in preservice teachers' education by providing direction ... technology in teaching education (see Ertmer,. 2003 .... their own classrooms without being certified.
Constructive Features of Video Cases to be used in Teacher Education By Terri L. Kurz and Ivana Batarelo
Abstract After interacting with a Best Practices video case whole class and individually, preservice teachers were asked to reflect on what features they deemed helpful. In addition, they were asked to reflect on what additional features they would find desirable. The constant comparative method was used to analyze the data (Glaser, 1965). Three features were considered constructive: (1) modeling of teaching techniques (2) supplemental materials to support the video case and (3) observing classroom management. Concerning additional features, they wanted (1) an analysis of the lesson (2) improvements in technology and editing and (3) extended video case selections. The expressed features can guide the creation and use of video cases in preservice teachers’ education by providing direction for integration and development. Keywords: Preservice Teachers, Teacher Education, Technology Integration, Video Cases
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ith the formation of the Department of Education’s Preparing Tomorrow’s Teachers to use Technology (PT3) grants, video cases to support learning and instruction became more commonplace. Over $337 million has been spent through the PT3 program impacting over 400 projects (Clausen, 2007). Ertmer (2003) and Clausen (2007) describe the goal of PT3 projects as improving how teachers use technology to support excel-
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lence. There are several summaries of PT3 projects conceived to address the issue of improving technology in teaching education (see Ertmer, 2003; Mims, Polly, Shepherd & Inan, 2006; Ottenbreit-Leftwich & Cullen, 2006). The Best Practices database from Arizona State University was one of the PT3 projects. It was designed to support the use of technology, while improving science and mathematics instruction. According to Darling-Hammond and Hammerness (2002), there are three types of cases: child case studies, curriculum and teaching cases and dilemma cases. The Best Practices video cases were designed as curriculum and teaching cases in that they (potentially) demonstrate teachers’ actions and students’ learning. There are video cases from kindergarten to junior college encompassing a variety of subjects and students (ranging from students who have autism to students who are gifted). No matter what subject is modeled, technology is used. The database is free and accessible to anyone with Internet access at http://pt3.ed.asu.edu/ bestpractices/index2.html. Generally, one-hour lessons were videotaped then edited to roughly 15 minute clips. Supportive materials accompany the video cases including pre- and postinterviews, lesson plans, teacher biographies and other materials such as PowerPoint files or handouts (Kurz, Llama & Savenye, 2005). In this study, preservice teachers interacted with two Best Practices video cases: one whole class, the other individually. This research ex-
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amined what preservice teachers described as valuable or desirable after the encounters. More specifically, the research addressed two questions: What features of the video case were deemed valuable in the preservice teachers’ reflections? What additional features would have helped the preservice teachers’ educational growth? These narrative texts produced were analyzed using the constant comparative method (Glaser, 1965) to identify themes following the steps for analyzing qualitative data as conveyed by LeCompte (2000).
Video Cases in Teacher Education Video cases allow the viewer to observe and evaluate teaching situations and are an innovative way to support preservice teachers’ instruction (Kim & Hannafin, 2008; Moreno & Ortegano-Layne, 2008). Moreno and Ortegano-Layne (2008) conducted a study using two different groups: one group who learned learning principles supported by technology and one group that did not. The students who learned with the supportive visual technology had better attitudes toward learning and enhanced their application of learning principles. Because video cases are computer accessible, there are more opportunities to observe a variety of teachers, students and classrooms beyond what can be done with traditional classroom observations. For example, video cases allow preservice teachers to view rural or urban classrooms even if placed in a suburban classroom. When video cases are viewed by an entire class, there is increased opportunity for discussion as there is a shared observational experience. The preservice teachers have a common case to draw from and use as a reflective tool to support learning. Several studies have shown that the use of video cases can positively influence preservice teachers’ reflections on classroom experiences (Boling, 2007; Dolk, den Hertog & Gravemeijer, 2002). Boling (2007) found that a teacher candidate was able to progress to a more comprehensive understanding of how to teach literature through the use of video cases to guide her development and understanding. Bencze, Hewitti and Pedretti (2001) used cases to help preservice teachers develop critical reflective practice. They found that preservice teachers were able to use cases to show an understanding of the analytical framework, were able to effectively analyze teaching and were able to appropriately assess the case. Beck, King and Marshall (2002) noted preservice teachers who interacted with video cases were able to improve their observations of teachers. In their study, two groups were compared and those who received technology supported instruction beyond their placements Volume 54, Number 5
were able to show larger gains in 3 specific areas (language arts, mathematics and science) as compared to those who did not receive the technology-supported instruction. While there are many documented benefits regarding the use of video cases, this study investigated features of video cases. Specifically, this study examined what features preservice teachers perceive as beneficial and what features they considered desirable. If video cases can be used to enhance instruction, then it would stand to reason that knowing what features preservice teachers deem constructive would help guide integration. Themes were identified through narrative texts, finding similarities and differences utilizing the constant comparative method (Glaser, 1965). The discovered themes indicated video case features as constructive or potentially constructive by preservice teachers.
