Constructive Alignment and the Curriculum: A Call for ...

Journal of Business Management & Social Sciences Research (JBM&SSR) Volume 3, No.12, December 2014

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Constructive Alignment and the Curriculum: A Call for Improved Pedagogical Practices in Higher Education

Kerwin A. Livingstone, PhD Student, Department of Portuguese and Romance Studies, Faculty of Arts and Humanities, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal.

Abstract Throughout the years, the age-old practice of higher education learning and teaching has evolved in different ways, benefiting some students and forsaking others. From the turn of the century, there have been fervent calls to reform the curriculum in such a way that all students benefit. In light of heated debates, „constructivism‟ was embraced as the new learning theory that would cause an improvement in student learning outcomes. Much later, „constructive alignment‟ emerged, which sought to revolutionise the curriculum, significantly modifying pedagogical practices. Consequently, this article seeks to address constructive alignment in the curriculum and the urgent need to improve didactic practices in higher education. To this end, a discussion ensues on the curriculum and its necessity in pedagogy. The different approaches to curriculum design are highlighted and briefly discussed. The theory of learning is discussed, with special emphasis on constructivism and its off-shoot, social constructivism. Outcomes-based education is discussed, paving the way for constructive alignment. The necessity of constructive alignment in educational practices is highlighted, together with Biggs‟ SOLO taxonomy. Information and Communication Technologies are presented as a prerequisite in a constructively-aligned curriculum. Further, educational leadership, pivotal to the entire process, is also considered, with special reference to pedagogic/instructional leadership, as part of the management of change process. Conclusions are drawn from the information, establishing that a constructively-aligned curriculum has the power to maximise student learning outcomes. As an appendix, the design of one constructively-aligned lesson is presented, as an example, crystallising the relevance of constructivism in instructional practices. Keywords: higher education, curriculum, constructive alignment, curriculum planning, curriculum design, curriculum development, constructivism, intended learning outcome, learning-teaching activity, assessment task.

Introduction Learning and teaching are appreciably connected. Throughout the years, these phenomena have evolved in different ways, benefitting some students and forsaking others. In the olden days, the teacher was the sage on the stage who directed the show from start to finish. For too long, pedagogical practices were teachercentred, with no real concern for the student or what he was expected to do. He was either bright or not. And whether he was bright or not determined if he succeeded or not. This kind of scenario was counter-productive and only ensured that students used low cognitive skills to complete tasks, thus resulting in a surface approach to learning. Consequently, in tertiary learning and teaching, there is a growing concern about the teaching methods used to maximise student learning. Educators agree that these must eliminate surface approaches in favour of deep approaches to learning (Ramsden, 2003; Hattie, 2009; Biggs & Tang, 2011). “Since 2000 there have been dramatic changes in the nature of higher education. It is not just that participation rates are higher than ever [...], but that these and other factors have altered the main mission of higher education and modes of delivery” (Biggs & Tang 2011, p. 3).

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Owing to this, and together with the Bologna Process (2010) of 1999, which has had a profound impact on the delivery of Higher Education (HE), there have been fervent appeals for teaching effectiveness, a situation which heightened with the passage of time. In other words, there has been a felt need for tertiary learning and teaching to divorce itself from teacher-centred approaches and espouse student-centred approaches. This call has been primarily due to the fact that there has been an influx of students, entering HE institutions, with distinct learning abilities. To this end, apart from academic programmes, there is an urgent call for the integration of professional, technical and vocational education programmes to meet the demands of this diverse student population. An outcomes-based teaching and learning (OBTL) approach constructively aligning teaching to achieve intended learning outcomes (ILOs) (Biggs & Tang, 2011) – is not only the answer to this student diversity, but is also the way to respond to growing concern about 21st century learning and teaching. It is in this light that the concept of curriculum takes centre stage. Livingstone (2014, p. 1) offers the following information about the curriculum:

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---“It is the curriculum that determines if a teachercal process. In essence, its purpose is to maximise stu_________________________________________________________________________________ centred or student-centred approach will be adopted. dent learning outcomes while ensuring that they have The curriculum is a blue-print of the pedagogical process. It clearly depicts all the desired expectations for student learning. According to Prevedel (2003, p. 8), “Most simply put, a curriculum is a guide for learning”. The term curriculum has been derived from the Latin word „currere‟ signifying a „race course‟ or a runway on which one runs to attain an objective. Accordingly, a curriculum is the instructional and the educative programme through which learner achieve their goals, ideals and aspirations of life. It is curriculum through which the general aims of a school education receive concrete expression”. Given that traditional curricula are teacher-directed (Fraser & Bosanquet, 2006), and may not necessarily address student learning outcomes, there has been a cry for improved pedagogical practices. To address this call, the curriculum of HE institutions has been undergoing significant change to embrace student-centredness (Ramsden, 2003; Fraser & Bosanquet 2006; Biggs & Tang, 2011) and to address the current student learning diversity. It must be constructively aligned [CA] (Biggs & Tang, 2011). It must be all about “what the student does” (Shuell 1986, p. 429).

The Curriculum Any project, concept or initiative in life needs to be properly planned, if it is to be successful. It must have a framework which defines it. This is the method to be followed for everything, in which Education is no exception. When embarking on an initiative, one needs to ascertain that all of the plans have been appropriately drawn up. What is to be offered? What resources are available? What resources are required? What steps need to be taken? What are the likely goals to be attained? These are important questions that are addressed. Similarly, when applied to the field of education, and in educational institutions, these procedures to be followed give birth to curriculum (Livingstone, 2014). The curriculum is an important element in which educational aims are reflected. In fact, the curriculum is determined by the aims of life and society, which are subject to constant change. Consequently, the aims of education are also subject to change and dynamism. A curriculum is a strategic plan of action, a structured document, a process, which promotes and fosters creativity, application and life-long learning by means of carefully defining the psycho-sociological philosophy of learning and teaching, goals and objectives, learning experiences, instructional practices and resources and assessments that encompass a programme of study. It verbalises the roles of students and teachers, throughout the pedagogi-

