage below the collector for night-time operation. They cannot be used for co-generation of electricity and heat. Hybrid operation with fuels is not possible. There availability and capacity credit is considered 90 %. They are suited for base load and intermediate power. Solar chimney potentials are considered part of the solar thermal power potential and are not quantified separately.

4.2

Integrated Systems and Multipurpose Plants

The collectors of some CSP systems provide shaded areas that could be used for purposes like greenhouse, chicken farm, parking etc. Integrated systems that use power, desalted water and shade for generating a new environment for farming in desert regions could become feasible in the future as countermeasure to desertification and loss of arable land (see figure 7). This requires more investigation on the possibilities and restrictions of such systems.

Figure 7: Multipurpose plant scheme for the development of arid regions (DLR, 2005)

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4.3

Photovoltaic Applications

Photovoltaic applications are in principal unlimited and can be used for distributed or remote power systems with or without connection to the utility grid. There are no criteria for site exclusion for PV systems, as they can be installed almost everywhere. Their capacity ranges from a few Watt to several MW. Batteries are usually applied in smaller decentralized supply systems to store the solar energy over the night. Energy from very large PV could be stored in pump storage systems. PV cannot offer any secured capacity. Backup capacity must be provided by other technologies within the grid. However, PV applications expansion is still limited by their high investment cost. Using present growth rates and scenarios for very large PV systems and distributed applications, PV potentials were assessed in a relatively intuitive way. The global irradiance on a surface tilted according to the latitude was used as performance indicator. PV suggest that this technology will become competitive by the middle of this century under the irradiance conditions of the MENA region(see figure 8& 9).PV systems, may be, are especially suited for decentralized small scale applications in remote regions, where they often are already competitive to conventional Diesel motor-generator power supply schemes.

Figure 8: Annual global irradiation, in MENA region, on surfaces tilted south with latitude angle in 2 kWh/m /year (DLR, 2005, with data from /ECMWF 2002/ for / WBGU 2003)

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Figure 9: Timeline of solar cell energy conversion efficiencies (from: National Renewable Energy Laboratory, US Department of Energy, Wikipedia, 2013)

4.4

PV panels systems as integrative building elements

Because their relatively high cost and limited capacity utilization of PV panels as a power systems in buildings constructions is very limited. Hover Therefore if the designer can employ them as multi-function elements and utilizing these panels as parts of faced envelop, shades on top of flat roofs, canopies in open spaces, or ceilings for atriums and courts (see figure 10 &11). PV panels in that way can gain more engineering values, which can overcome their problematic by reduction of building initial costs.

Figure 10: Photovoltaic wall at MNACTEC Terrassa in Spain (Chixoy, Wikipedia, 2013)

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PV units as a part of external shade, new Labs building in 6th Oct. city st (1 prize competition, 2008)

PV units as shade above the roof terraces, primary school in remote region (1st prize competition, 2009)

Figure 11: Utilizing PV units as shading elements in building design

“In 2010, more than four-fifths of the 9,000 MW of solar PV operating in Germany were installed on rooftops”(Wikipedia, 2013).Building-integrated photovoltaic (BIPV) units are increasingly incorporated into new domestic and industrial buildings as a principal or ancillary source of electrical power. Typically, an array is incorporated into the roof or walls of a building. Roof tiles with integrated PV cells are also common. A 2011 study using thermal imaging has shown that solar panels provided an open gap in which air can circulate between them and the roof, provide a passive cooling effect on buildings during the day and keep accumulated heat in at night.

5.

PREFERENCES AND CHOICE CRITERIA ENERGY APPLICATIONS SYSTEMS

AMONG

SOLAR

CSP and PV applicationsboth have its own advantages also limitations due to the local context circumstances and the best approach for many countries will likely be to use some combination of the two. In determining whether CSP or PV is the better fit for a particular need, planners must consider the location and kinds of applications. The major differences between the two lie in scale, infrastructure requirements, and consistency of power output. CSP technologies generally require significant infrastructure investment and support. Since their power conventional generation blocks, such as gas or steam turbines in the multi-megawatt range, their operation and maintenance costs are much higher than those of PV technologies are and require specialists to build and operate. In addition, most CSP plants require significant volumes of water for operation. Even though CSP plants have significant drawbacks, utilities prefer them because of their more consistent power output. In addition, CSP plants can be coupled with thermal storage units or backup fossil-fuel burners to maintain smooth operations. Thus, utilities can depend on CSP plants for power output and do not have to keep other power plants in reserve. For remote and small-wattage needs, which less than 50 megawatts, PV may be a better and more economical choice than CSP (2009 Booz & C). The primary advantages of PV systems 415


rest in their scalability. Systems can generate as little as a few watts at a time or reach several megawatts. PV systems can be deployed with a single panel, delivering a few hundred watts of peak output. Further maintenance is generally limited to occasional cleaning of the panels, which does not require specialized expertise. In regions without access to the electricity grid, PV in combination with storage can offer a way to replace or complement expensive diesel generators without extending the grid into remote areas.Cost calculations assume average local conditions in terms of solar radiation, temperatures, and other technical factors. “Based on cost assumptions, the unsubsidized cost of solar PV power in the Egypt could become competitive, with that of natural gas between 2015 and 2025, depending on the prices of gas and carbon” (El-Husseini 2009).

Table 1: Some different characteristics of contemporary power technologies (adapted, DLR, 2005)

comment

Fluctuating, supply defined by resource

Seasonal fluctuation, good storability, base load power Fluctuations are compensated by thermal storage and fuel, power on demand

applications

resource

Capacity factor

Capacity credit

Unit Capacity

electricity

Direct and diffuse irradiance on a fixed surface tilted with latitude angle

15 – 25 %

0%

1W–5 MW

Photovoltaic

electricity

Direct and diffuse irradiance on a horizontal plane

20 to 70 %

10 to 70 % depending on storage

100 W – 200 MW

Solar Chimney

Electricity and heat

Direct irradiance on a surface tracking the sun

20 to 90 %

0 to 90 % depending on storage and hybridization

10 kW – 200 MW

Concentrating Solar Thermal Power

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6. -

-

-

-

CONCLUSIONS - FINDINGS & RESULTS Considering the new demand for power driven by economic growth and swelling populations in Egypt, policymakers should have to seek new sources of energy supply. The use of renewable energy would reduce air pollution levels and create self-sustaining industries that would diversify regional economies. These considerations should encourage the government to undertake a full review of their renewable energy opportunities. Due to the developing renewable energy sector, oil and gas could be used to generate value as high-margin inputs into industries such as petrochemicals. Thanks natural geographical feature, both solar technologies CSP plants and PV systems could be utilized widely throughout Egypt. In determining whether CSP or PV is the better fit for a particular need, planners must consider the location and the application. Architectural design can play an important role to encourage and convince private developers and clients to invest in utilization micro renewable energy supply systems in their building. They can integrate these systems in design as multi-functional elements to reduce the cost implications on total building budget. They can also explore to them, how they can benefit from these systems on long run and have their own contribution by reduction CO2 emission. Finally, Egypt must make substantial changes in the regulatory framework to create incentives that would kick-start renewable energy investments.

7.

REFERENCES

El-Husseini, I. & Fayad, W. & El Sayed, T. & Zywietz D. (2009). A New Source of Power - The Potential for Renewable Energy in the MENA Region. Booz & Company Inc. http://www.booz.com/global/home/what we think / reports and white papers German Aerospace Center (DLR), Institute of Technical Thermodynamics, Section Systems Analysis and Technology Assessment (2005). MED-CSP. Concentrating Solar Power for the Mediterranean Region Final Report. Commissioned by Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety Germany Stuttgart. http://www.medemip.eu/WebPages / Common / showpage.aspx? page id=46 Ministry of Electricity & Energy New & Renewable Energy Authority, Annual Report 2010/ 2011 http://www.nrea.gov.eg/ english1.html Ministry of Information, yearbook 2009, State Information service. http://www.us.sis.gov.eg/en/ Last Page. aspx? Category ID=1067 Ministry of state for Environment Affaire, (2010), Egypt State of the Environment, Report 2009& 2006, Egypt State of the Environment, Report 2005. Egyptian Environment Affaire Agency http://www.eeaa.gov.eg/English/info/report search.asp Mohamed. A. R., (2008), HBRC New Labs Building, 1st prize competition, report. Mohamed. A. R., (2009), School Prototypes, 1st prize competition, poster. The

free encyclopaedia, Photovoltaic, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photovoltaics

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© SB13-Cairo 2013 Energy Smart Home as a Proposed Strategy for Renewable Energy Utilizations in Hot Desert Cities Mahmoud Mourad, Ahmad Hamza H. Ali, Ali kamel Abdel-Rahman

Energy Smart Home as a Proposed Strategy for Renewable Energy Utilizations in Hot Desert Cities Mahmoud Mourad, Ahmad Hamza H. Ali, Ali kamel Abdel-Rahman Department of Energy Resources Engineering Egypt – Japan University of Science and Technology New Borg El Arab City, Alexandria 21934, Egypt E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract: This study presents a proposed strategy for utilization of renewable energy resources in Egyptian desert new cities as well as the energy saving compared with conventional design homes. Such home design includes an energy efficient system with maximum possible renewable energy utilizations at early stage of planning of those new societies. This proposed prototype home is designed for a single-family detached house with area of 240 m2 in two floors; each floor has 120 m2 as a key for Egypt future in the habitation of people in new towns. The renewable energy technologies planned to provide such home by electricity, heat and supply of cold air need in summer. To achieve this objective, a deductive method is organized as reviewing utilizations of renewable energy concepts that have been suggested for Egypt in all various aspects. This followed by detail analysis of the renewable energy technologies that proposed to be used in such suggested design home. By using hybrid photovoltaic thermal solar collectors as a source for both electric power and solar thermal energies.While the PV module generates electrical power, in combined with a small-scale vertical axis wind turbines, as a source for electric power. For output heat generated use, a heat exchanger is used to heat water in a storage tank for the use of domestic hot water, home heating in winter and optional solar driven cooling systems in summer. While, using a combined four cross opening wind catcher with earth air tunnels as a source for fresh cold air supply, assisted by a horizontal and vertical solar shimmy collector for sucking the hot air from the home to be exhausted. The results obtained from building energy analyses, using the active energy system, show that the annual total electric energy need is 80567 KWh. While with using the smart passive energy system design, the annual total electric energy need is 65019 KWh with annual energy saving of 20%. Keywords: Egypt new cities, new societies of hot arid areas, renewable energy strategies, smart homes, solar energy utilization.

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1.

INTRODUCTION

Renewable Energy resources from solar, wind, biomass and geothermal energy is available locally worldwide and can provide more contribution to the cover energy security needs in parallel with diminishing fossil fuels as well as nuclear energy sources. Furthermore, renewable energy technologies offer opportunity for a sustainable and decentralized energy supply with local value creation – without the necessity of costly grids or dependence on imports. Theoretically, the world’s entire primary energy needs could be served by less than a tenth of the area of the Sahara (Bhuttoa et al, 2012). Solar energy technologies include solar photovoltaics , solar thermal electricity and solar architecture (passive use). Solar energy are broadly characterized as either passive solar system or active solar system depending on the way such system capture and convert solar energy into useful form. Active solar energy techniques include use of photovoltaic panels and solar thermal collectors. Passive solar techniques include design a building to gain much more solar energy form the Sun, selecting materials with favourable thermal mass or light dispersing properties (Agrafiotis et al, 2005). Solar thermal energy is considered to be practically unlimited, and is a very abundant resource in worldwide. It is potential source of renewable energy options that is being pursued by a number of countries, in an effort to reduce their dependence on fossil-based non-renewable fuels (Hepbasli & Alsuhaibani, 2011). Until now, there are some specific constraints that hinder development of solar energy in Egypt. However, Egypt has adequate sunshine hours with one of the world highest solar radiation intensity. Egypt government strategy is to reach a share of 20% of the total energy production from Renewable Energy Sources (RES) in the national energy balance by 2020. The increase in energy consumption, particularly in the past several decades, has raised fears of exhausting the globes reserves of petroleum and other resources in the future (Sharma et al, 2012). Electric energy produced from REs in Egypt is very poor compared with total produced energy. Utilization of the renewable energies can also be a good opportunity to fight the desertification and dryness in Egypt which is about 60% of Egypt territory. The rapid growth of energy production and consumption is strongly affecting and being affected by the Egyptian economy in many aspects, (Ibrahim, 2012).Therefore city development structures are needed. Ecological, financial, and architectural as well as social aspects when planning for cities should be considered. Further works on implementing rational energy supply systems (wind, solar and photovoltaic, biomass, geothermal and hydropower) are required.

2.

STATE OF ART OF RENEWABLE STRATEGIES IN EGYPT.

ENERGY

UTILIZATION

In the early 1980s, the Ministry of Energy and Electricity (MOEE), in cooperation with the United Nations Development Programme, began formulating the first “Egyptian Renewable Energy Strategy.”. The most recent RE strategy, in February 2008, sets a target for renewables to supply 20 percent of electricity generation by 2020, with 12 percent coming from wind energy and 8 percent from hydropower generation. In addition, the government has established a programme to install a further 600 MW of solar energy by 2017 (Sawin et al, 2010).Renewable energy –especially, the solar energy–has a wider scope related to security of energy supply, reasonable cost, and saving environment. The most important constraint of the 2010s for most of the developing countries is to allow a balanced growth while realizing sustainable development (El-Khayat,2010). It is obvious that the implementation of such strategy will be an essential element of the national plans for achieving sustainable development and protection of the environment via upgrading energy efficiency and replacing conventional polluting resources 419


by renewable resources (ZANNOUN,2009). The Egyptian national plan (2012-2017) includes the implementation of a 100 MW CSP plant, in South Egypt and a 20 MW PV grid conected plants, 4 MW every year. The next Egyptian national plan (2018-2022) had set a target of 23% RES by 2022. It will be split in: installation of 2.550 MW of CSP, installation of 500 MW photovoltaic (PV) arrays and installation of 1.2 million m2 of Solar Water Heaters (SWH). (Patlitzianas et al, 2006). In 1986, local standards for solar water heaters were issued as well as a coded practice. The Government has adopted measures to support market promotion through mandatory use of solar systems in new buildings since 1990. Imports are encouraged due to reduction of custom duties for components of RES products to be 3% (Patlitzianas, 2011). In 2011 the Supreme Council of Energy of Egypt has approved the incentives applied for RE projects. The formed committee has been modified to the investors will be given the land to implement RE projects through usufruct agreement against payment equivalent to a percentage of the annual produced energy and will be determined by the cabinet. The land will be recaptured after dismantling the projects components at the end of the project life time (NREA, 2011). Egypt’s progress in implementing solar projects has been limited, though it has very attractive sites for solar energy that could be used to produce heat through solar collectors, or generate electricity directly through photovoltaic (PV) technology, or in a Concentrated Solar Power (CSP) system. Until now solar energy accounts for only 1% of the world’s total energy consumption. Most solar energy produced today is based on photovoltaic technology. Numerous efforts are under way to improve the resource effectiveness and cost efficiency of this technology. Photovoltaic technology is expected to go through another transition after 2020, when a third generation of photovoltaic systems is expected to further reduce cost and increase efficiency. As a result of these developments the electricity generation cost of solar photovoltaic systems is expected to decline to around 5–7 cents a kilowatt hour by 2050 (AfDB, 2012).

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2.1

Intelligent Energy Efficiency Homes

In the last decade, the term smart home has emerged as the keyword for such automated dwellings. The vision is a house populated by a multitude of devices (actuators and sensors) that cooperate in an intelligent way to control different domains of the home such as lighting/shading or heating/ventilation/air-conditioning. Also home appliances and consumer electronics are more and more considered for integration into these automation systems (YSCP, 2011) as shown in figure 1. By letting the system decide on an environmentally friendly time to consume energy, the ecological footprint of each resident can be significantly reduced. Such a system could also function as the central point to integrate demand Figure 1: Concept of Smart home energy side management applications into the house, management system. (YSCP, 2011) e.g., by shifting energy intensive operations to a more convenient point in time. This allows for example considering cheap excess energy becoming available from energy providers (Kofler et al, 2012). Based on the systems requirements, the proposed system hardware should have two basic building blocks namely; the H-Gateway and the U-Server. Figure 2 shows the system hardware architecture (Al-Ali et al, 2011). The HGateway block consists of a solar cell, charge converter, battery, DC/AC inverter, energy meter and global system for mobile communications (GSM) modem. The house gets its power from two sources namely; the power grid and the solar cell. The solar cell energy is stored in a battery Figure 2: Proposed system hardware and then inverted to AC power. architecture.(Al-Ali et al, 2011) Energy management in larger areas is more effective than that in single house as shown in Figure 3 .Excess electricity stored in battery in sunny areas can be transferred to houses that require Electricity. It is not necessary for a battery to be installed in an individual house. If one battery is installed for every few houses then the installation cost will be decreased. If one battery is installed for every few houses, then the installation cost will be decreased. Demand in residential areas is larger in the morning and at night and demand in commercial areas is large in daytime, by transferring electricity between areas, electricity can be used effectively (Yokoyama, 2012).

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Figure 3: Energy Management in Houses and Area. (Yokoyama, 2012)

2.2. Renewable Energy Technologies Used In Smart Homes Solar energy technologies are consider the energy for the future, also how it can be use in a stand alone housing planning. Such technologies are hoped to be the main energy supplier in desert areas in the nearest future, to provide homes by electricity, heat and supply of cold air is summer time. 2.2.1. Electric supply Photovlotice (PV) system is the technology that generates electrical power from solar energy measured in watts (W) from semiconductors when they are illuminated by solar radation photons. The architect or designer should utilize all visible opportunities to integrate PV into the building design in a highly aesthetic way. The important issues are the architectural function of a PV module (replacing other building elements) and the visible aspects of modules. (Reijenga, 2003), Photovoltaic (PV) technology nowadays is considered as one of the most appropriate options to electrify dispersed population in remote areas. Modularity is perhaps the single most attractive feature of this technology. (Huacuz & Gunaratne,2003).Moreover, Small-scale wind generation that can operate as embedded generation in buildings and this is where some of the most interesting developments have taken place. They are mainly confined to the domestic level and are often used to charge batteries. (Aziz & Elmassah 2012). 2.2.2. Heat Supply Photovoltaic (PV) cells suffer from a drop in efficiency with the rise in temperature due to increased resistance. Hybrid Photovoltaic thermal (PV/T ) systems that converts solar radiation into thermal and electrical energy. These systems combine a photovoltaic cell, which converts electromagnetic radiation (photons) into electricity, with a solar thermal collector, which captures the remaining energy and removes waste heat from the PV module. Such systems can be engineered to carry heat away from the PV cells thereby cooling the cells and thus improving their efficiency by lowering resistance. (www.tessolarwater.com, 2013)

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2.2.3. Cold Air Supply The system of wind catcher Earth air tunnels has a Daily and annual temperature fluctuations decrease with the increase in depth air tunnels below the ground surface. At a depth of about 4 m below ground, the temperature inside the earth remains nearly constant round the year and is nearly equal to the annual average temperature of the place. (Bioclimatic Architecture , 2009) A tunnel in the form of a pipe or otherwise embedded at a depth of about 4 m below the ground will acquire the same temperature as the surrounding earth at its surface. Therefore, the ambient air ventilated through this tunnel will get cooled in summer and warmed in winter and this air can be used for cooling in summer and heating in winter (Word press, 2013).

3.

ENERGY SMART HOME AS A PROPOSED STRATEGY FOR SOLAR ENERGY UTILIZATIONS IN DESIGNING NEW SOCIETIES IN EGYPT DESERT

As this study aim is to design energy efficient home with maximum possible renewable energy utilizations at early stage of planning of new societies in Egyptian desert, therefore, suggested prototype house for single-family detached houses of 240 m2 in two floors, each floor of 120m2 as shown in figures 4 &5 - with maximum possible utilization of the available renewable energies resources with high efficiency technologies of the house is sited - as shown in figures 6 &7. This suggested prototype house is design for new single-family detached houses for Egyptian new cities which consider as a key for Egypt future in the habitation of people in new towns.

Figure 4: Suggested prototype house for single-family detached houses planes and perspectives.

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Figure 5: Suggested layout for prototype house mass plane and perspectives. Four cross opening wind catcher

Horizontal solar shimmy

Small-scale wind Vertical axis turbines

(Exhaust hot air)

(Exhaust hot air) Photovoltaic thermal hybrid solar collectors

(Inlet fresh air)

(Exhaust hot air) (Exhaust hot air)

Vertical solar shimmy (Exhaust hot air)

Transparent Photovoltaic solar

Figure 6: Renewable Energy Technologies Used In Suggested prototype smart house.

424


(Exhaust hot air)

Small-scale wind Vertical axis turbines (Exhaust hot air) (Inlet fresh air) Four cross opening wind catcher

Vertical solar

Earth air tunnels heat

Figure 7: Suggested prototype smart house cross section. In the suggested house, is proposed to use four cross opening wind catcher Earth air tunnels as a source for fresh air cooling supply, also a horizontal and vertical solar shimmy collector for hot air exhaust as shown in figures 8, 9&10.

Figure 8: four cross opening Figure 9: horizontal solar Figure 10: vertical solar wind catcher for the Suggested shimmy for the Suggested shimmy for the Suggested prototype house. prototype house. prototype house. also using hybrid Photovoltaic thermal solar collectors as a source for electric power and Solar thermal energies is shown in figure 11.The electricity flows into an inverter for use in the building or export to the grid as per a standard PV configuration. The temperature is regulated via a control sensor and the coolant is transferred using a pump to a heat exchanger which heats water in a storage tank for use in the hot water, heating and optional cooling systems. The system provides hot water for any kind of usage such as sanitary use, domestic applications (such as dish and clothes

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Figure 11: Photovoltaic thermal washing) and any other required usage. The heating output can be used for room heating and cooling as hybrid solar collectors well as pool heating and other heating equipment. Moreover, it's proposed using Small-scale wind Vertical axis turbines, as a source for electric power also. Small-scale wind Vertical axis turbines are particularly suited to urban situations and to being integrated into buildings. Presently, there are several versions of vertical axis machines available in the market. It is suggested to use the most common vertical axis machine is the helical turbine as seen at the Earth Centre as shown in figure 12, Doncaster. In that instance it is mounted on a tower but it can also Figure 12: Small-scale wind be side-hung on a building. This technology can Vertical axis turbines for the generate power from 1 kW to megawatt capacity. Suggested prototype house The house required power is obtained from two sources through a smart meter used in the smart house energy management system; the power grid and the proposed electric supplier using renewable energy technologies systems mentioned before. The solar cell and smallscale wind vertical axis turbines energy is stored in battery system and then inverted to AC power form. The battery can be charged from the solar cell whenever the sun is shining, after the battery reach its full capacity during the day time, the system can supply the generated electric power to the public grid through the smart meter. The suggested home will obtain the electric power from the public grid during the off-peak hours if needed through the smart meter. To estimates the annual energy performance of the suggested prototype house by reporting total annual energy consumption by using ENER-WIN Software for building energy analyses (ENER-WIN, 2007). ENER-WIN are categorized into the major areas of: (1) weather data generation taken Asyut city Egypt as a case study, (2) envelope materials cataloging and user profile cataloging as taken in table 1 (3) zone processing, (4) building geometry processing, (5) load calculations, (6) system simulations, (7) energy summations as Execute the simulation with selected HVAC systems or evaluating passively heated and cooled buildings (no HVAC) as shown in figure 15.

