contemporary research spectrum

Volume 1, Issue 1, September, 2015

ISSN 2454 - 8987

CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH SPECTRUM

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2012

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International, Multi-disciplinary, Bi-annual & Refereed Print Journal

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COUNCIL OF EDULIGHT KALYANI, DISTRICT – NADIA, WEST BENGAL, INDIA

ISSN 2454 - 8987

Volume 1, Issue 1, September, 2015

CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH SPECTRUM International, Multi-disciplinary, Bi-annual & Refereed Print Journal

2012

COUNCIL OF EDULIGHT KALYANI, DISTRICT – NADIA, WEST BENGAL, INDIA

CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH SPECTRUM International, Multi-disciplinary, Bi-annual & Refereed Print Journal Volume 1, Issue 1, September, 2015 [ISSN 2454 – 8987] EDITOR Ajit Mondal Department of Education, Surendranath College for Women (University of Calcutta), Kolkata, Pin – 700009, West Bengal, India         

EDITORIAL BOARD Dr. Ramana Maram Department of Political Science, Osmania University, Hyderabad, Telangana, India Professor Kalyan Kumar Sarkar Department of Political Science, Kanchrapara College, Kanchrapara, West Bengal Professor Basudeb Halder Department of Philosophy, Surendranath College for Women, Kolkata, West Bengal Dr. Asha Bhandari Faculty of Policy Science, National Law University, Jodhpur, Rajasthan, India Dr. Ritu Bakshi Department of Educational Studies, Central University of Jammu, J&K., India Dr. A. Subramanian Department of Education, University of Madras, Chennai, India Dr. Raminder Singh Department of Education, Punjabi University Regional Centre, Bathinda, Punjab Dr. Mrinal Mukherjee Department of Education, Bankura University, Bankura, West Bengal, India Vijay Prasad Jayshwal Kathmandu School of Law & Human Rights Clinic and Justice, Dadhikot, Nepal

BOARD OF ADVISORS Prof. Tony Bush - Faculty of Educational Leadership, University of Nottingham, United Kingdom Prof. Tarak Kumar Pan - Shiksha Bhavana, Visva-Bharati, Santiniketan, West Bengal, India Prof. Sudharshana Rana - Department of Education, Himachal Pradesh University, Himachal Pradesh Prof. J. C. Soni - Dean, Faculty of Education, Rajiv Gandhi University, Arunachal Pradesh. Prof. Sanat Kumar Ghosh - Department of Education, Rabindra Bharati University, West Bengal Prof. Hemlata Talesra - Smt. K. B. Dave College of Education, Gujarat, India Prof. Jayanta Mete - Department of Education, University of Kalyani, West Bengal, India Prof. Nupur Sen- Department of Education, University of Lucknow, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh Prof. Madhumita Bandyopadhyay -School of Non-Formal & Formal, NUEPA, New Delhi. Dr. Jaya Singh - Department of Social Science, NCERT, New Delhi, India Prof. (Mrs.) Haseen Taj – Department of Education, Bangalore University, Bangalore, India Dr. Anjali Mehta - Department of Education M. S. University of Baroda, Vadodara, Gujarat Dr. Gurkirat Kaur - Department of Education, Desh Bhagat University, Patiala, Punjab, India Dr. Shyam Sundar Bairagya – Department of Education, Visva-Bharati, Santiniketan, West Bengal. Dr. S. R. Mohapatra - Centre for Juridical Studies, Dibrugarh University, Assam, India Dr. Ruby Ann L. Ayo- Bicol University, College of Social Sciences & Philosophy, Philippines Prof. Nityananda Pradhan- Department of Extension Education, NERIE, NCERT, Shillong, Meghalaya, India Prof. Mahes Nath Parajuli- Department of Educational Leadership & Development Studies, Kathamandu Univiversity, Nepal

From the Desk of Editor ================================================================= The age we live in is the age of speed and information. In tune with the spirit of the modern era, Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal is intended to cater the needs in terms of knowledge production. Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal is an attempt to bring out research work in the areas of English Literature, Education, Social Science, Commerce, Life Science, Physical Science, ICT and Management, Law and to encourage both the students, researchers and the concerned teachers in research. Thus, this journal will be playing its function as a vehicle for disseminating research papers, innovative articles, Case Studies etc. in all subject areas by the academicians, research scholars, resource persons and practitioners with substantial experience and expertise in their own respective fields. This issue contains scholarly conceptual articles and research papers on various aspects of English literature, Education, Physics, Law, Philosophy, History, Geography, Political Science, Management, Business Administration, and Commerce etc. In order to keep the length of the issue within capacity, it has been necessary to be very selective in the incorporation of articles. The ideas expressed in the journal are of the authors. The Editorial Board of Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal holds no responsibility in this regard. The Editor conveys thanks to the members of the Editorial Board, Advisory Board and Peer Reviewers who have extended their cooperation in bringing out the first Volume and first issue, August, 2015 of the journal and also is grateful to all contributors. Suggestions and constructive criticism for further improvement of the journal will be thankfully received. We look forward to your reply in the form of suggestions, views and articles for the next issue.

Editor Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal [ISSN 2454 – 8987]

GUIDELINES FOR THE CONTRIBUTORS 

Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal an international, biannual, multi-disciplinary, Refereed Print Journal, invites articles from Educationist, Academician, Research Scholar, and Student & Journalist.

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Maximum length of the full paper should be of 10 pages in A4 size paper. Extra page (More than 10 pages will bear additional publication charge).

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Articles can be sent through CD / Email (for English articles use MSWord, Font Times New Roman, Size 12, Line Spacing 1.5, Margin of 1 inch in all sides.

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The article must accompany declaration signed by authors that article has not been published elsewhere and that it is being submitted exclusively to Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal. The article should have author’s name, single designation & affiliation and E-mail address.

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Each article should contain the following essential elements – Abstract, Introduction, Related Study, Research Questions / Hypothesis, Objectives, Methodology, Tools used Data Analysis, Findings, Discussions and References alphabetically arranged in APA Format. Graphs, if any, should be sent in editable format.

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Publication of article in the Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal is subject to payment of publication charge.

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Any legal dispute pertaining to the publication in Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal shall be within the jurisdiction of High Court at Kolkata only.

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Editorial Board and Subject Experts of the Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal may edit the Paper if necessary.

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Opinions expressed in the articles are those of the contributors and do not necessarily reflect the policies of the COUNCIL OF EDULIGHT.

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Publication Charge per Article / Research Paper is Rs. 1000.00 [10 Pages].

CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH SPECTRUM International, Multi-disciplinary, Bi-annual & Refereed Print Journal SL. NO.

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CONTENT

1.

Educational Thought Of Swami Vivekananda: Indian and Global Perspective Aniruddha Saha & Dr. Siharan Chakrabarty

1

2.

Empowering Girls in India: A Study of Post RTE School Education and Impact of ICT Dibaag Singh

7

3.

The Challenge of Inequality in Higher Education in India Dr. Raminder Singh

13

4.

TRANDE of Trade and Commerce in Pre- Medieval India: A Critical Analysis Virendra Sharma & Dr. Ravindra Tailor

18

5.

Home Environment Fostering Creativity

26 Dr. Rita Singha Roy

6.

A Comparative Study on Intelligence of Secondary School Students in Lakhimpur and Sonitpur Districts of Assam Mr. Jadab Dutta & Dr. Suresh Rajkonwar & Prof. J.C Soni

31

7.

Library Movement in India: with Iyyanki Venkata Ramanayya Jahar Biswas

44

8.

A Vital Role of Teacher in Inclusive Education (Specaly Dysgraphia) JayantaAcharya

48

9.