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significant educational experiences (Livingstone, 2014). The key components of a curriculum are the goals and objectives, content, method, and evaluation. The goals and objectives are the nucleus of the curriculum. The goals are the general categories of content to be addressed. The objectives must be crystal clear and „specific, measurable, achievable, realistic and time-framed‟ (Maki, 2004), listing the particular knowledge, skills and attributes that learners are to achieve throughout the process. They are intended learning outcomes [ILOs] (Biggs & Tang, 2011). The content is the “what” of the curriculum. This is another very important facet of the educative process as the body of knowledge selected must be authentic, relevant and real-life to the students. It must not be abstract, but must be information with which the students can readily and easily engage. The method or instructional strategies are the “how” of the curriculum and include the methods to be used to assist learners to attain the determined goals and objectives. These are learning-teaching activities [LTAs] (Biggs & Tang, 2011). The evaluation strategies determine “how well” the learner outcomes are achieved, assessing learner, teacher and lesson/course/programme performance. These are assessment tasks [ATs] and grading (Livingstone, 2014). As espoused by Squires (2004, p. 5), “Curriculum is the container that holds the institutional knowledge of what was the best of past instruction. Curriculum, viewed in this way, is a historical document. Curriculum is also a plan for the present. Curriculum represents how to improve in the future. Curriculum, while rooted in the present, takes the best of the past to make the future better”. Paying careful attention to what Squires (2004) has said above, it is not unfair to say that this is the primary reasons why the curriculum has experienced mutated over the years. In other words, the curriculum has transform to suit the context in which it finds itself. Given the clamour for teaching effectiveness, there is a felt need that the curriculum must seek to address student learning; in fact, students must be the central focus since it is all about „what the student does‟ (Tyler, 1949; Shuell, 1986; Biggs & Tang, 2011). The curriculum has experienced four major changes to its theory and practice over the years (Smith, 2000), and these are discussed below. Curriculum as a body of knowledge – In this discussion, the curriculum is seen as a syllabus which focuses



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on content delivery using effective teaching methods. It In the traditional curriculum, the goals set; learning _________________________________________________________________________________ is very academic, theoretical and discipline-specific in experiences are chosen; the curriculum is proposed, nature. It basically provides a list of knowledge for stuplanned and evaluated; knowledge exists, thus is neutral, dents to learn. This list is compiled by the teacher or equitable, organised, transmitted, observable and measubject matter experts, and the teacher will implement surable; goals are pre-determined; learning is linear and with little or no guidance to aid learning progression. In chronological; expert knowledge is needed; it is skillsfact, since curriculum is equated to syllabus, which embased, or competency/performance-based; assessment is phasises content, teachers who adhere to this belief feel objective and measurable to provide comparative scores that the issue of curriculum no longer concerns them, and grades (Livingstone, 2014). once the content is taught to the learners effectively (Livingstone, 2014). In the learner-driven curriculum, the learning goals from real-world roles are articulated by students, who help Curriculum as a product – This approach, based on plan curriculum; there is student-content interaction; it Tyler‟s (1949) linear model, and ratified by Taba‟s builds on students‟ declarative knowledge; it is relevant (1962) model, affirms the importance of setting behato students‟ daily context; learning and teaching happens vioural objectives. It focuses on what the learners are in social contexts, is transparent and is based on studentable to accomplish upon completion of studies. Based on determined purposes; active participation in necessary systematic and organised planning, it assumes all learnfor knowledge construction; assessment is on students‟ ers have common goals and the required resources availcontextualised goals, is continuous, and it involves metaable to aid in learning. A needs assessment for such a cognitive strategies (Livingstone, 2014). curriculum is usually accumulated based on specific job skills required in a professional environment. It relies on In the critical curriculum, the classroom sessions are the assumption that for any specific job, a full set of teacher-facilitated; students are experts; there is no fixed skills is readily identifiable (Livingstone, 2014). structure; it is dependent on complex student-contentteacher interaction and is autobiographic; knowledge Curriculum as a process – This approach typifies the creation takes place; education is political; language and constant students-teacher-content interaction, and fosters power are connected; important social and community curriculum preparation and evaluation. It is not rigid and issues are addressed; technician mentality is abandoned; less structured, recognising variations in social groups the curriculum is not pre-determined, emerging from and individual behaviours. It may be adjusted according action and interaction of participants; assessment is done to the needs communicated and evaluated by those invia portfolio/other assessment instruments; sociovolved in the learning process. It acts as an intervention personal change is measured, and critical consciousness strategy. Emphasis is on the ever-changing communicalevels are attained (Livingstone, 2014). tion mediums between people and their environments. Such a curriculum attempts to identify learning outThe curriculum development models put forth by both comes on an individual basis. Stenhouse‟s (1975) and Smith (2000) and Prevedel (2003) complement each Sharpes‟ (1987) exploration is regarded as one of the other. In this century and beyond, it is of paramount imbest conceptualisations of the process model (Livingportance for the focus of the curriculum to be on student stone, 2014). learning. Curriculum as praxis – This approach, in many ways, is an expansion of the process model. Curriculum as praxis makes unequivocal statements about the interests it serves. Continual reference is made to collective human well-being and social justice. It highlights explicit commitment to the emancipation of the human spirit by collectively encouraging students and teachers to confront the real problems of their existence and their relationships through interaction, reflection and informed actions. This model is an expression of critical pedagogy (Grundy, 1987) which goes beyond positioning the learning experience within the experience of the learner (Livingstone, 2014). Prevedel (2003) puts forward three approaches to curriculum development which are discussed briefly below.

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Theory of Learning The learning theory that orients this article is constructivism. It is discussed briefly, justifying its necessity for quality educational practices in HE.