“The Best Practice video cases were designed as curriculum and teaching cases in that they (potentially) demonstrate teachers’ actions and students’ learning.”
Methodology Using narrative texts, themes were identified by identifying similarities and differences utilizing the constant comparative method (Glaser, 1965).
Participants The study participants were 27 elementary or special education preservice teachers attending a diverse university. Seventy-eight percent earned a Bachelor’s degree and were enrolled in fifth year courses required for the California teaching credential. The remaining 22% were working on completing a Bachelor’s degree and a teaching credential simultaneously. Eightyfive percent were female. The participants were in three different stages of teaching: 22% were not in the classroom and had not completed any student teaching, 70% were half-day student teaching and eight percent were teachers in their own classrooms without being certified.
Procedures and Materials Whole class, the preservice teachers watched a video case from the Best Practices database. After viewing the case, the instructor led a whole class open-ended analysis guided by the preservice teachers’ observations
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and interpretations. At the conclusion of the discussion, the participants were asked to individually view a different video case and analyze teaching practices thorough a written, guided reflection; this narrative text was the primary source of data for this study. Some of the reflection questions were designed to bring about insight into what preservice teachers perceived as valuable and desirable in a video case. These questions were: (1) Which were the most helpful elements of the video case? Describe how those features were helpful. (2) What was the video case lacking? What would you like to see added to the database in order for the cases to be more beneficial? The participants examined 14 different videos in the subjects of technology, mathematics, science and language arts. The qualitative texts were analyzed using similarities and differences to identify common themes (characterized as the classification of discrete concepts) (Ryan & Bernard, 2003). The researcher uncovered themes through the use of the constant comparative method (Glaser, 1965). The constant comparative method involves evaluating the narrative text looking for similarities and differences between the statements from the same or different participants in order to identify themes. As the texts were constantly compared and contrasted, themes were developed and these themes were used to analyze the data (LeCompte, 2000). In addition, the themes were constantly reevaluated and revised as needed throughout the evaluation process. It is important to emphasize that the themes were not derived from previous studies or literature, but solely from the analysis of the preservice teachers’ responses. This procedure was selected because the text was in the form of brief descriptions verbatim from the preservice teachers allowing for the effective and efficient discovery of themes (Ryan & Bernard, 2003). Following the steps for analyzing qualitative data articulated by LeCompte (2000), the data were evaluated. First, the data were tidied up and prepared for evaluation by organizing the data and reviewing the research questions while comparing the data to the questions. Second, repeated readings of the data took place while looking for declaration of significant items con-
When video cases are viewed by an entire class, there is increased opportunity for discussion as there is a shared observational experience.
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cerning the features of video cases. Third, stable sets of items were created while constantly analyzing the data looking for items that were similar and/or different. There was a continuous reexamination and comparison of the data while assembling the taxonomies. Step four involved the creation of patterns; this involved looking for a coherent description of the themes the preservice teachers wanted in a video case. The final step involved grouping the patterns into meaningful structures. (See LeCompte (2000) for a complete description of these steps.) The number of times each theme was mentioned by the individual preservice teachers was also calculated. If a preservice teacher mentioned multiple items in a single theme, it was counted only once.