Indian Education: Ancient and Modern-A Comparative Study Dr. Jayashree Medda (Khan)

57

10. A Classification of Human Error: Phenotype and Genotype Madhuri Ray & Lopamudra Choudhury

64

11. NAWAB SIRAJ - UD – DAULAH: an Unbending Ruler against Foreign Domination but a Game of Many Conspiracies and many Conspirators Md. Sablul Hoque

68

12. An Analysis of Emotional Intelligence of the College Students and its Relation with Their Interpersonal Sensitivity Mousumi Chakraborty & JayantaAcharya

76

13. An Introduction to Superconductivity and High tc Superconductors Pravash Mandal

85

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CONTENT

14. Role of Corporate Bodies in Development of our Society Sadhan Kr. Pradhan

93

15. Tourism, Folklore and Community Development – A New Dimension of Folklore Study Dr. Saikat Chakraborty & Dr. Sujay Kumar Mandal

98

16. A Study of Cognitive Style As Predictors of Academic Achievement of Secondary School Student Sampa Barman & Professor (Dr.) Subrata Saha

106

17. Changing Scenario of Trade Unionism: From the Historical Period to the Global Era Sayan Dutta

112

18. Human Rights Violation and Child Sexual Abuse in India Shohini Chakraborty

117

19. Dyslexia and Its Management in Children through Ayurveda SM Prasad & BD Patel

124

20. An Unconventional ‘MEMSAHIB’: A Reading of Flora Annie Steel’s Short Stories Taniya Neogi

131

21. The Impact of Organizational Culture in Conflict Management, Organizational Performance and Development– A Literature Review Wendrila Biswas

138

22. Alienation in Philip larkin’s Poetry

143 Bapi Das

23. Value Education in India in the Light of Vedic, Brhamanical and Buddhist System of Education Diptiman Ghosh

151

24. Realism in ‘My Life as a Man’ and in ‘The Rainbow’ Professor Keya Ghatak

157

25. Responding the Quest for External Self Determination and its possibility of Application in light of International Law with study of Southern Conflict (Madhesh) of Nepal Vijay Prasad Jayshwal

161

26. Critical Theory of Herbermas: A General Outline

171 Dr. P. Ravi

27. The Magnanimity of Sanskrit Language Tapan Kumar Das & Snigdha Das

175

CRSJ, Volume-1, Issue-1, September, 2015

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Educational Thought Of Swami Vivekananda: Indian and Global Perspective Aniruddha Saha Assistant Teacher, Gourisail Gouripur Ananda Vidyapith, Gangsara Majhergram, District – Nadia, West Bengal, E-mail- [email protected] & Dr. Siharan Chakrabarty Teacher, Ramakrishna Mission Sikshana Mandira, Belur Math, District- Howrah, West Bengal, E-mail- [email protected] ABSTRACT ‘Man’ was the epicentre of the life and teachings of Swami Vivekananda. During his first tour(1886—1893) in India he observed the decaying and moribund situation of Indians. After coming from the West when he started his second tour of India(1897—1901) he prescribed that ‘education’ is the only panacea through which enslaved, dominated Indians can be freed from all bondage. The philosophy of Vivekananda’s educational thought was based on Practical Vedanta which has been enshrined in this article.

Key Words: Pragmatism

Panacea, Ethology, 3H, Gurugrihavasa, Idealism, Naturalism and

Introduction: Swami Vivekananda’s educational philosophy is deeply rooted in Indian Classical Philosophy Vedanta. He had firm belief that nothing comes from outside. He used to say that education is the manifestation of the perfection already reached in men. Swamiji believed a country’s future depends on her people. His teaching focused on the development of the mass. He wanted “to set in motion machinery which will bring noblest ideas to the doorstep of even the poorest and the meanest.” Swamiji was an ardent critic of the education of his time. He used to call it negative education because it does not prepare to do struggle for making life, for being perfect man. There is no use of such kind of education which is not emphasizing building good moral character, physical work and use of mother tongue and to generate the sense of nationality. Our present system of education is producing biological machines instead of producing human. Only clerks and deputies are being made. This education system is increasing inferiority complex. Students are mugging up instead of understanding the concept and implications of the subjects. No education can be called national unless it, inspires love for the nation, love to learn and love to nurture the ancient culture, value, tradition and valuable knowledge of the nation.(Singh,2013)1 Once Vivekananda said, “I, generally don’t like to give any specific definition of the term education, but if I have to define it I must consider education as a development of mental, spiritual, moral and physical power.” Mere knowledge of theories will lead mankind nowhere. It is not an education. The overall development of man and mankind should be the priority of education. The following points are considered as the main principles of Man Making Educational Philosophy as directed by Swami Vivekananda.

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1. Reaching Perfection: The prime aim of education is to achieve fullness of perfection already present in a learner. Like the fire within a piece of flint knowledge exists in mind, the suggestion is to friction which brings it out. The lamp of learning perfection is concealed under a cover of ignorance the teacher removes it and lets out the light. This is meant by achieving fullness of the latent perfection. 2. Physical and Mental Development: The second aim of education is the physical and mental development of the learner so that the students of the present society after understanding the local, regional and national problems they can be able to promote national growth and advancement as a fearless and physically well developed citizen of tomorrow. Swamiji wanted that education which will help the student to stand on his own legs economically rather than becoming a parasite on others. He said, “First of all, our young men must be strong. Religion will come afterwards. Be strong my young friends.” 3. Principle of Moral and Spiritual Development: According to Swamiji without morality and spiritual advancement education will be meaningless. He thought sympathy and empathy to fellow neighbours and others is the scale of measuring spiritual advancement. To him a nation’s greatness does not depend on Parliamentary Institutions and people representatives but it depends on ethical progress of its citizens. To foster the moral and spiritual development of the learners is the objective of man making education as explained by Swamiji. 4. Principle of Character Formation and Character Development: The concept of Man Making Philosophy of Swamiji stands on the very powerful word Character.Character is the foundation for self development. The aim of education as selfdevelopment,therefore, leads to the aim of education for character. The aim of education is character building. According to Swamiji character building is the basic objective of education without which everything will be spoiled. From the teaching of Swamiji we find the process of character building distinctly. When we do any work repeatedly it creates habits, from the continuation of habits ‘tendency’ starts and when tendency is functioning, character is going to be formed. So the aim of man making education is to inspire doing good practices for generating good habits and then good character will form on the basis of right tendency. The educator should present high ideals before the learners. The best way to develop a character is the personal example of high character set by the teacher. In ancient Indian education system teachers demonstrated their lives, they themselves were the curriculum. Example was more important than precept. 5. The Principle of development faith in one’s own self: The aim of man making educational philosophy is to inspire the youth for cultivating their inner-self so that self respect can be revealed. Through education the learners should aware about their inner quality or potentiality and they can learn how they will be able to express those latent good qualities properly. We can mention here the essence of a portion of an important letter of Swamiji which he wrote to Sister Nivedita where Swamiji declared his



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great message to youth mentioning ‘Everybody should know that he has divinity and to learn how that divinity can express in his every deed.’ Besides this Swamiji said, “The new religion says that he is the atheist who does not believe in himself.” 6. The Principle of Spiritual Development: To Swamiji spiritual development is an essential aim of education. To him the core concept of this development is expansion of heart, feel for weaker, enslaved, dominated, exploited fellows of the society. He believed education is the process through which individual-mind will be trained, purified so that everybody will be able to search out and develop the religious seed embedded in him and thus find the absolute truth or reality. When an individual will be spiritually developed he will never do any act casually, he will have to do with perfection and never treat a little work neglectfully. Then his every work will be converted as worship. Swamiji said, “No work is secular every work is worship.” This spiritual development will be fostered by education. 7. Principle of Self-Development: Swami Vivekananda advocated education for self-development. According to most of Western Educationalists the aim of education is man’s adjustment with the environment. But Indian classical educational tradition indicates true knowledge does not come from outside, it is discovered with the individual, in the self which is the source of all knowledge. When that source will manifest, all the selfish attitudes will wither away. Then individual rests beyond the nationality. In Western paradigm of education self-development means to be a useful citizen, but in Indian paradigm of education self-development is to be a universal man. 8. Freedom of Growth: Swamiji believed freedom is the basic component of development and growth of the learners. The child should be given freedom to grow according to his own nature. The teacher should not exert any type of pressure on the child. Swamiji said, “A teacher spoils everything when thinks he is teaching.” According to Swamiji the child should be helped in solving his problems himself. The teachers should have an attitude of service. He will act just as the facilitator. This service-production will be done by heuristic method. 9. The Principle of Mental Concentration: Mind is such an instrument which cannot observe, measure and touch but it’s vibrant function is never possible to ignore. According to Swami Vivekananda, “Mind is a compound of various things and therefore it cannot work for itself.” The nature of mind is restlessness. But it is possible to concentrate mind in a fixed matter by following a process. Education should foster that process. Through education learners will come to know that persevering is the locomotive force of the concentration of mind. Swamiji said, “Persevering sage can control the mind as the charioteer can hold the restive horses.” Vedanta emphasizes the concept that all knowledge in the world comes from our mind. Our mind and soul is a mine of infinite knowledge. The infinite library of the universe is in our own mind. All knowledge, be it secular or spiritual, is in the human mind. Whenever we are learning, we are uncovering a veil from over our mind and soul and proceeding to knowledge from ignorance (Ghosh Hazra,2012)2.Emphasizing on concentration of mind for man making