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Table 1: Building description printed from the run *** PROJECT: Project Name LOCATION: Asyut (ES), EGYPT PLAN: Preliminary TYPE: Residential Weather Year: 2013 Date of Run: *********************************************************************************************************************** MATERIAL DESCRIPTIONS CATALOG: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------MATL USOLAR TIME DECREMENT ID NAME FACTOR ABSORPTIVITY LAG FACTOR ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1 insulation wood frame w/ wd siding .454 0.30 1.0 0.0 2 Brick veneer, insulation stud wall .454 0.75 3.0 0.0 8 Roof w/ 6"(15 cm) fiber insulation dark color .284 0.8 2.0 0.0 9 Heavy wt conc. roof w/ rigid insulation .397 0.8 3.0 0.0 14 Slab-on-grade, un insulated .568 0.0 3.0 0.0 15 Slab-on-grade, insulated .284 0.0 4.0 0.0 ************************************************************************************************************************ WINDOW DESCRIPTIONS CATALOG: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------WINDOW USOLAR HT. DAYLIGHT ID NAME FACTOR GN. COEF. EMISSIVITY TRANS. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1 1/4" (6mm) clear plate 6.416 0.83 0.84 0.87 ***********************************************************************************************************************

ENER-WIN Software interface

weather data generation

Building geometry processing for ground floor

Building geometry processing for first floor

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Zone processing

Zone description

Execute the simulation with HVAC or passive

Load calculations and system simulations

Figure 13: ENER-WIN Software for building energy analyses From the results obtained by using ENER-WIN Software for building energy analyses, using the active energy system, it is calculated the Annual total electric energy used is 80567 KWh. Correspondence to annual peak electric energy demand = 335 KW as shown in figure 14. However using the smart passive energy system, we calculate the Annual total electric energy used = 65019 KWh, also Annual peak electric energy demand = 240.6 KW as shown in figure 15.

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Figure 14: ENER-WIN Software for building Figure 15: ENER-WIN Software for building energy analyses using the active energy energy analyses using passive energy system. system.

4.

CONCLUSIONS

This study presents a proposed strategy for utilization of renewable energy resources in Egyptian desert new cities as well as the energy saving compared with conventional design homes. Such home design includes an energy efficient system with maximum possible renewable energy utilizations at early stage of planning of those new societies. This proposed prototype home is designed for a single-family detached house with area of 240 m2 in two floors; each floor has 120 m2 as a key for Egypt future in the habitation of people in new towns. The renewable energy technologies planned to provide such home by electricity, heat and supply of cold air need in summer times as following: x Electric and Heat supply: This by using hybrid photovoltaic thermal solar collectors as a source for both electric power and solar thermal energies. While the PV module generates electrical power, in combined with a small-scale vertical axis wind turbines, as a source for electric power. For output heat generated use, a heat exchanger is used to heat water in a storage tank for the use of domestic hot water, home heating in winter and optional solar driven cooling systems in summer. x

Cold Air Supply: This by using a combined four cross opening wind catcher with earth air tunnels as a source for fresh cold air supply, assisted by a horizontal and vertical solar shimmy collector for sucking the hot air from the home to be exhausted.

In case of the renewable resources are not sufficient or exceed the needs, the suggested house is equipped by both multiplexer for both renewable power resources and grid power as well as a smart meter for the house energy management. This type of power combination will result in reducing the consumer electrical bill and better manage the peak loads by the electrical utilities. Also, the results obtained from building energy analyses, using the active energy system, show

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that the annual total electric energy need is 80567 KWh. However using the smart passive energy system, the annual total electric energy need is 65019 KWh with saving of 20%

5.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The author- Mahmoud Mourad - would like to acknowledge Ministry of Higher Education (MoHE) of Egypt for providing a scholarship to conduct this study as well as the Egypt Japan University of Science and Technology (E-JUST) for offering the facility and tools needed to conduct this work.

6.

REFERENCES

A. Ibrahim. (2012).Renewable energy sources in the Egyptian electricity market. A review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 16, pp: 216– 230 Abdul Waheed Bhuttoa, Aqeel Ahmed Bazmib & Gholamreza Zahedi. (2012). Greener energy: Issues and challenges for Pakistan—Solar energy prospective, Renewable and Sustainable Energy 16, pp: 2762– 2780. A. R. Al-Ali, Ayman El-Hag, Mujib Bahadiri, Mustafa Harbaji, Yousef Ali El Haj.(2011). Smart Home Renewable Energy Management System 12, Energy Procedia, pp: 120 – 126. Agrafiotis, C.; Roeb, M.; Konstandopoulos, A.G.; Nalbandian, L.; Zaspalis, V.T.; Sattler, C.; Stobbe, P.; Steele, A.M. (2005). Solar water splitting for hydrogen production with monolithic reactors. Solar Energy 79 (4), pp: 409–421. Arif Hepbasli & Zeyad Alsuhaibani. (2011). A key review on present status and future directions of solar energy studies and applications in Saudi Arabia, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 15, pp: 5021– 5050. Bioclimatic Architecture,(2009) http://litteramedia.wordpress.com/2012/12/14/bioclimaticarchitecture/2009-isla-palenque-bioclimatic-studies1/

Climate

Change Policy Headquarters, Yokohama Smart City Project (YSCP), (2011), http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTURBANDEVELOPMENT/Resources/33638712 96405826983/7699103-1296623042596/4_2 , Okazaki(Yokohama)2.pdf

ENER-WIN. (2007). is the MS-Windows version of an hour-by-hour energy simulation software package driven by a statistically-based weather data generator. The current form of the model grew out of work started under a DOE-sponsored project in which 220 building designs were analyzed for energy consumption in the Woodlands, TX Metro Center. The web site is: http://enerwin.com or http://enerwin.org.

Janet L. Sawin and Lisa Mastny, Worldwatch Institute.( 2010). Prospects of the Renewable Energy Sector in Egypt–Focus on Photovoltaics and Wind Energy", Egyptian-German Private Sector Development Program me, Cairo, Egypt. Jorge M. Huacuz & Lalith Gunaratne.( 2003). Photovoltaic and Development. Handbook of Photovoltaic Science and Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, pp: 1043-1071. Konstantinos D. Patlitzianas , Haris Doukas, Argyris G. Kagiannas & Dimitris Th. Askounis.( 2006). A reform strategy of the energy sector of the 12 countries of North Africa and the Eastern Mediterranean, Energy Conversion and Management 47, pp:1913–1926. 430


Konstantin's D. Patlitzianas. (2011) Solar energy in Egypt: Significant business opportunities", Renewable Energy, pp 2305-2311. Mario J. Kofler, Christian Reinisch, Wolfgang Kastner. (2012). A semantic representation of energy-related information in future smart homes, Energy and Buildings 47, pp 169– 179. Mohammed Mostafa El-Khayat," Renewable Energy Potential In The Arab Region. ( 2010). Solar Energy Conservation And Photo energy Systems, Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS). Naveen Kumar Sharma, Prashant Kumar Tiwari & Yog Raj Sood. (2012). Solar energy in India: Strategies, policies, perspectives and future potential, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 16, pp 933– 941. New and Renewable Energy Authority (NREA), Ministry of Electricity and Energy, "Annual Report ", 2010/ 2011. Ryuichi Yokoyama, (2012), Resilient and Expandable Distribution Networks for Smart Community, Japan-Danish Joint Workshop, Waseda University, Japan Tamer Abdel Aziz, Osama Elmassah. (2012).'' Could renewable energy affect the form of the city? “Wind energy as a special parameter”. Energy Procedia 8 , pp 276 – 290

The African Development Bank (AfDB). (2012). Clean Energy Development in Egypt. African Development Bank (AfDB), Group Temporary Relocation Agency (TRA), Tunisia. Tjerk H. Reijenga. (2003) . PV in Architecture . Handbook of Photovoltaic Science and Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, pp 1005-1042. Mahmoud Sami Zannoun. (2009).'' Egypt's Renewable Energy Strategy, Achievements and Programs ", New and Renewable Energy Authority (NREA), EGYPT. word press.com, (2013) http://gees7.files.wordpress.com/passive-cooling-techniques... www.tessolarwater.com, (2013), TESZEUS® Photovoltaic-Thermal Hybrid Solar Collector

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© SB13-Cairo 2013 Solar Impact and Consequences on Heat Insulation in Egypt Ertel, H. and Baumann, G.

Solar Impact and Consequences on Heat Insulation in the hot climate of Egypt

Ertel, H. and Baumann, G. 2

German University in Cairo, Architecture and Urban Design Program, Building Technology 11835 New Cairo City, Main Entrance El Tagamoa El Khames, Egypt e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract: In hot and arid climate zones the energy input in a building via walls and roof depends on the usage of a sufficient thermal insulation in combination with an appropriate thermal mass. Both control the thermal energy input into the building. Accordingly it is of interest to investigate the respective rates of each component on the total energy input. The driving forces of the thermal flux are the temperature differences between inside and outside and the solar radiation. While in moderate climates the solar input is negligible, in hot climate zones the solar input has an essential effect on the total thermal input. Consequently measures to prevent the solar driven energy input like the use of shade and light colors on roof and walls are widely used in hot climate zones. To investigate the proportions of the temperature and solar driven heat input, we separate both the temperature differences and the solar impact and investigate for each variable the effects of the so called steady and unsteady parts within the variables. For each fraction we calculate the transmitted heat flux and finally superpose the single transmissions to the total heat input. The separation into temperature and solar driven heat flux inputs allows advisements on necessary insulations and thermal masses of walls, depending on the direction, and of the roof to reduce the total thermal input to a moderate energy input, manageable by a responsible use of air conditioning technique.

Keywords: heat insulation, hot climate, solar input, thermal mass

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1.

DRIVING FORCES OF HEAT FLUX THROUGH AN EXTERNAL WALL

The air temperature difference between inside and outside and the solar radiation change during the course of the day and the year. The temperature therefore can be separated in a constant or steady part like the medium temperature and in unsteady parts like the daily and annual temperature changes. The same separation in steady and unsteady parts is possible for the solar radiation.

The total heat flux qtot to the inner side is the sum of all the transmitted single parts caused by the temperature difference and solar radiation.

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2.

Model concepts for heat transport through building elements

2.1

Model concepts for heat transport through building elements

The Thermal flux q or the flow density through an external wall is mainly controlled by the thermal resistance RT of the wall. RT represents the total resistance of the wall including the two transfer resistances Re and Ri , which exist at the outer and inner side of the wall. Instead of RT in praxis more renowned is the so called U-value, which is U= 1/RT or the reciprocal of RT:

2.2

Controlling the unsteady parts of temperature and solar irradiation: The Effect of Thermal Mass

The thermal mass of the wall causes a reduction or damping of the heat flux and a delay or phase shift at the inner side when the external temperature or the surface temperature (solar impact) varies.

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2.3

Thermal model to introduce the effect of the solar irradiance (solar impact)

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3.

Transport of heat through building elements for unsteady conditions

3.1.

Temperature changes

The most important periodic temperature changes are the daily and the annual temperature fluctuations. The graphic shows the maximum, minimum and the mean temperatures per month in a three year period. In summer the averaged mean temperature is about 28°C and the maximum 36°C, i.e. the amplitude of the averaged daily change is 8K. In addition to the steady heat flux qè caused by the already high external steady temperature of 28°C this amplitude of change causes a further heat input (unsteady part).

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3.2.

Periodic change of solar irradiance: Calculating the steady and unsteady parts

3.3.

Fourier – approach: A tool for investigating unsteady temperature and radiation exposures

According to Fourier, any periodic function can be represented by a sum of independent coefficients an, bn of cos- and/or sin-functions and by a steady part a0 :

This way the exterior temperature and also the periodic variation of the daily solar irradiation (solar impact) can be written in form of Fourier-series. If there are only real components, which is the case when investigating the solar irradiation, the Fourier – series of the solar impact can be written as:

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The periodic variation of solar irradiation consists therefore of a steady component a0 and a number of unsteady components (so called harmonics within the time period T) with the amplitudes an. Thus, the Fourier-approach allows separate investigations of the heat transmission for steady and for unsteady conditions. Since all exposures are now harmonic cos-functions, the differential equation system of heat transmission through a wall can be solved easily. The final result is given by superposition of the solutions of all harmonic components.

3.3.1. Determination of Fourier-coefficients of the solar irradiation from measurement data: To calculate the the maximum solar impact, measurement data of June the 21st. were used. The measurements were taken at the solar power station of Kuraimat, south of Cairo

Approach to calculate the cos -Fourier-coefficients; transsforming the original tracked data to data on a projected or horizontal area, i.e. the irradiation on a horizontal roof.

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3.3.2. The number of coefficients necessary to describe solar radiation The total energy of one cycle of solar irradiation is given by integrating the current solar irradiation ∫IS(t) dt by time within the time period T. The result is Etot = 6,824 kWh/m2 for the given measurement data. When applying the Fourier-series of IS(t), an approximation of Etot is given with each coefficient used. The graph depicts the approximation depending on the number n of the Fourier-coefficients. It can be seen, that: about 84 % of the total energy is covered by using only the steady part, which allows a good first estimation of the transmitted heat -

95% of the energy transmission is considered by including the two first unsteady parts of the Fourier- series.

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4.

CALCULATING THE TRANSMITTED HEAT FLOW CAUSED BY TEMPERATURE AND SOLAR IMPACT

To calculate the heat transmission through an external wall a program [2] was applied which gives an exact solution of the heat flux under conditions of an unsteady or alternating external temperature signal and steady internal temperature. Some results are shown in the following figures, which demonstrate the effect of the thermal mass and of an insulation layer on the total heat input. An unsteady external temperature causes internally a time delayed flux which consists of a steady part qΔθ that is only controlled by the U-value of the wall and of an unsteady part with the amplitude q which is controlled by the U-value and the thermal mass. The effect of an insulation layer is very instructive. The reduction of qΔθ follows the change of the U-value while the reduction of q is affected by the U-value and the thermal mass. In the given example the reduction is about 1.7 times of that. The superposition of the effects of temperature and solar impact has been done by adding together the results of the temperature q = qΔθ + q and of the result of the transmitted steady part of the solar impact. The steady part represents about 84% of the solar energy. This limitation had to be accepted since the transmission of the unsteady parts of the solar irradiation could not be calculated with the used program [2].

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Thermal model of a massive wall with an additional insulation layer

An insulation adds an additional resistance Rins in the thermal network. Because of the low thermal mass of the insulation material the storage of heat within an insulation material can be neglected compared to the storage in the wall material. Therefore only the thermal resistance Rins = dins/λins is considered. Since in practice Rins is always larger than R= Rwall the insulation controls the thermal flux, i.e. any insulation reduces the total flux through the wall. But because of the storage of heat in a massive wall, the flux qi to the interior depends also on the position of the insulation. It

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can be shown, that insulation at the outer side results in a smaller flux qi than for a position at the inner side.

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5.

HOW TO CONTROL TEMPERATURE AND SOLAR IMPACT EFFECTS

Since the heat transmission through an outer wall is the result of air temperature differences between inside and outside and of solar irradiance there are also different means to control the transfer process. Most important is the U-value.

5.1.

How to build roof and walls?

The reduction of thermal flux in hot climates requires low U-values to reduce the flux in general and a thermal mass mth. at the inner side to damp fluctuations both by air temperature and solar impact. Thermal mass and insulation can either be separated or integrated in one material like sand brick (foamed concrete) or the renowned mud brick.

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5.2.

Comparison of heat input induced by temperature and solar impact

In hot climates like in Egypt a comparison between the heat input caused by the temperature difference and by solar radiation is instructive. In moderate climates the effect of solar radiation on the heat balance through opaque building elements is hardly relevant, but not so for hot and arid conditions. At a clear mid-summer day in Cairo the averaged temperature is about 28• ‹C with an averaged peak temperature of 36• ‹. The irradiance is about Is,max . 950 W/m2. With an internal temperature of 20• ‹C, fixed by air condition, the steady temperature difference is 8K. In order to compare the effects of temperature and solar impact the same U-value is applied for roof and walls. If, for instance, roof and walls are made of 20 cm concrete, it is U = 4,25W/m2K for the roof and 3,77W/m2K for the walls. The overall absorptivity was chosen to ƒ¿= 0,7. No shading is applied. The angle of altitude has been assumed to be 45• ‹ for the walls on East and West and 86• ‹ (21.of June, position Cairo) for the South. The irradiance on the wall to the North has been neglected.. Comparison of heat input induced by temperature and solar impact For those conditions the total thermal input (heat flux qi) into the building is about:

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While the temperature induced thermal input through the roof is qi . 38W/m2 and that through the walls . 34 W/m2, the solar input differs strongly between about 46 W/m2 for the roof, 29 W/m2 for the walls east-and westward and 4 W/m2 for the southward directed walls. 1. The solar impact on the roof is about 1,6 times that on east or west directed walls and 11 times that on a wall looking to the south. 2. On the roof, the thermal input, caused by solar impact is slightly larger than that caused by the temperature alone. For estimations both effects can be considered as equal. 3. The thermal input through walls is dominated by temperature. On south directed walls the solar impact causes about 10 percent of the thermal input. Therefore shading of walls is to recommend primarily for west- or eastward directed walls.

5.3.

Recommendations for thermal insulated exterior walls and roofs:

When limiting the acceptable thermal flux, recommendations on thermal mass and insulation can be given to meet that limit. Thus a resonable assumption 1) could be

6.

REFERENCES

[1]

Bruno Keller; Lectures on Building Physics „Die Energetik des Gebäudes“, Eidgenössische Hochschule Zürich (ETH), 2007

[2]

Christian Kupke; Complete solution of the DE-system for heat transmission through walls, private information

[3]

Steven V. Szokolay; Introduction to Architectural Science Elesevier, 2008, second edition

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© SB13-Cairo 2013 Energy Simulation as a Tool for Selecting Window & Shading Configuration in Extreme Desert Environment Sherif, Ahmed, El Zafarany, Abbas and Arafa, Rasha

Energy Simulation as a Tool for Selecting Window and Shading Configuration in Extreme Desert Environment Case Study: Intensive Care Unit in Aswan Sherif. Ahmed1, El Zafarany, Abbas2 and Arafa, Rasha3 1

The American University in Cairo, Department of Construction and Architectural Engineering AUC Avenue, New Cairo, Cairo , Egypt e-mail: [email protected] 2

Cairo University, Department of Urban Planning Giza, Egypt e-mail: [email protected]

3

The American University in Cairo, Department of Construction and Architectural Engineering AUC Avenue, New Cairo, Cairo , Egypt e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract: Intensive care units are crucial in patient’s detailed observation and invasive treatment. Daylighting passing through windows coupled with external view can contribute significantly to patient’s healing process. Large windows allow for good daylighting distribution and wide external view. However, they increase the heat gain, which affects energy consumption, especially in the hot desert environments which are characterized by high intensity of solar radiation. For optimal energy performance and overheating prevention, the beam solar radiation transmitted through windows should be controlled during the overheated periods. Window protection strategies could be employed for energy conservation, without sacrificing patient’s comfort or quality of care. This paper investigates the impact of using various window shading strategies such as solar screens and overhangs compared to window glazing treatment such as insulation, reflectivity, absorption or low emissivity glass on the annual cooling, heating and lighting energy use. Their effect was examined for different window to wall ratios in various window orientations. Series of experiments were performed using the EnergyPlus simulation software for a typical hospital Intensive Care Unit (ICU) space in Aswan which is one of Egypt's hottest and driest inhabited cities. It was found that an overall energy efficient performance can be achieved by utilizing external shading rather than glazing treatment in the Aswan ICUs. Conclusions were drawn recommending the window shading strategies which can achieve energy savings up to 30% in the West and South orientations of Aswan ICUs. Those were externally perforated solar screens, followed by overhangs positioned at a shading angle of 45°. Keywords: desert; energy; hospital; intensive care units; window shading.

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1.

INTRODUCTION

Hospitals, everywhere, are considered heavy energy consumers. Hospital Intensive Care Unit spaces pose a special challenge, where design guidelines requires the provision of external windows for daylighting, and best practice favors external view to reduce pain and length of stay at hospitals. These contribute significantly to patient’s healing process (FGI, 2010). For optimal energy performance and overheating prevention, the beam solar radiation transmitted through windows should be controlled especially in hot dry environments. Window protection strategies could be employed to reduce these energy loads without detriment effect on comfort or health care. Hospital energy performance was studied in the hot environment of Thailand to minimize lifecycle costs using a search and optimization technique of multiobjective genetic algorithm. The building envelope was found to be the most important factor contributing to increase or decrease in the life-cycle costs. It was found that significant energy savings can be achieved by improving three main building systems altogether, which were energy efficient building envelope, daylighting provision and efficient air-conditioning system (Pornkrisadanuphan and Chaiwiwatworakul, 2011). In another study, energy efficient building envelope treatments for a generic reference hospital in Thailand were examined. A parametric analysis was conducted by using different techniques such as the overall thermal transfer value (OTTV), glazing materials, several Window- to- Wall ratios (WWRs) and external shading devices. The annual energy savings due to increasing the daylighting reached up to 15.4 and 11.3% for the electrochromic and green tinted glazing respectively (Chungloo et al., 2001). Furthermore, acceptable window configurations that suit the requirements of hospital Intensive Care Units located in the desert were investigated in terms of daylighting to achieve daylight adequacy and visual comfort in a typical assumed ICU space, in Cairo, Egypt. Annual simulations were conducted using Diva-for-Rhino, a plug-in for Rhinoceros modeling software. Six window-to-wall ratios were investigated; in addition the effect of adding shading and daylighting systems. Successful window configurations were recommended for the different window to wall ratios, for each of the four main orientations (Sherif et al., 2013). The daylighting effect in health care facilities was analyzed in several other publications (Welch et al., 2005 and Pechacek, et al., 2008). It was recommended that natural light improvement could help reducing stress and fatigue, while increasing effectiveness in delivering care, patient safety and overall healthcare quality (Ulrich, 1991 and Ulrich et al., 2004) The thermal comfort effect on health was studied in a comprehensive literature review conducted to asses the impact of thermal comfort on increasing the productivity in hospitals. The study highlighted the significance of considering different thermal comfort conditions needed by patients and hospital staff (Khodakarami and Nasrollahi, 2012). Moreover, a threedimensional analysis for thermal comfort and contaminant removal in a hospital operating room was performed. Simulations modeling were conducted using computational fluid dynamics approach, where the distribution of airflow velocity, temperature, relative humidity, and contaminant concentration were studied. It was concluded that placing the supply grilles next to the vertical centerline of the wall provided an efficient performance. However, the exhaust grilles location was found insignificant (Ho et al., 2009).