Constructivism In recent times, there has been a shift to constructivism (Ally, 2004). Constructivist theorists (Piaget 1928, 1962; Vygotsky 1926, 1962; Dewey 1929, 1933; Dewey & Bentley, 1949; Bruner 1960, 1966, 1973; Jonassen, 1999) claim that learners interpret information and the world based on their personal reality, and that they learn by observation, processing, and interpretation, and then personalise the information into personal knowledge. In other words, learners learn best when they can contextualise/situate what they learn for immediate application



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and to acquire personal meaning. Constructivists see for the development of students‟ cognitive skills. His _________________________________________________________________________________ learners as being active protagonists of their learning „Zone of Proximal Development‟ is perhaps his best(Cooper, 1993; Wilson, 1997; Tapscott, 1998). The known theory, which argues that, with assistance from learner is the centre of the learning, with the teacher adults or more advanced learners, the less advanced stuplaying an advisory and facilitative role. Duffy and Cundents can master concepts and ideas that, on their own, ningham (1996) postulate that learners should have the might pose challenges to them. opportunity to construct knowledge instead of being the receivers of knowledge through instruction. It therefore The constructivist approach to learning and teaching is follows that learning must move away from teacherabsent from the pedagogical practices of many higher centredinstruction to knowledge discovery and construceducation institutions (HEIs). Educational practices in tion. some of these HEIs are still based on the traditional approach (Livingstone, 2013). Teacher-centred strategies are still employed, where the teachers impart knowledge Social Constructivism “The level of potential development is the level at which and students absorb it. Students are not the centre of learning takes place. It comprises cognitive structures learning; in fact, they are passive learners. It is a very that are still in the process of maturing, but which can daunting situation, as students are not given the opportuonly mature under the guidance of, or in collaboration nity to have autonomy over their learning. Most learnwith, others” (Vygotsky 1978, p. 50).Social constructiving-teaching activities are still largely individual. There ism was developed by Vygotsky (1978), a postis not much interaction and communication to complete revolutionary Soviet psychologist. Its emphasis is on the assigned tasks. collaborative nature of learning. Vygotsky, though being a cognitivist at the time, discarded the hypothesis made Since learning is not static, learning theories must by other cognitivists like Piaget (1962) that separating change to suit the broader educational context in which learning from its social context was possible. He dethey are found. „Quality learning‟, as noted by Biggs and fended his stance that all cognitive functions originated Tang (2011), is all about ensuring that learners use the in society, and should therefore be explained as products appropriate cognitive skills required to construct knowof social interactions, since learning was not simply the ledge and negotiate meaning during task completion, assimilation and accommodation of new knowledge by thus paving the way for creativity, application and lifelearners; in fact, it was the process by which learners long learning. They must be provided with a broadwere integrated into a knowledge community. based learning and with a repertoire of learning tools and sources. Employing the social constructivist approach According to Vygotsky (1978, p. 57) will ensure quality learning for all students at the tertiary level. Such an approach paves the way for the outcomes“Every function in the child‟s cultural development based approach and constructive alignment. appears twice: first, on the social level and, later on, on the individual level; first, between people (interOutcomes-Based Education psychological) and then inside the child (intraGiven the ever transforming scenarios in HE institutions, psychological). This applies equally to voluntary atand the need for quality assurance, outcomes-based edutention, to logical memory, and to the formation of cation (OBE) sprung forth. According to Biggs and Tang concepts. All the higher functions originate as actual (2007), OBE has been used in a variety of views, includrelationships between individuals”. ing for enhancing learning and teaching and for further a managerial agenda. In some instances, and in some cirThis relationship between individuals can blossom into a cles, OBE is synonymous with competency-based educacommunity of learner, or learning community, where tion (CBE); however, Biggs and Tang (2007, 2011) are this is mutual interdependence. not at all in agreement with this assertion. These authors affirm that CBE is but an example of OBE. The differVygotsky‟s (1978) four principles of social constructivence lies in the definition of the outcomes in OBE, as ism are: (1) learning and development in a social, collaagainst the specification of narrow competencies and borative activity; (2) school learning should occur in a skills, typical of CBE. meaningful context and not be separated from learning and knowledge children develop in the „real world‟; (3) The first version of OBE is owed to Spady (1994) who out of school experiences should be related to the child‟s offered an individualised programme for underprivileged school experience and, (4) Zone of Proximal Developschool children. He referred to it as „outcome-based edument. It is important to mention that these principles cation‟. Instead of focusing on the typical subject areas, highlight the critical weight of culture and the significhe proposed targets for each child to attain, so that in that ance of the social context which is largely responsible way they could all reach some level of success.

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What angered his fiercest opponents was the fact that his to learning (constructivism) with the practice of instruc_________________________________________________________________________________ targets included a values component that some felt was tional design. of no particular concern to the school. In spite of all of this, Spady‟s (1994) model gained ground in several CA (Biggs & Tang, 2011) is the unity between intended education departments in Australia, with some modificalearning outcomes (ILOs), learning and teaching activitions here and there. ties (LTAs), and assessment tasks (ATs) and Grading, in an educational programme, where the connections beWith the passage of time, the second version of OBE tween them are aligned intrinsically on the basis of the emerged. This version emerged to respond to the needs learning activities expressed in the outcomes statements. of accountability in HE institutions in the United States It is an approach to curriculum design that optimises the (Ewell, 1984; Miller and Ewell 2005). Its main focus conditions for learning, where the teaching activities of was on institutional level outcomes which were made up the teacher and the learning activities of the student are of average student performance and various other types, both directed towards the same goal. with a view to meeting the specific requirements for accreditation and those requests made from external stakeConstructive alignment is constructive because it is holders. Consequently, many North Anerican HE institubased on the theory that students construct meaning from tions now have outcomes statements incorporated into the activities they do to learn. Alignment reflects the their curriculum. learning activities in the intended outcomes, expressed as a verb that has to be activated in the teaching to achieve The third and final version of OBE resulted in outcomesthe outcome. Once the verbs (such as reflect, hypothebased teaching and learning (OBTL), with its origins in sise, solve, generate) are specified, it becomes clear what Professor John Biggs (Biggs 1999a, 1999b). OBTL had the LTAs to engage the student might be, and what the its genesis in the Dearing (1997) Report. In this Report, student needs to perform in the ATs. ATs verify that the the outcomes are specifically defined to promote and outcome has been achieved. The LTAs as well as the foster teaching and assessment. The first critical feature ATs should be designed to meet the ILOs. of OBTL moves off from the notion of defining the outcomes of a study course or programme. In this regard, SOLO Taxonomy the outcome statement expresses what students should In relation to the achievement of the learning outcomes, learn, and how well they have learned what they were one significant contribution of Biggs is his Structure of supposed to. These outcomes statements are referred to the Observed Learning Outcomes (SOLO) taxonomy as learning outcomes. Such a principle completely dis(Biggs & Collis, 1982; Biggs 1999a, 1999b). This notatances itself from the traditional curriculum which emble structure describes the level of increasing complexity braced „coverage‟. In OBTL, space is created for uninin a student‟s understanding of a subject, through five tended but desirable learning outcomes. stages: prestructural, unistructural, multistructural, relational, and extended abstract. In the prestructural stage, The second critical feature of OBTL is that pedagogical students are merely getting bits and pieces of disjointed practices should be executed in such a way that the mainformation that do not make any sense to them. In the jority of students are able to achieve the learning outunistructural stage, students make easy and clear concomes. In other words, learning and teaching activities nections of the work, but they do not grasp its meaning. need to be created, with the primary objective of engagIn the multistructural stage, students make various coning students. Engaging students in meaningful didactic nections, but fail to grasp connections between them. In activities is a primary indicator of their attaining the the relational stage, students are now able to grasp and learning outcomes. The third critical feature deals with relate the meaning of the parts, in conjunction with its evaluating student performance. After having provided whole. In the final stage, the extended abstract stage, students with the necessary stimuli, it is therefore necesstudents not only now have the capacity to make connecsary to measure how effective the stimuli has been, astions within and beyond the boundaries of the subject certaining whether or not the learning outcomes have area, but also to make generalisations and transferences been met. These various features reach their peak in conof principles and ideas. Figure 1 presents this SOLO structive alignment. taxonomy, as taken from Biggs and Tang (2011), which presents a staircase of verbs to be used when writing Constructive Alignment learning outcomes. Constructive Alignment (CA) has its origins in Professor John Biggs, and it symbolises a fusion between a constructivist understanding of the nature of learning and an aligned design of outcomes-based learning and teaching. Biggs attempts to bring together a theoretical approach