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education Vivekananda declared, “To me the very essence of Education is concentration of mind, not the collecting of facts. If I had to do my education over again, and had any voice in the matter, I would not study facts at all. I would develop the power of concentration and detachment and then with a perfect instrument I could collect facts at will” (Ghosh Hazra,2012)3. 10. Assimilation of ideas: The core concept of man making educational philosophy of Vivekananda is assimilation of certain good ideas. According to Vivekananda it is more important and difficult than committing to memory of all books of a library. Education is not mere collecting facts and documents but it is a process through which we can be able to control our restless mind and finally we should proceed to assimilate certain good ideas. First we should learn a lot of moral values then after thinking and rethinking, without detach single a moment from that, following the exegetical method we will be able to assimilate certain good ideas. By this nervous system association, by imbibing those values a person will be converted as good man/perfect man. 11. Education for weaker section of the society: To uplift the backward classes Swami Vivekananda chooses education as a powerful instrument for their life process. In 1894 he wrote a letter to Haridasbeharidas mentioning the need of the nation. Swamiji pointed out that the real nation lives in hut, they(poor) have lost their personality, to restore their personality by proper education is urgently needed. He also mentioned that to educate weaker section is the only process of our nation-building. In the same year(1894) he wrote another letter to the Maharaja of Mysore mentioning how should we provide education to the weaker section of the society? Swamiji pointed out “if we start free education at villages nevertheless the poor learners will not come to school due to absolute poverty. If the children do not come to the school the teacher should reach them. Two or three educated men should team up, collect all the paraphernalia of education and should go to the village to impart education to the children” (Singh,2013)4. So the aim of man making educational philosophy is to spread education to every impoverished learner of the society. 12. Equal development of 3H: Man-making education means perfect development of body-mind complex. According to Swami Vivekananda three spirits--- rationality; perseverance and feeling are necessary for being a perfect man which are located at head, hand and heart. Swamiji cautioned that we need equal development, balanced development of those organs. If head expands i.e. rationality increases but hand and heart that is perseverance and feeling are minimised then human-being will never become a perfect man. Through education learners will get proper training so that they will be able to develop those three faculties. By the development of head learners can be able to discriminate what is good and what is wrong. By the increasing labour force learners will inspire to do all kinds of work sincerely. Hand is the symbol of labour force. And by the expansion of heart feeling for others that is sympathy and empathy of the learners will be increased. Swamiji wanted education should foster this process so that these three organs representing three specific moral values may be equally increased. Today we have advancement of brain but heart is synchronized. Lack of humanity is the serious social ulcer and for that society is decaying. For the rejuvenation of our society we need to Contemporary Research Spectrum- A Multidisciplinary Refereed Journal| 4


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introduce such type of man-making education which will pave the way for balanced development of necessary three organs--- head, hand, and heart. 13. Gurugrihavasa: Swami Vivekananda said, “My ideal of education is ancient Gurugrihavasa”(C.W. Vol.9)5. He prescribed the ancient spiritual methods of teaching, where Guru and his disciples lived in close association as in a family.The following are the basic norms of that residential education system as explained by Swamiji.        

Education is not only for getting information; rather it should develop character, mental powers, intelligence and inculcate self-confidence together with self-reliance. Education should develop the learner physically, mentally and spiritually. While giving education learners will also get vocational education for the industrial growth which would lead to the economic prosperity of the nation. Practicing of Brahmacharya is very essential for getting knowledge. Purity and concentration are the key to all the knowledge. Learners will have to learn both Western Science and Vedanta and must follow chastity, respectability (sraddha) and self-confidence. Religious education should be imparted for fostering full development of service and renunciation. Guru/Teacher will not only teach learners by supplying facts and documents but also conduct an ideal life so that the learners can imitate the novel qualities of their master. In this way the concept of ‘ethology’(the science of character) has been emerged from ancient Indian educational thought.

Findings: 1. Swami Vivekananda’s educational thoughts are timeless. So that’s why even today his thoughts are being tried to follow. His concept of self realization, reaching towards the perfection, physical strength, self-employment oriented curriculum, mass education and women education are some of the key features of his man making philosophical thought. 2. Swamiji defines education as ‘the manifestation of the perfection already in man.’ This perfection is the self realization and acquiring the infinite power in form of confidence which resides in everybody. He defines religion as ‘the manifestation of the divinity already in man.’ In this way Swami Vivekananda showed there is no difference between education and religion, as if these two concepts are two sides of the same coin. 3. To Swamiji perfect development of body and mind is called man making education. 4. To Swamiji man making education is the assimilation of certain good ideas. Conclusion: The educational philosophy of Swami Vivekananda is a harmonious synthesis between the ancient Indian ideals and modern Western beliefs. He not only stressed on the physical, mental, moral, spiritual and vocational development of the learner but also he advocated women education as well as education of the masses. The essential characteristics of his educational philosophy are idealism, naturalism and pragmatism. In a naturalistic view



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points, he emphasized that real education is possible only through nature and natural propensities. In the form of idealist view point, he insists that the aim of education is to develop the learner with moral and spiritual qualities. In the pragmatists view point, he emphasized the great stress on the Western education of technology, commerce, industry and science to achieve material prosperity (Nithiya,2012)6. Swami Vivekananda was not only an Idealist but also a man of pragmatism. Though first of all he emphasized spiritual development but it does not mean he ignored material prosperity. Safety of life, solving the problems of fooding and clothing of the masses are also focused by Swamiji. The main task seemed to Vivekananda is that the country needed spread of man-making education with the solution of problem of food and clothing, i.e a type of education that would inform man with a religious spirit and impart moral and spiritual strength to him. According to Vivekananda, “Education is the manifestation of the perfection already in man”(C.W.Vol-2)7. So the proper aim of education is to liberate the consciousness from the bondage, to realize the hidden powers in man. Through education comes faith in one’s own self and through faith in one’s own self, the inherent Divinity wakes up (Pal,2013)8. We can conclude mentioning a few relevant sentences of Swami Vivekananda.In respect of the man making education Swamiji proclaimed: ‘Education is not the amount of information that is put into your brain and runs riot there, undigested, all your life. We must have life-building, man making, character-making assimilation of ideas’ (C.W.III. 302). Then he goes on to say: ‘The training by which the current and expression of will are brought under control and become fruitful is called education.’(C.W. iv.490) So according to him, the end of all education, all training should be man-making. Education should let human beings grow. References: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Singh Ravi, Rawat Sohan Singh,2013,Swami Vivekananda’s Educational Philosophy, Bookman International Journal,vol 2,No,2,e-ISSN:2319-426X Ghosh Hazra,2012, Educational Ideas of Swami Vivekananda--- Some Discussion, MS Academy,Vol 2 No2&3 ISSN: 2229-6484 Ghosh Hazra,2012, Educational Ideas of Swami Vivekananda--- Some Discussion, MS Academy, Vol 2 No2&3 ISSN: 2229-6484 Singh Ravi, Rawat Sohan Singh,2013,Swami Vivekananda’s Educational Philosophy, Bookman International Journal,vol 2,No,2,e-ISSN:2319-426X Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda, Vol.9,p.51 Nithiya. P, Swami Vivekananda’s Views on Philosophy of Education, AJMR,Vol-1,Issue 6,ISSN-22784853 Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda, Vol.2,p.358 Pal Subodh Kumar,2013,Indian Spiritualism Integrates a Nation- Vivekananda’s Approach, Swami Vivekanander Bhikshane Jatiya Sanhati: Samasya O Uttaran,,Evenel Press,Kolkata,ISBN,978-9380761-26-8



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Empowering Girls in India: A Study of Post RTE School Education and Impact of ICT Dibaag Singh Research Scholar, Department of Education, VinayaBhavan, VisvaBharati, Pin – 731235, District - Birbhum, West Bengal, India, E-mail: [email protected] ABSTRACT ‘If you educate a man you educate an individual, however, if you educate a woman you educate a whole family. Woman empowered means mother India empowered’ has rightly been said by Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru on the eve of Independence. We are now breathing in a democratic country and all the citizens, male or female, in such country have the right of equality according to constitutional provisions. The same is also applicable in concerning the education of a girl. Today in India there are so many schemes and acts in practice which are for the all-around development of girls. Education is the major issue. Because all those act and schemes are useless if the beneficiary is not literate and not able to know about. Only an educated girl can fight for her right. So before making so many other schemes and give facilities, we have to make it sure that the girls, for whom we are doing all, are able to access and get on their own behalf. It is possible and easier for a well aware and educated girl to access her rights. The education must be on the top priority for girls. Recently Central Government as well State Governments has introduced so many schemes for the improvement of girl’s education. Some of them include ‘Dhanlakshmi scheme’, ‘Bhagyalakshmi scheme’, ‘Ladli scheme’, ‘Rajlakshmi scheme’, ‘Rakshak scheme’ etc. After RTE act 2009 a positive attitude has been noticed in the Indian Society, particularly in rural areas regarding girls education. The role of media and information technology cannot be ignored in this regard to promote and popularize the expanded outlook of people. It is the right of a child (girl or boy) to get education. Between the age groups of 6 to 14 years the elementary education is completely free for each child. There are also some special schemes for the single girl child. For the girls in higher education there are some other schemes too. In this paper the focus is on how girls can be empowered by education and to analyze the role and impact of RTE to enhance girl’s education after the execution of Children’s Right to Free and Compulsory Education Act 2009. This paper also analyses the impact of various means for communication, Films, Television and Information Technology to enhance the empowerment of Girls through Education in India in post RTE era.