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In addition, HVAC and indoor thermal conditions in hospital operating rooms were investigated, where measured data indoor thermal conditions, audit results and main properties of 20 ORs in 10 major Hellenic hospitals were presented. The most common problems were identified. These included shortage in indoor air exchange, poor control on indoor thermal conditions, ineffective space ergonomics that affects the ventilation system operation, poor technical installations maintenance and understaffed technical departments. Measured indoor temperature ranged from 14 to 29 °C, and relative humidity from 13 to 80%, while the number of air changes per hour ranged from 3.2 to 58 ACH. It was concluded that significant energy savings could be achieved, while preserving thermal comfort and high patient care quality (Balaras et al., 2007).

Objective This paper utilized simulation tools to evaluate the energy saving potential of using solar control methods and shading systems such as coloured and reflective glass, solar screens and overhangs on the energy performance in a typical hospital Intensive Care Unit room. The cooling, heating and lighting energy loads at different window-to-wall-ratios (WWR) were analyzed in the West, North and South orientations. The larger aim was to arrive at satisfactory window configurations that achieve maximum energy savings in Intensive Care Unit settings, thus help improve the delivery of healthcare.

2.


A computer model was created by the use of two computer simulation programs, Design Builder and EnergyPlus. The architectural parameters were selected according to the principal features of a typical ICU using the climatic data of the severe hot arid desert environment of Aswan, Egypt. Specific building input parameters were as follows: An ICU having a floor area of 5.75m by 4.0m, with a height of 3.0m. This room was isolated from the external environmental thermal changes by assuming that all surfaces, other than the external tested wall, were adiabatic. Thus, three walls, floor and roof were assumed adiabatic. The fourth wall was defined as a 350 mm thick double brick insulated cavity wall with a U- value of 0.475 W/m² –k that carried a window at its center. A split unit type air conditioning system was assumed. Artificial lighting was set to be dynamically controlled by sensors according to daylighting adequacy. A Daylighting control was set up with an illuminance set point of 100 lux at the centre of the ICU. The internal occupants’ load and ICU medical equipment were accounted for (Figure 1 and Table 1).

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Figure 1: Cross section of the tested ICU space

Table 1: Parameters of the tested ICU space ICU space Parameters Floor level

Zero level

Wall Thickness

0.35 m

Window Parameters Sill Height

1.0 m

WWR

20%

Material

generic double clear glazed separated by 13mm air gap

Light Transmission

0.75

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Screen 80% perforation and depth ratio of 1

Overhang positioned at a shading angle of 45°.

Overhang positioned at a shading angle of 30°.

Figure 2: Window shading treatments

A range of shading and glazing treatments were tested during all seasons in the West, South and North directions. These window treatments were as follows: single clear 3mm, single clear 6mm, double clear 3mm, single green 3mm, single grey 3mm, double clear 6mm with 6mm air gap, triple clear, single green 6mm, single blue 6mm, single grey 6mm, double argon filled with13mm, single reflective tinted, double grey, triple low-e argon filled, triple with mid panes, double electrochromic absorptive, overhang at 30°, overhang at 45°, solar screen on single clear 3mm and solar screen on double clear 3mm. Figure 2 illustrates the tested shading configurations.

3.

RESULTS

The annual energy consumption of a base case was calculated first. It was a typical ICU with an unprotected single clear window of 20% WWR. Then the annual energy consumption in KWh/m² for alternative window treatments in the West, South, and North orientations were calculated (Figure 3). Simulation results revealed that the highest energy consumption was found in West orientated ICU windows, where the energy consumption of the single glazed clear window reached 375kWh/m². The energy consumption of ICU windows located in the South orientation had a similar trend to that of the West orientation, but with slightly lower values. For example, the energy consumption of the single glazed clear window reached 367kWh/m². The North orientation provided the lowest consumption as the energy loads by using simple clear window reached 28k0Wh/m² due to the limited solar exposure in this direction.

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Figure 3: Annual Energy Loads for a window of 20% WWR with different window treatment strategies in the West, South and North orientations.

A comparative analytical study was drawn in reference to the base case of the simple clear window. The aim was to test the usefulness of window shading and glazing treatments in each orientation on energy savings. In the West orientation, the highest energy saving was 29.5%. This was achieved by shading ICU windows with externally perforated solar screens of 80% perforation percentage and depth ratio of 1 on a double glazed window. Window shading strategies proved to be more effective than window treatments with addition of glazing layers or changing its reflectivity and absorption. Shaded windows with overhang at 45° and 30° followed by double electrochromic absorptive windows provided a near optimum zone, where savings lied within 9% of the optimum saving percentage. However, electrochromic window may be considered a costly solution (Figure 4).

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Figure 4: Annual Energy savings for a West oriented window of 20% WWR with different window treatment strategies.

For the South orientation, savings had a similar trend to that of the West orientation, but with lower percentages in which window shading strategies achieved significant energy savings compared to window treatments of double or triple layers or dark colours. Externally perforated solar screens of 80% perforation percentage and depth ratio of 1 on a double glazed window achieved the highest energy savings of 28%, followed by screen on single glazed window. Then, overhangs at 45° and 30° provided a near optimum zone (Figure 5).

Figure 5: Annual Energy savings for a South oriented window of 20% WWR with different window treatment strategies.

For the North orientation, different window treatments achieved comparable energy savings, where maximum energy savings reached only 10%. However, unlike the West and South orientations, it was found that the window treatments without adding shading devices may achieve better energy performance in the North orientation of Aswan ICUs. Energy efficient window treatments included double electrochromic absorptive, followed triple with mid panes, 452


single reflective tinted, triple argon filled, double low-e argon filled and double grey windows (Figure 6).

Figure 6: Annual Energy savings for a North oriented window of 20% WWR with different window treatment strategies.

4.

DISCUSSION

To explain the behaviour of window treatment alternatives, the energy use contributors (Lighting, Cooling, Heating) were analyzed in the South orientation. As expected for desert environments, cooling represented the highest component, followed by lighting electricity then heating loads which were almost negligible. Window transmitted solar energy, which is the amount of beam and diffuse solar radiation entering the ICU through the window was also plotted to help clarify the shading effect in the South orientation. The transmitted solar energy increases with the increase of window to wall ratio (WWR). For example, in the single clear window, the transmitted solar energy increased significantly with the increase of WWR at high rates. The performance of the cooling energy load is almost parallel to this pattern. On the other hand, the lighting electricity load decreased with the increase of WWR at a low and almost constant rate. This could be attributed to the fact that the daylighting increased resulting in a reduced amount of artificial lighting use. Figure 7 illustrates the effectiveness of using overhang positioned at a shading angle of 45° on reducing the energy consumption. This allows the use of larger windows of up to 20% WWR with an energy use equivalent to that of the 4% WWR of the simple single unprotected window. Adding shading to the 4% WWR window didn’t affect the energy use, the overhang positive effect is evident in larger windows of 20% WWR. It could be noted that the improvement in the transmitted solar energy as a result of using window treatments lead to the enhancement in the cooling and the total energy use. This is observed in the decrease of the curve slope of the transmitted solar energy for the single grey window, followed by triple clear window, single reflective tinted window and triple window shaded by mid panes. Then, window with overhang positioned at a shading angle of 45°, where the curve is almost flattened.

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A- An unprotected single clear window.

B- Single grey window.

C- Triple clear window.

D- Single reflective tinted window.

E- Triple window shaded by mid panes.

F- Window shaded by overhang positioned at a shading angle of 45°.

Figure 7: Annual Energy loads for different window configurations- South orientation.

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5.

CONCLUSIONS

Energy performance for a typical hospital Intensive Care Unit space (ICU) located in Aswan, Egypt was simulated. Several window treatments were tested in the South, West and North orientations. The energy saving potential of using different window treatment strategies was evaluated and the window configuration that achieves the highest savings was identified for each orientation. The use of shading systems were found to be more effective in conserving energy in comparison with glazing of different types in the South and West orientations of Aswan ICUs. The highest energy savings were accomplished by external perforated solar screens, followed by overhangs positioned at a protection angle of 45°. The energy savings resulting from the use of solar screens reached 30% and 28% for the West and South orientations respectively in comparison with a non-shaded window. The energy savings were barely significant in the North orientation, where gazing treatment by changing the colour and reflectiveness of glass can be more effective due to limited solar exposure in that orientation.

6.

FURTHER RESEARCH

This paper reported on the investigation of different energy efficient window treatment strategies in Aswan ICUs. Their applicability in the ICUs of other similar or different environments is under investigation.

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7.

REFERENCES

Balaras, C. et al. (2007). HVAC and indoor thermal conditions in hospital operating rooms. Energy and Buildings 39 (4), pp: 454–470. Chungloo, S. et al.(2001). Parametric analysis of energy efficient building envelope in Thailand. Asian journal of energy environment , 2 (2), pp: 125–143. FGI (2010). Guidelines for Design and Construction of Healthcare Facilities. USA: Facility Guidelines Institute. Ho, S. et al. (2009). Three-dimensional analysis for hospital operating room thermal comfort and contaminant removal. Applied Thermal Engineering 29 (10), pp: 2080–2092. Khodakarami, J. and Nasrollahi, N. (2012).Thermal comfort in hospitals – A literature review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 16 (6), pp: 4071– 4077. Pechacek C., et al. (2008). Combining annual daylight simulation with photobiology data to assess the relative circadian efficacy of interior spaces. Proceedings of eSim 2008 - 5th National Conference of IBPSA, Canada. Pornkrisadanuphan, S. and Chaiwiwatworakul, P. (2011). A Genetic Algorithm-Based Approach Design for Energy-Efficient Building inThailand. Proceedings of the International Conference on Environment Science and Engineering (IPCBEE), Singapore. Sherif, A. et al. (2013). Daylighting simulation as means for configuring hospital intensive care unit windows under the desert clear skies (paper accepted), Proceedings of the Building Simulation Conference (BS 2013) 25-28 August 2013, Chambéry, France. Ulrich, R. (1991). Effects of healthcare interior design on wellness: Theory and recent scientific research, Journal of Healthcare Interior Design, 3, pp: 97-109. Ulrich, R., et al. (2004). The role of the physical environment in the hospital of the 21st century: a once-in-a-lifetime opportunity. The Center for Health Design SM. Walch, J., et al. (2005). The effect of sunlight on postoperative analgesic medication use: A prospective study of patients undergoing spinal surgery, Psychosomatic Medicine, 67 (1), pp: 165-163.

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© SB13-Cairo 2013 Optimizing the external and internal reflectors and roof geometry for a deep side lit space Wagdy, A. and Shalaby, M.

Optimizing the external and internal reflectors and ceiling geometry for a deep side lit space Using validated daylight simulation with genetic optimization algorithm in Cairo, Egypt

Wagdy, A.1 and Shalaby, M.2 1

2

The University of Melbourne, Melbourne School of Design (MSD) Gate 3 Swanston Street, Victoria 3010, Australia e-mail: [email protected]


Abstract: Utilizing daylight in a space can greatly affect the level of productivity in it, as well as the users’ comfort levels. Many methods could be used to analyse the illuminance levels, but problems arise as the simulation results produced are static data, which cannot implement the required changes to the initial model, hence the model should be adapted by the designer after each simulation. The author proposes a complex workflow that involves the development of a 3D parametric model that is automatically modified by the simulation results through using Grasshopper, Ecotect, and radiance software. This paper thus aims at determining the maximum length of a room which is naturally day lit, and presents a genetic optimization algorithm that controls the shape and dimension of ceiling geometry and the daylight reflectors automatically. The generated solution, using the concepts of Genetic Algorithms (GA), would represent the most optimized forms for shading devices, and interior reflectors in the ceiling for maximizing the daylight in the room modelled. The objective of this simulation would to produce validated daylight solution by considering both the UDI and LEED standards. Results, following the complex relations between the different variables, have shown that a maximum depth of 12.9 m could be achieved using natural daylight, with values ranging between 107 lux to 1121lux. Keywords: Daylight, Genetic algorithm, Grasshopper, Optimization, Radiance

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1. INTRODUCTION Natural daylight design is one of the crucial aspects that architects address in order to maximize the efficient use of a space, and develop a more sustainable design. This could be achieved through maximizing the daylight availability within a space, minimizing the overall energy use either from the use of artificial light or through the energy loads resulting from excessive lighting, as well as providing adequate occupant satisfaction that would positively contribute to the users’ productivity. The incorporation of natural daylight in particular rather than the use of artificial sources is thus very important as it affects the human health, performance and productivity, the biological clock and body functions, as well as the mood (Hunter. C, 2003). This shows the importance of the daylight availability, yet still, controlling the quality of the daylight inside a space is extremely hard, as attaining the complex relationship between different factors, such as light behaviour, geometrical and material properties is a tedious process, especially for architects. This is why considering the illuminance values for the different spatial as well as functional requirements is essential; in order to constantly evaluate the, overall daylight performance in a space. The paper will consider both the Useful Daylight illuminance (UDI) and the LEED daylight requirements in the simulation process in order to ensure overall daylight performance in the space. Accommodating the UDI and the LEED values in a design becomes more difficult as more systems, such as shading devices, skylights, light wells, as well as form optimization are employed, which is considered a problem for most architects as the modelling and evaluation methods becomes more complex. (Reinhart C. W., 2010). This paper presents an extensive background of the different simulation methods that could be employed to maximize the natural day lighting in a space. This is important in order to develop a research methodology based on the latest advances on the simulation methods adopted through the researches. These advances include dynamic daylight computation methods, climate-based daylighting metrics, glare analysis, as well as occupant behaviour (Reinhart C. W., 2010). The literature review will then examine advances related to the use of shading devices, as well as parametric form generation with respect to daylight analysis.

2. LITERATURE REVIEW Incorporating daylight simulation methods in the design process has rapidly developed to tackle the relationship between daylighting and architectural form (Rakha.T, 2011), the use of complex geometries, as well as the special and dynamic lighting considerations in the design phase. This was shown through different researches where architects preferred to incorporate “DSADP” (daylight simulation integrated into architectural design process) from very early design considerations, as well as in renovating or upgrading existing buildings (Kim.C, 2010). The integration of daylight simulation could be dated back to 1970’s, till the recent advances now of using lumen Micro 2000, Lightscape, Ecotect, and Radiance, and their integration with algorithms and scripting languages. The most validated tool considered is Radiance (Wienold, 2009), in spite of the fact that it does not have a friendly user interface, and needs many input parameters for simulation, which thus can’t be considered as a tool for architects (Shi.X, 2013). Architects therefore should be aware of the design considerations that would guide them in 458


attaining the required daylight in a space, as well as the different daylight simulation mechanisms that could be used.

2.1

Daylight simulation mechanisms:

2.1.1

Trial and error simulation process:

Many mechanisms were developed for the simulation and analysis of daylight in a space. These include basic traditional trial and error (manual) simulation process, where the designer models different building forms or daylight control systems, such as shading devices, then run simulation process for each model separately. This was shown through assessing the building façade performance in terms of daylighting and the associated energy consumption through different orientations of shading devices. These included running the simulation over vertical, horizontal, and 45 degree shading devices in an office space, comparing them with a another model without shading device, then calculating the average illuminance level on the work plane, and connecting it with the expected energy saving in the building (Alzoubi.H, 2009) . Another similar example was the simulation of a four-story open plan building with different shading conditions (using no shading devices, shading devices on east, south, and west facades, shading devices on the same facades with a lantern at the top of the light well), and analysing the results using the daylight factor, daylight autonomy, and useful daylight illuminance (Nabil, 2006). Such simulation analyses are time consuming, in addition to the fact that they eliminate other positions and dimensions of the shading device that could have resulted in better illuminance values in the space. In addition to that, multiple studies has been developed to study the effect of shading devices on the illuminance level inside a space, such as investigating the effect of seven shading devices, including mirrored louver system, on an office, (Dubois, 2003). Likewise, multiple variables related to shading devices such as the depth, opening ratio, fenestration design, and the reflectance, were examined to check their effect on the interior space. (Chou, 2004) Another example for this type of simulation is the identification of minimum perforation percentage in external perforated solar screens in an arid environment. The perforation values of the screens were changed according to their orientation, and the results were tabulated relative to the different seasons, the times (9:00, 12:00 noon, and 15:00), as well as the orientations (Sherif, 2012). In addition to that, it was found that the louver angles greatly affect the daylight performance rather the louver reflectance (Ng, 2001). Furthermore, an interpretation was driven that the performance of the louvers can be enhanced through changing the ceiling geometry (Freewan, 2008). This was also reflected in analysing a skylight configuration through two form-finding processes. The processes included defining the skylight shape and tessellation based on the input geometry at the design, followed by changing the aperture of the skylight at the operation stage (Henriques, 2012). These methods were examined by the author in order to achieve the paper aims, and will be thoroughly explained in the methodology. In spite that the use of this type of simulation resulted in important findings, these methods could be replaced by incorporating algorithms, scripting techniques, as well as validated simulation methods to develop more optimized simulation method, and produce the optimum results.

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2.1.2

Optimized simulation methods:

Interpreting the simulation alternatives using the previously mentioned mechanisms is very hard, and time consuming. This triggered the development of optimized simulation methods that examined the relationship between complex variables, such as occupancy behaviour models that examined the use of shading and lighting controls by the occupants (Haldi, 2009) (Reinhart.C, 2004). The new evaluation methods of complex fenestration systems referencing their thermal and optical properties such as the use of light redirecting devices (Kuhn, 2006), (ISO, 2003) (Frontini, 2009) and more developed glare prediction and simulation methods (Wienold J. , 2007) (Wienold J. , 2009) (Wienold J. C., 2006). As there are constant advances in the simulation processes, architects started to seek methods of evaluating several variables using one application. An example for that was the proposal of using a “Daylight dashboard” that would combine different results that cover the daylight availability, the comfort levels in a space, as well as the energy use and accompanied costs. This proposal would thus act as a combining platform, but would not still develop an optimized simulation method which runs in automatic mode. This was also discussed and was recommended that a geometric model in an animated building performance simulation to be used (ABPS) (Reinhart C. W., 2010). The automated building performance simulation would enable the users of exploring many alternations at the same time. This would be particularly useful if a parametric optimization method is used to evaluate the results of the daylighting simulation relative to a specific daylight requirement. This concept could be applied by using the genetic algorithms. 2.1.3

Genetic Algorithm (GA):

Genetic algorithm is an optimization technique that adopts the same concepts of biological evolution in nature. It uses the concepts of DNA and chromosomes where a group of solutions (groups) to a set problems and variables are first determined, and then the excellent genes (characteristics) or the most “fit” ones are inherited to form the next solution group. This process is repeated till the initial objectives set by the designer are met, and the building form is synthesized to form the most optimized solution to the identified problems. This could be achieved through the use of “Galapagos” plug in in the grasshopper platform. (Ming L. C., 2006) (Ming L. , 1995) (Rutten, 2010). Many researches have adopted the use of genetic algorithms in their design simulations in order to derive most “fit” results that would satisfy their daylighting needs in a space. These include ceiling form optimization in response to daylight levels that incorporated the use of GA, yet did not target the best solution, but rather examined the research capabilities that could be carried out (Rakha.T, 2011). Another example would be the use of Galapagos and scripting languages to connect three simulation software, Ecotect, radiance, and Energyplus to grasshopper in rhino. This allowed for performance driven architectural design and optimization technique.. (Shi.X, 2013) In addition to that, one of the researches developed a connection between Grasshopper and radiance, where results are exported back to grasshopper. However, in both researches they could not run the simulation automatically because they had to manually import the analysis results back to Grasshopper and save them in separate states to evaluate each solution. The direct development to this research is the application used in the methodology in this paper. (Lagios, 2010)

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In spite of these advances, some problems still arise that restrict the use of these advances in optimizing the daylight use during the design process. These problems were studied by the author, and many researches are currently addressing it to develop new systems that would reduce some of these problems.

2.2

Identifying the optimization and simulation problems:

Although many simulation techniques were developed for daylight simulation in a space, incorporating daylight in the design process is still considered aggravating due to a number of reasons which are (Reinhart.C, 2010), 1- The absence of an easy simulation environment, as the validated simulation engines do not show an appropriate graphical user interface for designers, but rather require a lot of time to learn and use, and even sometimes coding requirements that are not familiar to architects. This point was noted in many areas of the literature, such as in the algorithmic link between grasshopper and Ecotect, Radiance, and Energy plus in (Shi.X, 2013) where the author recommended that it is important to “standardize the codes and develop architect-friendly interface so that no coding capability is required”. 2- Presence of simulation errors, which is a resultant of the previous problem, as sufficient knowledge is needed to be able to simulate validated results. This was demonstrated through a recent study of sixty nine of the same model that was side lit, which showed how the beginners’ models had many errors, and questioned their relevance for the design process. (Ibarra, 2009) 3- Simulation time, which is also considered one of the major problems, as most daylight simulations, especially those dependent on Radiance raytracer, require a huge time for simulation, even with the involvement of complex algorithms. (Reinhart C. W., 2010) 4- Difficulty in interpreting the simulation results, as designers may not have the necessarily knowledge or experience to interpret the simulation results. 5- Time consuming process, as in non-parametric simulation models, multiple options need to be developed and simulated separately, and then the results are manually compared to deduct the most suitable option. In addition to that, the simulated results do not automatically feed in the original design considerations so that the necessarily modifications are directly carried out. An example for this would be simulating the most suitable shading device or venetian blind in a room, which would require the simulation of at least three options (fully opened, fully closed, and with a slat angle) to examine the minimum direct sunlight that would be allowed in a space. (Reinhart, 2010)

2.3

Research aims

The main problem that was considered in this research and was further developed was closing the loop between design and environmental simulation applications, and how it would help in reaching the most optimized form for the optimum daylight performance. The research aims in these cases are to: -

-

Illustrate how the application developed by the author could be used for an automatic optimization process using the concept of GA and based on validated daylight simulation tool. Achieving maximum room depth with natural light, and eliminating direct sun light. Maximizing the daylight availability in a space by optimizing the shading devices and reflectors for the optimum use of daylight.