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Figure 1. Biggs‟ SOLO Taxonomy In designing constructively-aligned tasks, it is advisable to use this SOLO taxonomy. A course is constructively aligned when the learning objectives are clearly stated and communicated to the students, and the learning and teaching activities and the assessments match the learning objectives. In an aligned course, the teacher aligns the assessment tasks with the learning objectives such that the learning objectives are evaluated to see how well they have been achieved. Biggs and Tang (2011, chapter 1) present the tale of „Susan‟ and „Robert‟. „Susan‟ is an intelligent student, self-motivated, and always derives deep learning from her studies, even if the approach is superficial. „Robert‟, on the other hand, seems not too interested and adopts a surface learning style, since his aim is to pass the course only. The external motivation of Robert is effectively used to make him learn. In an unaligned course, it is the teacher‟s intention that the students learn to „analyse‟ and „apply‟. The assessments measure the ability to „identify‟ and „memorise‟. The „Roberts‟ will complete the minimum requirements and will only study what is directly required in the exam, thus totally ignoring the ILOs. Therefore, it can be summarised that for CA, the following principles are pre-requisites, and must be carefully considered: (1) Defining ILOs; (2) Designing ATs to see how well students have met the ILOs; (3) Specifying

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TLAs to achieve ILOs, and (4) Determining Grading Criteria and Grade. CA is the keystone concept behind the current requirements for programme specification, and especially for its promotion of the use of criterion based assessment (CBA). This kind of assessment is a strong reaction against the norm based assessment (NBA), as it is concerned with grading students holistically and not analytically, as is the case with NBA. The value of CA in learning and teaching is priceless. CA is all about ensuring that there is harmony in the way students are expected to learn course content. This is not to be done haphazardly, but should be thoughtfully planned and crafted with the students in mind. The principal objective is to make learning student-centred, which is in sharp contrast to the traditional teaching approach. Shuell (1986) reveals that “it is helpful to remember that what the student does is actually more important in determining what is learned, than what the teacher does” (p. 429). In essence, students are encouraged to be the protagonists of their own learning. They are the ones who are responsible for taking control of their own learning during task execution. During task execution, students are expected to use high cognitive skills to realise tasks, stimulating higher order thinking and a deep approach to learning.



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bracing ICT tools and content are significant and can Information and Communication Technolo_________________________________________________________________________________ assuredly enhance learning and teaching. gies Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs), according to Tech Terms (2010, p. 1) “[…] refer to technologies that provide access to information through telecommunications. It is similar to Information Technology (IT), but focuses primarily on communication technologies. These include the Internet, wireless networks, cell phones, and other communication mediums”. This therefore establishes that the boundaries of communication are now limitless. In the past few decades, ICTs have paved the way for the use of a vast array of new communication facilities. Irrespective of an individual‟s location, communication can be done through real time with others through the use of instant messaging (IM), and video conferencing, among others. In terms of social networks, websites like Facebook provides the capabilities for users worldwide to keep in touch regularly. It would not be unfair to say that modern ICTs have created a global village, in which communication between peoples can be done frequently. Traditionally, in the field of Education, learning and teaching took place within the four classroom walls. Supporting the various dimensions of life-long learning was not possible due to a lack of innovation in pedagogical practices. With the passage of time, thankfully, newer approaches to learning and teaching developed, one of them being the integration of ICTs in the pedagogical process. As noted by Lai (2011, p. 1263), “Education policy makers see digital technology as a transformative tool in teaching and learning”. Technology has made the process even more convenient, as information is exchanged with rapidity over the WWW. ICTs have now taken over the world by storm, so much so that new concepts like „online learning‟, „technology-based learning‟, and „Internet-based education‟, among others, have become synonymous with sound educational practices. ICTs are now viewed as currently integral to many educational changes throughout the world (Laurillard, 2012; Allen & Seaman, 2010; Sharma, 2008). Due to them, the learning and teaching landscape have been dramatically altered and, consequently, new opportunities and accessibility to educational resources well beyond those traditionally available have now been opened up. In fact, Lai (2010, p. 1488) establishes that “Students are provided with the skills to pursue life-long learning with the support of ICTs and they are encouraged to engage in collaborative learning. Additionally, students can be supported by mobile learning and digital content where learning environments would include both physical and virtual space”. Such an affirmation unequivocally signals that the potential benefits that can be derived from em-