Key Words: Right to Education, Empowerment, ICT, School Education Introduction ‘If you educate a man you educate an individual, however, if you educate a woman you educate a whole family. 'Woman empowered means mother India empowered’ has rightly been said by Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru on the eve of Independence. We are now breathing in a democratic country and all the citizens, male or female, in such country have the right of equality according to constitutional provisions. The same is also applicable regarding the education of a girl. Today in India there are so many schemes and acts in practice which are for the all-around development of girls. But all those act and schemes are useless if the beneficiary is not literate and not able to know about. Only an educated girl can fight for her right. So before making so many other schemes and give facilities, we have to make it sure that the girls, for whom we are doing all, are able to access and get on their own behalf. It is possible and easier for a well aware and educated girl to access her rights. The education must be on the top priority for girls. Recently Central Government as well State Governments has introduced so many schemes for the improvement of girl’s education. Some of them include ‘Dhanlakshmi scheme’, ‘Bhagyalakshmi scheme’, ‘Ladli scheme’, ‘Rajlakshmi scheme’, ‘Rakshak scheme’ etc. After RTE act 2009 a positive attitude has been noticed in the Indian Society, particularly in rural areas regarding girl's education. The role of media and information technology cannot be ignored in this regard to promote and popularize the Contemporary Research Spectrum- A Multidisciplinary Refereed Journal| 7


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expanded outlook of people. It is the right of a child (girl or boy) to get education. Between the age groups of 6 to 14 years the elementary education is completely free for each child. There are also some special schemes for the single girl child. For the girls in higher education there are some other schemes too. Why there was less emphasis on girl’s education in India In Asia, India has the lowest rates of female literacy. This is attributed to the fact the country has a biased outlook towards the education of girls. The Indian society feels that a girlis a liability who gets married and will not contribute the economic and social development of the family. The society perceives a girl as somebody who cannot do other duties apart from her traditional duties of cooking and housekeeping. As a result, the society considers home training more important as compared to formal education. Another contributing factor is the rapid growth of the population. Most Indian households have a number of children whose needs are much higher than their earnings. This leads to the neglect of the girl education and put more emphasis on the education of the boy child. In this instance, marriage is taken more seriously as compared to education hence a number of Indian girls are married at a younger age. This becomes as an impediment in the education of the Indian girl. Some of the Important Committees and Institutes Established by Indian Government after the Independent to improve the status of girls' education1) In 1904, Annie Besant established Central Hindu Girls‟ School at Banaras. 2) Prof. Karue established SNDT Women's University at Poona for the promotion of women education. 3) Radhakrishnan Commission or University education Commission (1948) 4) Smt.DurgabaiDeshmukh committee (1959), 5) Smt. Hansa Mehta Committee (1962), 6) M. Bhaktvatsalam Committee to look into the causes of Public Support particularly in Rural Area for girls Education and to public Corporation, 7) Kothari Commission (1964-66), 8) Resolution on the National policy on education (1968), 9) Report of the Committee on the status of women in India (1974), 10) Challenge of Education (1985), 11) National policy on Education (1986), 12) Programme of Action (1986), and (1992),etc. On the other hand, to develop the primary education and to achieve the aim of universalization of primary education up to age level 6-14 years, some schemes or programmes like, OBB, DPEP, SSA, NLM, National Programme of Nutritional Support of Primary Education (NPNSPE) or (Mid-Day Meals), RTE Act 2009 and Knowledge Commission etc. were introduced to achieve the national goal i.e. hundred percent literacy. Despite these government efforts to the education, still women are lagging behind than men. Women of India generally remained unlettered and uneducated. As a result of ignorance, women become victims of man dominated society.



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Why Should Girl Child Get Education 1. It will help to educate the future generation. 2. It will help to decrease the infant mortality. 3. It will help to decrease the maternal mortality. 4. It will help to decrease the child marriage. 5. It will help to decrease the population explosion. 6. It will help to increase involvement in political process. 7. It will help to decrease domestic & sexual violence. 8. It will help to decrease the support for militancy. 9. It will help to improve socioeconomic growth. 10. It will help to improve the Nation Prestige all over the world. Present Status of Girl Education in India At present the people are getting educated and their way of thinking is also changing. Now the educated people don’t discriminate between the girl and boy. They are providing the education to both with same interest. Girls are also getting aware about their right. The enrollment of girls is getting high comparatively. Women' Participation in Education Education for women is the best way to improve the health, nutrition and economic status of a household that constitute a micro unit of a national economy. The trend of literacy reflects some positive and astonishing changes if we look the scene behind the curtain. In the below table we can see a wide gap between the literacy rate of the male and female but the same is decreasing after 1981 and getting less. This trend of rising female literates will have far reaching consequences on the development of society. Table 1: Trends in Women Education (Literacy Rate during Decades) YEAR

Persons(Total)

Males

Females

Literacy Gap

1951

18.33

27.16

8.96

18.30

1961

28.30

40.40

15.75

25.05

1971

34.45

45.96

21.98

23.98

1981

43.56

56.38

29.76

26.62

1991

2.21

64.13

39.29

24.84

2001

64.88

75.26

53.67

21.59

2011 74.04 Source: Census of India 2011

82.14

65.46

16.68



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Importance of the girl Education Women constitute almost half the human race. Education has been recognized as an essential agent of social change and development in any society of any country. Education is considered as a potent instrument through which processes modernization and social change come to existence. Education exposes people to new thoughts and ideas and provides necessary skills. Hence to think harmonious development without educating girls is impossible. Moreover it has been rightly said that to educate a girl is to educate the whole family. Therefore, the emphasis with regard to girl education should be to equip her multiple role as citizens, housewives, mother, and contributor to family income, builders of new society and builder of the nation. Education is the most important factor for girl empowerment, prosperity, development and welfare. Discrimination of girl from womb to tomb is well known to all of us. There is continued inequality and vulnerability of girls in all sectors- Economic, Education, Social, Political, Health care, Nutrition, Right and Legal etc. Girlsare oppressed in all spheres of life, they need to be empowered in all walk of life. In order to fight against the socially constructed gender biases, girls have to swim against the system that requires morestrength. Such strength comes from the process of empowerment and empowerment will come from the education. More importantly, an educated woman in a society like India will assist in reducing the infant mortality rate and control the blossoming of the population. Some of the Constitutional Provisions for the Girls Education1. The constitution of India in Article 15(1) on right to equality provides the basic policy framework that enshrines the vision of girls' and the spirit in which their education is to be provided. 2. The 86th Constitutional Amendment Act, 2002 has made elementary education a Fundamental Right for children in the age group of 6-14 years by providing that "the State shall provide free and compulsory education to all children of the age of six to fourteen years in such manner as State may, by law, determine". 3. A new thrust was provided to girls' education in the National Policy on Education 1986, (as modified in 1992) which provided a holistic vision for the education of girls and women and recognized a cross cutting issues that inhibited the realization of this goal. It aims at using Education as an agent of basic change in the status of women in society. Role of ICT in Empowerment of Girls and Their EducationWhat is ICTthe Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) sector encompasses segments as diverse as telecommunication, television, radio broadcasting, computer hardware and software and services and electronic media like the Internet and the electronic mail. ICTenable girls to create access, store, transmit, and manipulate information. In other words it consists of IT as well as telecommunication, broadcast media, all types of audio and video processing and transmission and network based control and monitoring functions. There has a rapid and unprecedented growth of ICT since the 80’s. The growth of information technology has been phenomenal and its impact is seen in almost sphere of life. How ICT can help the Empowerment of Girls and their Education- through the ICT the girls are getting empowered. Because through ICT they can access the important information Contemporary Research Spectrum- A Multidisciplinary Refereed Journal| 10