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3. METHODOLOGY Based on the results analysis derived from the literature review, it was essential to analyse the effect of the interior form design, as well as the shading devices and accommodating the different variables related to them, in order to achieve the research aims. This acted as a motivation for developing a tool that presently has no commercial application that can completely solve the problem of birding between design and simulation in fully automated environment. It was thus necessarily to develop new tools for these tasks by developing these existing software through advanced scripting (plug-in or add-ons). (Donath, 2009) The authors present the challenging process of engaging the daylight simulation with the architecture design process. The application developed by the author has successfully linked a three dimensional parametric modelling software “Grasshopper” plug-in for Rhinoceros with a validated daylighting simulation tool “Radiance”, where the entire process runs in an automatic mode without the need to export or import the 3D modelling information between each type of software in order to have a totally automatic optimization process. (Wagdy, 2013) The main concept behind this tool is to find the optimum performance driven design, for that, a close optimization loop is required to achieve this objective which allows the parametric design to be modified through time until it reaches the best possible daylight solution inside the space. This new tool allows the user to work simultaneously through a parametric platform which has the ability to export the 3D modelling information, material properties, and analysis grids into Radiance format and generate a series of daylighting analyses. After that the simulation results are automatically loaded back into the Grasshopper with the numeric values of each the analysis points, as well as RGB colour mappings. In that case, the analysis results are evaluated within fitness functions, giving feedback which is processed in a loop action inside the optimization engine shown in Figure 1 (Wagdy, 2013).

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Figure 1: Shows the Grasshopper definition.

This introduced the need of using the genetic algorithm GA inside the new tool because it allows the examination of a large number of design scenarios and alternatives. Indeed, the simultaneous integration of parametric modelling and performance leads to the reduction of the extraordinary number of possibilities due to the wide range of variables inside each parameter. However the final result of this benefit, undoubtedly, is much more efficient than the traditional method of trying each possible solution manually. Last but not least, the use of a parametric modelling program allows the production of new levels of form complexity which is not possible inside the static modelling packages. All different areas of the new parametric workflow is shown in Figure 2.

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Figure 2 shows the flowchart of the new parametric tool which is used in the simulation process 464


3.1

Daylight Simulation conditions and criteria’s:

In order to use the application and produce validated results as well, the author referenced two systems for the daylight illuminance levels in a space. These are the Useful daylight illuminance (UDI) and the LEED. UDI values ranged between 100-2000 lx, and were based on various studies of the occupancy behaviour pattern under day lit conditions, as it was recently reported that employees were more comfortable under a lighting level of around 100lx. This contradicted the standards that usually reported that the lighting values should range between 300-500 lx at the desk levels. The UDI values could be summarized as, (Nabil, 2006) 1. Useful range (i.e. 100–2000 lx) 2. Fall short of the useful range (i.e. less than 100 lx) 3. Exceed the useful range (i.e. greater than 2000 lx) The author also referenced the LEED standard to develop validated results that corresponds to the LEED 8.1 daylight requirement. The computer simulations accordingly were run in a clear sky condition on September 21st at 9 a.m. and 3 p.m. According to USGBC official website, an architectural space should achieve an illumination level of at least 107.6 lux and a maximum of 5283 lux, which equals a 10 to 500 foot-candle. In order to get one LEED credit, 75% of the room area should be within the illumination levels, or a minimum of 90% or more to get two LEED credits. (Wagdy, 2013) The main criteria was to find the longest room depth, the shape and dimensions for all light reflectors which would hence satisfy the following three conditions: -

The first condition is to keep the illumination values for %100 of all analysis point inside the illumination range of LEED 8.1 requirement for daylighting. The second condition is to keep the illumination values for %100 of all analysis point inside the useful illumination range 100-2000 Lux. The third condition is to keep the luminance ratio does not exceed 1 to 10 ratio as it is recommended by IESNA (IESNA., 2000)

4. TEST MODEL/SIMULATION The test model is a 3D model parametric room with variable numbers of vertical reflectors. The inner and outer reflectors have the ability to change its cross-section profile. This flexibility is made in order to explore all different possibilities of the size and shape of the reflectors The four facades are oriented towards the four cardinal directions; the model is side lit room. The only façade which has a transparent part is the one facing south, and two Figure 9: shows the 3d model of the room opaque plans representing the floor and ceiling, as shown in Figure 9. 465


There are many parameters that were used in the simulation process, and they could be divided into two categories. The first one are the fixed parameters, and represent: -

The weather data file was set to Cairo Intl Airport 623660 (ETMY). The date and time of the simulation process was set to on 21th of September at 9 am. The material properties for each part of the model shown in Table 1 (Reinhart C, 2006) The standard daylight requirements “LEED & UDI” The radiance simulation properties shown in Table 2 (Reinhart C, 2006)

And the second category is the variable one, and represent: Room depth and Height vary from (8 m to 15 m) and (3m to 6m) respectively. The number and dimension of the vertical reflectors and shading devices vary from (3 to 10) and (.1m to 1.5m). The shape and position of the horizontal reflector and shading device. Table 1: The parameters of each material in radiance scene (Reinhart C, 2006)

material Ceiling

optical properties 86% diffuse reflectance

Floor Carpet

Radiance material description void plastic ceiling 0 0 5 0.86 0.86 0.86 0 0 Gray patches 13% diffuse void plastic carpet 0 0 5 0.13 0.13 reflectance 0.13 0 0

void plastic side_wall 0 0 5 0.73 0.73 0.73 0 0 Unpainted aluminum 74% diffuse reflectance with void plastic mullion 0 0 5 0.74 0.74 mullions an estimated 10% specular 0.74 0.1 0 component void plastic gravel 0 0 5 0.22 0.22 Outside gravel 22% diffuse reflectance 0.22 0 0 void plastic ext_wall 0 0 5 0.4 0.4 External wall 40% diffuse reflectance 0.4 0 0 Reflectors 86% diffuse reflectance void plastic ceiling 0 0 5 0.86 0.86 0.86 0 0 31% normal visible void glass tinted glazing 0 0 tinted glazing transmittance 3 0.338117 0.338117 0.338117 Side walls

73% diffuse reflectance

Table 2: The values for each parameter in Radiance simulation (Reinhart C, 2006)

ambient bounces 7

ambient division 1500

ambient sampling 100

ambient accuracy 0.1

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ambient resolution 200

direct threshold 0

direct sampling 0


4.1

Automating the simulation process

The automation of the simulation process is developed by closing the loop between the modelling and analysis environment. The workflow starts with a generic configuration for each parameters then it runs the first daylight simulation. The results are evaluated with reference to the LEED and UDI standards to evaluate the current design performance, if they do not meet the performance objective, then the loop process starts with modifying the design parameter using genetic algorithm. This process ensures that the next design configuration should have a better daylight evaluation than the previous one. The optimization process runs until it achieves the performance objective and produces the optimum daylight performance, as shown in Figure 4. The optimization process took 30 hours and half to be completed in just one pc. After 35 generations, the optimization process reached the most optimum value for each parameters which reflects the best possible daylight distribution inside the space.

Figure 4: Shows the optimization logic of the tool. The first generation considers a wide range of Bio-Diversity of 97.5%, however for each next generation the range is reduced automatically if the final result of the fitness function become higher. The fitness value rises very quickly from 4147.99 to 12003.90 in just 200 Genomes. This is because of the adapted equation of the fitness function, which results that the optimization engine “Galapagos” will quickly understand where to search for the optimum values of each parameter in order to keep the illumination levels within the LEED and the UDI standards. This fitness function considers the main parameter such as the daylighting quality, the room depth and the geometrical shape of the daylight reflectors. The author made a sophisticated relation between all these variables to drive the optimization engine towards a better daylight solution inside a very deep space. The form that was used consisted of six variables with different weight depending on the importance of each parameter on the final objective. The main variable was “X” which is connected with the number of analysis points which meets the LEED and the UDI requirements. Followed by the importance of the variable “Y&W” which helps to find the maximum allowable room depth without affecting the result of “X”. The variable “V” comes in the third place and they are controlling the sizing of the reflectors in order to make them as small as possible. After that comes variables “U” which is used to reduce the luminance ratio to keep the luminance ratio 1to10 as a maximum. The final variable is “Z" which responsible for adjusting the ceiling height to find a relationship the room dimensions. As shown in Figure . Now the value of making a custom fitness function becomes very clear because of its effectiveness over the optimization process throughout the deferent generations.

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Figure 5: shows the Fitness Function definition.

After the first generation is completed, the following generation from 2 to 35 started to fine tune all parameter in order to reach the maximum possible fitness of 12244.51 with 6.9% BioDiversity. Galapagos found 10 peaks through the optimization process in different generation which became the starting configuration of the next generation until it stopped on the 34 th generation after the final peak on the 27th generation. As shown in Figure 6.

Figure 6: shows the optimization diagram through time As shown in Figure for deferent screen shots of the optimization process through time. It started from 8.6 meter depth until it reached 12.9 meter as a maximum room depth which satisfy the LEED and UDI requirements for the daylight.

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Figure 7: Show the daylight optimization and the geometrical optimization through time.

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4.2

The final result

After the optimization process is completed, the final result represents the optimum configuration of each parameter which keeps 100% of the illumination values of the analysis points between 107 and 1121 Lux, these values falls in the accepted range of LEED & UDI. This solution succeed to show the maximum room depth 12.9 meters that can be reached with this reflectors configurations. All important results are shown in Figure .

Figure 8: Shows the final result of the optimization process.

5. CONCLUSION This paper explored optimizing the daylighting performance of reflectors and room depth by modifying the reflectors shape and room parameters. These were examined using Radiance simulation in order to validate the daylight performance of the maximum room depth that reached 12.9 meters. Experiments showed the significant effects of automatic optimization techniques on improving the performance of the reflectors in terms of achieve the useful luminance level and luminance ration as well as the LEED daylight requirements in a very deep side lit space.

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Finally, the new tool which is used to perform the optimization is offering a unique advances interim of complying with restrictions while keeping the daylight performance as good as possible, which is not possible to achieve with the traditional method of trial and error.

6. FURTHER RESEARCH Ultimately, the workflow that is used in this paper could be upgraded In the future to consider different environmental analysis such as natural ventilation or energy consumption by linking it with other validated simulation tools.

7. REFERENCES AND IN-TEXT CITATION/ REFERENCING Alzoubi.H, A.-Z. (2009). Assessment of building façade performance in terms of daylighting and the associated energy consumption in architectural spaces: Vertical and horizontal shading devices for southern exposure facades. Elsevier, Energy Conversion and Management (51), 1592–1599. Chou, C. (2004). The performance of daylighting with shading device in architecture design. Tamkang Journal of Science and Engineering, 205–12. Donath, D. L. (2009). Plausibility in Early Stages of Architectural Design:A New Tool for HighRise Residential Buildings. TSINGHUA SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, 14(3), 327-332. Dubois, M. (2003). Shading devices and daylight quality: an evaluation based on simple performance indicators. Sage journals, Lighting Research and Technology, vol.35, 6174. Freewan, A. R. (2008). Interactions between louvers and ceiling geometry for maximum daylighting performance. ELSEVIER, Renewable Energy(34), 223–232. Frontini, F. K. (2009). Implementation and application of a new bi-directional solar modeling method for complex facades within the ESP-r building simulation program. ELSEVIER,Building Simulation. Haldi, F. R. (2009). Interactions with window openings by office occupants. ELSEVIER, Building and Environment, 44(12), 2378–2395. Henriques, G. D. (2012). Strategies to control daylight in a responsive skylight system. ELSEVIER, Automation in Construction, 28, 91–105. Hunter. C, H. O. (2003). The benefits of daylight through windows. New York: Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. Ibarra, D. R. (2009). Daylight factor simulations - how close do simulation beginners ‘really’ get? Building Simulation 2009, 196-203. IESNA. (2000). Illuminating Engineering Society of North America, 9th. United States of America: IESNA. ISO. (2003). ISO 15099:2003 thermal performance of windows, doors and shading, devices e detailed calculations. International Organization for Standardization. Kim.C, C. (2010). Daylighting simulation as an architectural design process in museums installed with toplights. Elsevier, Building and Environment 46, 210- 222. 471


Kuhn, T. (2006). Solar control: A general evaluation method for facades with venetian blinds or other solar control systems. ELSEVIER, Energy and Buildings, 38(6), 648–660. Lagios, K. N. (2010). Animated building performance simulation (ABPS)- linking Rhinocerous/Grasshopper with Radiance/Daysim. SimBuild 2010. New York City. Ming, L. (1995). A Multary Theory for Genetic Algorithms: Unifying Binary and Non-binary Problem Representations. United Kingdom: Queen Mary and Westfield College. Ming, L. C. (2006). Urbanization Dynamic Evolution in Jiu Jiayu Area Based on Selforganization Model. Geographical Research, 25(3), 551-559. Nabil, A. M. (2006). Useful daylight illuminances: A replacement for daylight factors. ELSEVIER, Energy and Buildings, 38, 905–913. Nabil, A. M. (2006). Useful daylight illuminances: A replacement for daylight factors. ELSEVIER, Energy and Buildings, 38, 905–913. Ng, E. Y.-Y. (2001). Advanced lighting simulation in architectural design in the tropics. Automation in Construction (10), 365–79. Rakha.T, N. (2011). Genetic algorithms for ceiling form optimization in response to daylight levels. Elsevier, Renewable Energy, 2348e2356. Reinhart, C. A. (2006). Development and validation of a Radiance model for a translucent panel. Canada: National Research Council Canada. Reinhart, C. W. (2010). The daylighting dashboard - A simulation-based design analysis for daylit spaces. Elsevier, Building and Environment (46), 386-396. Reinhart.C. (2004). Lightswitch-2002: A model for manual and automated control of electric lighting and blinds. ELSEVIER, Solar Energy, 77(1), 15–28. Rutten, D. (2010, September 24). Evolutionary Principles applied to Problem Solving. Retrieved September 2013, from Grasshopper, Algorithmic modelling for rhino: http://www.grasshopper3d.com/profiles/blogs/evolutionary-principles Sherif, A. S. (2012). External perforated Solar Screens for daylighting in residential desert buildings: Identification of minimum perforation percentages. Elsevie, Solar energy 86, 1929–1940. Shi.X, Y. (2013). Performance-driven architectural design and optimization technique from a perspective of architects. Elsevier, Automation in Construction 32, 125–135. Wagdy, A. (2013). New Parametric workflow based on validated day-lighting simulation. Building Simulation Cairo 2013- Towards Sustainable & Green Life. Cairo, Egypt: Building Simulation Cairo 2013. Wienold, J. (2007). Dynamic simulation of blind control strategies for visual comfort and energy balance analysis. Building Simulation 2007. Wienold, J. (2009). Dynamic daylight glare evaluation. Building Simulation 2009. Wienold, J. C. (2006). Evaluation methods and development of a new glare prediction method for daylight environments with the use of CCD cameras. Energy and Buildings 2006, 38(7), 743–757.

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© SB13-Cairo 2013 Night Cool Eicker, U. and Loeffler,T.

Night Cool Development of Low Cost Renewable Cooling and Heating Systems for Egyptian Buildings Eicker, U.1 and Loeffler, T.2 1

HFT/ ZAFH.NET University of Applied Sciences Stuttgart, Institute of Applied Research and Centre for Sustainable Energy Technology Schellingstrasse 24, 70174 Stuttgart, Germany e-mail: [email protected] 2

German University in Cairo, Architecture and Urban Design Program, Building Technology 11835 New Cairo City, Main Entrance El Tagamoa El Khames, Egypt e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract: The energy-efficient summer cooling of residential buildings in Egypt is problematic due to rising electrical costs coupled with insufficiently insulated roofs which leads to high cooling loads. In 2012 the GUC/Building Technology and HFT/ZAFH.NET applied toghether successfully for a GERF project, funded by the STDF (Egypt) and BMBF (Germany) which starts in early 2014 and which will run for two years. With this project we want to contribute to the development of low-cost collectors able to provide heating, cooling and domestic hot water for buildings located in hot and dry areas, such as Egypt, by taking advantage of long-wave radiation from roofs towards the sky at night time. The effect is based on a lower counter-radiation of the sky and can be experienced on cold desert nights. Until now this effect has never been utilized for a technical cooling process in buildings. The project could therefore launch a new technical concept for cooling houses in arid regions. To evaluate the potential use of the collectors, the performance of the radiator/collector must first be assessed for the Egyptian climatic conditions and in combination with the system technology. The assessment should include both the time delay of the cold production and the cooling demand of the building, as well as the temperature level reached by the system. Another part of the investigation is to find a satisfying method of the integration of the indoor collector panel. The overall system performance, including production, distribution, storage and delivery to the space, can be then evaluated from both the economic and primary energy points of view.

Keywords: building technology, collector, energy-efficiency, radiation, solar cooling

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1. INTRODUCTION In 2012 the GUC/Building Technology and HFT/ZAFH.NET with MEFA Energy Systems as an Industry Partner successfully applied for a GERF project, funded by the STDF (Egypt) and BMBF (Germany) which starts in early 2014 and which will run for two years. The purpose if this project is to contribute to the development of low cost collectors able to provide heating, cooling and domestic hot water for buildings located in hot and dry areas such as Egypt. Thus, the project will investigate various issues and solutions associated with the development, production and application of solar collectors for heating and cooling of residential buildings in Egypt, particularly examining various absorber technologies for application potential to system engineering and integration into the building envelope.

2. BACKGROUND The energy efficient summer cooling of residential buildings in Egypt is an ever an increasing problem due to rising electrical costs coupled with high insolation on insufficiently insulated roof areas, which leads to high cooling loads. Currently, this cooling load is largely addressed by compression chillers, the power consumption from which strongly affects the primary energy balance of the buildings. To this end, solar cooling systems can offer a meaningful alternative. Nevertheless, this technology has not yet been introduced into the broader market, as it requires high technical efforts to perform efficiently and its size can be difficult to adjust. Free cooling with ground water is also associated with high energy expenditures, particularly for the drilling of the bore holes, and is not feasible for many locations due to overly high ground temperatures or the presence of valuable water resources. Another alternative that has thus been rarely used is the utilization of long-wave radiation from roofs towards the sky. Horizontal roofs under clear sky conditions can attain an average cooling power of 60 W/m², with even higher values are expected for the very dry climate of Egypt. The effect is based on a lower counter-radiation of the sky and can be experienced on cold desert nights. Until now, that effect has never been utilized for a technical cooling process in buildings. The project could therefore, launch a new technical concept for cooling of houses in the region.

3. THE RADIATOR/COLLECTOR A simple non-insulated water collector can provide cooling capacity to the building at different temperature levels for a variety of uses at night (e.g. free cooling, heat rejection, storage discharging). During the daytime, the use of solar energy offers additional options such as heating in winter or domestic hot water preparation. When the absorber is combined with a photovoltaic module, electricity can even be generated during the day. An important additional benefit of such collectors is the shading effect obtained when installed on flat roof surfaces, which reduces the cooling load of the building, especially that of the roof. MEFA Energy Systems, as industrial partner in this project, has developed and patented an uncovered absorber made of a 10mm thick plastic wall panel (Figure 1). The structural panel has the characteristics of a full-scale surface, with the absorber medium having a very evenly distributed and turbulent flow (Figure 2, Figure 3-4). The flow quality and high flow rates allow for a very high performance heat exchange, even those without solar radiation. 474


The uniform flow through the absorber has been developed especially for high thermal absorption and emission performance and is used in all MEFA energy absorbers. The MEFA developed and patented plastic energy collector can be found as unglazed solar absorbers on the roofs and facade surfaces.

Figure 1: small prototype of radiator/collector (Loeffler, 2013)

Figure 2: open demonstration model: the special construction of the radiator/collector allows a even through-flow of liquid (Loeffler, 2013)

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To evaluate the potential use of the collectors, the performance of the radiator/collector must first be assessed for the Egyptian climatic conditions and in combination with the system technology. The assessment should include both the time delay of the cold production and the cooling demand of the building, as well as the temperature level reached by the system. The overall system performance, including production, distribution, storage and delivery to the space, can be then evaluated from both the economic and primary energy points of view. As previously mentioned, the integration of the collector into the building envelope allows for sun protection of the roof and therefore, contributes to the reduction of cooling demand. Also, good quality integration means a close proximity of the collectors to the building, which helps reduce installation and piping costs. Therefore, the integration of the collector into the building envelope will also be investigated, especially regarding the roof mounting fixtures and the hydraulic connections. These different options will be assessed not only according to the technical performance of the collectors, but also with regard to local subsidies, production techniques and available infrastructure. Combinations of modules, with and without photovoltaics that are appropriate to existing local climatic, economic and social conditions will be identified, potentially helping to develop new markets.

Figure 3-4: closer view of the internal structure of the radiator/collector (Loeffler, 2013)

4. TECHNICAL BACKGROUND As part of the 2010 Solar Decathlon Europe contribution of HFT Stuttgart "home+", prototypes were built of uncovered thermal photovoltaic modules. These PVT-collectors represent passive cooling components of the home+ building similar to night ventilation and evaporative cooling. As part of the pre-development and testing phase, details about how these PVT collectors work best within the given competitive conditions were investigated and in particular, how they may be used in a closed system for nocturnal radiative cooling. To this end, a prototype situated on a suitably equipped test bed at the HFT Stuttgart was measured. The results of simulations and measurements showed that in the Mediterranean environment, such as one competitor’s location in Madrid, an average cooling capacity of about 60W/m² is possible in the summer months. During the planning phase of the Solar 476


Decathlon Europe, a collector model for the simulation environments INSEL and TRNSYS was developed that can specifically depict the nocturnal radiative cooling and is validated by measurement data (Dalibard, 2009). The entire home+ energy concept was simulated for the climate of Madrid (hot and dry), as well as the climate of Shanghai (hot and humid) (Deng, 2010). The calculated average cooling performance of the PVT modules of 40-60W/m² were confirmed by real measurements (Cremers, 2010).

5. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 5.1. Description of the current state of the art of science and technology Current developments and applications of thermal or PVT collectors are limited to purely heat applications, such as domestic hot water pre-heating or heating assistance. The aim here was to reduce heat loss, i.e. the collectors are usually insulated at the back and provided with a transparent cover. Since the combined use of the collectors for nocturnal radiative cooling requires a very high level heat dissipation to the outside, the front side may not be covered and the rear insulation must be designed dependent upon climatic conditions. The use of long-wave radiation to the cold night sky has long been studied in relation to energy-efficient cooling of buildings. Quantified emissions against the sky and the cooling potential for different locations have been investigated by (Erell, 2000), (Dimoudi, 2006), (Farahani, 2010) and (Argiriou, 1994). A first approach to the use of the radiative cooling came in the late sixties. The building’s roof insulation was designed to be removed at night in order to allow the long-wave radiation heat to escape (Santamouris, 2007). However, the high mechanical complexity and the required power to drive the motors to move the insulation proved to be disadvantageous. In addition to different movable insulation systems, open or closed cooling systems using water or air as heat transfer media were also examined. The specific cooling capacities ranged between 20 and 80 W/m² (Cavelius, 2005). Water-based systems are more advantageous due to their higher heat capacity and a lower energy requirement for distribution as compared to air systems that use high power ventilators. One of the first water-based systems was investigated by (Juchau, 1981), who used a standard flat plate collector with a storage tank to cool the stored water at night and then let the water pass through a concrete slab in the building during the day. The concept was further developed by (Erell, 1992) in Israel. They reached a cooling capacity of 81W/m² in the summer of 1990 by removing the transparent cover.

5.2. Scientific goal The goal of the project is to develop result-oriented approaches to cooling technology that are based on the strong nocturnal radiation of heat produced in hot dry climates. To that end, a proposal has been developed that calls for the design, construction and use of radiators/collectors for cooling and heating of residential buildings in Egypt. Different absorber technologies and their potential combined application with optimised system engineering as well as integration into the building envelope will be examined and evaluated. The special innovation of the project is the investigation of an application of collectors for summer night cooling. This combined generation of heat and cold in a building using an integrated component is completely new and was first developed by the authors for the Solar Decathlon building competition “home+”. The transfer of experience gained from conditions 477


in Cairo with its almost all year-long clear sky could lead to the development of more efficient cooling methods, without the usage of any additional energy. Thus far, we are not aware of any project known to have used panels for nocturnal radiative cooling (Eicker, 2011). The use of unglazed collectors for heat pump systems has also been little explored. There is no operating experience for the combined use of uncovered collectors for heating and cooling applications. Appropriate test procedures for the measurement of unglazed collectors for heating and cooling applications also do not exist.

6.

REFERENCES

Argiriou, A., Santamouris, M., Assimakopoulos, D. N. (1994), Assessment of the radiative cooling potential of a collector using hourly weather data, Energy, Volume 19, Issue 8, August 1994, pp: 879-888. Cavelius, Ralf, Isaksson, Charlotta, Perednis, Eugenijus, Read, Graham E. F. (2005) Passive cooling technologies, Austrian Energy Agency, 125 pages. Cremers J., Dalibard A., Binder M., ”Innovative and energy efficient space heating + cooling by intelligent storage management“, Proceedings of the 5th IRES Conference, November, Berlin, 2010. Dalibard A. et al. „Unser Beitrag zum ‘Solar Decathlon Europe 2010’ in Madrid – eine Herausforderung für Architektur und Bauphysik. Teil 2: Energieeffiziente Kühlkonzepte. Publication of the HFT Stuttgart, Bauphysikertreffen 2009. Deng S., Dalibard A., Martin M., Dai J.Y., Eicker U., Wang R.Z., Cremers J. „Energy supply concepts for zero energy buildings in humid and dry climates”, Proceedings of the Sustainable Energy Technology (SET) Conference, 2010, Shanghai, China. Dimoudi, Androutsopoulos, A. (2006), The cooling performance of a radiator based roof component, Solar Energy 80 (2006) pp: 1039–1047. Eicker, U., Dalibard, A. (2011) „Photovoltaic–thermal collectors for night radiative cooling of buildings“, Solar Energy Vol. 85, No. 7, pp: 1322–1335, 2011. Erell, E., Etzion, Y. (1992) A radiative cooling system using water a heat exchange medium, Architectural Science Review, vol. 35, pp: 39-49. Erell, E., Etzion, Y. (2000) Radiative cooling of buildings with flat plate collectors, Building and Environment, Vol. 35, pp: 297-305. Farahani M.F., Heidarinejad G., Delfani S. (2010), A two stage system of nocturnal radiative and indirect evaporative cooling for conditions in Tehran, Energy and Buildings 42 (2010), pp: 2131-2138. Juchau, B. (1981). Nocturnal and conventional space cooling via radiant floors, International Passive and Hybrid Cooling Conference, Miami Beach. Santamouris, Mat (2007) Advances in passive cooling, Buildings, Chapter 7, Radiative cooling, Energy and Solar Technology Series, ISBN 1844072630.

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© SB13-Cairo 2013 Towards Sustainable Architecture through Passive HVAC Hanafi, A. H. K.

Towards Sustainable Architecture through Passive HVAC Hanafi, A. H. K. Housing & Building National Research Center, Architecture & Housing Research Institute 87 El-Tahreer St., Dokki, Giza, Egypt e-mail: [email protected] Abstract: The built-environment’s environmental and economic efficiency through the entire life cycle are vital prerequisites of sustainability especially in developing countries; therefore the architect must be more careful not to unleash using the latest technologies in building engineering systems, which raising dramatically the initial cost and also maintenance cost as it often required importing foreign experts, spare parts and materials. HVAC systems represent a major part of energy consumptions, so the paper will focus on the passive HVAC systems. The analytic method is employed in exploring passive environmental design systems used in some project case studies to construct a more comprehensive vision of how to manoeuvre with these systems to achieve a sustainable architecture. The research aims to determine architectural elements which could be employed to reduce the load on the building engineering systems through the adoption of the built-environment design concept which focuses on environment responsive and proactive design (passive systems) to reduce the need for active HVAC systems through integration between these systems to reduce energy and material consumption with the highest overall building performance. The research concentrates only on the two main disciplines of sustainability (environment and economy); so the third one (society) could be investigated in future. Keywords: architecture, HVAC, passive design, sustainability

1.

INTRODUCTION

Global energy consumption has grown rapidly and is expected to grow further. The depletion of fossil fuels, which account for 80% of primary energy sources, and the environmental impact associated with its usage have drawn our attention to energy conservation. The building sector, which accounts for 40% of global energy consumption, in particular, building thermal conditioning systems, provides a vast scope for energy conservation. (Leo Samuel et al., 2013) The main goal of building is to provide a healthy and comfortable shelter; so energy saving cannot come at the expense of this. Thermal comfort improves concentration, workmanship and enthusiasm enhancing productivity, whereas a poor thermal environment results in sickness. Conventionally thermal comfort is achieved by energy intensive mechanical air conditioners with high initial cost and higher running costs due to rising energy price and high technology maintenance cost especially in public buildings, in addition to sick building syndrome in many cases, so passive cooling if employed properly is an excellent alternative (Leo Samuel et al., 2013) This paper will focus on passive cooling in hot areas for the public buildings, summarizing the working principle, design, limitations and advantages of various passive cooling options.

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2.

LITERATURE REVIEW (PASSIVE COOLING SYSTEMS)

There are two design strategies that are to be incorporated while designing a green building project which affect the comfort of building occupants. One is through the architectural or passive design and the other is through the mechanical or active design. (Zhang et al., 2011) Passive design strategy refers to building design that does not require mechanical equipment for heating or cooling, which deals directly with the building envelope (air permeability, exterior walls, doors, windows and roofing), how it is oriented in order to optimize solar loss and gain and thus reduce energy consumption and life time costs, the use of sustainable sources and low carbon emissive materials, etc. ,and in contrast, active design strategy refers to the use of artificial, mechanical or electrical green technology to heat, cool or light a space which may include air conditioning, pumps and fans. Passive cooling systems are energy-efficient and ecofriendly techniques used to improve the thermal comfort with nil or little power consumption. They work either by removing heat from the building to a natural heat sink or by preventing heat from entering the living space from external heat sources. (Leo Samuel et al., 2013) The development of passive cooling systems is the main result of a large amount of people (about one third) who lived in conditions of hot-dry or, hot-humid climate. This approach is not new, but it is rooted historically in the architectural culture of the Mediterranean and the Middle East, including the construction of entire cities, and integrated building design solutions that exploit the particular environmental conditions: sun exposure, wind speed, the presence of water and vegetation, soil temp., etc. The combined effect of these parameters determines the feeling of comfort or discomfort, so the identification of these passive systems vernacular architecture has been related mainly to the presence of natural ventilation. (Colajanni, 2011)

2.1

Cooling by Employing Natural Heat Sink

2.1.1 Air as heat sink Air can remove heat sensibly if it is cooler or by evaporating water if it is dry. Ventilation and evaporative cooling, which employ air as heat sinks, are discussed in the following sections. a) Ventilation cooling: Ventilation improves thermal comfort by replacing hot humid air near the occupants with fresh air and improves the air quality by diluting the contaminant. The higher air speed offered by ventilation increases the neutral temp. and the comfort limit. A study done in warm humid climate of Chennai reported neutral temp. increase of 2.6 °C for air velocity of 1.6 m/s. Moreover, the preferred air velocity increases with increase in air temp. and humidity. Ventilation design depends on factors like wind velocity, predominant wind directions and ventilation requirement. Ventilation requirement in turn depends on factors like indoor contaminants, indoor heat sources, contaminant infiltration, outdoor climate, indoor air quality, indoor thermal environment required and building thermal characteristics. Passive structures like wind tower, solar chimney or building openings can aid in achieving the required ventilation rate. The drawbacks of natural ventilation are: (a) social constraints, traffic noise and security issues may restrict ventilation, (b) thermal comfort varies with time and space due to air temp. and velocity fluctuation, (c) ventilation rate may reduce during life time due to new buildings constructed in the vicinity or other obstacles, (d) not suitable for contaminated outdoor conditions, highly packed cities and very hot and very cold weather. Inadequate ventilation results in illness of occupants. (Leo Samuel et al., 2013)

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Natural ventilation is activated by natural forces that can create air flows in buildings, either dynamic type as the wind or thermal type as the temp. difference. The wind generates a pressure that favours the air passage through the openings, while the difference in temp. between the two rooms actives a convective flow due to the difference in air density: the less dense warm air moves upward calling cooler air from below (chimney effect). Natural ventilation, especially in indoor spaces, may have a beneficial impact on the control of relative humidity, to guarantee adequate levels of wellbeing winter hydrothermal comfort, to mitigate the effects of steam condensation, to avoid the formation of microbial colonies, to achieve a sufficient hydrothermal summer comfort, to ensure the welfare conditions of the respiratory and to ensure adequate air circulation. Of particular interest are some building systems, as the wind towers, built for the activation of natural ventilation, depending on individual climatic situations different, socio-economic populations conditions and the type and function of buildings. These towers play a central role on the regulation of the indoor microclimate and become "architectural objects" as many city image characters. (Colajanni, 2011)

In relation to the shape and working we can identify different types named according to local tradition. The most known and efficient wind tower is the “Badghir”, released in Iran and the Gulf areas, which is based on the principle of convection, and consists essentially of a light cane in masonry (generally a quadrilateral but also octagonal or circular), divided into four, height or more areas, square or triangular. Whatever the geographic position of the building, the season are, at least two contiguous sectors will be in the shadows and into the chimney will be a double-parallel flow, such as to extract hot air and cool air enter. The “Badghir” mass does as a thermal activator because, in the morning, the inside air is colder of outside air, and becoming more dense, it tends to go down to the rooms below, during the day, it store up warmth that in returned at night to air tends to rise, thereby triggering a cycle of reverse ventilation. All this allows to run a significant air circulation, but also to obtain a temp. drop of about 6 to 10° C., and a simpler system is the “Malqaf” that is an air tower allocated on the top, it has, at a particular height above ground level, an opening facing the prevailing winds. This system has the advantage of working even in the absence of wind during the night because the mass of the tower cool; by radiation and convection it removes heat from the air contained within it that, by increasing density, falls on the rooms of the building; during the day, when the outside temp. increases, the wall mass constituting the tower maintains a lower temp., so it can continue to cool the air inside. In the presence of wind is accelerated this phenomenon. It is found in different shapes and sizes, from North Africa through the Middle East, as far as the Pakistan and Iraq regions, where the outside temp. in summer is about 45°C. The “Malqaf” is small and has an outlet in every room; the inner outlet is called “serdab” (basement, can further cool the air coming from “Malqaf” in which the family take refuge during the hottest hours of the day. The “Qa'a” derives from the Turkish tradition, is a naturally ventilated space, traditionally used to receive guests. It consists of three rooms: the “Durqà'a” (full-height central room, with marble flooring used for the movement of people, covered with a wooden lantern provides lighting) and “Iwanat” (two adjoining rooms, closed, raised and carpets, where public relations carry out). The work is very simple: in summer the warm air tends to rise room up and escapes from the openings 481


of the lantern drawing fresh air from the spaces below. In winter, the openings are closed with glass and the consequent “greenhouse effect” warms the room. (Colajanni, 2011) Solar chimney: The purpose of the solar chimney is to generate airflow through a building, converting thermal energy into kinetic energy of air movement. The driving force which controls the airflow rate through the solar chimney is the density difference of air at inlet and outlet of the chimney. It provides ventilation not only for cooling but also heating if fan is used to direct the heated air into the building. When solar chimney is attached to wall, the working mechanism is similar to Trombe wall. It operates as passive heating by supplying warm air that heated up by the solar collector into the room. For cold or moderate climate, when the outdoor temp. is lower than the indoor temp., solar chimney is functioned as passive cooling where natural ventilation is applied. However for hot climate, when the outdoor temp. is higher than the indoor, it operates as thermal insulation to reduce heat gain of the room. These three different modes are as illustrated in Figure 2. (Chan et al., 2010) In practical projects, solar chimneys can be integrated into either walls or roofs, forming the two main configurations including both wall solar collector (solar wall or Trombe wall) and roof solar collector. For one thing, they are used in the buildings without air-conditioning systems to improve indoor thermal environment by natural ventilation. For another, they are also adopted in the buildings with air-conditioning systems. Under these circumstances, solar chimneys can be used to reduce the accumulated heat of the house continuously. (Zhai et al., 2011).

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b) Evaporative cooling: Evaporative cooling is also called adiabatic, it founds on the principle that the evaporating water takes away heat to the surrounding space that lowers its temp.. The air, so refreshed, is transmuted to the space through natural ventilation, for fall, for conduction etc. The thermal exchange can happen in direct way when the air, cooled, it directly enters the room to cool or, in indirect way, when the air, cooled it comes into contact with a roof, a wall, etc., to elevated conductibility. Evaporative cooling air can be directed through a different of integrated systems in the building. For example, in the architecture of Hassan Fathy items as jars of porous clay, which exudes from the water, are placed at strategic points of the building where the wind is channelled and carries the fresh air produced by the evaporation of water in different rooms. The best examples of evaporative cooling refer to the pools & fountains, of Middle Eastern and Mediterranean vernacular architectures, that we can see in Alhambra of Granada, where a warm climate has improved the application of this passive system. The presence of courtyards & fountains allows collecting the fresh air in spaces of different shapes (large courtyards & low sides to let the sun's rays, or narrow & deep so as to remain always in the shade) like different temp. reservoirs, creating a stream crosses through the spaces. (Colajanni, 2011) Also the patio space is organized to be in shade during the day, where the presence of vegetation, fountains to humidify the air, cloths shadowy constitute a cooling mass to contain the fresh air that, with a minimum of ventilation, it circulates in the overlooking rooms. These spaces in shade, with a lower temp., activate air flows through the zones of buildings with temp. greater building activating the natural ventilation. When it was not possible to have great quantities of water or elevated pressures for the atomization, “Salsabil” was used. It was constituted by a plate of marble tilted and graven that favoured the evaporation of the water through small prominences carved in the stone. (Colajanni, 2011) Direct evaporative cooling (DEC) The principle underlying direct evaporative cooling is the conversion of sensible heat to latent heat. The air is cooled when water in the air steam is evaporated. The water in the air stream is supplied and re-circulated continuously so that the water is removed by the air and yield the cooling effect. Some of the sensible heat of the air is transferred to the water and becomes latent heat by evaporating some of the water. The latent heat follows the water vapour and diffuses into the air. Thus the moisture of the supply air is increased after the process. In intermediate seasons in hot dry climates, direct evaporative cooling can offer energy conservation opportunities. However, the increase of moisture into the air stream during the process has reduced the cooling system efficiency. Cooling effect might not sufficient especially in very humid climate and summertime. Therefore, the incoming air is usually dehumidified by forcing it through a desiccant to improve the cooling efficiency. Joudi & Mehdi introduced combination of membrane air-drying and evaporative cooling systems. The membrane constitutes of hollow fibres, i.e. cellulose acetate and polysulfone. The selective membrane 483


allows for efficient separation of the water vapour from the air. The air is pre-treated (dried) by passing through the membrane before entering the evaporative cooling system and hence operated in drier air stream. (Chan et al., 2010) Indirect evaporative cooling (IEC) IEC involves heat exchange with another air stream. These two air streams are separated by a heat exchanging wall, where one side of the wall is wet and another is dry. The working air passes through the wet side, while the product air passes through the dry side. The wet side absorbs heat from the dry side by water evaporation and hence cools the dry side. The wet air stream involves latent heat while the dry air stream involves sensible heat. Therefore, no additional moisture is introduced into the product air. (Chan et al., 2010) Passive indirect evaporative cooling techniques include roof spray and roof pond systems: Roof spray: The exterior surface of the roof is kept wet using sprayers. The sensible heat of the roof surface is converted into latent heat of vaporization as the water evaporates. This cools the roof surface and a temp. gradient is created between the inside and outside surfaces causing cooling of the building. A threshold condition for the system is that the temp. of the roof should be greater than that of air. There are, however, a number of problems associated with this system, not least of which is the adequate availability of water. Also it might not be cost effective, as a result of high maintenance costs and also problems due to inadequate water proofing of the roof. (Mhathwar, nd.) Roof pond: The roof pond consists of a shaded water pond over a non-insulated concrete roof. Evaporation of water to the dry atmosphere occurs during day and night time. The temp. within the space falls as the ceiling acts as a radiant cooling panel for the space, without increasing indoor humidity levels. (Mhathwar, nd.) 2.1.2 Earth as heat sink: geothermal cooling The earth temp. fluctuation reduces with depth and almost dies down at about 4 m. as the temp. at this depth approximately equals annual average ambient temp.. This characteristic can be harnessed to achieve comfort in summer and winter by earth sheltering or earth tunnel cooling. In earth sheltering, a part or the complete building is underground. This places many challenges like moisture penetration, mould formation, poor ventilation and high external load; these, however, can be handled by building design modifications. In earth tunnel cooling, air supplied to the living space gets cooled or heated by passing it through pipes buried underground. (Leo Samuel et al., 2013) An earth tunnel system in Ahmedabad, India, has supplied air at 22 and 32 °C when the outdoor conditions were 12 and 42 °C respectively. Shading, irrigating, wetting or white painting the earth surface will enhance the system’s cooling ability. Geothermal cooling is best for locations where the annual temp. fluctuation is high and is on both sides of the comfort zone, i.e., regions with extreme cold and hot climates. This climate prevails in inland regions away from equator as the moderating effect of sea and relatively less seasonal solar intensity variation at equator reduce the temp. fluctuation. (Leo Samuel et al., 2013) 2.1.3 Water as Heat Sink a) Hydro-geothermal cooling: In hydro-geothermal cooling, cold ground water is used for space cooling. They are classified into direct open-loop, single well and standing column systems. Direct open-loop systems are appropriate for sites with ground water free of scaling 484


chemicals. Single well systems are suitable for sites with good ground water productivity. Their investment cost is less and the water can serve secondary applications. Standing column systems are employed in sites with poor ground water productivity. (Leo Samuel et al., 2013) Hydro-geothermal system can also be employed for space heating. Shallow aquifer reduces capital cost, but the probability of high thermal fluctuation results in low performance. Hydro-geothermal systems have been successfully implemented at various locations. In London many systems with accessible ground water temp. of 11-14 °C are in operation. They are computed to provide 60-87% saving on operation cost. Capital cost of the system must be computed individually as it depends on many factors like water table depth, soil properties and adaptation of existing borehole. The performance of the system depends on various factors like local climate, soil properties and aquifers properties. Hence, performance prediction of this system is intricate because of heterogeneity of aquifers, ambiguity about hydraulic conductivity of soil and variability of subsurface properties. Therefore building hydro-geothermal cooling system with academic perspective will lead to better understanding of performance influencing parameters. Hydro-geothermal cooling is limited by the groundwater productivity. Therefore continuous monitoring of its usage must be done to avoid excessive ground water abstraction and the resulting environmental impact. (Leo Samuel et al., 2013) b) Deep ocean/lake cooling: Sea water gets cooled when it reaches poles due to ocean current. This cold water sinks because of high density and forms a large heat sink, which accounts for 90% of the total ocean volume and is at a temp. close to 2°C. This cold water can be used for space cooling of buildings near sea shore. Unlike fresh water, sea water can be cooled to freezing point as maximum density of saline sea water occurs at a temp. lower than freezing point. Direct cooling by sea water will lead to scaling and higher maintenance cost, which can be mitigated by using heat exchanger and secondary water circuit. The sea water after cooling can be reintroduced into sea at a location which matches the return water temp. to avoid thermal shock for aquatic ecosystem or it can serve secondary utilization like aquaculture, secondary cooling in industries or desalination plants. Water can also be sourced from bottom layers of thermo cline, which is between surface layer and the deep ocean. In tropic regions sea water temp. at 700-1000 m. depth are close to 8 & 4°C, respectively. (Leo Samuel et al., 2013) 2.1.4 Sky as Heat Sink: nocturnal radiation cooling The outer space is at a temp. of about 4 K and there exists an atmospheric window in the spectral range of 8-13 μm. Therefore, a surface at typical earth surface temp. of 25 °C and exposed to sky cools by radiating long waves in the spectrum around 10 mm. The presence of water vapour, carbon dioxide, clouds and aerosol in the atmosphere partially absorbs these radiations and reduces the cooling potential. (Leo Samuel et al., 2013) Nocturnal radiation cooling works best in arid regions. This cooling has been employed to make ice in arid deserts. In humid regions, even if T.sky is lower than comfort temp. low radiative heat transfer rate at low temp. difference restrict its usage. The cooling effect can be enhanced using high emissive surfaces in the spectrum close to 10 μm. High emissive paints and water are few available options. This cooling can achieve temp. below ambient and can result in dew formation at night. When cooling surface temp. falls below the ambient temp. convective heat gain must be trimmed down using Polyethylene sheet with high transmittance for long wave radiations or wind shields. (Leo Samuel et al., 2013)