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Laurillard (2005) shares some benefits of ICTs in educational contexts. These are: (1) Internet access to digital version of materials unavailable locally; (2) Internet access to search, and transactional services; (3) Interactive diagnostic or adaptive tutorials; (4) Interactive educational games; (5) Remote control access to local physical devices; (6) Personalised information and guidance for learning support; (7) Simulations or models of scientific systems; (8) Communication tools for collaboration with other students and teachers; (9) Tools for creativity and design; (10)Virtual reality environments for development and manipulation; (11) Data analysis, modeling or organisation tools and applications and, (12) Electronic devices to assist disable learners. From the list provided above, the fact that ICTs provide, develop and sustain a range of competencies and skills is irrefutable. In essence, effective use of ICTs will produce „Technology Literacy‟, „Knowledge Creation‟, and „Knowledge Deepening‟ (Clark, 2010). Given the diversity of learning styles in tertiary institutions and the inability of the traditional approach to adequately address student learning needs, it has been proposed that ICTs be incorporated into the learningteaching process. Laurillard (2008) postulates that ICTs have been used effectively in sustaining traditional forms of teaching and administration in HE institutions. This statement rings true because in many such institutions, lecture theatres and seminar rooms equipped with data projectors and Internet-ready computers are ostensible. It appears to be common practice now for lecture sessions to be aided by some form of presentational technology and for lecture notes and reading materials to be stored electronically for easy access. However good this tendency may be, even though it is a step in the right direction, Rossiter (2007, p. ) ratifies that “These are surface uses of digital technologies, with pedagogical practices seldom affected deeply, and there is little shift of focus of control of learning from the teacher to the learner”. In support with Rossiter (2007), Lai (2008, p. 216) purports that “In some educational institutions, ICTs are used primarily to support existing teaching practices, being an „add-on to the traditional classroom experience‟ but have not fundamentally transformed it”. This is the situation that needs to be urgently addressed so that HE institutions could take the fullest advantage of the potential benefits that can be derived and sustained from the effective use of ICTs. Sharma (2008) establishes that ICTs in educational contexts can have positive, lasting effects if they are fully embraced, adopted, implemented and institutionalised by



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all stakeholders. To this end, this author provides an liams (2007) emphasise that to optimise students‟ out_________________________________________________________________________________ adapted list of recommendations on how ICTs can be comes educational leaders are required first to improve integrated and rooted into the curriculum. These are: the leadership in schools. In order to improve the leadera) Develop and implement ICT policy in education. ship in schools, leadership will naturally have to be b) Develop, review and implement ICT curricula at all shared/distributed (Spillane, 2005). As espoused by levels in education. Feinberg (2003) and Lunenburg and Irby (2006), distric) Integrate ICT in the school curriculum. bution of leadership exists when workers allow themd) Introduce ICT in the teacher education institutions selves to be organised, accepting responsibility for what so that all teachers are familiar with ICT pedagogy. they do, and actively participating in decision-making, e) Develop ICT leadership at all levels in the education target-setting and performance-monitoring. The role of system. the educational leaders is to facilitate the work of their f) Conduct ICT awareness programs for teachers, stustaff who will, in turn, participate in the decision-making dents and the members of the school community. process. g) Establish ICT centres in remote areas, equipping them with portable generators and IT hardware, inBiggs and Tang (2011) suggest that, for the implementacluding Internet installation, where possible. tion of any educational initiative, there needs to be process leaders who orchestrate the various stages of implementation, context experts who can be relied upon Educational Leadership for technical advice on implementation, and political In the ambit of teaching and learning today, there is a leaders who understand how the committee system growing concern about learning and teaching effectiveworks and who know whose elbows to grip in easing the ness (Ramsden, 2003; Lunenburg & Irby, 2006; Biggs & implementation through various committees. This kind Tang, 2011). To this end, there is consensus that leaderof leadership style would certainly give rise to the creaship within educational institutions must be effective tion and application of a professional learning communienough to foster the delivery of quality education to stuty (Lunenburg & Ornstein, 2012) which is primarily dents (Duignan & Cannon, 2011). Biggs and Tang concerned with vision building. In other words, people (2011, p. 291) affirm that “The most important factor in are brought together to create the mission statement, the implementation of any pedagogical method in a dedevelop the vision and value statements, establish goals, partment or faculty is leadership”. According to Fisher develop co-operative and participatory learning (1993), leadership is the ability to influence people to processes, with a view to having good governance. willingly follow one‟s guidance or adhere to one‟s deciThese are the concepts that need to be embraced, in orsions, obtaining followers and influencing them to setder to improve the quality of the leadership in schools, ting and achieving objectives. Northouse (2001) estabwhich will give rise to the delivery of high-quality edulishes that leadership is a process whereby an individual cation. influences a group of individuals to achieve a common goal.

Instructional/Pedagogic Leadership In recent years, Educational Leadership has attracted considerable attention in terms of research endeavours and improvement efforts in educational institutions. Recent studies on leadership in educational contexts and its impact on students‟ academic performance (Lingam, 2012; Lunenburg & Ornstein, 2012) have contributed significantly to the knowledge surrounding this issue. If an educational institution is not properly led, the students will of course suffer. Ineffective leadership in a school may result in a lack of support from teachers, parents and the immediate school community. According to Musungu & Nasongo (2008), the role of educational leaders is to encourage academic performance. It is very important for the performance of a school to be judged against that of the persons who lead it. The significance and benefits of effective leadership remain unquestioned. With good leadership, students will be influenced and encouraged to maximise their learning. In support of this contention, Rutter & Wil-

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In delivering high-quality education, an education institution must have its central focus on its core business: learning and teaching. One of the most important areas in Educational Leadership is the concept of Pedagogic Leadership (also called Instructional Leadership). The emphasis of this kind of leadership is on learning and teaching, simply because all that is done in the educational institution has the objective of ensuring that instruction – learning and teaching – is effective and that students are able to maximise their outcomes. Lunenburg & Irby (2006) affirm that the goal of education is learning, and the vehicle used to achieve that goal is teaching. The phenomena of teaching and learning have been around since the genesis of civilisation, though quite different in their applicability and function throughout the ages. Shuell (1993) affirms that “Within an educational context, the two phenomena [teaching and learning] are so inextricably intertwined that it often is difficult to imagine one without the other” (p. 291). It would



