Itzhak Schnell, Itzhak Benenson, and Michael Sofer, â e Formation of. 33. an Arab Industrial Sales Network in Israel,â Annals of the Association of American.
Stanley Waterman
Constructing Spatial Knowledge: Geography as a Discipline: A Critical Overview of the Evolution of Israeli Human Geography ABSTRACT The community of academic geographers in Israel is tiny compared to countries with which Israeli geographers have close contacts, with around half this small contingent—around people in all over the past six decades— working in human geography. Nevertheless, they have authored well over , articles and books, not including technical reports and book reviews. Israeli human geography has constantly stressed a need to conduct applied research, a result of adopting a paradigm that views geography as a “practical” discipline and geographers as servants of the state. Though this has provided many Israeli human geographers with kudos, promoting geography with a problem-solving subject matter rather than as an academic branch of learning has not necessarily worked to the benefit of the discipline. In order to feed a voracious appetite for exposure to “real issues” of “importance” and “socially valuable” and “politically relevant” research, non-geographers are appropriating the discipline with the distinct possibility that departments of geography as we know them may self-destruct sooner rather than later.
O
PROLOGUE
, writing about Israeli human geography, I stated, “What could be more exhilarating than to practice geography in a very small heterogeneous country which has undergone vast structural change over the past century and which is constantly in the focus of world attention?”¹ In , there is little need to revise this statement.
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So obvious to the point that it is often forgotten, is that the community of academic geographers in Israel is tiny compared to countries with which Israeli geographers have close contacts. Around half this small Israeli contingent works in human geography and the small absolute number of practicing geographers renders it virtually impossible to cover the whole spectrum of human geography. That does not prevent them from trying and almost succeeding. There are many potential pitfalls in agreeing to write a paper for which the invitation innocently asked for a critical overview of the evolution of Israeli human geography focusing on the main themes to have emerged since . An unsuspecting respondent to such an invitation might lay himself open to suspicion and to accusations—of having failed to discover someone’s highly interesting and “important” piece, unfortunately tucked away as a chapter in a festschrift for some recently retired or departed colleague, of being guilty of some other less accidental and more malicious omissions, of making incorrect and misleading interpretations of what colleagues had really said or intended to say, and so forth. Aware of the potential hazards, having done this sort of exercise once before, I nevertheless, and not with some trepidation, accepted the invitation. Israeli geographers are prolific and the results of their research appear in the discipline’s leading journals; many have also produced books. Probably not much more than academic human geographers in Israel over the past six decades have authored well over , articles and books, and this figure does not include the many technical reports and book reviews that are part and parcel of their quotidian work. Just listing these publications would have produced ten times as many words as my upper limit; I hope my editing is closer to origami than butchery. As an averagely opinionated professor and to produce a reasonably coherent essay, I have chosen to emphasize what I profess to know something about—social, cultural, and political geography sensu lato. Unavoidably, I have had to condense interesting work in other fields of human geography. This is frustrating but not disastrous; I try to indicate significant themes and personalities nevertheless.²
GEOGRAPHY AS AN ACADEMIC DISCIPLINE Geography is an academic discipline represented by a separate department at many universities throughout the world. However, even colleagues from other departments are often ignorant of its subject matter and many might be surprised on learning that such a department exists. It used to be said
t ĚĤģ ĒĖĝĤĥĦĕĚĖĤ ħĠĝĦĞĖðò ğĦĞēĖģð derisively that geography is about maps whereas history is about chaps, and many geographers unwittingly added to this disdain by responding, when asked for a definition of the discipline: “Geography is what geographers do.” Human geography today has much to do with and is about chaps—and their female equivalents. Perhaps geography’s outward-looking approach and integrative nature partly contribute to the ignorance surrounding it. It has always been good at trawling through other disciplines, adopting and adapting ideas to apply in a spatial context but weaker in developing theories and methodologies distinctly its own. Geographers have not always been adept at defending their own turf from predators in disciplines such as political science, history, or sociology, who employ “geographic approaches” in their research.³ Be all this as it may, there are often closer relationships today between geographers and scholars in adjacent disciplines than among the geographers themselves. Geography is essentially about space and place, about their creation and character, their use and transformation, the interconnectedness of elements within them and between them. Traditional geography had a holistic approach, expressed by a focus on regions—notionally uniform and interconnected areas. Although regional geography has declined in significance as a research field, it has remained important in teaching and in the professional socialization of geographers. We often distinguish between physical and human geography although there has always been considerable overlap between them. Physical geography deals with subjects such as land erosion, river regimes, and climate, and is close to disciplines such as geology, meteorology, or ecology. In contrast, human geography is associated with the social sciences and humanities. Both physical and human geography subdivide into a plethora of sub-disciplines, each purporting to have some self-sustaining intellectual content differentiating it from the others, however contrived the sub-disciplinary boundaries might be. This fragmentation is usually regarded as symptomatic of “progress”. Human geography focuses on the systematic study of patterns and processes that shape the interaction of humans with their environment, especially the causes and consequences of the spatial distribution of human activities on the Earth’s surface. It interprets the creation and transformation of space, place, and landscape from a wide range of economic, social, political, and cultural processes, which it analyzes at different scales—local, national, international, and global—over varying periods. Early specialties were historical and cultural geography; economic geography achieved
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prominence by mid-twentieth century and political and social geography came into their own from the s. By the end of the century, there was a widening gap between “spatial scientists” studying spatial order, people who, in the words of the British historian Eric Hobsbawm, “believe that if you got the facts right, the conclusions would take care of themselves”,⁴ and “social theorists” concerned with social and moral issues associated with the use of space and place. However, the core topics of human geography remain those that had taken shape more than a century ago. The subject matter of human geography is wide and reflects interests ranging from the purely academic to those with a fundamental belief in politically committed research. It uses quantitative and qualitative research methods. Like physical geography, it is an intensive user of maps as tools to present geographical knowledge and solve geographical problems. It ranges from travel writing and exploration to behavioral and humanist approaches, to a radical geography that contests orthodox views of the world through politically committed research; it may look at locality and “place”, how postmodernism affects landscapes, environments, and us. Some human geographers examine structures of the world economy such as financial circulation, diasporas, and transnational elites, or the feminization of labor. Others look at political structures and processes such as the nation state, the Cold War, or electoral reform. Some human geographers are interested in resources, population, and sustainability whereas others construct models of urban growth and organization, study political or social enclaves, or strive to measure segregation. In recent years, global consumerism, cultural imperialism, and tourism have alas become issues attracting their attention.
GEOGRAPHY IN ISRAEL Israel has five university departments of geography, several geographers at other academic and quasi-academic institutions, including geographers who, for various reasons, are employed in university departments other than Geography. In addition, there are many individuals with geography degrees in positions outside academe—government, planning, and education. Geography has conventionally been a popular field of study. The reasons for this are debatable—the lure of field trips and being outside the classroom, its contribution to nation-building as a channel for attaching the people to the land, and, worryingly, a more recent perception as an easy academic option.