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2.2

Cooling by reducing heat transfer

2.2.1 Shading Shading is broadly classified into external and internal shading; the former is more effective in reducing heat gain, the latter provides better controllability and the hybrid system combines benefits of both. Shading can be provided by a wide variety of items like landscaping, roof overhangs, shade screens, building integrated photovoltaic cladding, adjacent buildings and wall creepers. Deciduous creeper plants provide cooling in summer by shading and evapotranspiration process as the plant is at peak growth and allow solar radiation in winter as the leaves fall off. (Leo Samuel et al., 2013) 2.2.2 Solar Radiation Control Constitutes the principle of another system, still in use, realized through a solar screening in wood applied on the envelope openings for the control of the passage of the light and the inside microclimate, this system, called “Musharabiya” was constituted by a wood panel fillets with circular section organized in regular intervals to absorb at night the air damp while, in the daytime, when it was stricken by the sun rays, it released the damp cooling the rooms. This system, in some cases, via a separate section cantilever (bow window), the porous clay jars full of water could be placed in to increase the evaporative effect. The protective casing by direct radiation transfer heat gain to the inside. (Colajanni, 2011)

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2.2.3 Thermal insulation Thermal insulation reduces heat transfer in and out of the building and improves indoor thermal comfort. Thermal insulation can be either external or internal. Internal insulation is used only in historical buildings and buildings with complex external surface; this limited usage is attributed to high thermal fluctuation of the structure, inability to get rid of all thermal bridges and possibility of water vapour condensation. There are numerous thermal insulation options available, which include thermal insulation materials like fibreglass, cellulose and polyurethane, creation of small air pockets, reflective paints and foil and radiant barriers. In recent times low thermal conductive materials like aerogels, gas filled panels and vacuum insulation panels (VIPs) have been introduced. VIPs are promising as low thermal conductivity materials (0.004 W/mK) and offer high energy saving in spite of high initial cost. The main drawbacks of VIPs are their thermal conductivity increases when aged (0.008 W/mK in 25 years) or punctured (0.02 W/mK) and they cannot be cut at site to suit the building’s requirement. Thermal insulation of sunlit roofs is crucial in tropical regions as conventional noninsulated RCC roofs of 150mmthickness account for 40-75% of total heat entering the room. The insulation choice depends on many factors like thermal resistance, durability, construction ease, cost, safety and ecological impact. The merits of thermal insulation are flame retardation and reduction in structural temp. fluctuation, noise and operating cost of cooling system. The limitations of thermal insulation are bulky nature of traditional insulators and hazardous emissions from insulators like polyurethane during fire accidents. (Leo Samuel et al., 2013)

2.3

Thermal Mass of the Building:

Use the thermal inertial of the materials that envelop the building, this principle is based on the temp. speed gradient of inside air that is lower than the temp. speed gradient of outside air. In the summer the energy hoard in the thermal mass decreases the cooling charge in the warmest hours. In southern Italy, where the natural stone has been used for the rural constructions, there are two particular buildings: the Dammuso of Pantelleria and the Trullo of Puglia. In the first one the structure is constituted by a double dry-stone wall with the air space filled by minute stones; the structure is covered by a barrel vault in stone that constitutes a damper of heat flow. The heat damper happens at night through the thin vault. The temp. in August always maintains constant around the 26°C. The second is realized by a stone mass in partnership to the tub underlying water tank reservoir. In the summer, the inside temp., is of around 6-7°C less in comparison to the outside because, during the night, the heat accumulated in the structure is dissipated from the transversal ventilation created among special cracks in the low part of the door and the perforations of the dome. (Colajanni, 2011)

3.

METHODOLOGY

The analytic method is employed exploring passive cooling systems and architectural elements used in some public building case studies to construct a more comprehensive vision of how to manoeuvre with these systems to achieve a sustainable architecture.

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4.

CASE STUDIES

4.1

Charles Hostler Center: the American University in Beirut’s new student center (2009’ AIA Top 10 Green Buildings), Sited at the foot of a steep hill overlooking the Mediterranean sea and extends down to the Beirut Cornice, Architect: VJAA & Samir Khairallah, Environmental Consultant: Transsolar. The design brief included guidelines established by the new campus master plan which incorporated sustainability at its heart. As the first building of the master-plan designed by Sasaki Assoc., the Charles Hostler center needed to present a model of environmentally responsive design for the university & the Middle East. The design had to combine passive design strategies with active systems. The passive strategies would reduce energy use during the year and especially in spring and autumn, while the active systems would help reduce energy loads and provide a dependable backup to public utilities. (Elgendy(1) nd.) In their approach to the center’s basic building form, the design team preferred not to create a single massive building, and instead chose to broken into a cluster of five low rectilinear volumes, organized around a series of radial lines oriented toward the sea. Together, these buildings create a continuous, layered field of outdoor habitable spaces that include courtyards, gardens, occupied green roofs, paths, a cafe, and a number of lookouts facing the sea. This clustered form and scale helped create shaded intermediate spaces for circulation and social interaction. These outdoor

spaces are further moderated as the design directs sea breeze through them, creating temperate microclimates. The chosen scale and cluster forms allowed the architects to use a traditional shading technique of self-shading as buildings cast shadows on each other and on outdoor spaces and courtyards. The design was also inspired by traditional Lebanese houses in its orientation to capture sea breeze for cool night time ventilation. Integral shading devices were used to shade the buildings. Exterior louvers of pre-cast concrete or locally crafted aluminum were strategically placed on openings. The all external walls are highly insulated on and roofs and incorporate cavity walls and low-e glazing, all of which help reduce interior heat gain further. Roof gardens can also be found in certain roof locations to shade the roofs, and two thirds of the interior spaces day lit, including the most heavily used daytime spaces: swimming pool, gymnasium. (Elgendy(1) nd.) The Lebanese conventional wall is a single layer of hollow bricks covered by plaster, with a total U-value of 2.5 W/m²K. To improve the envelope’s performance, the architects developed it into a double-shell, stone-and-concrete insulated cavity wall, reducing its U-value to 0.7 W/m²K, approximately 4 times as efficient as the conventional wall. (Elgendy(1) nd.) For cooling, the design features a highly-efficient seawater geothermal radiant cooling system which runs cold water from deep cold sea wells, through a closed-loop heat exchanger to radiantly cool densely populated interior zones such as the gymnasium, pool, theater, squash courts, and café. At the loop’s end, the warm water is returned to the sea. (Elgendy(1) nd.)

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4.2

The King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST) (2010’ AIA Top 10 Green Buildings & LEED Platinum) at Thuwal (near Jeddah) in Saudi Arabia The new international graduate-level research university was established by the governmentowned Aramco, the world’s largest energy corporation, and was designed by HOK Architects.

Since KAUST’s research agenda included research into renewable energy, and considering its many partnerships with many leading universities with sustainability commitments, sustainable development also became an integral part of the campus’s design and operation, so the design brief included clear instructions to create a low-energy, efficient, and highly sustainable campus. In order to achieve these goals and to respond to the extremely hot and humid climate of the north Red Sea, the project team inspired form the traditional architecture of the Middle East as: - The compact planning of the traditional Arab cities of the Middle East, so bringing buildings closely together helped minimize the areas of the buildings facades exposed to the sun and encouraged passive ventilation between them. This shading and ventilation helped temper exterior microclimates which together with reduced outdoor walking distances, are both critical to fostering outdoor activities and interactions (Figure 8). - Traditional passive ventilation strategies of the traditional Arabic houses. The designers of the campus were also inspired by the design of wind towers that encourage airflow in pedestrian walkways. The wind towers used are the solar wind tower. - The traditional Mashrabiya, or wooden latticework screen, inspired the design of the campus’s shading devices to filter the sun as well as create beautiful light & shade patterns.

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The high temp. and humidity of the site had effected on the design strategies. The building orientations limited harsh eastern and western sun exposure. The harsh morning and evening solar gain from the northeast and northwest were also mitigated using appropriate shading of the corresponding facades, in parallel with maximizing day lighting to reduce electrical lighting demand. The campus compact fingers form with shallow floor plates encourages natural ventilation and allows natural day lighting to access all perimeter spaces as well as some of the interior spaces. The building’s solar orientation helped take advantage of prevailing Red Sea winds and to use wind as a cooling mechanism. (Elgendy(2) nd.) Two solar wind towers were featured to induce natural ventilation during the day even in the absence of wind by absorbing solar heat using a dark surface at the tower top. The hot dark surface heats the air around it which rises through an opening at the tower top, drawing cooler air from below to replace it. The air draw at the base of the tower creates air movement in the circulation spines connected to the tower. (Elgendy(2) nd.)

4.3 Lycée Charles de Gaulle, French school in Damascus, Syria Architect: Ateliers Lion, Environment Consultant: Transsolar. The design team was asked to develop a campus that embodies sustainability by using lowtechnology solutions for ventilation and conditioning of the school spaces. In response, the design team’s concept is one that was not only attuned to the local climate, but which relied mostly on passive design strategies that were common in traditional Middle East. The design of the school was shaped by the need to respond to Damascus’s dry desert climate with its hot days and cold nights, and to optimize classroom ventilation using natural ventilation, to naturally condition the classroom spaces especially during the summer, and to develop outdoor spaces that are usable by students and teachers. The master plan of the school reflected these goals. The school’s complexwhose area totals to 5600 SqM. was made up of two clusters of small buildings, each with two stacked classrooms. The building clusters are connected via small courtyards covered with light removable shading (Figure 10). The removable shading devices above the courtyards provide solar protection during summer days and are opened for cooling at night by radiation to the sky. In winter the operation of the solar shading is reversed, opening it during the day to capture solar gains and closing it at night to prevent their loss to the clear night sky. (Elgendy, 2010) The passive ventilation and cooling of the school’s classrooms is achieved by a combination of passive design strategies include the shading and cooling of the classroom roofs to reduce the solar heat gain inside the classrooms, the moderation of the indoor temp. using the buildings’ thermal mass, and the use of a natural ventilation strategy inspired by traditional architecture. The ventilation strategy used in the school is based on the use of wind-assisted solar chimneys as outlet wind towers pulling warm air out of the stacked classrooms and pulling fresh air into the two classrooms to replace it. The incoming fresh air is drawn into the classrooms through their windows, bringing fresh air from the shaded microclimate of the courtyards whose temp. is moderated through shading and vegetation. Fresh air is also drawn from the courtyard into the lower classroom through 490


miniature earth ducts embedded in the ground floor slab. The function of the earth ducts is to precool the air temp. further before it comes into the classroom, by maximizing its contact with the earth has an almost steady temp. year round. (Elgendy, 2010) This ventilation strategy is very similar to that found in traditional Iranian architecture where an outlet wind tower was used to pull warm air from a house, and where fresh air was pre-cooled by bringing it through underground chambers where it comes in contact with the earth and an underground water canal, before it reaches the indoor spaces it is meant to ventilate and cool. During the winter the earth ducts reverse their role, warming cool winter air as it comes into contact with earth’s steady temp.. Operable louvers inside the classrooms at air intake and outlet provide occupant control of ventilation. (Elgendy, 2010) The school’s thick walls also respond to the local climate by making use of the high diurnal swings of the desert climate. The school’s high thermal mass structure improves indoor conditions by absorbing heat during the day and preventing most of it from making its way into the indoor spaces. During night time, cool t air flushes the classrooms, cooling down the structure’s thermal mass and providing comfort for the following day. (Elgendy, 2010)

The used solar chimneys are an integral part to the school’s ventilation strategy, used to drive natural cross-ventilation through the classrooms. The chimneys, which dominate the school’s form and skyline, are oriented towards the south and are covered with black-painted polycarbonate sheet to trap solar radiation at the top of the chimney. This trapping of heat enhances the stack effect inside the chimneys, pulling warm air from the classrooms below. The chimneys are also designed to use wind to create negative pressure at the top of the chimney which further improves the stack air movement inside the chimney. (Elgendy, 2010)

5.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

Many international designers have show a growing interest in the use of passive conditioning systems because there are many architectural aspects related to environmental and energy efficiency. The use of passive conditioning system implies a new conception of the building like a body "open" to the outside, capable to recognize and metabolize the resources of its environment using that to the indoor natural control. This determines an intense relationship between architecture and environment, instead to what happened in the last century, which was characterized by an architecture of dissipative resources in which indoor conditions was controlled by use of mechanical systems. The building openness to the environment makes the architecture like a natural organism, capable of reacting to external climatic conditions, and able to implement different strategies depending on the needs and situations. Technological systems that can contribute to energy savings are largely based on the use of technology and formal solutions that use vernacular indoor principles of conditioning. (Colajanni, 2011) 491


In the design conception stage, the architects have to be more aware with the passive cooling potentials of the projects’ site and program related to the principles of heat-sinks (air, earth and water), thermal mass and heat transfer; to draw more appropriate environmental and economic oriented design strategies, especially for the public buildings which have dense occupations and more probably implicated high-initial and running-cost sophisticated mechanical cooling systems. Passive cooling systems are eco-friendly as viable alternatives to energy intensive active mechanical systems which have high impact on economic and environmental building performances especially in the public buildings, yet, they cannot reduce humidity in the hot-humid sites; so a good balanced passive-active systems could be the answer to get the sustainable design with environmental and economic optimization. The building design is the key to resolve this complexity, integrating the different environmental strategies in architectural design: the shape and exposition choice, the envelope study, the shielding systems, the transparent elements and so on.

6.

REFERENCES

Chan, H., Riffat, S., Zhu, J. (2010). Review of passive solar heating and cooling technologies. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 14 (2010), pp: 781-789 Colajanni, S. (2011). Evaluation of passive systems in the vernacular architecture: Comparison with contemporary urban architectures, Proceedings of the 4th. International Congress on Environmental Planning and Management “Green Cities: A Path to Sustainability”, 10-13 Dec. 2011, Urbenviron, HBRC, Cairo, Egypt. Elgendy, K. (1) (nd.). The American University in Beirut Combines Innovation and Traditional design (on-line) http://www.carboun.com/sustainable-design/the-american-university-in-beirutcombines-innovation-and-traditional-design/ [Accessed in 12 May 2013]. Elgendy, K. (2) (nd.). KAUST: A Sustainable Campus in Saudi Arabia (on-line), http://www.carboun.com/category/sustainable-design/ [Accessed 25 May 2013]. Elgendy, K. (2010). Damascus School Revives Traditional Cooling Techniques. Leo Samuel, D., Shiva Nagendra, S., Maiya, M. (2013). Passive alternatives to mechanical air conditioning of building: A review. Building and Environment 66 (2013), pp: 54-64 Mhathwar (nd.). Solar Architecture, (On-line) http://mhathwar.tripod.com/thesis/solar/solar_architecture.htm [Accessed 5 May 2013]. Zhai, X., Song, Z., Wang, R. (2011). A review for the applications of solar chimneys in buildings. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 15 (2011), pp: 3757-3767 Zhang, X., Platten, A., Shen, L. (2011). Green property development practice in China: Costs and barriers. Building and Environment 46 (2011), pp: 2153-2160

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©SB13-Cairo 2013 Apply Green Materials for Noise Control in Buildings Mosalam, H. and El-Brombaly, H.

Applying Green Materials for Noise Control in Buildings -with Simulation of MATLAB Mosalam, H1 and El-Brombaly,H2 1

Ain Shams University Cairo, Institute of Environmental Studies & Research Elkhalifa Elmaamon St., Cairo, Egypt e-mail: [email protected] 2

Ain Shams University, Department of Architecture 1 Elsarayat St. Abasya, Cairo, Egypt e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract: Buildings designed, constructed, and operated to be energy efficient; use construction materials wisely, including recycled, renewable, and reused resources to the maximum practical extent ; healthy for their occupants; and typically have lower operation and maintenance costs. A sustainable building is a philosophy that integrates environmental quality, economic vitality, and social benefit/equity through the design, construction, and operation of the built environment. So why concentration on buildings: 54% of all energy consumption is related to building construction and operation,35% of greenhouse gas emissions, 40% of global consumption of raw materials, 17% of the world's freshwater withdrawals and 25% of all the world's wood harvest. The objective of using " reuse" of plants residual in industry: •

maximizing the use of those residues on the basis of it is renewable resource full of energy.

•

accumulation of those residues without use is a significant cause of pollution of the environment everywhere and harmful against humanity.

In the study, the acoustical properties of local green acoustics materials were investigated, Through experiments absorption coefficient has been tested for many of the samples were manufactured from agricultural waste. They gave good results as insulation or absorption board. Some samples were processed with the specifications of average density fibres MDF, The other samples were milled with different fibres diameters and compressed under different pressures. The first one gave good results as insulation board where the second gave higher absorption coefficients at low frequencies (100-800 Hz). Keywords: acoustics, matlab, plants’ residual, rice straw MDF (Medium Density Fibers).

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1. INTRODUCTION Along with technology development, noise has become a seriously environmental problem. Noise can cause general types negative effects they are; hearing loss, no auditory health effect, individual behavior ,effect on sleep, communication interference and effect on domestic animals and wildlife. There are several methods to decrease noise, one of which uses sound absorption materials. Currently, sound absorption materials commercially available for acoustic treatment consisted of glass or mineral-fiber material. However, when review the issue of safety and health, these fibers when exposed to human can interference human health mainly lungs and eyes. These issues explore an opportunity to look for alternative materials from organic fibers to be developed as noise absorption material. Organic fibers as basis material for absorber materials have several benefit; renewable, nonabrasive, cheaper, abundance and less potential health risks and safety concern during handling and processing. Several researchers (Khedari et al., 2003; 2004; Zulkifli et al., 2008) have succeeded in developing particle composite boards using agricultural wastes. Yang et al. (2003) produced rice straw-wood particle composite boards which properties are to absorb noise, preserve the temperature of indoor living spaces and to be able to partially or completely substitute for wood particleboard and insulation board in wooden construction. They reported that the sound absorption coefficient of rice straw-wood particle composite boards are higher than other wood-based materials in the 500-8000 Hz frequency range, which is caused by the low specific gravity of composite boards, which are more porous than other wood-based materials. Wassilieff (1996) used sound absorber with wood as a base material, he demonstrates that three parameters (plus the sample thickness), airflow resistivity, porosity, turtuosity are sufficient to define the normal incidence sound absorption. sound absorption. In automotive application, absorption is desired at lower frequencies, thickness and weight are limited, sound absorber with different specific airflow resistance can be used to achieve desirable results. One method of increasing flow resistivity is the addition of a flow resistant scrim or film layer. Scrim means a fibrous cover layer with finite flow resistance and film means a plastic cover layer with infinite flow resistance (Zent and John, 2007). To improve the acoustic characteristic further, a perforated plate design can be used in construction of the panels. The porosity of the perforated panel and density of porous material would considerably change the acoustic impedance and absorption coefficient of the acoustic absorber (Davern, 1977). Baranek and Ver (1992) presented a compact expression for acoustic impedance of perforated plates. The expression indicated that the influence factor include the thickness, hole radius, hole pitch and porosity of the perforated plates and air contained in the holes. For porous material, Delany and Bazley (1970) stated that the complex wave ropagation constant and characteristic impedance could be expressed in terms of the flow resistivity, wave number, air density and sound frequency. Sound absorption characteristic of porous material is not so much a function of type material but airflow resistivity and how well material construction can be executed to achieve desirable properties for sound absorbers (Lee and Chen, 2001). 494


Ersoy and Kucuk (2009) have investigated with three different layers of tea-leaf fiber waste materials with and without backing provided by a single layer of woven textile cloth were tested for their sound absorption properties. The experiment show that 1 cm thick tea-leaf-fiber waste material with backing provides sound absorption which almost equivalent to that provided by six layers of woven textile cloth 2 cm thick layers of rigidly backed tea-leaf-fiber and non-woven fiber material exhibit almost equivalent sound absorption in the frequency range between 500 and 3200 Hz. Wang and Torng (2001) have investigated some fibrous porous material, rock wool and glass that manufactured in Taiwan. They have indicated that sound absorption characteristic values of rock wool were measured and found to be similar to glass fiber. Increasing the thickness material of the panel will improve the sound absorption ability, especially in the low frequency range. A composite structure with a combination of perforated panel, rubber particle, porous material, Polyurethane (PU) foam and glass wool, were found to demonstrate significant sound attenuation (Hong et al., 2007). This research was carried out to study the potential use of Egyptian plants’ residuals fiber in replacing synthetic and mineral based fibers for sound control applications. This study investigated the absorption coefficients of plants ‘residuals to control reverberation time inside buildings. In Egypt, the problem of agricultural waste and unsafe ways to get rid of them caused many of the environmental problems and increase the climate change. Where the method used to get rid of by burning. But recently, agricultural waste is used in cattle feed or converted to dry fuels called residue derived fuel. Many factories have already been set up near the farmland in the Delta.

2. EXPERIMENT 2.1

Methodology:

2.1.1 Materials used in experiment: Karina & loaf and Palm fronds are residuals from palm tree. Rice straw samples used as crushed samples and natural fibers, Grain zea mays used also crushed wet and dry samples, Sugarcane reed used as well crushed particles wet and dry. Table 1contains a summary of the sample(s of ) materials examined. 2.1.2 Equipments used in laboratory: Measuring the absorption coefficients of several acoustic samples using the Brüel & Kjœr Standing Wave Apparatus Typy4206, along with the B&K Real-Time Frequency Analyzer Type 2133 and the B&K Frequency Analyzer Type 2107. with both the large and small sample holders and the absorption coefficient could be measured over the frequency range from 50 Hz to 1.6 kHz.

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2.1.3 The physical testing Moisture content and specific gravity were examined using the ASTM D1037-99 (American society for testing and matrials,1999) method in ain shams university laboratories of materials test(ed). Specific gravity was controlled by quality control testing; each value represents the average of five trails. In NIS( national institute for standards, ministry of scientific research ) measured the absorption coefficients.