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not be therefore unfair to say that the two are interdedagogical issues. It is vital for the sustenance of any _________________________________________________________________________________ pendent, as one cannot exist without the other. Pedagogeducational institution, since it promotes quality assuric Leadership is primarily concerned with what students ance. PD is the strategy that educational institutions use learn and how they learn, and how well they have learned to ensure that educators continue to strengthen their what they are supposed to. practice throughout their career. Strengthening their practices, as often as it may be demanded, will ensure This leadership style lends itself to new and creative that staff members improve on what they do, and that ways of learning and teaching. Leaders exercise faith they keep on doing so. and confidence in their teachers to use their initiative in planning for learning-teaching process. Teachers are There first needs to be consciousness-raising about the encouraged to share their ideas and develop their talents. need to ensure good teaching and its vitalness in imTeachers are given the freedom to explore new and creaproved student learning outcomes, before trying to imtive ways of teaching their students. Students are taught plement current pedagogical practices and methodology. using a repertoire of didactic strategies that will enable To improve teaching and learning, lecturers need to unthe teachers to meet the needs of each student within dergo constant transformative reflection through action their classroom. This increases the students‟ academic research, reflective practice, doing research. Once teachperformance through the concept of „No Child Left Beers are frequently involved in it - to improve themselves hind‟. in their area of expertise - then student learning will improve. There are no ifs‟ and buts‟ about this. Further, a Instructional leaders have to work together with their learning team could be established. The objective of the staff to ensure that learning and teaching is studentlearning team is to facilitate self-development and intercentred, that it is all about what the students do maxdependence. Each member of the team is actively inimise their learning. They need to ensure that a profesvolved in upgrading themselves and their colleagues. sional learning community (Spillane, 2005) is created They are involved in an ongoing cycle of improvement. and maintained, so that the objective would be to enhance learning that matters. Through the strength of their Another suggestion would be to have a departmental vision and personality, pedagogic leaders are able to teaching and learning committee or even a centre for inspire their staff to change expectations, perceptions teaching and learning to make on-the-ground decisions and motivations positively to work towards common relating to the setting up, design and implementation of goals (Lingam, 2012). They are generally energetic, encourses and programmes to monitor teaching, define thusiastic and passionate. Not only are these leaders conproblems and solve them collaboratively. Added to this, cerned and involved in the process, they are also focused it would also be best to have a Quality Enhancement on helping every member of the group succeed as well. Team/Department/Committee which has the responsibility of reviewing not only how well the institution works For the adoption and implementation of any educational in achieving its mission, but also how it may keep improposal within an educational institution, there must be proving in doing so. a commitment from leaders and staff to ensure that instruction always takes centre stage. With regard to emConclusion ploying current pedagogical methods in learning and Learning and teaching are appreciably connected. Within teaching, instructional leaders need to encourage staff an educational context, the two phenomena – learning members to undergo Professional Development (PD) and teaching – are inextricably intertwined that it is imsessions (Mizell, 2010), as often as it is required, so that possible to imagine one without the other. The goal of they come up with the best and most current methods to education is learning and the vehicle used to achieve this deal with student diversity, ensuring that positive learngoal is teaching. In order for students to learn effectively, ing is promoted, that learner enthusiasm for learning is teachers must teach effectively. sparked, and that a strong foundation for life-long learning is provided. Little of the early literature on curriculum development calls for HE teachers to take active roles in defining curMizell (2010) affirms that “Educators who do not expericulum. Early work clearly centers teachers‟ curricular rience effective professional development do not imrole within the classroom and focused on instructional prove their skills, and student learning suffers” (p. 6). practice. The relegation of teachers to an ancillary role in Staff professional development has the objective of facurricular development reflects common assumptions miliarising staff with (a) classroom management, school regarding women and the responsibilities of teachers in culture, operations and administration, and (b) the necesthe first half of the 20th century. Examinations of teacher sary skills to deal with students‟ learning challenges. In preparation programmes offered at the time and of conother words, it deals with administrative issues and petemporary teacher job descriptions provide additional

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evidence of such limited assumptions (Ogren, 2005). ought not to be seen as contradictory to each other; raThis_________________________________________________________________________________ sheds light on the point that teachers, who are the ther, the best aspects of each should be integrated into implementers of the curriculum, who are usually with the curriculum. Since the curriculum must respond to the students for the longest periods, ought to be very societal needs, values and beliefs, it must embrace a critmuch involved in the entire process of planning, designical approach and consider the social milieu of learners ing and developing the curriculum, and even to its very to help them cope with problems and derive lasting soluimplementation. tions. To this end, as learners are the nucleus of the educative process, the curriculum will have to learnerEven in these modern times, many teachers are still princentred and emancipatory. Owing to this, the curriculum cipally employing the traditional pedagogical methods, will also consider a product approach (proof of what because that is all that they know. Some universities, students do as a result of learning) and a process apunfortunately, still adopt the traditional approach to proach (how each student learns). learning and teaching, proof of which can be found in their existing traditional curriculum. Such universities The whole idea is for teachers to interweave the best view curriculum as a body of knowledge and as a prodfeatures of these approaches into the curriculum to prouct. Their approach to curriculum development is inflexvide optimum learning to students to realise their potenible since “students like this approach, they are used to tials. With this knowledge in hand, tertiary teachers are it, and it fits their idea of what school should be” (Prevenow in a position to play an influential role in curricular del 2003, p. 8). Consequently, even though, at times, reforms at their respective universities. If any university their pedagogical practices may evidence snippets of a intends to remain credible and authentic, then it must learner-centred teaching, they would normally revert to embrace educational sustainability. Educational sustaithe traditional method, conforming to the status-quo, nability, through a cutting-edge curriculum, will guaranwithout considering the implications for their students. It tee the promotion of positive learning, the ignition of is clear, from the discussions in this paper, that the tradilearner enthusiasm for learning, and the provision of a tional view that identified the teacher as „sage on the strong foundation for creativity, application and life-long stage‟, who took all the learning-teaching decisions, has learning. become obsolete. The adoption of constructive alignment (Biggs & Tang, This paper has sought to discuss the HE curriculum in 2011) is worthwhile since it caters for student learning the light of CA. It has made a call for improved pedadiversity. Constructive alignment will ensure that each gogical practices. The need for CA has been clearly put student is considered and that he is able to embrace a forward, as it promotes the development of creative, critdeep approach to learning. For this to happen, teaching ical and complex, cognitive skills in students. In an age faculty must be disposed to rethinking their pedagogical where students are bombarded by multifaceted tasks and practices, with a view to upgrading them for the benefit activities, it is wise for Universities to move away from of the students. Additionally, HE institutions must also traditional approaches to learning and teaching and emseek to be the precursors of change, hence the urgent call brace more modern approaches: approaches that create for effective educational leadership and, more specificalspaces for students to be constructive in their learning ly, effective instructional/pedagogical leadership. An process; approaches that encourage students to negotiate institution can only be as effective as its staff. For staff meaning during task completion; approaches that give to be effective, therefore, they have to be engaged in them protagonism and autonomy of their learning; aptransformative reflection. In other words, the entire HE proaches that engender significant educational expeinstitution must see itself challenged to transforming riences, which undoubtedly will result in the improveitself into a 21st century institution. ment and maximisation of their learning outcomes. It has been posited, to this end, that ICTs significantly lend For all course curriculums in those HE institutions that themselves to student autonomy, learner engagement, are yet to reflect a constructivist approach to learning and the creation of a learning community through collaand teaching (and constructive alignment), it is advisable borative efforts. that the best features of this method be integrated in order to ensure learning effectiveness. Learning effectiveWith this present knowledge of these curriculum develness is the key to high-quality education and, ultimately, opment approaches, HE teachers must realise that learnthe success of the educational institution. Given that the ing and teaching must transform in these modern times. core business of any HE institution is learning and teachBiggs and Tang (2011) establish that 21st century learning, all energies must be channeled into ensuring that it ing and teaching need to be founded on constructive meets everyone‟s expectations. alignment, hence the need to incorporate more current approaches in their pedagogy. These various approaches