t ĚĤģ ĒĖĝĤĥĦĕĚĖĤ ħĠĝĦĞĖðò ğĦĞēĖģð Israeli geographers are active networkers: Israelis currently chair three PGUIFòó$PNNJTTJPOTPGUIF*OUFSOBUJPOBM(FPHSBQIJDBM6OJPO *(6 and several others are officers or commission members of this representative international institution. However, a sign of the times and the need to attract students in a competitive academic market is that four of the five university departments are no longer simply “Departments of Geography”: Haifa has “Geography and Environmental Studies”, Tel-Aviv’s geographers are in “Geography and Human Environment”, at Ben-Gurion, geographers are in “Geography and Environmental Development”, and Bar-Ilan has “Geography and Environment”. Only the spiritual mother department at The Hebrew University of Jerusalem remains unadulterated. Israeli academic geography emerged in at The Hebrew University under the direction of David Amiran, who had trained in Central Europe JOUIFFBSMZðøòïTBOEBSSJWFEJO1BMFTUJOFJOðøòô"NJSBO BJEFECZ:JU[IBL 4DIBUUOFS BHFPNPSQIPMPHJTU BOE:FIVEB,BSNPO BIVNBOHFPHSBQIFS established the depamieartment in Jerusalem and set the tone. The milieu created by Amiran extended beyond Jerusalem as the other universities opened departments of geography in the s; in addition to recruiting individuals to man [sic] these new centers permanently, cadres from Jerusalem were sent not just to supplement the locals but as academic politruks to ensure that these new academic centers did not stray from the “party line”. Amiran’s influence in fashioning Israeli geography cannot be overstated. His control over the development of the discipline in the following three decades had a Teutonic flavor, commanding loyalty, which was SFXBSEFECZGBWPST)FTVQFSWJTFENBOZPGUIFFBSMZEPDUPSBUFT JODMVEJOH ,BSNPO :FIPTIVB#FO"SJFI "SJF4IBDIBS BOE"NJSBN(POFO UIPTF XIPUSBJOFEFMTFXIFSF TVDIBT4IBMPN3FJDINBOPS%PW/JS SFUVSOFEUP a department dominated by him. His influence continued to be felt directly and indirectly as some of the first teachers in the new university departNFOUT TVDIBT"SOPO4PĊFS #BSVDI,JQOJT BOE:PSBN#BS(BMJO)BJGB PS:PTTJ4IJMIBWBU#BS*MBO DPNQMFUFEEPDUPSBUFTJO+FSVTBMFN UIJTOFBS monopoly continued until the s. Most of those who ventured abroad GPSEPDUPSBMUSBJOJOH JODMVEJOH/VSJU,MJPU :FIVEB)BZVUI BOE"IBSPO ,FMMFSNBOJO)BJGB :FIVEB(SBEVTPS"WJOPBN.FJSBU#FO(VSJPO "WJ %FHBOJBU5FM"WJW IBESFDFJWFEUIFJS."TGSPN+FSVTBMFN UIF+FSVTBlem imprimatur remaining embossed even on their return. Only in the s were the university departments supplemented by people with no attachment to Jerusalem. The supervisory presence in the newer departments by full-time faculty members of The Hebrew University and the dependence of junior faculty
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at the new universities on their erstwhile Jerusalem supervisors for jobs and research funding ensured that the Jerusalem department remained ascendant until the early s, long after the other departments had a full complement of their own faculty. A side effect of this hegemony was the difficulty encountered by “foreign” geographers—people trained entirely outside the Israeli hierarchy and thus beholden to nobody in particular—to penetrate the system.⁵ Early in his career, Amiran was picked to head several government or quasi-governmental organizations, which applied geographical ideas to realworld issues. He used this situation to develop his Jerusalem department, encouraging a practical hands-on approach with geographers contributing to the well-being of the state, a consequence of which is that Israeli geography has always had a bias towards applied work. Academic geography has not had things all its own way, however. There is an ongoing struggle between Israeli academic geography, with roots in academe and intellectual connections with other academics, and those who see geography as a Zionist tool to draw Jews into an intimate encounter with the historic Land of Israel, thereby enhancing their attachment to the country and contributing to nation-building. The intellectual font of ahavat ha-Aretz MPWFPGUIF-BOE GPTUFSFEUIF blossoming of yedi’at ha-Aretz LOPXMFEHFPGUIF-BOE ⁶ For some, yedi’at ha-Aretz is the only legitimate channel for studying geography and academic geography can only justify its existence if it contributes positively toward UIFTFFOETɨFTFiBNBUFVSTw JOCPUITFOTFT IBWFCFFOUIFDPOTDJFODFPG Israeli academic geography as well as its Achilles heel. The struggle in which each views itself as the only true and legitimate Israeli geography has been made all the more difficult as many academic geographers form a fifth column. This competition has been subtle and may not even be recognized as problematic because so many Israeli academic geographers have been willing partners in this love affair between people and land. However, any assessment of Israeli geography needs to be read against the backdrop of Israeli history and society. Israel is a Jewish version of the nation-state, a very European concept. It was established under the “guidance” of Zionist parties that were socialist, egalitarian, and secular, long dominant, never hegemonic, and gone by the board. Nevertheless, ideals that sprang from socialist Zionism were foisted on the country. Many immigrants were less than enthusiastic about their assigned roles in rebuilding the Altneueland, perceiving themselves to be victims of negative material and cultural discrimination, which included banishment to the development towns on the country’s periphery and shikunim on the edges
t ĚĤģ ĒĖĝĤĥĦĕĚĖĤ ħĠĝĦĞĖðò ğĦĞēĖģð of the cities. Eventually, the economic and social development guided by dirigisme came to and end, replaced by liberal economic policies guided by the free market. Nevertheless, étatism played a positive role in preparing Israel for economic take-off and societal transformation. In addition, the conflict with the Arabs continues to run and this is what makes Israel truly unique; as this conflict takes new twists almost daily, no end is in sight.
THE SCOPE OF GEOGRAPHY IN ISRAEL There have been several previous attempts to catch the flavor of Israeli human geography, the most comprehensive of which is the bibliography compiled by Krakover and Gradus.⁷ Moreover, several collections have appeared over the years either as a festschrift, to mark the participation of Israeli geographers at meetings of the IGU or as a departmental anniversary.⁸ Also of note is Bar-Gal’s memorial Web site of Israeli geographers.⁹ 3FDBQJUVMBUJOHUIFNBJOMJOFTPGBOFBSMJFSBTTFTTNFOU UIFMJOFTBMPOH XIJDI*TSBFMJIVNBOHFPHSBQIZIBEEFWFMPQFEUPðø÷ôXFSF B historical geography, with an emphasis on the late nineteenth and early twentieth cenUVSJFT C urban studies, stressing population dispersal and peripheral towns BUUIFFYQFOTFPGNFUSPQPMJUBOBSFBT D rural settlement, with emphasis on the first Jewish colonies, the changing nature of the kibbutz, the immigrant moshav, and DIBOHJOH "SBC WJMMBHF BOE #FEPVJO TFUUMFNFOUT E social geography, dealing mainly with issues such as segregation with some work POJOFRVBMJUJFT VOEFSQSJWJMFHF BOETPDJBMNPWFNFOUT BOE F economic and industrial geography and methods. 0EEMZ FWFOBTMBUFBTðø÷ô *TSBFMJ geography cared little for issues of political geography, save for some work on borders and some esoteric electoral geography.¹⁰ That review also speculated on possible future trends, including the geographical and environmental change in the Middle East and the Mediterranean, Arab population and settlements, and developing an interest in Diaspora Jewry. Like in all futurology, not everything is easily foreseen. Changes in the discipline itself and unanticipated political and social events are hard to anticipate. As it transpired, human geography developed along more qualitative, humanistic, and critical paths than expected; for instance, the cultural turn of the s was missed. Similarly, the collapse of the Soviet empire and the see-sawing relations with the Palestinians were political events beyond the s horizon. As most scholars work according personal interests and not to a dictate or even a blueprint, many lines in human geography from the mid-s
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continued as before. However, others opened new pathways. Though many Israeli geographers have continued along the applied path, some have chosen one that is more academic while some others have chosen research topics that approach the esoteric.