2.2

The experimental procedures :

Determine the sound absorption coefficients by the impedance tube type 2406 -Figure1. The impedance tube measurements are based on the two-microphone transfer-function method according to ISO 10534–2 (European Committee for Standardisation,1998). The samples were made in new materials laboratory, production Dept., Ain Shams University. Table 1, illustrate the materials used in experiments.

Figure 1: Schematic diagram of apparatus for measuring sound absorption coefficient.

Table 1, shows the samples used in the experiments, and is criteria. Variations in the densities are due to different proportions of these components as their densities vary with values of 1397 and 1559 and 1520 kg m3, thus, the lower values of density for rice strew and palm tree residuals result from a greater proportion of lignin than in the other fibres. The samples of loose fibre manufactured by die in the tube sample holders to give a sample with different thickness. After the bulk density of the samples for the large tube was measured the small tube samples were made to the same bulk density. The results of these measurements are summarised in table 1. All measurements were made using the impedance tube method with both the large and small sample holders.

496


Table 1: materials taste’s properties

Fiber Bulk Water Thick. pressure diam. Density content mm N/m2*105 mm Kg/m3 %wt

apply

Fiber shape

30

0.019

1300

45

4.5

Insulation

crushed

30

0.019

850

34

4.5

Insulation

crushed

30

0.019

1000

40

5

Insulation

crushed

30

0.019

1000

30

5

Insulation

Crushed

Rice straw

30

0.085

700

25

6.5

Absorbent Uncrushed

Rice straw

60

0.085

700

25

6.5

Absorbent Uncrushed

Karina

30

0.035

650

25

4

absorbent

Karina

60

0.035

650

25

4

Absorbent Uncrushed

Palm fronds dry

30

0.017

1000

45

3.5

Insulation

Palm leaf

30

0.063

650

25

3.5

Absorbent Uncrushed

Palm leaf

60

0.063

700

25

3.5

Absorbent Uncrushed

30

0.019

1200

45

4.5

Insulation

Crush

30

0.019

1150

45

4.5

Insulation

Crush

30

0.019

1200

45

5

Insulation

Crush

30

0.019

1300

45

5

Insulation

Crush

material

Rice straw dry Rice straw dry MDF1 Rice straw MDF2 Rice straw MDF3

Zea mays dry Zea mays wet Sugarcane reed dry Sugarcane reed wet 2.3

Experimental Results:

2.3.1

Multi samples used as insulation board:

Uncrushed

Crushed

Results by the experimental using and the impedance tube calculate up to 1.6 KHz. shows the grain zea mays wet gives best absorption coefficient between the six samples used as insulation board As shown in Figure 2

497


Figure 2: different samples with medium density fibres standards and low porosity.

The above curve shows the absorption coefficients doesn’t exceed 0.55. that grain zea mays after submerge it for 12 hours in water became more porous and gives high absorption coefficient in low frequencies. as well sugarcane reed increased its porosity with dilute the bonding material and the natural internal cellulous. 2.3.2

Rice straw samples:

Samples 1,2,3 as was shown in table 1 were manufacturing as MDF standard and as insulation board, and two uncrushed samples with 30.00 and 60.00 mm thickness as shown in figure 3.

Figure 3: different porosity samples of rice straw.

The results of the above curve shows the rice straw with 30.00 mm and 60.00 mm thickness were used as absorption board where the porosity is high and the pressed pressure applied is resulted to lower matrix density compared to the MDF samples. It shown in curve, the results indicate a high absorption coefficients at about 500 Hz (α is approximately to 1) for the natural fibres rice straw 30mm, and about same α for 60mm samples at 1000Hz. Samples 1,2 and 3 are with different pressure load (25.00 Kg/cm2 for sample(3), 34.00Kg/cm2 for sample(1) and 40.00Kg/cm2 for sample(2)) indicate that when we reduce the

498


pressure load with same thickness and bulk density, it increase the absorption coefficient (α) and the increase the flow resistively( rayles/m).

2.3.3

Palm residuals samples:

Figure 4: for palm karina (average of face and rear of the sample) for thickness of 60mm and 30mm.

Figure 4: the absorption coefficient for palm karina 30 and 60 mm thickness.

As a results from the figure 4, it shown that the different in same material thickness gives better absorption in higher thickness. As well it shown the karina with 60.0 mm thickness gives good absorption in low frequencies up to 600 Hz. Then it decrease again in high frequencies. But for the same material with less thickness 30.0 mm the absorption coefficient is low at low frequency and increase with increasing the frequencies. Figure 5 gives the relation between the frequencies and the absorption coefficient to the palm loaf materials with different thickness as well the sample measures of face and rear faces and the result was the average in between.

Figure 5: the absorption coefficient for palm loaf 30 and 60 mm thickness.

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The above curve shows that, The behave of the palm loaf -60.00 and 30.00 mm thickness- were so near to the karina. In both karina and loaf 60.00mm the absorption coefficients increase in low frequencies up to 800 Hz then the curve reversed in high frequencies. In the real case, the absorption coefficients for the floor usually doesn’t exceed 0.02-0.4 in Normal incidence.

3. A MATLAB SIMULATION OF ROOM ACOUSTICS: The surface absorption sheet below presents a table for entering the absorption coefficients. The values can be entered individually as required or copied and pasted from the supplied list of surface types on the sheet. The calculator for speed of sound as a function of temperature (and temperature to achieve a desired speed of sound) is duplicated on this sheet, for use with a calculator of reverberation time RT60. This can be done interactively through the menu prompt system, by submitting a Microsoft Excel figure 6 spreadsheet form, or by selecting a MATLAB *.mat file which saved a configuration from a previously run.

Figure 6: Data sheet of calculate the reverberation time.

The excel datasheet export to m-code by six sheets with different assumptions as shown: 1-applying different acoustics panels for all six surfaces. 2- applying same acoustics panels for all six surfaces. 3-apply the highest absorption coefficient material on one surface only. 4-apply the highest absorption coefficient material on two opposite walls 5-apply the two highest different absorption materials on two opposite walls. 6- apply the highest absorption coefficient material on two adjusted walls 7- apply the two highest different absorption materials on two adjusted walls.

500


4. CONCLUSION: x Rice straw wood particle composite boards were manufactured as insulation boards using the method MDF industry. The raw material, rice straw and palm residuals , were chosen because of its availability. Although better agreement between theory and measurement might be possible with the introduction of pore-shape factors, The new materials set to addressing noise inside buildings as absorption or insulation boards. If exposed to water they can be subject to fungal attack. In a dry building this will present no problem but might preclude their application in some environments. Another practical consideration is the need to develop suitable binders to hold the fibers together without adversely affecting the absorption characteristics. x The natural fibres without crushing with low pressure less than (15.00Kg/cm2 ), gives the best results in low frequencies( from 100 to 800 Hz). x Best absorption samples were for rice straw that was used without grinding the samples that have been compressed to 15 bar. And the greater the thickness of the sample up to 100 mm gave the best values for absorption. The values of absorption coefficients were approximate 1 at 500Hz for 30mm thickness and at 1000Hz for 60mm thickness. x

Karina of palm trees with 60.0 mm thickness gave high absorption in low frequencies up to 600 Hz. Then it decrease in high frequencies. Against the same material with less thickness it doesn’t give acceptable absorption coefficients in low frequencies. And almost the same results obtained from the loaf samples.

x When applying absorption materials on six sides gives very low reverberation time which was not realistic case. So it was taken in consideration to apply absorption material on floor range (0.02-0.4 absorption coefficients).

5. RECOMMENDATIONS: x The further investigations supposed to be models for the other acoustics parameters such as: porosity, airflow resistance, tortuosity and viscous characteristic length to the different frequencies and absorption coefficients. x In general, consider the acoustic performance of a space to be determined by the background noise in the space (NC, PNC, RC), the noise isolation from adjacent spaces (STC, NIC) and from the exterior (OITC), and the room acoustics (reverberation time, speech intelligibility) these criteria need to be test and measured to announce the experimental materials as acoustics material can be manufacturing and use. We control these acoustic parameters by providing sufficient attenuation to the HVAC systems, by designing appropriate room boundaries, and by selecting suitable room finishes. x Another case study been made for sample imported as acoustics material covered with plywood. The plywood have drilled with holes no more than 15% of its surface area. When we consider the experimental materials have the same sequences, the cost deduct by about the half especially after the increase of the foreign currency. Acknowledgments: The authors would like to acknowledge doctor Mansour El-Bardisie for supporting this research. And acknowledge the new materials laboratory, production Dept., Ain Shams University. 501


6. REFERENCES: Cook, JG., (1984):Handbook of textile fibers and natural fibers, Cambridge: Wood head Publishing Limited., vol. 1, pp.195. Gourdom, P. Gle and Arnavd, L, (2011): Acoustical properties of materials made of vegetable particles with several scales of porosity, El-Sevier applied acoustics, 72,249-259. Neubauer, R.O. ,(2001): Classroom acoustics - Do existing reverberation time formulae provide reliable values, 17th International. Congress Acoustics Rome, Italy. Oldham ,D.J. ; Christopher ,Egan A. and Richard, D. ,(2011): Cookson:Sustainable acoustic absorbers from the biomass, building acoustics ,72,350-364. Sezgin, E.; Haluk, K.,(2009): Investigation of industrial tea-leaf-fibre waste material for its sound absorption properties, El-Sevier applied acoustics,70,215-221. Wassilieff, Con. ,(1996):Sound Absorption of Wood-Based Materials, El-Sevier applied acoustics, 48,339-358. Yang, Han-Seung ; Kim, Dae-Jun; Kim and Hyun-Joong ,(2002): Rice straw–wood particle composite for sound absorbing wooden construction materials, El-Sevier applied acoustics,86,117-121. Zhang, Bo and Tianning, Chen. ,(1996): Calculation of sound absorption characteristics of porous sintered fiber metal, El-Sevier applied acoustics,70,373-349.

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© SB13-Cairo 2013 Retrofitting Existing Residential Buildings in Egypt Mohammed, N. and Sherif, Y.

Retrofitting Existing Residential Buildings in Egypt Mohammed, N.1 and Sherif, Y.2 1

Environics, SAE – Environment and Development Advisors 6 Dokki Street, Giza, Egypt. e-mail: [email protected]

2

Environics, SAE – Environment and Development Advisors 6 Dokki Street, Giza, Egypt. e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract:Egypt, characterized with a hot and dry climate, receives a significant amount of solar radiation. Given the poor quality and ‘thermal weakness’ of the building envelope, heat uncontrollably enters the building adversely affecting the occupant comfort. Consequently, inhabitants rely heavily on air-conditioning units to achieve a comfortable living environment most of the year. The electric consumption of cooling systems adds considerably to the peak load during hot months of the year pushing for the need to put new power plants into operation. Residential buildings consume about 40% of the total electricity used in Egypt (2007/2008) with growth rates hiking about 7% annually while the building stock itself is growing at a lesser rate. The factors taken into consideration during the early design stages of a building have a monumental impact on its energy consumption yet they are commonly overlooked, accentuating the importance of later retrofits. The aim of this research is to identify simple, non-intrusive and relatively non-obstructive retrofits to reduce heat gain through the building envelope and in turn reducing the cooling loads on air-conditioning units. Their financial viability opens a scope for implementation on existing apartment buildings with minimal government intervention, saving energy and creating jobs. In this research, upon obtaining the geometry and characteristics of existing Egyptian residential building stock and using simulations, retrofits are applied and their energy saving potential and cost are assessed. Their energy and their financial payback are obtained and retrofit solutions are given to each façade orientation. It was found that retrofitting the glazing component in an apartment is more worthwhile than retrofitting the opaque component, with overhangs being the most financially feasible option given its cost and energy savings. Keywords:

cooling

load,

residential

buildings,

503

retrofitting,

solar

heat

gain,

Egypt


1.

INTRODUCTION

Energy scarcityin Egypt is becoming a pressing problem of which residential consumption is an integral part. Residential buildings consume about 40% of the total electricity consumed in Egypt (2007/2008) with the consumption growth rates hiking about 7% annually (Lui et al, 2010). Egypt, characterized by a hot and dry climate, receivesa significant amount of solar radiation. Summer is an extended season with warm weather from April through October (Attia et al., 2012).Consequently, in summer, the use of air-conditioners increases the electricity consumption as well as peak loads. The sales of air conditioning units have been swiftly increasing.As a result, electricity bills often increase 6 to 8 times during summer (Attia et al., 2012). These factors emphasize the need to reduce cooling loads in apartments. This is the issue to be discussed in this paper. One of the early efforts taken by the government in recognition of this issue was the publishing of terms and specifications for thermal insulation works by the Housing and Building National Research Centre (HBRC) under the ministerial decree number 176 for the year 1998. The specifications included insulation works for new and existing buildings. Additionally, different insulation materials are introduced, highlighting their properties and application methods on walls and roofs as well as a guide to energy savings through insulation. More recently in 2005, HBRC in cooperation with United Nations Development Programme(UNDP) published the code (ECP 306 -2005). The code targets new buildings with specifications regarding the building envelope ,natural and artificial ventilation, water heating systems, natural and artificial lighting, power distribution systems as well as using computer simulation for assessing the whole building energy performance. Apart from not being enforced on new buildings, there is no mention of retrofitting the existing buildings. Given the sheer quantity of residential buildings (16.5 million in 2006) (Lui et al, 2010), they offer a great opportunity for mass improvement. The existing building stock is of poor quality in terms of construction and architectural design. Existing buildings consume most of the energy whereas the rate of replacing existing buildings with new ones per annum is quite low. Accordingly, energy consumption will not decrease if no action is taken to ameliorate the existing building stock (Verbeeck et al., 2005). Given the fact that residential buildings are skin-dominated, i.e. internal heat gains are lesser than heat gain or loss through the building envelope (Givoni, 1998), the focus will be on retrofitting the building envelope components to reduce the cooling electricity. For a building envelope to reduce cooling loads, several factors need to be taken into consideration and optimized including orientation, window-to-wall ratio, thermo-physical properties of building materials and the floor height (Chan,2010).However such factors are commonly overlooked when buildings were under design and construction, and only a few of them can be considered in retrofits. For the retrofits to be successfully implemented they need to be as non-obstructive as possible, simple and low tech bringing about minimum disturbance and discomfort to the occupants. The payback should be within a reasonable time period. Needless to say, their installation will secure mass employment opportunities. This paper will investigate each building component-opaque, transparent part and projection- to delineate the optimum solution to improve them and hence decreasing the cooling electricity.

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2.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Given that most of Europe and the US have heating dominated climates, most of the efforts have been focused on retrofits to reduce heating demands in cold/composite climates. Lesser research was undertaken in cooling dominated climates. (Ma et al., 2012)

2.1 International research efforts in reducing cooling loads: Examples Al Ragom (2002) examined different retrofit strategies for the building envelope of a residential building in Kuwait. The building considered was a two story house having a window to wall ratio of 23.5% retrofitted with a combination of different external wall / roof insulation types as well as several double glazing windows. The building energy simulation was undertaken by DOE-2 and the simple payback method was used for economic evaluation. It was found that by thermally insulating both the walls and roof, reducing the window area (down to around 11%) and using reflective double glazing brought down the A/C annual energy consumption by 60.76%.

Insulation and Glazing Ballarini et al. (2012) developed a methodology for analysing the most consequential factors that influence a building’s cooling energy performance. They highlighted that savings in energy by applying thermal insulation differ according to the ‘building typology, the climate, the type of insulation material and the insulation layer configuration’. They also noted that improving the building energy performance in summer through the application of thermal insulation has only been investigated in a few studies with its role in summer being studied considering specific aspects that influence energy performance (ex. conduction only). The study concluded that the level of thermal insulation does not contribute much to the energy performance of a residential building in summer. The other factors that weigh in heavily are the thermal and solar parameters of the glazing as well as its size .The opaque surface‘s thermal and solar parameters have a secondary role in affecting the net energy required for cooling as well as the maximum cooling load. Tsikaloudaki et al. (2012) pointed out that the heat transferred through fenestrations is heavily responsible for the part of the energy used for heating and cooling buildings. That is primarily because in comparison to opaque building elements, the fenestrations’ optical and the thermal characteristics make them more ‘vulnerable’ to energy flows. The authors assessed the impact of the orientation, shading levels, thermo-physical and optical properties of the window on its cooling energy performance in Mediterranean climates. Using the energy simulation engine EnergyPlus it was concluded that ameliorating the U-value (a measure of thermal transmittance, inverse of thermal resistance) of the window does not lead to a decrease in the cooling loads however; low solar radiant heat transmittance of the window does. Yildiz et al. (2012) defined the sensitive design parameters influencing annual cooling energy loads in low-rise apartment buildings in hot –humid climates. One of the most influential factors was found to be the window area; however this can hardly be adjusted in the retrofit stage. Another parameter is glazing with low solar heat gain coefficient with the windows facing the east and west being more dominant than windows facing south and north. On the other hand, the influence of U – value of windows on cooling energy was little. More importantly, an increase in the thickness of insulation on the external walls had a much lesser impact on the annual cooling energy loads. Hence, when wanting to reduce the annual cooling energy loads, increasing insulation thickness should not be given priority. Insulation thickness should be

505


optimised to reduce heating loads rather than cooling loads i.e. in a heating dominated climate rather than a cooling dominated climate. Yousif (2012) measured and compared the internal and external solar radiation intensity, absorbance and transmittance of the window glass for two west facing rooms (one with solar film and the other without) in Dohuk, Iraq (at a latitude of about 36º N and altitude of 1267 m). The window to wall ratio was 75%. The reduction in cooling costs was greater than the increase in heating coststhis is due to the fact that the solar film rejects the heat component of the solar radiation which is beneficial during the winter to aid in space heating. These findings imply the relative ineffectiveness of insulation in reducing cooling loads and should not be the first retrofit to consider. Glazing with better solar properties is more consequential.

Role of Shading AlDawoud (2013) experimented with different shading methods on an office building in a hot and dry climate (Phoenix, Arizona. United States, at latitude of about 33º N). He compared, using simulation, the different shading alternatives. The base case is having no shading devices for double-glazed windows, the second alternative is having a 1.5 m overhang, and the third alternative is having both side fins and overhangs projected 1 m. The second alternative yielded significant reductions in solar heat gain in the southern façade. Reductions occurred in the eastern and western facades as compared to the base case.Considering the third alternative, the depth of overhangs and fins were inadequate to cut down heat gain in the southern façade. Heat gains from the eastern and western facades that are dominant in the building also were also not reduced. Givoni (1998) undertook a study to assess the effectiveness of shading devices in Israel (at latitude of about 32° N). It was found that even at great depths, side fins offer ‘very little protection’ while horizontal shading provide better albeit insufficient shading. The author noted that there is a misconception in various publications regarding shading western and eastern walls with side fins. Overhangs are found to be not only more effective than side fins in southern facing façades but also in eastern and western facing facades.

2.2 Local research efforts in building energy efficiency In an attempt to reduce energy loads in hot and arid climates, Sherif et al. (2012) assessed the impact of altering the perforation percentage and depth of wooden perforated solar screens on the annual energy loads. The authors concluded that for western and southern orientations energy savings up to 30% of the total energy can be achieved using external fixed deep perforated solar screens. The optimized parameters were 80–90% perforation rate and 1:1 depth/opening width ratio. This solution however significantly alters the façade appearance and is subject to the residents’ preference. Attia and De Herde (2009) brought forward the importance of retrofitting buildings as a means for reducing their energy consumption in Cairo. The authors used TRNSYS as the energy simulation program to evaluate the energy performance of retrofitting a middle income apartment in a residential community in Cairo. The authors regarded various design strategies (both active and passive) at a building and an urban scale including envelope retrofit, reducing internal (equipment) loads, and natural ventilation, solar thermal water heating, photovoltaic panels for electricity and solar thermal air conditioning. External extruded polystyrene was used for thermal insulation. For openings, all windows will be replaced with double pane windows. 506


Only southern windows will have internal and external solar protection (overhangs) as well as low-e glazing. Results show that combining passive and active strategies achieved an 83% reduction in overall electric energy demand. Attia et al. (2012) lay the cornerstone for retrofitting residential buildings by presenting the two most typical apartments in Egypt and the occupancy, air-conditioning, lighting schedules as well as the use patterns for domestic hot water and electric appliances. Using the simulation software EnergyPlus, the authors created and calibrated two building performance simulation models for air-conditioned residential apartments in Alexandria, Cairo and Asyut. These models show on average the characteristics of energy consumption. The results show that the use of air-conditioners plays a determinant role in energy consumption patterns in Egypt. Also, the authors highlighted that end-use energy efficiency can be accomplished by ameliorating the building envelope, changing the operation patterns and installing equipment with higher efficiencies. The previous research efforts accentuates the need to use whole building simulation to assess the influence of insulation and glazing solar protection on the cooling loads of existing buildings in hot climates.

3 MODEL DESCRIPTION The research uses whole building energy performance simulation software to assess the different retrofits for both typologies. The software and model description and input are covered in the following sections.

3.1 Program description The software used for analysis is DesignBuilder. DesignBuilder offers a three-dimensional interface for the whole building energy simulation program EnergyPlus. EnergyPlus models heating, cooling, lighting, ventilation as well as other energy flows, taking into consideration hourly weather data based on the building location.

3.2 Model Input The building floors chosen for analysis were obtained from Attia et al. (2012) representing the typical floor configurations in Egypt (table 1). The simulations and the results presented were carried out under the weather conditions in Cairo.However; the savings from the retrofits were similar for Al Minya and Alexandria. The geometric dimensions were taken as is however, since only the building plan was provided, the vertical dimensions were assumed. As this research only addresses reducing the cooling loads, equipment and lighting loads were overlooked. It is worth noting that the type of bulbs used in simulation is incandescent bulbs. The effect of changing to fluorescent bulbson the cooling electricity was minor (≈ 0.17% from base-case).

507


Table 1: Typologies 1 and 2 and their urban context (Attia et.al, 2012) Floor Plan

Urban Context

Typ. 1

Typ. 2

3.3 Weather Data The weather data used was based on the Egyptian Typical Meteorological Year (ETMY).The files were for Cairo, Al Minya and Alexandria. It was developed from data provided by the U. S. National Climatic Data Centre, for periods of record from 12 to 21 years, ending in 2003 to be used in the development of standards and in energy simulation. (EnergyPlus Energy Simulation Software, 2013)

3.4 Construction Materials The wall and windowconstructions used are the typical existing construction materials in Egypt.