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very easily and see so many encourage ableprogrammes which are specially broadcastedfor motivation and inspiration of girls. Some of the most important blesses for the girls from ICT are as follow1. Communication has become very cheap and affordable and has extended to remotest areas across the world. 2. The broadcasting industry especially the television and radio has also grown by leaps and bound and is now easily accessible to rural areas also. 3. The broadcast in television is now literally in all languages with many channels being aired. 4. The radio broadcast is also freely available to most of the people and has been well integrated with mobile technology. 5. The potential of ICT for girls in developing countries is highly dependent upon their levels of technical skill and education. 6. Many NGOs are putting their focus on interventions, which lead to skill development and a rise in educational levels among girls. 7. Government is also imparting the technical education on the use of ICT as a part of both formal and informal educational systems and initiating distant-learning and vocational courses on the same. In Indian context this revolution of ICT has not been passed on to the girl folk primarily due to the social structure, values and beliefs. But now the thinking and attitude of the people regarding all those are changing. They are also sending their girl child to the vocational institutes to get education so that those girls can also come in the main stream. The Girl ICT Day Was Celebrated on 7th May 2013, in New Delhi. Girl Education in RTE act 2009 - According to RTE act 2009 "child" means a male or female child between the age of six to fourteen years.Some specific recommendations for the girls child education are given below    

Every girl child of the age of six to fourteen year shall have the right for the free and compulsory education in a neighborhood school till the completion of elementary education. For the purpose of the sub-section (1), no child would be liable to pay any type of fee or charge or expenses which may be prevent her from pursuing and completing the elementary education. As defined in clause 1 of section 2 the person with disability will not be discriminated. For seeking admission in such other school the head teacher or the principal have to provide the transfer certificate immediately without any delay. For each girl child school will be in the neighborhood area so that the parent can send their daughters to the school without any hesitation and fear.

Provisions For single girl child- There are so many schemes and provisions provided by the State and Central Government for the single girl child. Facilities and Schemes provided by the State and Centre Government- Both the state and the center governments are providing much type of scheme and facilities to empower the girls and their status in the society. There are so many schemes run by state itself or center itself or Contemporary Research Spectrum- A Multidisciplinary Refereed Journal| 11


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the schemes funding by both. Those are like ‘Dhanlakshmi scheme’, ‘Bhagyalakshmi scheme’, ‘Ladli scheme’, ‘Rajlakshmi scheme’, ‘Rakshak scheme’ etc. But once again the same question come in our mind that the benefit of these schemes and facilities can be taken by the common men only when their mindset get change and they become ready to send their girl child to school to get education. Discussion and Conclusion The situation and status of girl child is improving in India. The government of India is making umpteen efforts to uplift the girl child. Education also brings a reduction in inequalities and functions as a means of improving their status within the family. To encourage the education of girls at all levels and for dilution of gender bias in providing knowledge and education, the Govt. established schools, colleges and universities even exclusively for girls in the state. To bring more girls, especially from marginalized families of BPL, in mainstream of education, the government is providing a package of concessions in the form of providing free books, uniform, boarding and lodging, clothing for the hostilities midday meals, scholarships, free cycles and so on. There are many other provisions are for the education of girls. Still we cannot talk of women empowerment when cases of violence against women are rampant everywhere. Society needs to change itself and the way it thinks. What needs to begin is a movement to empower the girl child right from the womb means to say before her birth to her existence. Her upbringing needs to be changed. She cannot be brought up in an environment where girls are taught to remain subdued. Their aspirations cannot be curbed because they are females, they cannot be ignored. The girl child needs to grow learning that she is not less than her brother. She needs to know that a wide range of avenues wait for her to be explored in this world of hi-tech lifestyle. The urban India is adopting these changes, but the situation has to be improved in rural parts where the major part of our population lives. The government and NGOs are doing their best to bring out changes in these areas. Women empowerment drives and initiatives will continue and some will do wonders in achieving their goals. But the real difference will come only once the foundation of our society undergoes dramatic transformation. References         

N.L. Gupta (2003).Women’s Education Through Ages, Concept Publications Co, New Delhi. R. K. Rao (2001). Women and Education, Kalpaz Publications, Delhi. Dayaram (2009) School Development Plan under the RTE Act 2009, New Delhi: American India Foundation NCPCR (2010). Eliminating Corporal Punishment in Schools, NCPCR: Govt. of India, New Delhi GoI. (2007).Study on Child Abuse: India-2007, New Delhi: Ministry of Women and Child Development. GoI. (2009).The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act-2009 New Delhi: The Gazette of India GoI. (2005). Child Protection-A Handbook for Teachers, New Delhi: Ministry of Women and Child Development NCERT. (2005). National Curriculum framework for School Education. New Delhi: NCERT. Siddiqui, Mohammad Shaheer (2013). Changing Scenario of Women Development: Emerging Partnership in Economic Development and Challenges Ahead, pp 434-435 in book 'Challenges of Livelihood and Inclusive Rural Development in the Era of Globalization, New Delhi Publishers, New Delhi.



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The Challenge of Inequality in Higher Education in India Dr. Raminder Singh Head, Department of Education,Punjabi University Regional Centre, Bathinda, Punjab, India E-mail:[email protected] ABSTRACT The focus of this paper is the challenge of inequality in the Indian Higher Education (HE) subsystem in relation to the neoliberal reform agenda adopted by the government. Given the pervasive and largely external neoliberal educational agenda in the last two and a half decades and the current high record of inequitable access to and successful participation in HE, it is imperative to question the equity implications and consequences of the neoliberal reforms drawing on critical policy analysis approach and qualitative data from national policy documents and key policy publications of the World Bank (WB), the paper seeks to understand the way the problem of inequality in HE has been framed in key policy documents; and explicate how the role of the Government has been constrained in addressing structural inequalities in the subsystem. The first section of this paper presents key neoliberal policy agenda endorsed in the Indian HE reform while the second section explores implications of the reform agenda for social equity. By way of concluding remarks, the final section highlights the importance of a social justice perspective in devising equity policy.

Key Words: Higher Education, Social Justice, Equality, Neoliberal, Equity Policy

Key Neoliberal Agenda Neoliberalism assumes its hegemonic position through the process and forces of globalization. Its economic ideals are embedded in policy menus of international financial institutions; and are infused into public policy arenas of nation-states in the form of a call for liberalization, privatization, decentralization and social spending reduction. In this regard, India introduced the neoliberal policy agenda in higher education after the adoption of neoliberal economic policies in 1991. Introduction of Market Mechanism In introducing market forces into the HE system of developing countries, the WB had presented three key policy elements: private provision, cost-sharing and income diversification. Privatization is at the centre of what the WB calls, “sound economic policy” (World Bank, 2002). In this scenario the private is preferable to the public to achieve the most desired public policy goal of efficiency. Cost-sharing (user fees) is another dimension of the market forces in HE. It is part of the plan to reduce public spending on HE and maximize resource utilization. It is assumed that higher rates of taxation to support students out of public funds impair economic efficiency, and hence the alternative is to let individual students pay directly for a service they receive. Income generating is another option for public universities.Higher Education Institutions(HEIs) are expected to widen their source of income through establishing linkage with the industry and service sectors in the society in the form of consultancy and research, and by producing capital goods such as technology and agricultural products (World Bank, 2002).