FROM HISTORY TO POLITICS Historical Geography, emphasizing the early Zionist period, has always constituted a major area of research. The major mover of the historical HFPHSBQIFSTXBT:FIPTIVB#FO"SJFIBOEIJTNBOUMFIBTCFFOJOIFSJUFECZ 3VUI,BSL 3FIBW3VCJO 3PO"BSPOTPIO BOE3PO&MMFOCMVNJO+FSVTBMFN :PTTJ,BU[BU#BS*MBO BOE:PTTJ#FO"SU[J "SOPO(PMBO BOE)BJN Goren in Haifa. Kark, Aaronsohn, Ben-Artzi, and Katz have all maintained interest in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.¹¹ However, significant developments in other fields are Ellenblum’s work on the Crusader period, 3VCJOPOFBSMZNBQTBOEFBSMZBHSJDVMUVSF (PMBOTXPSLPOQPQVMBUJPO shifts following the War of Independence, and Katz on urban planning.¹² In Palestine/Israel, land ownership has been of major concern from the beginning of the Zionist settlement when Jewish individuals and organizations began to purchase land as part of the Zionist “redemption” of the Land of Israel. In the pre-State period, Jewish purchase of Arab lands was important in creating the skeleton of the Israeli settlement framework; after , the settlement of Jewish immigrants in abandoned Arab houses and the construction of Jewish settlements on deserted Arab villages changed the landscape. In the past years, the decision to ease restrictions on sale of state lands around the center of the country, releasing land for housing construction, as well as many nouveaux riches has aroused public interest. Strangely, land and real estate have not been of major concern to Israel’s academic geographers. Though some historical geographers, principally Kark, have examined land purchase in the early pre-State days, research in this field has been missing. Whether this is due to the small number of geographers or lack of interest is moot.¹³ In economic geography, initial work had focused on such issues as industrial location and transportation and this is still the principal focus of at least two researchers—Hayuth and Stern.¹⁴ However, more recently the research directions of the few geographers researching these fields have become more sophisticated. This includes the work of both Salomon and Kellerman into aspects of telecommunication, an effort sustained by both from the s.¹⁵ Tourism, straddling the economic and the cultural, has
t ĚĤģ ĒĖĝĤĥĦĕĚĖĤ ħĠĝĦĞĖðò ğĦĞēĖģð recently become very popular. Examples of the variety in this work include historical perspectives on tourism, international tourist flows, tourist maps, pilgrimage, tourism in frontier areas, tourism and security, and commodification and theming of tourist sites.¹⁶ The journal Political Geography was founded in , reflecting a need for a publication outlet in a branch of human geography that had formerly been neglected and which had once more become popular. The same year, the first international political geography seminar took place in Haifa, followed by others in and , each followed by a book.¹⁷ Two direct consequences of these meetings were that Israeli scholars became part of an international network and many Israeli geographers realized the inherently political nature of much of their work. Political geography in Israel thus emerged in the late s. Israeli contributions to Political Geography are both in its core and on distinctly Israeli issues. Boundary studies are a traditional part of political geography, and borders and boundaries are entrenched in the mentality of Israeli geographers. Israel is not yet completely enclosed by internationally recognized borders. This is a complex issue, not only because there is there non-recognition of Israel’s boundaries internationally, but also because there is confusion in Israeli society between the roles and functions of the biblical region of Eretz Yisrael and the State of Israel, a nation-state.¹⁸ Whether the boundaries of the two should coincide is the source of a deep rift in Israeli society. Some Israeli geographers have adopted an historical approach to boundary study.¹⁹ More recently, there has been debate over the possible location of a border between Israel and a future Palestine. Analyzing Israel’s past, current, and possible future borders has spurred some to think more theoretically about boundaries, Newman emerging as a leading scholar on political-geographical boundaries. Kliot has produced work on Israel’s maritime boundaries and on activities that occur close to border regions, Meir has examined nomadic grazing and movement across international boundaries and Feitelson has examined different forms of cross-border cooperation.²⁰ The “Green Line”, that line of division between Israel and the West Bank which resulted from the Armistice Agreements, remains an active divider, despite disappearing from Israeli maps almost years ago and continues to be a source of interest, recently revivified by the construction of a barrier dividing Palestinians from Israelis along an equally artificial and arbitrary route.²¹ The partition of Palestine has attracted historians and political scientists even more than geographers.²² Only Katz has dealt with this issue
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substantively in his study of the Jewish Agency’s partition plans.²³ As with Newman and borders, Waterman adopted a wider view to understand the nature of partitions,²⁴ part of a more general interest in separation and segregation—itself a topic that has occupied the minds of Schnell and his colleagues at Tel-Aviv University.²⁵ In this regard, Kliot and Mansfeld have looked at the division of Cyprus, a case parallel to Palestine, and at divided cities.²⁶ A major contributing topic to Political Geography’s revival concerned voting and elections but, with an electoral system in which geography has no significant role, this was regarded in Israel as an esoteric irrelevancy. Even so, Gonen analyzed voting patterns to chart Likud’s rise in development towns and urban neighborhoods²⁷ and Newman and Waterman, respectively, examined support for religious and non-Jewish parties, with Waterman simulating voting patterns in general elections, to examine what the results might have been had the elections been held in constituencies.²⁸ Although there is no electoral districting in Israel, some geographers have worked on redrawing boundaries between local authorities within the context of conflicts between urban and rural authorities over regional industries and property taxes, Arab and Jewish authorities, the role of the courts in EFMJOFBUJOH CPVOEBSZ DIBOHF QSPWJTJPO PG TFSWJDFT CZ SVSBM 3FHJPOBM $PVODJMTUP OPOSVSBM FYVSCBOBSFBTBOE"SBCMPDBMJUJFT²⁹ Water and rivers feature as an issue of macro-political geography. Both Kliot and Soffer have produced books on conflicts over the Middle East’s water resources and Shmueli has dealt with disputes and conflict resolution over water both in the Middle East and more generally.³⁰ Feitelson, too, has taken a keen interest in water resources, especially with regards utilization and use policy, the management of aquifers, and groundwater between Israel and Palestine.³¹ There has been less work, perhaps, than might have been expected on the Arabs in Israel and much of what there is has come from Tel-Aviv University. In the s, Newman and Portugali examined aspects of Palestinian Israeli relations and of Palestinian migrant labor in Israel.³² Later, Schnell and his associates worked on Arab identities and entrepreneurship in Israel.³³ Two Arab geographers have produced work on the land issue. 3BTTFN,IBNBJTJIBTMPPLFETQFDJmDBMMZBUMBOEPXOFSTIJQJOEFUFSNJOJOH the formation of residential areas in Arab settlements.³⁴ Ghazi Falah has been prominent in drawing attention to Israeli settlement of Palestinian Arab lands, both in Israel proper after and in the Occupied Territories after . His writings have included illegal building in some Arab settlements in Israel, abandoned Arab settlements and the consequent
òï t ĚĤģ ĒĖĝĤĥĦĕĚĖĤ ħĠĝĦĞĖðò ğĦĞēĖģð de-signification of prior Palestinian landscapes, and mixed Jewish-Arab towns in Israel, some of which are uncomfortable for many Jewish Israelis to deal with.³⁵
EVERYTHING IS POLITICAL In the long run, and especially in Israel, everything is political, and social and planning issues are no exception. Discrimination is perceived among XPNFO XIP BSF OPU B NJOPSJUZ BT XFMM BT UIF .J[SBIJN UIF TUSJDUMZ 0SUIPEPY haredi TFDUPSBOEUIFiNJOPSJUJFTw SFBE"SBCBOE%SV[F ³⁶ Not only has the number and variety of groups protesting government policies grown but there has been overspill into criticism of the strategic goals of the state, with government action sensed as having ulterior and threatenJOHNPUJWFTEFTJHOFEPOMZUPGVSUIFSEFQSFTTUIFQPPS NPTUMZQFSDFJWFEBT .J[SBIJPSTUSJDUMZ0SUIPEPYPSCPUIPS"SBC BUUIFFYQFOTFPGUIFBČVFOU UZQJDBMMZQFSDFJWFEBT"TILFOB[J In this worldview, moves to encourage economic liberalism, integrating Israel into the globalizing world economy at the expense of the welfare state, widen social and economic gaps—undoubtedly, the replacement of a system where government assumes primary responsibility for the wellbeing of its citizens by one where prices and wages are determined mainly by supply and demand has contributed. Whether this is a sinister conspiracy by a secular Ashkenazi elite, designed from the outset to depress and exploit all those who could never be part of that elite, is a source of national debate. Nevertheless, a cult of critique and criticism has become fashionable and some geographers, in common with other social scientists, have become part of this fashion. However, because of its conservative nature, its historical relationship with yedi’at ha’Aretz, not to mention its strong Ashkenazi, male, secular, and Jewish biases, geography has been slower than other disciplines to join the bandwagon. Nonetheless, once done, it has been pursued with a zeal only achievable by converts. Work on housing in Israel up to the s examined immigration, the high growth rates it caused, and the role of public housing agencies in shaping Israeli urban settlements. A decade later, emphasis had shifted to the role of public housing and the geography it created as a political tool in shaping Israeli cities as the role of politics and domination in the Israeli polity began to make itself clear.³⁷ Shlomo Hasson’s work developed the housing theme, in particular his work on social protest and neighborhood organizations, culminating in a cross-cultural project on eight