Results Analysis first focused on what themes of the video cases the preservice teachers found helpful. Three themes emerged from the examination of the responses: (1) modeling of specific teaching techniques (2) supplemental materials to support the video case and (3) classroom management including interactions with students. The preservice teachers appreciated the ability to observe modeling of specific teaching techniques; this theme was mentioned by 48% of the preservice teachers. The preservice teachers’ concept of modeling encompassed many different ideas such as effective teaching, alternative approaches to traditional topics, guided practice, scaffolding techniques and integrating curriculum. They commented on the advantageous benefits of viewing teachers modeling concepts, curricular ideas, content and theory. “This video was helpful because it let me see another way to approach area, and it made me realize that there are several ways to teach a given concept.” Another commented, “The most helpful element for me was showing me that I should integrate several ideas together as I completed a learning section from the standards.” Supplemental materials were also considered valuable as stated by 33% of the preservice teachers. There were positive comments regarding the pre-interview, post-interview, lesson plan and teacher biography. One commented: The most helpful elements of the video case were the options to see the pre-interview before the actual lesson and the post-interview to see if the lesson turned out the way the teacher had envisioned it. I also liked how the lesson plan is there to view as well as the biography. One said, “The post-interview provided the most
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helpful information because the teacher was able to reflect on the lesson and describe the areas that she felt needed to be addressed or changed which is very beneficial to another teacher.” Classroom management observations including student/student and student/teacher interactions were another theme regarded as valuable when viewing these cases cited by 27% of the preservice teachers. Comments focused on the ability to see effective teachers deal with typical classroom management situations. One stated, “I really feel that watching an experienced teacher is important because I am able to see how the teacher deals with students without pencils, discipline, and how to explain a concept that can be confusing for many other students.” Another noted, “[The teacher] allowed talking and I think that can be a great feature because some students can understand an explanation by a peer better than by their teacher.” The remaining themes were described with respect to what was missing from the video cases as potentially having merit in helping the preservice teachers learn. Although some were unsure of what was needed because of inexperience (“I am not experienced enough to…know that the video case is lacking”) all were able to discuss some aspect they would like added or changed. Three themes emerged: (1) an analysis of the success of the lesson (2) improvement to the video cases regarding technology and editing and (3) extended content selections. Some of the preservice teachers voiced the need for analysis of the lesson and its success in relation to pedagogical ideals and student learning with 48% of preservice teachers mentioning it. As stated, some commented about not knowing what to look for and this suggestion supported their concerns. To analyze the success of the lesson, there were several suggestions: expert analysis, student interviews, and thorough analysis through student assessments. The preservice teachers wanted experts; “I would have loved to see some expert opinion…this would be helpful because I might think something is working in a lesson and an expert might see something that I missed.” With respect to student analysis, a preservice teacher stated: I would really like to get students’ input on what they learned and hear how they liked the lesson and even involve the students by asking them what was helpful about the lesson and then ask the class if they can think of ways to make the lesson help them better. Volume 54, Number 5
Concerning assessment, one commented “The video case was lacking assessment… watching the video makes you think the students understand…but there is no evidence.” The second issue the preservice teachers felt the video cases lacked related to technology and editing as cited by 27% of the participants. Some commented on the lack of split-screen capability, where the viewer can watch the computer screen and the child (or teacher) at the same time. Others wanted the edited case accompanied by the full case so they could view anything from the video (“I would like to see the lesson in its entirety”). Others were uneasy about how well the children behaved and thought the editors should have included more classroom management issues. Still others commented about not hearing students (“It was difficult to hear student responses”), see student work or watch the videotaped computer screen (“I would have liked to see the computer screen more clearly”). They also wanted children to be filmed more, including their comments. The last suggestions related to broadening the content of the video cases; this was the most predominant theme indicated by 52% of the preservice teachers. These comments varied greatly, but most of the preservice teachers suggested: a wider range of subjects, teaching mistakes, different lessons on the same subject, the inclusion of prior/next curriculum, and high-quality teaching along with failed lessons for contrast. One preservice teacher suggested, “I would like to see some more lessons from a variety of other topics added to the database.” In terms of comprehensive lessons, one stated, “A glimpse of the previous lesson taught…would have been beneficial,” while another stated, “She told viewers what she was theoretically going to teach next, but it would have been interesting to see how she was going to make the transition.” One commented, “We need to see well-done lessons, but it is important to also see how teachers deal with lessons that do not go so well.” As well: The lessons in the database are too much review probably due to the fact that the teachers wanted to film… comfortable [lessons]…This limits their value…because rarely does a new concept or lesson go smoothly, and the key questions new teachers have about methodology are not answered well through rehearsed lessons.
“The preservice teachers in this study recognized they are novices and need guidance to facilitate their viewing of the video cases.”