Walls Table 2: Wall construction description (DEBE,2013) Layers (inner outer)

Plaster Cement Mortar Red Brick Cement Mortar Plaster

Rough ness

Smooth Rough Rough Rough Smooth

Thickness (cm) 0.5 2.5 12.5 2.5 0.5

Thermal Conducti vity (W/m °C) 0.016 1 0.6 1 0.016

Density 3 (kg/m )

600 1570 1790 1570 600

508

Specific Heat (J/kg K) 1000 896 840 896 1000

Thermal Emittanc e 0.7 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.7

Solar Absorptance 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.6 0.6

Visible Absorptance 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.6 0.6


Windows Window characteristics were based on clear 4 mm commercially available glasshaving a Uvalue of 5.8 W/m2.K, 88% light transmission and a solar heat gain coefficient (SHGC) of 0.84 (Sphinx Glass, n.d)

3.5 HVAC HVAC controls the mean air temperature to the set-point temperature (24 °C). The cooling capacity of the air conditioning units was not defined as they vary from one equipment to the other and hence the program was left to calculate the capacities and the required sizes. It is worth mentioning that the sizing undertaken by the program does not necessarily yield commercially available sizes. The electric consumption of commercially available sizes will differ.It is worth noting that simulation results may vary from real-life situations as the airconditioner temperature set-points are varied along the day to meet the occupant’s comfort.

3.6 Schedules Occupancy and lighting Occupancy and lighting schedules for both the bedrooms and living rooms were taken according to the schedules presented in Attia et al. (2012).Summer is taken to be from April to October while winter is taken to be from November to March.

Air-conditioning ,Ventilation and Infiltration Air conditioners are taken to be operating from 17:00 to 23:00 in living rooms and from 23:00 to 5:00 in bedrooms. The time of year at which the A/C is operating is obtained based on surveyed monthly electricity consumption carried out by Attia et al. (2012) showing that electricity consumption increasing from June to September, implying the use of air conditioners. All conditioned rooms are assumed to be ventilated when the air conditioner is off. The outside air is being delivered at the rate of minimum air required per person – 5.5 l/s – person. (Attia et al.,2012)The rate of building infiltration was set to 0.5 air changes per hour (Tsikaloudaki,2012)

3.7 Retrofit Materials The retrofit materials were chosen such that they can be applied on the exterior of the building causing minimum disturbance to the occupants and having the least embodied energy. According to ECP 306, any material with a thermal conductivity of less than 0.2 W/m °C is an insulation material. Given that insulating exterior walls is an odd practice in Egypt (roof insulation is common however). Hence the insulating materials found to be apt for this purpose are autoclaved aerated concrete (AAC) and polyisocyanurate boards (PIR) .AAC blocks are light-weight and have low thermal conductivity while PIR is an insulating board. Also, the walls were painted in white to increase the wall’s reflectivity and heat rejection. Given the heavily polluted weather in Cairo, dirt and smog quickly darken the facades. Thus, the paint used is a dust repelling, acrylic-based paint that resists dust and pollution while preserving the shape and colour of the surface. As for the glazing, solar protection was provided by means of window film on the glass panes and overhangs above the windows. Side-fins on the sides of the window were also considered for certain facades.

509


Insulation Materials AAC blocks (Plena Egypt, 2011) The 10 cm thickAAC block’s thermo-physical properties are shown in table 3. For application, steel angles are fixed into the concrete slab to support the layer of AAC blocks. Table 3: AAC block properties Density 550 kg/m

3

Thermal Conductivity 0.132 W/m °C

Block dimensions – LxH 60 cm x 20 cm

Specific Heat (J/(kg.K)) (SafeCrete,2013) 1046

Polyisocyanurate Boards Polyisocyanurate (PIR) rigid foam is an insulating material belonging to the polyurethane foam (PUR/PIR) family of insulation. PIR rigid foam is used for vertical as well as horizontal insulation unlike polystyrene whose main utilisation in Egypt as specified by its' manufacturers is for horizontal installation. The thicknesses considered were 2.5 cm and 10 cm. PIR has a density of 30 kg/m3, thermal conductivity of 0.026W/m °C and a specific heat of 1400 J/(kg·K). PIR boards are applied to the facade and a steel mesh is placed over it. It is then sprayed with mortar and painted. Paint The acrylic white paint has a Solar Absorptance (Nguyen and Reiter, 2012) of 0.24, Visible Absorptance of 0.24 and an emissivity (Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, n.d) of 0.9.

Solar Protection Film The film considered is an exteriorly applied, non-metalized solar film such that it does not interfere with wireless connections (cell phones and wireless internet).It also does not discolour or corrode and its visible light transmittance value is higher than 45% as per the Egyptian code of practice ECP 306-1. On the down side, films will have an adverse effect in winter as they will block beneficial heat. This is not looked into however since the warm season is longer in Egypt than the cold season. The solar control film has a light transmittance of 71%, U-value of 1.02 W/m².°C and asolar heat gain coefficient (SHGC) of 0.48.The performance values provided are for application on a single 6 mm glass pane. Overhangs Overhangs are used for horizontal shading. Pre-cast glass reinforced concrete (GRC) is chosen due to its light weight (2 cm thick), low thermal inertia, low cost .It is not subject to weathering and hence will not require replacement. The overhang lengths were taken to be 0.5 m and 1 m. Increasing the length more than that will entail higher costs for additional reinforcement. The shading details are shown in figure 1.

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Figure 1: GRC shading details.

4.

SIMULATION PROCEDURES

4.1 Typology 1 x x

A typical middle floor is taken up for analysis with the floor having two apartments. The analysis was undertaken on the apartments when rotating the building to face south, east and west. x The base case had no form of interior or exterior solar protection or insulation. x When assessing the effectiveness of insulation and reflective paint on the typology 1 apartments, the adjacent buildings were removed to give a general scenario. x Overhangs were taken to have the exact width as the window and were not put above the window of the room having a balcony x The WWR was changed by changing the window areas for the conditioned rooms on the facade where the cooling loads are dominant. x The conditioned rooms are the living room and all the bedrooms as a worst case scenario. x The window-to-wall ratios were set to 25%, 35%, and 50%, presenting different building façade options, to investigate the influence of WWR on the effectiveness of solar protection and insulation with 35% being the base-case. For each window to wall ratio and orientation the analysis was carried out with the following retrofits combinations shown in table 4: Table 4: Typology 1 retrofits Retrofit E = East W=West S=South N=North

Opaque Component Retrofits: Insulation and Reflective Paint Glazing Component Retrofits: Solar Protection

S. W. Orientation E. Orientation Orientation Façade(s) retrofit is applied to Ap.1and Ap.1 Ap.2 Ap.1 Ap.2 Ap.2 E,W,S N,W S,W S,E N,E S

511

W

W

E

E


4.2 Typology 2 Having already investigated the influence of WWR on the effectiveness of solar protection and insulation in typology 1 as well as the different building orientations, for typology 2 the building will be assessed as is; facing south. Also, the typology 2 building is symmetrical, comprising of four apartments with the eastern and western facades having a significantly higher WWR (46%) than the northern and southern facades (20%). All four apartments will be under investigation. The base case had no form of interior or exterior solar protection or insulation. Overhangs were taken to have the exact width as the window and were not put above the window of the room having a balcony. All facades underwent retrofitting, however; overhangs were not applied as solar protection in the northern facade. Analysis was carried out with the following combinations in table 5: Table 5: Typology 2 Retrofits Retrofit E=East W=West S=South N=North Opaque Component Retrofits: Insulation and Reflective Paint Solar Protection Application of solar control film Application of overhangs (0.5/1 m)

Apartment 1

Apartment 2

Apartment 3

Apartment 4

Façade(s) retrofit is applied to E,S

E,N

W,S

W,N

E,S E,S

E,N E only

W,S W,S

W,N W only

For both typologies no retrofits were applied to the roof as the heat loads on it primarily affects the top floor only. All floors and ceilings were set as adiabatic (i.e. heat does not transfer across in its external surface) as it is a middle floor and the conditions surrounding the ceiling and the floor are very similar.

5.

PRICE STRUCTURE

The electricity pricing in Egypt is tiered and varies according to the consumption. As the consumption increases, the price increases. As of January 1st 2013, the electricity prices are as shown in table 6. Table 6: Price Structure in Egypt Tier 1 0 kWh -50 kWh 2 51 kWh -200 kWh 3 201 kWh -350 kWh

Piasters 5 12 19

Tier 4 5 6

512

351 kWh -650 kWh 651 kWh -1000 kWh 1001 kWh - above

Piasters 29 53 67


5.1 Anticipated price increase Given the limited (and insufficient) supply and growing demand on electricity, the energy subsidy policies and consequently the electricity tariffs are very likely to change. Two tariff increase scenarios are considered; a 5% annual increase and a 10% annual increase.

6.

RETROFIT COSTS

Retrofit costs include installation costs. GRC shades had a cross-sectional area of 0.047 m2 and 0.0267 m2 for 1m long and 0.5 m long overhangs respectively with the unit price of4000 LE/m3 Solar Control Film: 350 LE/m2, PIR Boards (10 /2.5 cm):340/160 LE/m2,AAC BlocksSteel angles:900 LE/m' Blocks:145 LE / m2, Reflective Paint: 80 LE/m2

7.

RESULTS

For all simulation scenarios and typologies, insulation (either with AAC or PIR) is the least attractive option. Their low energy savings coupled with their high installation cost result in unrealistically long financial payback periods and high energy paybacks in all WWRs and orientations. PIR 2.5 cm and 10 cm thick, having lower conductivity, yielded greater savings than AAC. However, applying a highly reflective (white) paint resulted in electricity savings superior to that of insulation but the payback period also remained high. On the other hand, solar protection in both forms generated considerable savings with varying payback lengths. Generally, as the WWR increased savings from solar protection increased and the effectiveness of insulation decreased. The simple payback period method was used to assess the financial viability. For calculation, the savings in kWh from every retrofit were acquired then the cost of these savings in the three topmost price tiers was obtained. The retrofit cost was thus divided by the savings. The same procedures were undertaken when accounting for 5% and 10% annual price increase. Since electricity for cooling is the mainstay of this research only the cooling demand months are considered (June to September). Given that solar protection and reflective paint were found to be the most promising options, their combined effect was assessed. The combined retrofits are as shown in table 7 and table 8 for typology 1 and typology 2 respectively.

513


Table 7: Typology 1 combined retrofits Building Retrofit facing south E =East W=West S=South N=North

Ap.1 and Ap.2 Reflective Paint and Solar Protection Application of white paint and Paint : E,W,S overhangs (0.5/1 m) Overhang:S Application of white paint and Paint : E,W,S solar control film Film: S Combined Solar Protection Retrofits Applying solar control film as Film : S. well as overhangs (0.5/1 m) Overhang:S

Building facing west

Building facing east

Façade(s) retrofit is applied to Ap.1 Ap.2 Ap.1

Paint: N,W Overhang:W Paint: N,W Film: W Film: W Overhang:W

Ap.2

Paint: S,W Overhang: W Paint: S,W Film: W

Paint: S,E Overhang: E Paint: S,E Film: E

Paint: N,E Overhang :E Paint: N,E Film: E

Film: W Overhang: W

Film: E Overhang: E

Film: E Overhang :E

Table 8: Typology 2 combined retrofits Retrofit E =East W=West S=South N=North Reflective Paint and Solar Protection Application of white paint and overhangs (0.5/1 m) Application of white paint and solar control film Combined Solar Protection Retrofits Applying solar control film as well as overhangs (0.5/1 m)

Apartment Apartment Apartment Apartmen 1 2 3 t4 Façade(s) retrofit is applied to

E,S

Paint: E,N Overhangs: E

W,S

Paint: W,N Overhang s:W

E,S

E,N

W,S

W,N

E,S

Film: E,N Overhang: E

W,S and W

Film: W,N Overhang :W

514


7.1 Typology 1 Southern Orientation In terms on energy savings the application of solar control film either by itself or with overhangs yielded the highest savings as shown in table 9. However, even after accounting for the electricity price increase, the payback was greater than 12 years which is the approximate lifetime of the film. Table 9: Southern orientation solar control film A/C Electricity savings WWR = 25% Application of solar control film Applying solar control film as well as overhangs (1m/0.5m) WWR = 35% Application of solar control film Applying solar control film as well as overhangs (1m/0.5m) WWR = 50% Application of solar control film Applying solar control film as well as overhangs (1m/0.5m)

Savings (%) 10.33% 13.41% / 12.78% 12.33% 16.15% / 15.31% 17.25% 23.19% / 21.46%

Overhangs offer less energy savings but reasonable payback periods given its lower price as shown in table 10. Considering a 5 and 10% increase in prices in the lowest price tier (351kWh 650kWh) the payback period will be decreased further (9 to 15 years). Table 10: Southern orientation overhang A/C electricity savings Payback (years) Savings Tier 4 (%) Tier 6 Tier 5 Tier 4 (5% inc.) WWR = 25% 1 m Overhang 7.04% 9.71 12.31 22.51 15 0.5 m overhang 5.92% 5.56 8.31 15.2 11.25 WWR = 35% 1 m Overhang 8.59% 9.37 11.87 21.71 14.75 0.5 m overhang 7.1% 6.44 8.16 14.92 11 WWR = 50% 1 m Overhang 12.98% 7.63 9.67 17.68 12.75 0.5 m overhang 9.67% 5.81 7.37 13.48 10.25

Tier 4 (10% inc.) 12 9.25 11.75 9 10.25 8.75

Applying white paint offered high energy savings but the payback was high owing to the high application cost in comparison to the savings. Table 11 shows the savings from applying white paint. Table 11: Southern orientation white paint savings WWR A/C Electricity Savings (%) 25% 8.85% 35% 8.15% 50% 6.24%

Tier 6 42.99 40.5 42.74

Tier 5 53.61 51.34 54.19

Tier 4 98.05 93.87 99.08

The nonlinear relation between the WWR and payback period goes back to the fact that the rate of decrease of electricity savings is different than the rate of decrease in retrofit costs. 515


Eastern Orientation The savings yielded from the retrofits in the eastern orientation was lesser than that of the southern orientation with similar behavior of the retrofits. Overhangs yield fewer saving and hence longer payback periods yet remain the best retrofit option. Considering a 5 and 10% increase in prices in the lowest price slab (351kWh - 650kWh) the payback period will be decreased further (10 to 15 years). Energy savings due to applying white paint was slightly higher in apartment 1 in comparison to apartment 2 since it is facing south while the other faces north. However both still yield long payback periods.

Western orientation Energy savings from retrofitting the western facade is higher than that of the southern and eastern façade. However, even though the energy savings were high that does not entail short payback periods from solar control films. Overhangs remain a viable solution with the shortest payback with or without the anticipated increase in electricity prices. Savings from applying white paint are similar to that of the eastern orientation.

7.2 Typology 2 Given that in typology two each apartment has different energy saving potential based on the façade direction. Apartments facing south have higher energy savings than that facing north. Energy savings from all retrofits are shown in table 12. Table 12: Typology 2 retrofit savings Retrofit Apartment 1 E = East W=West S=South N=North Reflective Paint and Solar Protection white paint 5.33% white paint and 20.34% / 16.28% overhangs white paint and film 23.42% Solar Protection solar control film 16. 96% overhangs 15.47% / 11.23% film and overhangs 23.52% / 21.10%

Apartment 2

Apartment 3

Apartment 4

4.51%

5.44%

4.39%

13.67%/10.58%

25.31%/18.37%

19.4%/13.23%

20.73%

26.67%

24.82%

15.24% 9.37% / 6.2% 19.61% /17.76%

20.2% 20.33%/13.2% 29.87% / 25.7%

19.55% 15.23%/8.96% 25.71%/21.9%

For both typologies, from simulations, the hybrid effect of white paint and solar protection yield higher energy savings than the single effect of white paint. However, these savings are not as great as applying overhangs and solar control film in tandem. As can be seen throughout all typologies and directions,a 0.5 m overhang yield very similar results to that of a 1m overhang and it is hence advisable to use the former overhang length.

516


8.

EMBODIED ENERGY AND ENERGY PAYBACK

The embodied energy of the retrofit materials was obtained and is compared with the energy saved due to the retrofit. Energy payback = Embodied energy * unit / energy saved. Acrylic Paint (Hammond et al., 2008): 5.67 kWh/m2,assuming two paint coats. Glass Reinforced Concrete (Embodied Energy Coefficients,n.d.): 4116.67kWh/m3 Polyurethanes(Hammond et al., 2008): 20.02 kWh/kg, density of 30 kg/m3, the embodied energy is 600.6 kWh/m3 AAC (Hammond et al., 2008): 0.97 kWh/kg, density of 750 kg/m3, the embodied energy is 727.5 kWh/m3 Window Film (Environmental Choices, n.d.): 39.06 kWh/m 2.This is based on a manufacturer’s claim that the embodied energy of window films is 16 times less than that of glass. Glass was taken to have an embodied energy of 3.5 MJ/kg (Hammond et al., 2008) and a density of 2500 kg/ m3. For all orientations and typologies, the energy paybacks for all retrofits were short (2-7 years) with white paint and overhangs having the highest payback while solar control film had the lowest.

9.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The aim of this research was identifying simple, non-intrusive and relatively non-obstructive retrofits to reduce heat gain through the building envelope hence reducing the cooling loads on air-conditioning units. After retrofitting, it was found for both typologies that the highest energy savings resulted from retrofitting the glazing component and specially from applying solar control film. However, the relatively high cost of the film prolongs the related payback period. Considering the cost of retrofits, 0.5 m overhangs were the most financially attractive as they offered satisfactory savings, low costs and performed similarly to 1 m overhangs. Applying reflective painting is the most effective retrofit as related to opaque components. Its payback period suffers from the same drawback. Accordingly, if the building was due to be painted it is highly advisable to opt for white paint from the onset to reduce costs and shorten payback. It is worth noting that simulations were undertaken with the set-point temperature at 24 °C. Decreasing this temperature by 1°C increases the energy consumption by about 10% for typology 1 and about 7% for typology 2.This reiterates the fact that efficient energy use is the fastest, simplest and the least expensive of all interventions. Decreasing the set-point temperature also increases the cooling loads, thus shortening the payback period for retrofits to some extent. If we were to start a large scale retrofitting initiative, it is recommended that it focuses on applying 0.5 m overhangs above windows of south, east and west orientations. Any large scale program should start with a pilot phase during which the as-built performance of retrofitsis monitored and validated. Also, adequate lighting levels as well as occupant comfort should be evaluated. 517


As consumers from the uppermost tier enjoy the shortest payback for all retrofits, they should be the ones most eager to take them on. However, the low value of money for these consumers weakens the incentive to undertake the retrofits. Hence, a set of rigorous, well-educated policies should be specially tailored to mobilize individuals to consider behavioral changes and electricity saving initiatives.

10. REFERENCES Chan, W. (2000).Building Hong Kong: Environmental considerations.1st ed, Hong Kong University Press, Hong Kong, pp. 168. Egyptian Code of Practice ECP-306-2005; pp:32, 84.Housing and Building Research Center Attia S., Evrard A, Gratia E., Development of benchmark models for the Egyptian residential buildings sector(2012), Applied Energy, 94, pp:270-284, Lui,F - Meyer,A - Hogan J. (2010). Mainstreaming Building Energy Efficiency Codes in Developing Countries: Global Experiences and Lessons from Early Adopters.World Bank Working Paper No. 204 Givoni,B. (1998), Climate considerations in buildings and urban design. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. Hammond, G. P. and Jones, C. I., (2008). Embodied energy and carbon in construction materials. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Energy, 161 (2), pp. 87-98. Al-Ragom,F.(2003). Retrofitting residential buildings in hot and arid climates, Energy Conversion and Management, 44(14),pp. 2309-2319, Tsikaloudaki,K. - Theodosiou,Th. - Laskos, K.- Bikas, D. (2012) Assessing cooling energy performance of windows for residential buildings in the Mediterranean zone, Energy Conversion and Management, 64,pp: 335-343 Yousif,K.(2012) Control Of Solar Heat Gain To Reduce The Energy Consumption Of Buildings In Iraq, World renewable energy forum. Proceedings of World Renewable Energy Forum 2012. Denver, Colorado, USA Ballarini, I. - Corrado,V. (2012) Analysis of the building energy balance to investigate the effect of thermal insulation in summer conditions, Energy and Buildings, 52, pp: 168-180 Yildiz,Y.- Korkmaz,K- Özbalta,T.G.- Arsan,Z.D. (2012) An approach for developing sensitive design parameter guidelines to reduce the energy requirements of low-rise apartment buildings, Applied Energy, 93, pp: 337-347, Aldawoud,A (2013) Conventional fixed shading devices in comparison to an electrochromic glazing system in hot, dry climate, Energy and Buildings, 59,pp: 104-110 Sherif, A. - El-Zafarany,A. - Arafa,R. (2012) External perforated window Solar Screens: The effect of screen depth and perforation ratio on energy performance in extreme desert environments, Energy and Buildings, 52, pp: 1-10 Attia S., De Herde A.,(2009) Impact and Potential Of Community Scale Low-Energy Retrofit: Case Study In Cairo, Proceedings of Smart and Sustainable Built Environments Conference,1(1).

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MaZ., CooperP., DalyD., Ledo L.,(2012) Existing building retrofits: Methodology and state-ofthe-art, Energy and Buildings, 55, pp: 889-902 "Environmental Choices." Vquestfilms.com. Vision Quest Distributing, n.d. Web. 07 Apr. 2013. . Nguyen,A.T.- Reiter, S.(2012) An investigation on thermal performance of a low cost apartment in hot humid climate of Danang, Energy and Buildings, 47, pp: 237-246, "Emissivity of Materials" The Supernova Acceleration Project, Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, n.d. Web. 07 Apr. 2013. . "Embodied Energy Coefficients” Victoria University of Wellington,n.d. Web. 07 Apr. 2013 Verbeeck,G.- Hens,H. (2005) Energy savings in retrofitted dwellings: economically viable?, Energy and Buildings, 37 ,pp:747-754. EnergyPlus Energy Simulation Software: Weather Data Sources.n.d.Web.15 May 2013 . DEBE. 2013. ,n.d. Web.15 May 2013 "Sphinx Glass" (2013) n.d.Web.15 May 2013 “Technical Specifications” Plena Egypt (2011).N.d. Web.15 May 2013

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