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neighborhoods in Jerusalem and Vancouver with David Ley where they studied the involvement of the welfare state in local neighborhoods,³⁸ while around the same time, Cohen and Shinar were carrying out pioneering work on Israeli urban neighborhoods as friendship networks.³⁹ During the s, the issue of social protest was developed within the framework of the ethnic subordination of minorities by the Ashkenazi elite under the rubric PG*TSBFMBTBOiFUIOPDSBDZwCZ0SFO:JGUBDIFMBOEIJTDPMMFBHVFTJO#FFS Sheva.⁴⁰ On another topic, Schnell’s sole publication on foreign workers in Tel-Aviv is the only piece by a geographer on this socially significant but almost taboo topic.⁴¹ The shift away from viewing the country as a physical container for its citizens, with decisions purportedly taken by a privileged group of politicians, bureaucrats, and expert advisors at the expense of the real needs and desires of those for whom the decisions were being made—the immigrants, the underprivileged, the unrepresented, the minorities—is noted in the field of planning. The image of Israel as a planned society is longstanding and planning certainly has had an important role to play in its development. With the wisdom of hindsight, it is relatively easy to pick out errors—and there were many. Often deprecated is that those in authority had to make decisions in a place in flux and during a time and situation of immense stress. Undeniably, most decisions were taken within the strong ideological context of Zionism. Those making them were intent on developing a state that reflected their beliefs and, in so doing; some were likelier to be in sync with those aims and more likely than others later on to take advantage of that situation. Many Israeli geographers have been happy to style themselves as planners or at least engage heavily in the process of planning. Over time, planning as interpreted by Israel’s geographers has become less concerned with design and more concerned with its social and political facets. This enhanced interest in the planning process, again emanating from a wish to be involved in nation-building, has had the effect of having had bearing on the make-up of the academic departments and thus on what students learn. The changes in the approaches of Israeli geographers to planning and development issues can be easily observed with a summary of representative issues over the years. The soft boundaries between planning and political and social geography are indicated by the fact that some of these issues have already been noted en passant. Early involvement by Israeli geographers in the planning process is exemplified by Shachar, who was responsible more than anyone else for
òñ t ĚĤģ ĒĖĝĤĥĦĕĚĖĤ ħĠĝĦĞĖðò ğĦĞēĖģð placing planning rather than simply applied geography in the center of the field of vision of Israeli geography. His early work was essentially descriptive, but by the early s, it had become reflective.⁴² Though some geographers were still focusing on material things in the s,⁴³ others had adopted a greater awareness of the role of politics although this approach was far from being a critical one.⁴⁴ The method whereby critique and criticism become central to the research methodology, where the research agenda is driven by and is an integral part of a political agenda, has been finessed by the “Beer-Sheva School”.⁴⁵
ET CETERA In Israel, despite the prominence given to the kibbutz and the moshav and the disdain in which the city was held in the early phase of Zionism, rural studies have never been prominent in Israeli geography. Nevertheless, both Grossman and Sofer of Bar-Ilan University have been fruitful in this area.⁴⁶ Cultural Geography is a long-established branch of human geography in the United States; it might even be said that it was for long its lifeCMPPEUIFSF:FU XJUIBMMJUTDVMUVSBMEJWFSTJUZ *TSBFMIBTOPUCFFOBIBQQZ hunting ground for cultural geographers. Simply put, with a geographical tradition of being utilitarian, most Israeli geographers, if they had cultural tendencies, kept them firmly in the closet. However, there are exceptions. Trained as an historian, converted to geography in the early s, and owing nothing to traditional Israeli geography, Azaryahu has been mostly concerned with collective memory. His move to geography resulted from a doctoral dissertation on changing street names in East Germany, a work with a clear spatio-political focus. Since then, he has engaged in a variety of topics, mostly to do with real and imagined Israeli cultural landscapes and memorial spaces.⁴⁷ Place names as cultural landscape imprimaturs and related issues such as the hebraization of the topographic maps of Israel have also drawn the attention of others over the years.⁴⁸ Also in the realm of cultural geography, Waterman uncovered a tabula rasa in the form of arts festivals, which he interprets as displays of culture, whereas Felsenstein has adopted a more conventional approach to the study of such phenomena.⁴⁹ Cemeteries appear to attract attention and have been examined as an issue of land-use and as reflections of life-time social status.⁵⁰ Kliot’s important but neglected paper on the effect of Israel’s withdrawal from settlements in northern Sinai in
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needs to be noted here, too, if only because of its aptness in the context of the withdrawal from the Gaza Strip over years later.⁵¹ Gender is another issue that has developed an extensive literature in the social sciences over the past two decades, and geography, somewhat belatedly, has been part of this development. However, gender is distinctly a woman’s issue, especially in Israel.⁵² Nevertheless, its flag is flown prinDJQBMMZCZ5PWJ'FOTUFS SFDFOUMZOPNJOBUFEDIBJSPGUIF$PNNJTTJPOPO (FOEFSBOE(FPHSBQIZPGUIF*(6 BOE0SOB#MVNFO BOEJUTTUBUVTJT undoubtedly on the rise as women, though still far from numerical parity with men, are playing a larger role in Israeli geography than ever before.⁵³ Finally, some geographers over the years have also chosen to examine specifically Jewish issues. Waterman has a long-term interest in Diaspora communities and Shilhav has conducted research on strictly Orthodox DPNNVOJUJFTPWFSGPSBMNPTUòïZFBST3FDFOUMZ CPUI(POFOBOE#MVNFO have added to this literature, covering different aspects of the haredi communities.⁵⁴
CONCLUSION What are we to make of this hyperactivity by what is, by all measures, just a small group of people? There is a longstanding image of Israel as a planned society and planning has undoubtedly influenced the nature of human geography in Israel. Although planning is an established profession with a vast literature of its own, many Israeli geographers have been happy to style themselves as planners or to become associated with the planning process. Approaches to planning and to how Israel’s geographers regard it have changed over the years and “planning” now melds into other political and social issues, often obscuring the boundary with social and political criticism. There are, of course, long-term consequences of promoting geography with a problem-solving subject matter rather than as an academic discipline. One of these is the way it contributes to the perception of geography as a second-rate discipline, for whatever applied geography with a planning bent is, it is not planning. And from many a student’s viewpoint, why bother to spend five years acquiring a planning degree if something analogous can be had in three? The enhanced interest of many Israeli geographers in planning, emanating from the longstanding wish to be part of the nation-building process, has also had a curious effect and significant bearing on the nature and
òó t ĚĤģ ĒĖĝĤĥĦĕĚĖĤ ħĠĝĦĞĖðò ğĦĞēĖģð make-up of academic departments and thus on what students learn. The appointment of planners and other “technical experts” rather than geographers to fill vacant faculty slots has had a binary effect. As planning is even more hands-on than mere “applied geography”, Israeli geography students become even more exposed to “real issues” of “importance” and engaged in “socially valuable” and “politically relevant” research, often by teachers with clear political and social agendas. This appropriation of the discipline CZ OPOHFPHSBQIFSTQMBOOFST TQFDJBMJTUT JO (*4 (FPHSBQIJD *OGPSNBUJPO4ZTUFNT
BOESFNPUFTFOTJOH BTXFMMBTJOmFMETTVDIBTUPVSJTNPS ecology—is inevitably leading to the suffocation of geography as a branch of learning with its own unique spatial approaches and modes of thought. Though it may contribute to specialty diversification in departments of geography in the short run, in the long run it leaves in its wake graduates and practitioners who believe, innocently or otherwise, that geographers are little more than technocrats who have accumulated skills to help right the spatial effects of perceived social injustices and with an assigned role of drawing public attention to these. This dearth of people trained in geography to fill vacant slots in academic departments is an unforeseen consequence of Israeli geography’s emphasis on applied research, and there is a distinct possibility that departments of geography as we know them will self-destruct. The name change of all but one of the five academic departments is not just cosmetic and reflects BWFSZSFBMTJUVBUJPO3FDFOUiBDRVJTJUJPOTwXJUIJOBDBEFNJD%FQBSUNFOUTPG Geography just in human geography have included planners, economists, ecologists, historians, architects, mathematicians, and specialists in remote sensing and GIS. On the “loss” side are trained geographers working in academic units such as welfare studies, Israel studies, or politics. Though such academic personnel exchanges have always happened, in at least one department, if present trends continue, geographers will soon be a minority within what is nominally a department of geography. The implication is that in such circumstances, appreciation of a distinctively geographical way of looking at the world and of the intellectual history and development of the discipline will vanish. Though social and political activism by some members of the profession draws attention to geography, it is doubtful whether this is beneficial to the discipline. Who really is in a position to decide whether issues cloaked within angry academic invective are really what will be remembered as TJHOJmDBOUñïBOEòïZFBSTEPXOUIFMJOF .BUUFSTUIBUBQQFBSJNQPSUBOU enough to engender heated debate as they occur are often overtaken by later events, casting doubt on the erudition of the scholar. Walls come and go;
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political enemies make peace; decision-makers may ask for contrary advice, take it, and act upon it without seemingly adverse consequences. What is more, the small size of the Israeli geographical community and the disintegration of the discipline, which is well under way, means that there are geographical topics that are virtually ignored, leaving the field open to scholars from other disciplines to usurp the field from geography and geographers. Examples already exist and include the work of Kimmerling, Sobel, and al-Haj.⁵⁵ Therefore, it may be more productive in the end for academics to ask rhetorical questions and do what they have always done best: conduct academic research. Acquiring knowledge about, say, the nature of borders, partitions, segregation, or of cultural adoption and adaptations within conceptual or theoretical frameworks and instilling in students a better appreciation of such knowledge may enhance analytic capabilities in realworld situations far more effectively than by diving into the deep end of the intellectual pool to engage directly in problem-solving.