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Discussion The discovered themes illustrated preservice teachers can describe valuable features with the integration of videos from the Best Practices database. The favorable elements as described by the participants demonstrated certain features are perceived as constructive. In addition, the preservice teachers described three additional features they would like added when video cases are integrated into their curriculum. The preservice teachers found it valuable when techniques and curriculum are modeled within the video cases. According to Van den Berg, Jansen and Blijleven (2004), video cases have the potential to exhibit modeling of theory to support instruction. Wong, Yung, Cheng, Lam and Hodson (2006) showed video cases have the potential to support the development of theory through modeling. With preservice teachers’ observations that video case modeling is helpful and studies showing video cases can be used to enhance learning through modeling, it is imperative to continue to use video cases in this manner to model curricular ideas. Supplemental materials were also identified as constructive, and as discussed these supplemental materials can take many forms. This concept provides evidence that a video case by itself is not enough (Wong et al. 2006). The preservice teachers in this study recognized they are novices and need guidance to facilitate their viewing of the video cases. They appreciated the supplemental materials to help them understand the complexity of the teaching as showcased in the lesson. Cannings and Talley (2002) confer with this finding, stating video cases must be accompanied by additional resources. Classroom management is one of the greatest anxieties for new teachers (Moore, 2003; Watzke, 2003) and this study supported this concern. The preservice teachers appreciated the opportunity to watch how teachers interact with students and deal with issues as they arise. It is important to note that although they recognized this as a constructive component, some of the preservice teachers also felt the demonstrated classroom management was a weakness needing improvement (describing the cases as not demonstrating enough authentic classroom management issues). With regards to extended content, some of the preservice teachers wanted some failures or disruptions within the cases to show how seasoned teachers deal with such issues. This appears to be an important feature to include. Several studies have shown that preservice teachers have concerns with classroom management (Irwin & Amobi, 2006; Onafo50
wora, 2004; Slider, Noell & Williams, 2006) and the preservice teachers in this study feel video cases can alleviate some of these concerns when demonstrated appropriately. However, the term appropriately does not mean perfectly according to this study’s results. Rather, appropriately means showing both successes and failures and how teachers cope with behavioral and management issues as they arise. On the subject of what needs to be improved, they requested an analysis of what was successful in the lesson supported by either experts, students who participated in the lesson or in-depth assessment. According to the results, preservice teachers feel they do not know how to analyze what they are viewing as an exceptional or inadequate case and need experts to guide their observations as is possible with technology (Boling, 2007; Harrington & Kervin, 2007; Kim & Hannafin, 2008). Evaluating the case can help them identify instances of excellence (Beck, King & Marshall, 2002; Sherin & van Es, 2005) as preservice teachers do not always understand what they are looking at (Wong et al. 2006). The analysis should be from both adults (as experts) and children (as students). In addition, the preservice teachers felt as though thorough assessment should accompany the cases to show how and what students learned. Using appropriate assessment techniques can shed light into student thinking and understanding (Cohen & Hill, 2000; Ohlsen, 2007). Black and Wiliam (1998) describe assessment as a way to improve student learning, and technology can be used to support alternative assessments (Herrington & Kervin, 2007). If student assessments become part of the video case, then perhaps preservice teachers will become more aware of what worked or failed and why, while also improving ways to assess student learning. With reference to improving the technological issues of the cases, there were numerous areas of concern. Multiple camera angles can be posted on line so the viewer can click and select which angle is best for their viewing. In terms of sound quality, it is difficult to pick up the utterances of children when they are filmed as they are generally quieter. But perhaps microphones can be place throughout the room to improve sound quality. Scripted lessons would certainly address some of these issues, as the students who are called on would have microphones and multiple camera angles could be arranged in advance without concern for students walking in front of the camera or moving out of camera view. However scripted lessons impact the authenticity of the cases. With editing, it seems to be an individual preference and it is not pos-
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sible to meet everyone’s needs. Edited versions save viewing time and allow the content to focus on those issues deemed important by the video case creator(s). However, the full lesson can also be made available to allow whoever is interested to view the entire case. The preservice teachers discussed the need for a multitude of cases to confront many different areas of education. Darling-Hammond (2006) described the importance of curriculum to address the diverse needs and complexities of teaching. This study indicates preservice teachers need to have access to a variety of video cases showing not only successes but also failures in ample classroom settings and situations. And while exemplary cases do benefit learning (Bencze, Hewitti & Pedretti, 2001), weak video cases may also be beneficial. It also seems consecutive lessons would be beneficial as they would give novices the option to see how one lesson connects to another. And technology does have the potential to better bridge the gap between theory and practice (Gomez, Sherin, Griesdorn & Finn, 2008).