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---_________________________________________________________________________________ [13] Dearing, R. (1997). National Committee of Inquiry [1] Allen, I. E. & Seaman, J. (2010). Learning on de-

References

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[22] Fraser, S. P. & Bosanquet, A. M. (2006). The curriculum? That‟s just a unit outline, isn‟t it? Studies in Higher Education 31 (3), 269-284. [23] Grundy, S. (1987). Curriculum: product or praxis? Lewes: Falmer Press. [24] Hattie, J. (2009). Visible Learning: A synthesis of 800+ Meta-analyses on Achievement. London: Routledge. [25] ICT Capacity Building at USP Project. (2005). ICT in secondary education in the Pacific region: status, trends and prospects. Suva: University of the South Pacific.

[12] Cooper, P. A. (1993). Paradigm shifts in designing instruction: From behaviorism to cognitivism to constructivism. Educational Technology 33(5) 12-19.

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[40] Mizell, H. (2010). Why Professional Development Matters. Ohio: Learning Forward Publishers Ltd. Retrieved April 20, 2014, from http://learningforward.org/docs/pdf/why_pd_matters _web.pdf?sfvrsn=0 [41] Musungu, L. L. & Nasongo, J. W. (2008). The Head-Teacher's Instructional Role in Academic Achievement in Secondary Schools in Vihiga District, Kenya. Educational Research and Review 3 (10), 316 323. Retrieved April 20, 2014, from http://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ894004 [42] Northouse, P. G. (2001). Leadership: Theory and Practice (2nd ed.). London: SAGE Publications. [43] Ogren, C. A. (2005). The American state normal school: “An instrument of great good”. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. [44] Piaget, J. (1962). The Language and Thought of the Child. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. [45] Piaget, J. (1928). The Child's Conception of the World. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. [46] Prevedel, A. (2003). Values and Beliefs: The World View Behind Curriculum. The Annual Review of Adult Learning and Literacy, Volume 3, 8-13.



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---LTA 2 _________________________________________________________________________________ Students get ready to publicly present their individual

Appendix

An example of a constructively-aligned lesson

ENG 116, Research Methods, is a one semester core course in the first year of a four-year Bachelor of Arts Degree in English, Linguistics, Literature and Modern Languages, offered by the Department of Language & Cultural Studies, School of Education and Humanities, of the University of Guyana. The number of students for this course is usually about 30. The duration of the following lesson is two hours.

report. Each student reads the sentence(s) that he has contributed to the paragraph. One member from the group reads the created paragraph. These are publicly discussed and corrected. Each group member publicly reflects on his individual participation, while one designated group member reflects on the group participation. Each group exchanges paragraphs so that they all have three paragraphs per group. (Major focus: ILO 2 and ILO 3a & 3b; Minor focus: ILO 1).

Lesson Aim

A 2 minute discussion break ensues

Apply principles of paragraph development to strengthen writing skills.

Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs) On completion of this lesson, students will be able to: Explain the paragraph and its components (ILO 1) Construct sentences for the paragraph (ILO 2) Create paragraphs on specific topics and Reflect on individual/group participation (ILO 3 [a &b])1

Learning and Teaching Activities (LTAs) LTA 1 Students are welcomed to the class by the lecturer, who subsequently invites them to comment on what was learnt in the previous lesson. Advanced organisers are also provided. Facilitated by the lecturer, students discuss the ILO and LTAs with colleagues. Then there is a brief interactive session on the concept of paragraph writing. Subsequently, students are invited to form 3 groups of 4. Group members explain to each other the paragraph and its components and share their submissions with the class. They discuss the relevance of the local images used in the discussion to emphasise the cohesiveness/completeness of a paragraph. After this exercise, the lecturer distributes three topics („Education‟, „University Life‟ and „Academic Writing‟), and each group selects one and creates the paragraph, using the Jigsaw method (Each group members contributes one or two sentences for soon-to-be-created paragraph). Group members discuss with each other the constructed paragraph. (Major focus: ILO 1, ILO 2 and ILO 3a). A 2 minute discussion break ensues

1

I have decided to split ILO 3 into two parts – 3a and 3b – as there are two main verbs there (create [3a] and reflect [3b]).