NOTES . Stanley Waterman, “Not just milk and honey, more a way of life—Israeli human geography since the Six-Day War,” Progress in Human Geography,ø ðø÷ô ðøóoñòó . The references are selective and no attempt is made to cite individuals in proportion to their output. Alas, this is the nature of selectivity and selection. In most cases where authors have published widely on a topic, I have restricted citations to two and preferred material in English. To approach this article otherwise would have rendered it little more than names, dates, and titles and would have made the effort of reading it worth even less than the effort of writing it! ò See Peter J. Taylor, “On the nation-state, the global, and social science,” Environment and Planning A, ñ÷ ðð ðøøõ ðøðöoøô XIJDI DPOTJTUT PG 5BZMPST original article, “Embedded statism and the social sciences: opening up to new spaces” and the invited responses of a range of social scientists to it. . Eric Hobsbawm, Interesting Times -POEPO ñïïñ ñ÷÷ ô An added twist to the dominance of Hebrew University faculty was that as Jerusalem residents, many had friends and neighbors employed in government ministries and other agencies with access to research funding, making it easier to understand the extent of Jerusalem’s hegemony and the obstacles to deconstructing it when the time was apt. . This reached its most extreme form in an era of slogans such as “Land for Peace”, a land fetish, as some expressed their existential insideness whereby they
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Israeli scholars’ publications in Human Geography and Development Studies, – #FFS4IFWB ñïïï . %BWJE "NJSBO BOE:FIPTIVB #FO"SJFI FET
Geography in Israel +FSVTBMFN ðøöõ #BSVDI,JQOJTBOE4UBOMFZ8BUFSNBO i(FPHSBQIZJO*TSBFM wThe Professional Geographer òö ñ ðø÷ô ñðóoðô 8BUFSNBO i/PUKVTUNJMLBOEIPOFZw :JU[IBL4DIOFMM i*TSBFMJ(FPHSBQIFSTJO4FBSDIPGB/BUJPOBM*EFOUJUZ wThe Professional Geographer,ôõ ó ñïïó ôõïoöò 3FIBW3VCJO i)JTUPSJDBM(FPHSBQIZJO Israel—Prospects and Achievements,” Cathedra, ðïï ñïïð òòøoõï .BP["[BSZBIVBOE"SOPO(PMBO i;JPOJTUIPNFMBOETDBQFT BOEUIFJSDPOTUJUVUJPO JO *TSBFMJ HFPHSBQIZ w Social and Cultural Geography ô ò ñïïó óøöoôðò 0SOB#MVNFOBOE:PSBN#BS(BM iɨF"DBEFNJD$POGFSFODFBOEUIF4UBUVTPG Women: The Annual Meetings of the Israeli Geographical Society,” The Professional GeographeS ô÷ ò ñïïõ òóðoôô . http://geo.haifa.ac.il/~bargal/history/ . Waterman, “Not just milk and honey.” . 3BO"BSPOTPIO Rothschild and Early Jewish Colonization in Palestine +FSVTBMFNBOE/FX:PSL ñïïï :PTTJ#FO"SU[J The Evolution of the Carmel Ridge as a Jewish Settlement Space, – +FSVTBMFN ñïïó :PTTJ,BU[ The Battle for the Land: History of Jewish National Fund Before the Establishment of Israel +FSVTBMFN ñïïõ 3VUI,BSL American Consuls in the Holy Land – %FUSPJU ðøøó
Jaffa—A City in Evolution, – +FSVTBMFN ñïïò BOE Rothschild and Early Jewish Colonization in Palestine +FSVTBMFN ñïïï . 3POOJF&MMFOCMVN Frankish Rural Settlement in the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem $BNCSJEHF ñïïò BOECrusader Castles and Modern Histories $BNCSJEHF ñïïö 3FIBW3VCJO Image and Reality: Jerusalem in Maps and Views +FSVTBMFN ðøøø i4FUUMFNFOUBOE"HSJDVMUVSFJOBO"ODJFOU%FTFSU'SPOUJFS wGeographical Review,÷ð ñ ðøøð ðøöoñïô "SOPO(PMBO i3FEJTUSJCVUJPOBOE3FTJTUBODF6SCBO Conflicts During and Following the War,” Journal of Modern Jewish Studies, ð ñ ñïïñ ððöoòï :PTTJ,BU[ i*EFPMPHZBOEVSCBOEFWFMPQNFOU;JPOJTNBOE the origins of Tel-Aviv, –,” Journal of Historical Geography,ðñ ðø÷õ óïñoñó and “The extension of Ebenezer Howard’s ideas on urbanization outside the British Isles: The example of Palestine,” GeoJournal,òó ó ðøøó óõöoöò ðò 3VUI,BSL i$IBOHJOH1BUUFSOTPG-BOE0XOFSTIJQJO/JOFUFFOUI$FOtury Palestine: The European Influence,” Journal of Historical Geography,ðï ðø÷ó òôöo÷ó *UBNBS,BU[BOE3VUI,BSL iɨF(SFFL0SUIPEPY1BUSJBSDIBUFPG+FSVTBMFNBOEJUT$POHSFHBUJPO%JTTFOUPWFS3FBM&TUBUF wInternational Journal of Middle Eastern Studies,òö ó ñïïô ôïøoòó (FSFNZ'PSNBOBOE4BOEZ,FEBS i'SPN Arab Lands to ‘Israel Lands’: The Legal Dispossession of the Palestinians Displaced by Israel in the Wake of ,” Environment and Planning D, ññ õ ñïïó ÷ïøoòï 4FFBMTP:PSBN#BS(BM An Agent of Zionist Propaganda: the Jewish National Fund – 5FM"WJW ðøøø
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Transportation Planning in a Changing World -POEPO ðø÷ö :FIVEB )BZVUI, Intermodality: Concept and Practice: Structural Changes in the Ocean Freight Transport Industry -POEPO ðø÷ö Eliahu Stern, “Spatio-temporal patterns of subjectively reported congestion in TelAviv metropolitan area,” Journal of Transport Geography,ðñ ð ñïïó õòoöð "IBSPO ,FMMFSNBO i3FUBJM4VQQMZBOE%FNBOEJOB4ZTUFN6OEFS5SBOTJUJPOɨF$BTFPG Israel,” GeoJournal,ðô ðø÷ö òðoò÷ #BSVDI",JQOJT i5FDIOPMPHZBOE*OEVTUSJBM Policy for a Metropolis at the Threshold of the Global Economy: the Case of Haifa, Israel,” Urban Studies òô ó ðøø÷ õóøoõñ :FIVEB(SBEVT &SBO3B[JO BOE4IBVM Krakover The Industrial Geography of Israel -POEPOBOE/FX:PSL ðøøò ðô Ilan Salomon, “Geographical Variations in Telecommunications Systems: The Implications for Location of Activities,” Transportation,ðó ðø÷÷ òððoòñ (BMJU Cohen, Ilan Salomon, and Peter Nijkamp, “Information-Communication TechOPMPHJFT *$5 BOEUSBOTQPSUQPMJDZ%PFTLOPXMFEHFVOEFSQJOQPMJDZ wTelecommunication Policy ñõ ðoñ ñïïñ òðoôñ "IBSPO,FMMFSNBO i5FMFDPNNVOJDBUFE Universities: The Diffusion of BITNET,” Land Use Policy,ò ðø÷õ ñðòoñï Telecommunications and Geography -POEPO ðøøò