Conclusion This study shows that it is imperative to use video case technology with facilitative support. Preservice teachers’ needs should be taken into account when deciding how to use video cases as they are who the technology is ultimately designed for. If the supportive features are not available online, it is possible for university instructors to still reach these needs. For example, if there is no expert analysis, the university instructor can serve as the expert in guiding the preservice teachers’ understanding of what they are seeing and how this pertains to quality (or inadequate) teaching. If there are no pre- or postinterviews, the university instructor can debrief with an analysis of what appeared to succeed and fail along with conjectures on future and past content relating to standards. Pertaining to classroom management concerns, the video case can be used to evaluate management techniques. With a bit of creative manipulation, existing video cases can be exploited to help guide preservice teachers based on their needs. A video case by itself is clearly not enough and these supportive features can be very fruitful. There must be careful thought when creating a video case, as it can be nearly impossible to generate some of these features (such as a interviews) after time has elapsed. This research shows time and consideration must be taken into account when determining what features are to be included with the video case. In sum, the features show preservice teachers found worth in certain aspects of video cases. Volume 54, Number 5
If one is going to use video cases, it is important to take into account the features preservice teachers view as constructive because developing curriculum based on the needs of students as learners can be innovative (Ayers, 2001). Specifically, a video case alone is just technology (Wong et al. 2006) so there should be supportive information to accompany its integration. As Darling-Hammond and Hammerness (2002, p. 127) state, “the utility of cases as tools for teaching or assessment may depend quite substantially on the teaching context that surrounds them as they are constructed or evaluated.” This research can be used to guide and facilitate the integration of video cases into teacher education to bring about learning based on preservice teachers’ needs and predilections. Terri L. Kurz is an assistant professor at Arizona State University, Polytechnic campus. Her research interests include technological tools to support learning, preservice teachers’ mathematical understanding and field-based learning. Ivana Batarelo is an assistant professor of pedagogy at University of Split, Croatia. Her research interests include technological innovation in higher education, online learning, information technology, teacher education and adult education.
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Darling-Hammond, L. (2006). Constructing 21st-century teacher education. Journal of Teacher Education, 57(3), 300-314. Darling-Hammond, L. & Hammerness, K. (2002). Toward a pedagogy of cases in teacher education. Teaching Education, 13(2), 125-135. Dolk, M., den Hertog, J., & Gravemeijer, K. (2002). Using multimedia cases for educating the primary school mathematics teacher educator: A design study. International Journal of Educational Research, 37(2), 161-178. Ertmer, P. (2003). Transforming teacher education: Visions and strategies. Educational Technology, Research and Development, 15(1), 124-128. Glaser, B. (1965). The constant comparative method of qualitative analysis. Social Problems, 12(4), 436-445. Gomez, L., Sherin, M., Griesdorn, J. & Finn, L. (2008). Creating social relationships: The role of technology in preservice teacher preparation. Journal of Teacher Education, 59(2), 117-131. Herrington, J. & Kervin, L. (2007). Authentic learning supported by technology: Ten suggestions and cases of integration in classrooms. Educational Media International, 44(3), 219-236. Irwin, L. & Amobi, F. (2006). Discipline concerns among preservice teachers. Essays in
Education, 18, [On-line]. Available: http:// www.usca.edu/essays/vol18fall2006.html Kim, H. & Hannafin, M. (2008). Grounded design of web-enhanced case-based activity. Educational Technology Research and Development, 56(2), 161-179. Kurz, T., Llama, G., & Savenye, W. (2005). Issues and challenges of creating video cases to be used with preservice teachers. TechTrends, 49(4), 67-73. LeCompte, M. (2000). Analyzing Qualitative Data. Theory into Practice, 39(3), 146-154. Mims, C, Polly, D., Shepherd, C., & Inan, F. (2006). Examining PT3 projects designed to improve preservice education. TechTrends, 50(3), 16-24. Moore, R. (2003). Reexamining the field experiences of preservice teachers. Journal of Teacher Education, 54(1), 31-42. Moreno, R. & Ortegano-Layne, L. (2008). Do classroom exemplars promote the application of principles in teacher education? A comparison of videos, animations and narratives. Educational Technology Research and Development, 56(4), 449-465. Offenbreit-Leftwich, A. & Cullen, T. (2006) Preserving the legacy of PT3 tools, strategies and resources: Knowledge capture artifacts. TechTrends, 50(3), 46-52. Ohlsen, M. (2007). Classroom assessment practices of secondary school members of
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Call for Submissions The Midwest Journal of Educational Communications and Technology The Midwest Journal of Educational Communications and Technology (ISSN 1938-7709) is the official publication of the Illinois Association for Educational Communications and Technology. This journal focuses on issues, research, and innovations that relate to the improvement of teaching and learning through the effective use of media, technology, and telecommunications. It is published twice each year as Fall and Spring issues. The journal is currently seeking submissions for forthcoming issues. Instructions for submitting articles are available online. Go to: http://www.iaect.org and click on "Journal".
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