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LTA 3 By means of a case study, students are again invited to form 3 groups of 4 where the lecturer presents to each group a developed paragraph taken from a Journal. They, in their respective groups, are to analyse [study and compare] the paragraph given to them with the paragraph they have previously created. Subsequently, their findings are publicly presented and discussed, facilitated by the lecturer. In addition, each group member publicly reflects on his individual participation, while one designated group member reflects on the group participation. They exchange the information gathered so that each of them has all three case-study analyses. They then, together with the lecturer‟s aid, discuss publicly what they have learnt from the classroom session on paragraphs. (Major focus: ILO 2, ILO 3a & 3b; Minor focus: ILO 1). A 5 minute discussion break ensues

Assessment Tasks (ATs) AT 1 The students are invited by the lecturer to form two groups of 6 students each. Once in the groups, each group is allowed to select one of three topics („Teaching‟, „Learning‟ and „Research‟) on which to create a paragraph. Individually, using the Jigsaw method, each student (of a group) contributes no more than 1 sentence for the paragraph. After this exercise, they piece them all (the sentences) together to create the paragraph. After developing the paragraph, it is publicly presented (each student reads the sentence he has contributed, and then one group member reads the entire developed paragraph), discussed, corrected and assessed, facilitated by the lecturer. In addition, each group member publicly reflects on his individual participation, while one designated group member reflects on the group participation. (Major focus: ILO 2, ILO 3a & 3b; Minor focus: ILO 1). A 2 minute discussion break ensues



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AT 2 AT 3 _________________________________________________________________________________ Conserving their two groups, the students are given 2 Individually, students are asked to write a reflective reparagraphs (per group) which they have to analyse port, (not more than 2-3 paragraphs), explaining where (study and compare) with the paragraph they have just and how their contribution fits into the task as a whole created. After this activity, students form one large group and how they think they have achieved the ILOs through and together they discuss their findings from the case their participation during task execution. This is handed study done. Subsequently, these findings are publicly to the teacher for grading. presented, discussed, corrected and assessed, under the (Major Focus: ILO 3b). guidance of the lecturer. In addition, each group member publicly reflects on his individual participation, while Students discuss publicly what they have learnt from the one designated group member reflects on the group parlecture session on paragraphs. They are given three evalticipation. The teacher then collects all of the assessed uation questions, for teacher assessment, student/self paragraphs, together with the case-study analyses, in assessment and lesson assessment, to which they are to order to make his final judgments on them, based on the respond and discuss publicly. They are given a case holistic grading criteria. study as a take-home assignment, in preparation for the (Major focus: ILO 2, ILO 3a & 3b; Minor focus: ILO next class, as the teaching session comes to an end. 1). A 2 minute discussion break ensues

(See Grading Criteria below)

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Grading Criteria

A- Excellent (17-20, out of 20)

Grading Criteria2 for Paragraph Writing and Reflection (20 marks) B- Good C- Satisfactory D- Unsatisfactory (13-16, out of 20) (9-12, out of 20) (5-8, out of 20) Quality of the Paragraph

The first sentence is excellent and outlines the theme of the paragraph. It uses the key words and grabs the reader‟s attention. Everything in the paragraph supports the topic sentence. The paragraph clearly focuses on the topic, the purpose and the audience. The final sentence clearly ends the paragraph. It demonstrates sophisticated thinking and leaves the reader with something to think about.

The report is very well organised and has an excellent structure or logic that engages the reader. It shows a clear purpose and direction and there are a lot of details supporting the subject matter. The report shows an in-depth of self-reflection on what was done, skills learned, what was liked and disliked, as well as projections. A strong connection made between individual and collaborative learning and future activities.

2

The topic sentence is clear and relevant, and outlines the theme of the paragraph. It uses some key words. Most ideas in the paragraph support the topic sentence. The paragraph focuses on the topic, the purpose and the audience, to a great degree. The final sentence ends the paragraph well. It demonstrates very good thinking, and the reader is able to grasp the general idea purported.

The topic sentence is clear to some extent, and outlines the theme of the paragraph satisfactorily. It used one or two key words. Some ideas in the paragraph support the topic sentence. The paragraph focuses on the topic, the purpose and the audience to a certain extent. The final sentence ends the paragraph satisfactorily. It demonstrates good thinking and the reader is able to understand the intent.

Quality of the Reflective Report The report is organised The report shows some and has a clear structure organisation but lacks an or logic that is easy to overall structure and logfollow. It shows a clear ic. There is a lack of fopurpose and there are cus and only a few details supporting details on the to support the subject subject matter. The re- matter. The report shows port shows a general minimal self-reflection amount of self-reflection on what was done, skills on what was done, skills learned, what was liked learned, what was liked and disliked, as well as and disliked, as well as projections. A weak conprojections. Some connection made between nection made between individual and collaboraindividual and collaborative learning and future tive learning and future activities. activities.

The topic sentence is unclear and does not clearly outline the theme of the paragraph. It does not use key words and does not grab the reader‟s attention. The supporting sentences minimally support the topic sentence. The final sentence may be there, but it is not clear. It demonstrates poor thinking and the reader has great difficulty in grasping the general idea.

The report is not well organised and does not have a clear structure or logic. The subject matter is not clear and there are no strong details to support it. The report shows no selfreflection on what was done, skills learned, what was liked and disliked, as well as projections. No connection made between individual and collaborative learning and future activities.

The points for the ILO are 20% of the total grade for this course, since there are five assessments throughout the semester. The grades are awarded from

A-D at the University of Guyana. Students are made aware of the grading criteria, when assessing each other‟s work.

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Framework for curriculum for pupils with severe and ... - CALL Scotland

Grade 3 Curriculum Alignment for Harcourt Trophies for CCLS ...

A CONSTRUCTIVE HEURISTIC FOR THE ... - Optimization Online

A CONSTRUCTIVE HEURISTIC FOR THE ... - Optimization Online

Numb3rs Activities Curriculum Alignment - Google Drive

Alignment Issues for AA- AAS - General Curriculum Projects

Developing an English for specific purpose curriculum for Asian call ...

Curriculum Alignment with a Mission of Social ...

Curriculum for Excellence: Building the Curriculum 3: A Framework for ...

Analyzing the Curriculum Alignment of Teachersi - Eric - ED.gov

Curriculum alignment and graduate attributes: critical ... - SAGE Journals

[PDF] Opportunity to Learn, Curriculum Alignment and ... - Google Sites

Constructive Alignment and the Curriculum: A Call for ...