The Internet on Earth: A Geography of Information -POEPO ñïïñ XIJDIXBTBXBSEFEUIF"TTPDJBUJPOPG"NFSJDBO (FPHSBQIFSTñïïñ.FSJEJBO"XBSEGPS0VUTUBOEJOH4DIPMBSMZ8PSLJO(FPHSBQIZ and Personal Mobilities (Networked Cities) -POEPO ñïïõ . 3VUI ,BSL i'SPN 1JMHSJNBHF UP #VEEJOH5PVSJTN ɨF 3PMF PG ɨPNBT $PPLJOUIF3FEJTDPWFSZPGUIF)PMZ-BOEJOUIF/JOFUFFOUI$FOUVSZ wJO4BSBI 4FBSJHIUBOE.BMDPMN8BHTUBĊ FET
Travellers in the Levant: Voyagers and Visionaries -POEPO ñïïð ðôôoöó %PSPO#BSBOE,PCJ$PIFO)BUUBC i"/FX,JOEPG Pilgrimage: The Modern Tourist Pilgrim of Nineteenth Century and Early Twentieth Century Palestine,” Middle Eastern Studies,òø ñ ñïïò ðòðoó÷ :PFM.BOTGFME “Spatial Patterns of International Tourist Flows: Towards a Theoretical Framework,” Progress in Human Geography,ðó ò ðøøï òöñoøï /PHB$PMMJOT,SFJOFS i$BSUPgraphic characteristics of current Christian pilgrimage maps of the Holy Land,” Cartographica,òó ó ðøøö ðoðï /PHB$PMMJOT,SFJOFSBOE/VSJU,MJPU i1JMHSJNBHF Tourism in the Holy Land: The Behavioural Characteristics of Christian Pilgrims,” GeoJournal,ôï ð ñïïï ôôoõö 4IBVM,SBLPWFSBOE:FIVEB(SBEVT FET
Tourism in Frontier Areas -BOIBN .% ñïïñ :PFM.BOTGFMEi$ZDMFTPG8BS 5FSSPSBOE 1FBDF%FUFSNJOBOUTBOE.BOBHFNFOUPG$SJTJTBOE3FDPWFSZPGUIF*TSBFMJ5PVSJTN Industry,” Journal of Travel Research,ò÷ ð ðøøø òïoòõ "WSBIBN1J[BNBOE:PFM .BOTGFME FET
Tourism, Crime and International Security Issues $IJDIFTUFS ðøøõ Noam Shoval, “Commodification and theming of the sacred: changing patterns of UPVSJTUDPOTVNQUJPOJOUIF)PMZ-BOE wJO.BSL(PUUEJFOFS FE
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Identities, Borders, Orders: New Directions in International Relations Theory .JOOFBQPMJT ñïïð ðòöoôð i0OCPSEFSTBOEQPXFSB theoretical Framework, Journal of Borderland Studies ð÷ ð ñïïò ðòoñô i'SPNUIF international to the local in the study and representation of boundaries: theoretical and methodological comments,” in Heather Nicol and Ian Townsend-Gault FET
Holding the Lines: Borders in a Global World 7BODPVWFS ñïïó iɨFMJOFT that continue to separate us: Borders in our borderless world,” Progress in Human Geography,òï ñ ñïïõ ðoðø . Nurit Kliot, “Maritime boundaries in the Mediterranean: aspects of cooperBUJPOBOEEJTQVUF wJO(FSBME#MBLF FE
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The Razor’s Edge: International Boundaries and Political Geography -POEPO ñïïñ óöòoøñ %BWJE/FXNBO iɨFGVODUJPOBMQSFTFODFPGBOFSBTFE CPVOEBSZ UIF SFFNFSHFODF PG UIF HSFFO MJOF w JO $MJWF 4DIPmFME BOE 3JDIBSE 4DIPmFME FET
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Territory, Boundaries and Postmodernity -POEPO ðøøø . Itzhak Galnoor, The Partition of Palestine "MCBOZ ðøøô ñò :PTTJ ,BU[ Partner to Partition: The Jewish Agency’s Partition Plan in the Mandate Era -POEPO ðøø÷ . Stanley Waterman, “Partitioned states,” Political Geography Quarterly, ðø÷ö øïoðïõ i4UBUFTPG4FHSFHBUJPO wJO$MJWF4DIPmFME %BWJE/FXNBO "MBTEBJS %SZTEBMF BOE +BOFU "MMJTPO#SPXO FET
The Razor’s Edge: International Boundaries and Political Geography ɨF)BHVF ñïïñ ôöoöõ
$POTUSVDUJOH4QBUJBM,OPXMFEHF(FPHSBQIZBTB%JTDJQMJOF t òø ñô *U[IBL4DIOFMMBOE:PBW#FOKBNJOJ iɨF4PDJPTQBUJBM*TPMBUJPOPG"HFOUT in Everyday Life Spaces as an Aspect of Segregation,” Annals of the Association of American Geographers,øð ó ñïïð õññoòõ *U[IBL#FOFOTPOBOE*U[IBL0NFS “Measuring individual segregation in space—a formal approach and case study,” in *U[IBL4DIOFMMBOE8JN0TUFOEPSG FET
Studies in Segregation and Desegregation "WFCVSZ 6, ñïïñ ððoò÷ . /VSJU,MJPUBOE:PFM.BOTGFME i$BTF4UVEJFTPG$POnJDUBOE5FSSJUPSJBM Organization,” Progress in Planning,ôñ ò ðøøø ðõöoññô iɨFQPMJUJDBMMBOETDBQF of partition—the case of Cyprus,” Political Geography,ðõ õ ðøøö óøôoôñð . Amiram Gonen, “A Geographical Analysis of the Electoral Competition in Jewish Cities and Towns,” in Dan Caspi, Avraham Diskin, and Emanuel GutNBOO FET
Begin’s Success: The Israeli Election -POEPO ðø÷ò ôøo÷ö iɨF Geographical Expansion of the Electoral Support for the Likud Party: A Comment on a Comment,” Medina, Mimshal Ve’yahasim Beinleumi’im ñõ ðø÷ö ðñôoñö [Hebrew]. . David Newman, “Voting patterns and the religious parties in Israel,” Contemporary Jewry ðï ñ ðø÷ø õôo÷ï 4UBOMFZ8BUFSNBO iɨFOPO+FXJTIWPUFJO Israel in ,” Political Geography, ðò õ ðøøó ôóïoô÷ iɨFEJMFNNBPGFMFDUPSBM districting in Israel,” Tijdschrift voor Economische en Sociale Geografie öð ðø÷ï –; Stanley Waterman and Eliahu Zefadia, “Electoral reform in Israel in action,” Political Geography, ðð õ ðøøñ ôõòoôö . 4IMPNP )BTTPO BOE &SBO 3B[JO i8IBU JT IJEEFO CFIJOE B NVOJDJQBM boundary conflict?” Political Geography Quarterly,ø ðøøï ñõöoñ÷ò 3BTTFN,IBmaisi, Expanding Municipal Boundaries in Arabs Localities in Israel +FSVTBMFN ñïïñ %BWJE/FXNBOBOE-FWJB"QQMFCBVN i$POnJDUJOHPCKFDUJWFT for rural local government: service provision to exurban communities in Israel,” Environment and Planning C,ðò ò ðøøô ñôòoöð &SBO3B[JOBOE4IMPNP)BTTPO “Urban-rural boundary conflicts: the reshaping of Israel’s rural map,” Journal of Rural Studies ðï ðøøó óöoôø &SBO3B[JOBOE"OOB)B[BO i*OEVTUSJBMEFWFMPQment and municipal reorganization: conflict, cooperation and regional effects,” Environment and Planning, C,ðò ðøøô ñøöoòðó i3FESBXJOH*TSBFMTMPDBMHPWFSOment map: political decisions, court rulings or popular determination,” Political Geography,ñï ñïïð ôðòoòòBOEi.VOJDJQBMCPVOEBSZDPOnJDUTCFUXFFO+FXJTI and Arab local authorities in Israel: geography of administration or geopolitics?” Geografiska Annaler,÷õ# ñïïó öøoøó òï Nurit Kliot, Water Resources and Conflict in the Middle East -POEPO ðøøó ; Arnon Soffer, Rivers of Fire #PVMEFS $0 ðøøø %FCPSBI 4INVFMJ i8BUFS 2VBMJUZ JO *OUFSOBUJPOBM 3JWFS #BTJOT w Political Geography ð÷ ó ðøøø óòöoöõ i"QQSPBDIFTUP8BUFS%JTQVUF3FTPMVUJPO"QQMJDBUJPOTUP"SBC*TSBFMJ Negotiations,” International Negotiation ó ñ ðøøø ñøôoòñô òð Eran Feitelson, “Implications of shifts in the Israeli water discourse for Israeli-Palestinian water negotiations,” Political Geography, ñð ñïïñ ñøòoòð÷ “Political economy of groundwater exploitation: The Israeli case,” International Journal of Water Resource Development,ñð ñïïô óðòoñò