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Strong Alignment with Economic Productivity Reports of the World Bank (1999, 2002) and findings and recommendations of the Task Force on Higher Education and Society (TFHES, 2000) converged around the need for aligning HE with national economic development initiatives. They underscored the pivotal role of HE in human capital formation of nations. Since the mid-1960s education policies and strategies of the WB have been influenced by the human capital theory and the rate of return analysis. Human capital refers to the knowledge, skills and well-being of the individual person; and expenditure on education and training (by the individual or the state) is a form of investment in capital that leads to increased earnings and productivity at work (Becker, 1993). The WB regards educational development aid as a form of investment in human capital formation to promote economic growth and eradicate poverty, and to support economic competitiveness of nations in the global market economy at large (Heyeman, 2003, 2012; Samoff, 2007). In the global education policy field (Rizvi & Lingard, 2011), the emphasis on human capital formation is indeed unmistakable expression of what Melanie Walker (2008) refers to as ‘neoliberalinstrumentalism’ of education. The normative assumption is that knowledge and skills are the way forward to economic growth as measured by gross domestic product of a nation. Decentralized Governance with a ‘Steering State’ Neoliberals call for limited state intervention, and downsized public spending on social services, including education. Even in the economically developed countries in the global north, the issue of “de-coupling of education from direct state control” is one of the most visible features of a neoliberal education reform agenda (Ball, 1998, p. 72). As a way of redefining their roles, with the decentralization of the governance of the institutions, governments have put in place accountability mechanisms associated with the autonomy they granted for them. The state employs various accountability instruments to monitor and evaluate the behavior and performance of public HEIs, as well as to demand changes and impose sanctions. By way of accountability and quality assurance, the Indian government seeks to monitor such crucial concerns as access, equity, quality and relevance, and efficient use of resources in public HEIs. For example RUSA (Rashtriya Uch Shiksha Abhiyan) is a form of ‘Performance – based budgeting’ that determines the block grant allocation for public HEIs. With this, an ‘evaluative state” (Neave, 1998) emerges in a new position of governance through strategic funding and quality assurance although the steering role of the state seems to have been hampered by organizational weakness of the system oversight agencies. Bearing these neoliberal education policy agenda endorsed in the Indian HE reforms in mind, it is imperative to explore how the problem of inequality has been framed in policies and strategies in the subsystem. The following section discusses this point: The Problem of Inequality and the Neoliberal Connection In a public policy, the basic criteria of equity policies are distributional appropriateness and sufficiency (Gordon, 1989). That is to say that equity is beyond securing equal access to resources and opportunities. It includes reasonable adjustment to system to provide a Contemporary Research Spectrum- A Multidisciplinary Refereed Journal| 14


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differential treatment in accordance with the conditions and needs of the target groups for fair outcomes. Furthermore, the idea of social equity in and through HE includes both access and outcomes, with equitable outcomes in HE broadly understood as “opportunities to progress and complete tertiary studies and also to achieve particular returns to tertiary education”. Social equity in HE is about redressing educational disadvantages in terms of access and participation, creating a socially representatives HE system, and thereby ensuring equal opportunities in the labor market. In the context of India, the pervasiveness of the neoliberal policy agenda precludes women and geo-politically peripheral communities from effective participation in HE and other opportunities. A critical analysis of the selected policy texts shows that the problem of inequity in HE in India is connected with the neoliberal policy prescriptions endorsed in the reform process. The two themes explaining the connection are: superficial representation of the problem of inequality, and political and financial constraints to promote social equity in HE. These themes are discussed in turn as follows: Superficial Representation of the Problem Analysis of equity policy texts reveals that, in India, the problem of social inequality in HE has been framed as a mere lack of access, and a disadvantage in human capital of the nation. Inequality as Lack of Access:The problem of inequality in the Indian HE is framed mainly as lack of access. For instance, when it comes to gender, mainly due to repressive gender relations in the society, men and women have no equal likelihood of participation and successful completion of education. The superficial representation of the problem of gender inequality is evident in the narratives of various policy documents where gender inequality in public HEIs is understood simply as an issue of disparity in enrolment. Representing the problem of inequality as a mere disparity in enrolment clearly shows how “equity by numbers” can “hide less measurable injustices” in the HE system (Sellar & Gale, 2011, p. 3). Social Justice entails a strong notion of equity of opportunity that goes beyond eradicating legal barriers to education and jobs. It requires improving experiences of the target groups through addressing “more qualitative concerns about the existing curricula, pedagogy and relations of power and governance within universities”. (Gale & Tranter, 2011, p.42) Inequality as a Human Capital Concern: Human Capital formation has been a central theme in the WB’s HE reform agenda. In its World Development Report 1998/99, Knowledge for Development, the World Bank not only emphasized the significance of knowledge in the emerging global economic order but also recommended that the developing world should narrow the knowledge gap through acquiring, absorbing, and communicating knowledge (World Bank, 1999). In stressing the invariant value of knowledge in national economic productivity, the report argues: “Poor countries – and poor people – differ from rich ones not because they have less capital but because they have lessknowledge”(World Bank, 1999, p.1). Governments with a neoliberal disposition want to prepare knowledgeable, skilled and attitudinally mature graduates in big number, so that the country shall become internationally competitive. This narrow instrumentalist view of education has two constraining implications for social equity. First, for the proponents of this theory, a talented student from a low-income Contemporary Research Spectrum- A Multidisciplinary Refereed Journal| 15


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group and/or from a minority background who is denied access to quality higher education and training represents a loss of human capital both at individual and societal levels. Hence, the exclusion of an individual or a group of individuals from the HE system, the argument goes, represents a loss of human capital for society at large (World Bank, 2002). It also holds that inequality in education mainly results from inadequate investment on the part of the individual. This narrow orientation limits the role of the state in tackling unjust inequalities in HE. The orientation of efficient use of public spending to expand economically relevant programs and disciplines, as the new policy shows, aims to gradually leave the social sciences and humanities to the private sector which is generally perceived to be of lower quality and reputation. Given that these fields of study being pushed to the private sector are overcrowded by women, depriving public funding to those fields may mean discriminating against women in terms of access, to public resources, thereby reinforcing inequality. Concluding Remarks To sum up, in the neoliberal policy discourse, the problem of inequality is framed mainly as an issue of economic efficiency and productivity; and the policy instruments fall short of transferring the condition of unfairness. In developing countries such as India where the majority of the population has very low income, replacing the role of the government by market is not a viable direction to take. Moreover, it is noteworthy that a mere expansion of HE may not be a solution for all problems the nation faces. Moreover, from the capabilities perspective, equity in HE is not only about how many universities have been opened in the geo-politically peripheral regions of the country (e.g. many central universities have been opened in various states of India) or how many women are enrolled in the subsystem, but about how the local people are befitted from them and how many of women manage to successfully complete their studies so that they can actively and equitably participate in the socio-economic and political affairs of their communities. Hence, a deeper understanding of the problem of inequality in HE should begin with recognition of structurally embedded challenges that define differences in advance along ethnic scale based and gender lines. Thus, as a principle of policy, equity involves public action to redress unjust inequalities resulting from systemic structural factors that systematically disadvantage specific groups such as women, ethnic minorities or individuals from rural areas. References       

Apple, M. (2006). Educating the ‘Right’ way: Markets, standards, God and inequality. (2nd Ed.) New York: Routledge. Ball, S. (1998). Big Policies / small world: An introduction to international perspectives in education policy, Comparative Education, 34 (2), 119-130. Becker, G. (1993). Human Capital: A theoretical and empirical analysis with special reference to education (3rded.). Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Gale, T., & Tranter, D. (2011). Social justice in Australian higher education policy: An historical and conceptual account of student participation. Critical Studies in Education, 52 (1), 29-46. Gordon, E. (1999), Education and justice: A view from the back of the bus. New York: Teachers College Press. Heyneman, S.P. (2003). The History and problems in the making of Education Policy at the World Bank 1960-2000. International Journal of Educational Development. 23 (3), 315-337. Lingard, B., Rawolle, S. & Taylor, S. (2005). Globalizing policy sociology in education: Working with Bourdieu. Journal of Education Policy, 20 (6), 759-777.


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Neave, G. (1998). The evaluative state reconsidered. European Journal of Education, 33 (3), 265-284. Rizvi, F., & Lingard, B. (2011). Social equity and the assemblage of values in Australian higher education, Cambridge Journal of Education, 41 (1), 5-22. Samoff, J. (2007). Institutionalizing International Influence, In Arnove, R.F. & Torres, C.A. (eds). Comparative Education: The Dialectic of the Global and the Local (3rd Ed.) (pp. 47-78), Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. Sellar, S., & Gale, T. (2011). Globalization and student equity in higher education (Editorial). Cambridge Journal of Education, 41 (1), 1-4. Sen, A. (2009). The Idea of Justice. Cambridge, M.A.: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. Walker, M. (2008). Widening participation; widening capability, London Review of Education, 6 (3), 267-379. World Bank (1999). Knowledge for Development – World Development Report 1998/99, Oxford: Oxford University Press. World Bank, (2002). Constructing knowledge societies: New Challenges for tertiary education. Washington DC: Author. Young, I. (1990). Justice and the politics of difference. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Young, I. (2008). Structural injustice and the politics of difference. In G. Craig, T. Burchardt, and D. Gordon (Eds.) Social Justice and Public Policy: Seeking Fairness in diverse societies (pp. 77-104), Bristol: the Policy Press.