t ĚĤģ ĒĖĝĤĥĦĕĚĖĤ ħĠĝĦĞĖðò ğĦĞēĖģð òñ David Newman and Juval Portugali, “Israeli Palestinian relations as reflected in the scientific literature,” Progress in Human Geography ðð ô ðø÷ö òðôoòñ +VWBM Portugali, “Nomad Labour: Theory and Practice in the Israeli-Palestinian Case,” Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers ðó ñ ðø÷ø ñïöoñï òò Itzhak Schnell, Itzhak Benenson, and Michael Sofer, “The Formation of an Arab Industrial Sales Network in Israel,” Annals of the Association of American Geographers ÷ø ñ ðøøø òðñoòö *U[IBL4DIOFMMBOE.VIBNNBE"NBSB i*EFOUJUZ repertoires among Arabs in Israel,” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies òï ð ñïïò ðöôoøò :JU[IBL4DIOFMMBOE.JDIBFM4PGFS i&NCFEEJOH&OUSFQSFOFVSTIJQ in Social Structure: Israeli Arab Entrepreneurship,” International Journal of Urban and Regional Research ñö ñ ñïïò òïïoð÷ òó 3BTTFN,IBNBJTJ i-BOEPXOFSTIJQBTBEFUFSNJOBUFJOUIFGPSNBUJPOPG residential areas in Arab localities in Israel,” Geoforum ñõ ñ ðøøô ñððoñó òô *DJUF'BMBIIFSFOPUCFDBVTFIFJTBO*TSBFMJHFPHSBQIFS IFIJNTFMGXPVME QSPCBCMZUBLFFYUSFNFFYDFQUJPOUPBOZTVDIEFTDSJQUPS CVUCFDBVTFIFIBTCFFOB thorn in the side of the Israeli geographic community for more than two decades because of issues he has chosen to raise. His sting has much to do with his combative writing style and article construction, often eliciting sharp responses from his Israeli adversaries as well as rebuttals. See: Ghazi Falah, “The Development of the ‘Planned Bedouin Settlement’ in Israel –: Evaluation and Characteristics,” Geoforum ðó ò ðø÷ò òððoñò i*TSBFMJA+VEBJ[BUJPO1PMJDZJO(BMJMFFBOEJUT*NQBDU on Local Arab Urbanization,” Political Geography Quarterly ÷ ò ðø÷ø ññøoôò i-JWJOH5PHFUIFS "QBSU 3FTJEFOUJBM 4FHSFHBUJPO JO .JYFE "SBC+FXJTI $JUJFT w Urban Studies òò õ ðøøõ ÷ñòoôö iɨFðøó÷*TSBFMJ1BMFTUJOJBO8BSBOEJUT"GUFSmath: the Transformation and DeSignification of Palestine’s Cultural Landscape,” Annals of the Association of American Geographers ÷õ ñ ðøøõ ñôõoñ÷ô"UUFNQUTUP engage him in dialog rather than confrontation have been few and far between and only partially successful. See Ghazi Falah and David Newman, “The manifestation of threat: Israelis and Palestinians seek a ‘good’ border,” Political Geography ðó ÷ ðøøô õ÷øoöïõ %BWJE/FXNBOBOE(IB[J'BMBI i#SJEHJOHUIFHBQ1BMFTUJOJBO and Israeli discourses on autonomy and statehood,” Transactions of the Institute of #SJUJTI(FPHSBQIFST ññ ð ðøøö ðððoñø4FFBMTP4UBOMFZ8BUFSNBO i"DBEFNJD freedom and the freedom of academics,” Journal of Geography in Higher Education,ðõ ðøøñ ððôoðø (IB[J'BMBI i*TSBFMJ[BUJPOPG1BMFTUJOF)VNBO(FPHSBQIZ w Progress in Human Geography ðò ó ðø÷ø ôòôoôï /VSJU,MJPUBOE4UBOMFZ8BUFSman, “The politics of writing the geography of Palestine/Israel,” Progress in Human Geography, ðó ñ ðøøï ñòöoõï òõ In this context, political correctness rears its ugly head. At one time, “Israeli Arabs” or “Arab Israelis” were acceptable. Today, it is difficult to know whether one should refer to Jews and Arabs, Israelis and Palestinians, Jews and Palestinians. Among “radical” or “revisionist” social scientists, Palestinian Arab-citizens of *TSBFMBQQFBSTUPCFTBUJTGBDUPSZ5FMMJOHMZ IPXFWFS 3BTTFN,IBNBJTJBQQFBSTUP IBWFOPTVDIIBOHVQTXIFOIFJTRVPUFEEJSFDUMZBTTBZJOHJO)BJN:BDPCJ FE
$POTUSVDUJOH4QBUJBM,OPXMFEHF(FPHSBQIZBTB%JTDJQMJOF t Constructing a Sense of Place: Architecture and the Zionist Discourse "MEFSTIPU ñïïó : “. . . I am an Arab man. . . .” òö Amiram Gonen, “The role of high growth rates and of public housing agencies in shaping the spatial structure of Israeli towns,” Tijdschrift voor Economische en Sociale Geografie,õò ðøöñ óïñoðï ò÷ Shlomo Hasson, “Social and spatial conflicts: the settlement process in *TSBFMEVSJOHUIFðøôïTBOEUIFðøõïT wL’Espace Geographique, ðï ò ðø÷ð ðõøoöø “The Emergence of an Urban Social Movement in Israeli Society—An Integrated Approach,” International Journal of Urban and Regional Research,ö ñ ðø÷ò ðôöoöó Shlomo Hasson and David Ley, Neighbourhood Organizations and the Welfare State 5PSPOUP ðøøó òø :FIPTIVB $PIFO BOE "NOPO 4IJOBS Neighborhoods and Friendship Networks $IJDBHP ðø÷ô . 0SFO:JGUBDIFMT XPSL PG NBOZ ZFBST BOE FYUFOTJWF XSJUJOHT PO UIJT TVCject are encapsulated in his Ethnocracy: Land and Identity Politics in Israel/Palestine 1IJMBEFMQIJB ñïïõ BOE &SF[5[GBEJB )BJN :BDPCJ BOE 0SFO :JGUBDIFM iɨF4IJGUJOH4BOETPG6SCBO1PMJUJDT 1MBOOJOHBOE*EFOUJUJFTB3FWJFX&TTBZ w Geopolitics,ö ò ñïïñ ð÷òoøó . Itzhak Schnell, Foreign Workers in South Tel-Aviv–Jaffa +FSVTBMFN ðøøø [Hebrew] . Arie Shachar, “The Spatial Impact of New Towns on the Distribution of Population in Israel,” Studies in the Geography of Eretz-Israel, ö ðøöï ñôoõó [Hebrew]; “Israel’s development towns: an evaluation of national urbanization policy,” Journal of American Institute of Planners, òö õ ðøöð òõñoöñ óò Baruch Kipnis, “Planning the Complementary Development of a Small New Town,” ITCC Review,óð ðø÷ñ ôoð÷ i)BWFɨF/BUJPOBM1FSJQIFSJFT-PTU Their Hopes?” Environmental Planning Review óñoóò ðøøï ðòøoóø &SBO3B[JOBOE"SJF4IBDIBS i0XOFSTIJQPGJOEVTUSZBOEQMBOUTUBCJMJUZJO*TSBFMT development towns,” Urban Studies,ñó ðø÷ö ñøõoòðð . :FIVEB(SBEVT iɨFSPMFPGQPMJUJDTJOSFHJPOBMJOFRVBMJUZUIF*TSBFMJDBTF w Annals of the Association of American Geographers,öò ðø÷ò ò÷÷oóïò óô )BJN:BDPCJBOE0SFO:JGUBDIFM i6SCBO&UIOPDSBDZ&UIOJDJ[BUJPOBOEUIF Production of Space in an Israeli ‘Mixed’ City,” Environment and Planning D,ñð ò ñïïò òññoóò )BJN:BDPCJ iɨF"SDIJUFDUVSFPG&UIOJD-PHJD&YQMPSJOHUIF Meaning of the Built Environment in the Mixed City of Lod—Israel,” Geografiska Annaler÷ó# ñïïò ðöðo÷ö 5PWJ'FOTUFS i1MBOOJOHBTDPOUSPMDVMUVSBMBOEHFOdered manipulation and misuse of knowledge,” Hagar ò ð ñïïñ õöo÷ó BOE “Belonging, memory and the politics of planning in Israel,” Social and Cultural Geography ô ò ñïïó óïòoðö . David Grossman and Hanna Moshayov, “The changing agrarian structure PG *TSBFMT TPVUIFSO QFSJQIFSZ w JO 3PTFS .BKPSBM +VTTJMB )FJLLJ BOE 'FSOBOEB %FMHBEP$SBWJEBP FET
Environment and marginality in geographical space: issues of land use, territorial marginalization and development in the new millennium
t ĚĤģ ĒĖĝĤĥĦĕĚĖĤ ħĠĝĦĞĖðò ğĦĞēĖģð "MEFSTIPU ñïïï ñðøoòð .JDIBFM 4PGFS i1MVSJBDUJWJUZ JO UIF .PTIBW 'BNJMZ Farming in Israel,” Journal of Rural Studies ðö ñïïð òõòoöô . .BP["[BSZBIV i(FSNBO3FVOJmDBUJPOBOEUIF1PMJUJDTPG4USFFU/BNFT The Case of East Berlin,” Political Geography, ðõ õ ðøøö óöøoøò iɨF 1PXFS of Commemorative Street Names,” Environment and Planning D ðó ðøøõ òððoòï i8BUFS5PXFST"4UVEZJOUIF$VMUVSBM(FPHSBQIZPG;JPOJTU.ZUIPMogy,” Ecumene, ÷ ò ñïïð òðöoòø i(PMBOJPS.D%POBMET+VODUJPO "$BTFPGB Contested Place in Israel,” The Professional Geographer, ôð ó ðøøø ó÷ðoøñ i.PVOU Herzl: The Creation of Israel’s National Cemetery, Israel Studiesð ñ ðøøõ óõoöó iɨFTQPOUBOFPVTGPSNBUJPOPGNFNPSJBMTQBDFɨFDBTFPG,JLBS3BCJO 5FM"WJW w Areañ÷ ðøøõ ôïðoðò i3F1MBDJOH.FNPSZɨF3F0SJFOUBUJPOPG#VDIFOXBME w Cultural Geographies, ðï ð ñïïò ðoñï .BP["[BSZBIVBOE"SOPO(PMBO i 3F
Naming the Landscape. The Formation of the Hebrew Map of Israel, –,” Journal of Historical Geography, ñö ñ ñïïð ðö÷oøô .BP[ "[BSZBIV Tel-Aviv: Mythography of a City 4ZSBDVTF ñïïõ . Nurit Kliot and Saul Cohen, “Israel’s place-names as reflection on continuity and change in nation-building,” Names ôñ ðø÷ñ ññöoóñ 4BVM$PIFOBOE/VSJU Kliot, “Place names in Israel’s struggle over the Administered Territories,” Annals of the Association of American Geographers,÷ñ ðøøñ õôòo÷ï :PSBN#BS(BM iɨF street names of Tel-Aviv, a chapter in the cultural historical geography of the city ðøïøoðøòó wCathedra óö ðø÷÷ ðð÷oòð'PSBHFOFSBMEJTDVTTJPOPGQMBDF names by an Israeli geographer, see Naftali Kadmon, Toponymy: The Lore, Law and Language of Geographical Names /FX:PSL ðøøö . Stanley Waterman, “Carnivals for elites: the cultural politics of arts festivals,” Progress in Human Geography, ññ ð ðøø÷ ôóoöó BOE i1MBDF DVMUVSF JEFOUJUZ summer music in Upper Galilee,” Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, ñò ñ ðøø÷ ñôòoõö %BOJFM'FMTFOTUFJOBOE)BOBO#BSLBJ i*EFOUJGZJOHHMPCBMization trends in the cultural industries of Tel-Aviv,” in Daniel Felsenstein, Eike 4DIBNQ BOE"SJF4IBDIBS FET
Emerging Nodes in the Global Economy: Frankfurt and Tel-Aviv Compared %PSESFDIU ñïïñ ñòöoôõ ôï David Newman, “Culture, conflict and cemeteries: lebensraum for the dead,” Journal of Cultural Geography ö ð ðø÷ö øøoððô "NJSBN(POFO i$IPPTJOHUIF3JHIU1MBDFPG3FTU"4PDJPDVMUVSBM(FPHSBQIZPGB+FXJTI$FNFUFSZJO +FSVTBMFN wJO)BSPME#SPETLZ FE
Land and Community: Geography in Jewish Studies #FUIFTEB ðøøö ÷öoðïó ôð /VSJU,MJPU i)FSFBOEUIFSFɨF1IFOPNFOPMPHZPG4FUUMFNFOU3FNPWBM from Northern Sinai,” The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science ñò ð ðø÷ö òôoôð ôñ Blumen and Bar-Gal, “The Academic Conference and the Status of Women.” ôò Tovi Fenster, “Space for Gender: cultural roles of the forbidden and the permitted,” Environment and Planning D ðö ðøøø ññöoóõ 0SOB#MVNFO i%JTsonance in women’s commuting? The experience of exurban employed mothers in Israel,” Urban Studies òö ñïïï öòðoó÷ 0SOB #MVNFO BOE 4IBSPO )BMFWJ
$POTUSVDUJOH4QBUJBM,OPXMFEHF(FPHSBQIZBTB%JTDJQMJOF t óò “Negotiating national boundaries: Palestinian and Jewish women’s studies students in Israel,” Global Studies in Culture and Power,ðñ ó ñïïô ôïôoò÷ ôó -FXJT(MJOFSUBOE:PTTFQI4IJMIBW i)PMZ-BOE )PMZ-BOHVBHF"4UVEZ of an Ultraorthodox Jewish Ideology,” Language in Society ñï ð ðøøð ôøo÷õ :PTTJ 4IJMIBW i3FMJHJPVTGBDUPSTJOUFSSJUPSJBMEJTQVUFT"OJOUSB+FXJTIWJFX wGeoJournal, ôò ò ñïïð ñóöoôø 4UBOMFZ8BUFSNBO BOE #BSSZ ,PTNJO British Jewry in the Eighties -POEPO ðø÷õ BOEi3FTJEFOUJBMQBUUFSOTBOEQSPDFTTFTBTUVEZPG+FXT in three London boroughs,” Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, ðò ðøø÷ öôoøð %BWJE(SBIBNBOE4UBOMFZ8BUFSNBO i6OEFSFOVNFSBUJPOPGUIF Jewish population in the UK Census,” Population, Space and Place, ðð ñïïô –; Amiram Gonen, From Yeshiva to Work: The American Experience and Lessons for Israel +FSVTBMFN ñïïð BOE Between Torah Learning and Wage Earning: The London Experience and Lessons for Israel +FSVTBMFN ñïïõ 0SOB #MVNFO “Criss-crossing boundaries: Ultraorthodox Jewish women go to work,” Gender, Place and Culture ø ñïïñ ðòòoôð ôô Baruch Kimmerling, Zionism and Territory: The Socio-Territorial Dimensions of Zionist Politics #FSLFMFZ ðø÷ò ;WJ4PCFM Migrants from the Promised Land /FX #SVOTXJDL /+ ðø÷õ .BKJE"M)BK i&UIOJDNPCJMJ[BUJPOJOBOFUIOPOBUJPOBM state: the case of immigrants from the Former Soviet Union in Israel,” Ethnic and Racial Studies ñô ñ ñïïñ ñò÷oôöBOE.BKJEBM)BK Immigration and Ethnic Formation in a Deeply Divided Society: The Case of the s Immigrants from the Former Soviet Union in Israel %PSESFDIU ñïïó "ESJBOB,FNQBOE3FCFDDB3BJKNBO “Tel-Aviv is not foreign to you: urban incorporation policy on labor migrants in Israel,” The International Migration Review ò÷ ð ñïïó ñõoôð