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TRANDE of Trade and Commerce in Pre- Medieval India: A Critical Analysis Virendra Sharma Lecturer, Govt. Girls P.G. College, Ajmer, Rajasthan, India & Dr. Ravindra Tailor Assistant Professor, Department of History, Maulana Azad University, Jodhpur, Rajasthan, India, E-mail:[email protected] ABSTRACT The Pre–medieval Indian period witnessed the new dimensions in Trade and commerce. The growth of agricultural manufacture was increased, which stimulated the procedure of both local and inter-local swap. Textile Industry, oil industry, agro- based industry, the craftsmanship in metal and leather goods too reached a high stage of excellence. The overall volume of money in circulation is approximately negligible. The kinds and denominations of coins remained not only very localized but could not penetrate deep into the economic ethos. Barter was still a significant means of swap in local inter-local and perhaps even in inter-national commerce. Several of the Indian goods might have established via Mediterranean. A new class of consumers appeared as a result of big level land grants from the eighth century onwards. Big temples with their vast possessions and varied necessities also helped in generating commercial action. A vast network of roads played a significant role in opening the interior of India to the international sea trade. Trade being a significant source of revenue, political authorities had to be concerned in relation to the safety and well being of traders and merchants. Trade was followed through the people of all varnas and castes. There were emergence of several local merchant groups, i.e. Oswal, Palivalas, , Modha and so on. Growth of trade brought economic prosperity and social prestige to merchants.

Introduction The Pre–medieval Indian period is the era of agrarian expansion, increased use of money and the re-emergence of market economy in which goods were produced for swap rather than for local consumption. These centuries also witnessed a substantial growth of urban settlements in dissimilar parts of the sub-continent. The widespread practice of land grants had been an important factor in agrarian expansion. Surplus agrarian production created a favourable climate for widening the scope of both internal and external trade. Crafts and Industry The growth of agricultural manufacture was complemented through increased craft manufacture. In the first stage of early medieval era the decline of internal and external trade meant the narrowing down of markets for industrial products. The manufacture remained mainly confined to local and local needs. At that time, trend towards increased craft manufacture which stimulated the procedure of both local and inter-local swap. Textile Industry, which had been well recognized since ancient times.Marco Polo (A.D. 1293) and Arab writers praise the excellence of cotton fabrics from Bengal and Gujarat. The availability of madder in Bengal and indigo in Gujarat might have acted as significant aides to the growth of textile industry in these regions. Manasollasa, a text of the twelfth century, also mentions Paithan, Negapatinam, Kalinga and Multan as significant centres of textile industry. The silk weavers of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu also constituted a very significant and influential part of the society. The oil industry acquired great importance throughout this era. From the tenth century onwards. An inscription from Karnataka refers to dissimilar kinds of oil mills operated both through men and bullocks. Sugarcane farming and cane crushers in this era also indicate big level manufacture of jaggery and other shapes of sugar. Besides the agro- based industry, the Contemporary Research Spectrum- A Multidisciplinary Refereed Journal| 18


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craftsmanship in metal and leather goods too reached a high stage of excellence. The literary sources refer to craftsmen linked with dissimilar kinds of metals such as copper, brass, iron, gold, silver, etc. A number of big beams at Puri and Konarka temples in Orissa indicate the proficiency of the ironsmiths of India in the twelfth century. Iron was also used to manufacture swords, spearheads and other arms and weapons of high excellence. Magadha, Banaras, Kalinga and Saurashtra were recognized for the manufacture of good excellence swords. Gujarat was recognized for gold and silver embroidery. The Ginza records of the Jewish merchants belonging to the twelfth century reveal that Indian brass industry was so well recognized that the customers in Aden sent broken vessels and utensils to India to refashion them according to their own specifications. The existing specimens of Chola bronzes and those from Nalanda, Nepal and Kashmir display the excellence of the Indian metal workers. In the field of leather industry Gujarat occupied an enviable location. Marco Polo mentions that the people of Gujarat made beautiful leather mats in red and blue which were skilfully embroidered with figures of birds and animals. These were in great demand in the Arab World. Coins and Other Media of Swap The revival of trade received considerable help from the re-emergence of metal money throughout the centuries under discussion. There is, though,substantial discussion in relation to the degree and stage of monetization. Very often the contenders of the penetration of money in the market invoke literary and inscriptional references to numerous conditions purporting to describe several kinds of coins of early medieval India. Therefore texts such as Prabandha chintamani, Leelavati, Dravyapariksha, Lekhapaddhati, etc. Mention bhagaka, rupaka, vimshatika, karshapana, dinar, dramma, nishka, gadhaiyamudra,gadyanaka, tanka, and several other coins with their multiples. No less prolific are inscriptional references. For instance the Siyadoni inscription alone refers to diversities of drammas in the mid-tenth century. The Paramara,Chalukya, Chahmana, Pratihara, Pala, Candella and Chola inscriptions corroborate mainly of the conditions establish in modern literature. There has also been considerable speculation in relation to the value of these coins, their metal content and their connection with one another. Nothing could be more simplistic than to suggest the penetration of money in the market basically on the foundation of listing of numismatic gleanings from a mixed bag of inscriptions and literature. As distant as the actual specimens of coins are concerned, one can say that the practice of minting gold coins was revived through Gangeyadera (A.D. 1019-1040); the Kalacuri King of Tripuri (in Madhya Pradesh) after a gap of more than four centuries. Govind chandra, the Gahadavala King close to Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh, the Chandella rulers Kirtivarman and Madana varman in Central India, King Harsha of Kashmir and some Chola Kings in Tamil Nadu also issued gold coins. Reference has already been made to sure early medieval coin kinds in Western and North-western India. In relation to the nine mints were founded in dissimilar parts of Karnataka throughout the twelth and thirteenth century. A significant mint functioned at Shrimol (close to Jodhpur) in Rajasthan. Despite the plethora of references to coins, the proof of overall volume of money in circulation is approximately negligible. Nor can one overlook the poor purchasing power of early medieval coins, irrespective of the metal used. All coins of the era were highly debased and reduced in weight. Also, in conditions of the rising population and expanding region of Contemporary Research Spectrum- A Multidisciplinary Refereed Journal| 19


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resolution, the use of money appears to have been highly restricted. The case revise of earlymedieval Rajasthan shows that the revival of trade, multiplication of swap centres and markets and prosperity of merchant families took lay only with the help of “partial monetization”. Likewise, the cash nexus on the Western coast (Konkan region) under the Shilaharas (A.D. 850-1250) was also marked through limited use of money. The kinds and denominations of coins remained not only very localized but could not penetrate deep into the economic ethos. Masses were distant absent from handling of coins. The currency organization of South India throughout A.D. 950-1300 also shows that transactions at all stages of the society were not equally affected through coined money. For instance, the fabulous expenses accounted to have been incurred through the Pandyas as regular buyers of imported horses cannot be thought in conditions of what we know as very poor Pandyan currency. Barter was still a significant means of swap in local inter-local and perhaps even in inter-national commerce. There are references which indicate that caravans of merchants exchanged their commodities with those of other regions. Horses imported from abroad were paid for not in cash but in Indian goods which may have been silk, spices or ivory. These Indian goods enjoyed constant demand in the markets all in excess of the world. Though the revival of even “partial monetization” was contributing to economic growth, yet no less important was the parallel development of credit instrument through which debits and credits could be transferred without the handling of cash money. In this era hundika or the bill of swap which might have been used through merchants for commercial transactions. Through this device credit could be extended through one merchant to another and, therefore, the obstacle to commerce due to shortage of coined money could be overcome. The Lakhapaddhati, a text which throws light on the life of Gujarat in the twelfththirteenth centuries, refers to several means of raising loan for consumption as well as commercial ventures through the mortgage of land, homes and cattle. Characteristics of Trade The increased agricultural manufacture and the momentum picked through industrial and craft manufacture was responsible for giving rise to a hierarchy of swap centres. A big diversity of commodities was accepted for trading through a network of trade routes in the country. Commodities of Trade and their Consumers There are numerous inscriptions which refer to merchants carrying food grains, oil, butter, salt, coconuts, areca nuts, betel leaves, madder, indigo, candid sugar, jaggery, thread cotton fabrics, blankets, metals, spices, etc. From one lay to another, and paying taxes and tolls on them. Benjamin Tudela, a Jesuit priest from Spain (twelfth century) noticed wheat, barley and pulses,besides linsed fiber and cotton cloth brought through the traders to the island of Kish in the Persian Gulf on their method home from India. Al Idrisi also refers to the transhipment of rice from the country of Malabar to Sri Lanka in the twelfth century. The export of palm sugar and coir for ropes is noted through Friar Jordanus who wrote in relation to the A.D. 1330. Marco Polo refers to the export of indigo from Quilon (on the Malabar Coast) and Gujarat. Besides, cotton fabrics, carpets, leather mats, swords and spears also appear in several sources as significant articles of swap. High value things such as horses, elephants, jewellery, etc. also came to several swap centres. Contemporary Research Spectrum- A Multidisciplinary Refereed Journal| 20


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The chief customers of Indian goods were of course the rich inhabitants of China, Arabia and Egypt. Several of the Indian goods might have established their method to Europe as well as via Mediterranean. While the characteristics of foreign trade will be discussed at length later, it needs to be highlighted that the domestic demand was not insignificant. A new class of consumers appeared as a result of big level land grants from the eighth century onwards. The priests, who earlier subsisted on meager fees offered at domestic and other rites were now entitled to hereditary enjoyment of vast landed estates, benefices and rights. This new landowning class, beside with the ruling chiefs and rising mercantile class, became a significant buyer of luxuries and necessities because of their better purchasing power. The brahmanical and non-brahmanical religious establishments, which commanded vast possessions in the form of landed estates and local levies, urbanized as significant consumers of approximately all marketable goods. They required not only such articles as coconuts, betel leaves and areca nuts, which had acquired great ritual sanctity, but also increased quantity of food for presentation to gods or for sharing as prasadau. The personnel of religious establishments, which numbered up to several hundred in case of big and significant temples, constituted a significant consuming group to be fed and clothed through peasants, artisans and merchants. Therefore big temples with their vast possessions and varied necessities also helped in generating commercial action. This phenomenon was more marked in South India where several temple sites became significant commercial centres. Trade Routes A vast network of roads linked dissimilar ports, markets and cities with one another and served as the channel of trade and commerce. The overland connections amongst dissimilar regions is indicated through the itinerary of the Chinese pilgrim Hiuen-Tsang who came to India in the seventh century from crossways the Hindukush and visited several cities and capitals fromKashmir in North to Kanchi in South and from Assam in East to Sindh in West. An inscription of A.D. 953 refers to merchants from Karnataka, Madhyadesha, South Gujarat and Sindh coming to Ahada in Rajasthan for mercantile behaviors. Bilhana, an eleventh century poet from Kashmir tells us in relation to the travels from Kashmir to Mathura, and how he reached Banaras after passing through Kannauj and Prayaga. From Banaras he proceeded to Somanatha (on the Saurashtra coast) via Dhar (close to Ujjain) and Anahilavada (in North Gujarat). From Somanatha, he sailed to Honavar (close to Goa), and then went overland to Rameshwaram on the Eastern coast. Albiruni (A.D. 1030) mentions fifteen routes which started from Kannauj, Mathura, Bayana, etc. The route from Kannauj passed through Prayaga and went eastward up to the port of Tamralipti (Tamluk in the Midnapur district of West Bengal), from where it went beside the Eastern coast to Kanchi in South.Towards the North-east, this route led to Assam. Nepal and Tibet, from where one could go overland to China. Kannauj and Mathura were also on the route to Balkh in the North-west. This also joined Peshawar and Kabul and ultimately the Grand Silk route connecting China with Europe. This North-western route was the chief channel of commercial intercourse flanked by India and Central Asia in the preGupta centuries. But in the early medieval era, it was mainly under the control of Arab and Turkish traders who used it primarily to bring horses from Persia, Balkh and other regions. The routestarting from Bayana in Rajasthan passed through the desert of Marwar, and reached the contemporary port of Karachi in Sindh. A branch of this route passed through Abu in the Western foot of the Aravali Hills, and linked ports and cities of Gujarat with Contemporary Research Spectrum- A Multidisciplinary Refereed Journal| 21


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Bayana, Mathura and other spaces in North and North-western India. Another route from Mathura and Prayaga proceeded to the port of Broach on the Western coast via Ujjain. These routes played asignificant role in opening the interior of India to the international sea trade which acquired a new dimension in the post-tenth centuries. Besides roads, the rivers in the plains of Northern India, and the sea route beside the Eastern and Western coasts in South India also served as significant means of inter-local contacts. The pleasures and pains of travel in ancient times depended on the geographical circumstances of the trade routes. The routes through desert and hilly regions were certainly more arduous and hard. In the modern literature, there are references to dissimilar kinds of boats which necessity have been used in river traffic whereas big ships plied on the high seas. An important development in the post-tenth centuries was the keen interest shown through rulers to stay the highways in their kingdoms safe. They took events to punish thieves and robbers and provided military as well as monetary help to villagers to protect the traders and travelers passing through their region. The Chalukya kings of Gujarat had a separate department described the Jiala-patha-karana to look after highways. They also built new roads to connect significant ports and markets in their state and exhumed tanks and wells for the benefit of travellers. Trade being a significant source of revenue,political authorities had to be concerned in relation to the safety and well being of traders and merchants. Marco Polo’s reference to Cambay as a lay free from pirates designates that Indian kings also took steps to safeguard their ports against piracy which was a major threat all beside the sea route from South China to the Persian Gulf. Maritime Trade Throughout this era, vast level trading behaviours were accepted through sea. A large number of countries occupied in sea trade, the commodities of trade, main ports and security of the sea routes. The Chief Participants The era under survey was marked through great expansion of sea trade flanked by the two extremities of Asia viz. the Persian Gulf and South China. India which lay midway flanked by the two extremities greatly benefited from this trade. The hazards of extensive sea voyages were sought to be curtailed through anchoring on the Indian coasts. The Asian trade throughout these centuries was mainly dominated through the Arabs, After having destroyed the significant port and market of Valabhi on the Saurashtra coast in the eighth century, they made themselves the chief main time force in the Arabian Ocean. Though, it did not affect the location of Arabs who sustained to uphold their supreme hold on the Asian trade. Fragmentary information in indigenous sources and notices in foreign accounts suggest that despite the forceful competition of the Arabs, Indians were going to the lands beyond the seas for trade from the tenth century onwards. Abu Zaid, an Arab author of the tenth century refers to Indian merchants visiting Siraf in the Persian Gulf, while Ibn Battuta (14th century) tells us of a colony of Indian merchants at Aden in the Red Sea. A Gujarati text of the 14th century refers to a merchant Jagadu of Kutch who traded with Persia with the help of Indian mediators stationed at Hormuz. In South India, the Cholas, took keen interest in maritime trade. The Tamil inscriptions establish in Malaya and Sumatra indicates the commercial behaviours of Tamil mercantile society in these regions. The Cholas also sent a number of embassies to China to improve economic dealings with her. They even sent naval expedition against the Srivijaya empire in the Contemporary Research Spectrum- A Multidisciplinary Refereed Journal| 22


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eleventh century to stay the sea route to China safe for their trade. Though, through and big the references to the physical participation of Indian merchants are quite limited. This did not affect the demand for Indian products which reached the outside world through the Arabs and the Chinese. Commodities Exchanged As regards the articles, which involved in the Asian trade, the Chinese texts indicate that the Malabar coast received silk, porcelain-ware, camphor, cloves, wax, sandalwood, cardamom, etc. from China and South-east Asia. Mainly of these may have been the things of re-export to the Arabian world, but some were meant for India, particularly the silk which was always in great demand in local markets. Marco Polo informs us that the ships coming from the East tothe ports of Cambay in Gujarat brought, in the middle of other things, gold, silver and copper. Tin was another metal which came to India from South-east Asia.In return for eastern products, India exports its aromatics and spices, particularly pepper. According to Marco Polo, pepper was consumed at the rate of 10,000 pounds daily in the municipality of Kinsay (Hang-Chau) alone. Chau –Ju- Kua.a Chinese port official of the thirteenth century, tells us that Gujarat, Malwa, Malabar and Coromandel sent cotton cloth to China. It is pointed out through Ibn Battuta (A.D. 1333) that fine cotton fabrics were rarer and more highly priced than silk in the municipalities of China. India also exported ivory, rhinoceros horns, and some valuable and semiprecious stones to China. A number of Arabic inscriptions establish at Cambay, Samaratha and Junagadh reveal that merchants and shippers from the Persian Gulf visited Western India in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. The ships coming to the Gujarat coast from Hormuz in the Persian Gulf are also mentioned in the Lekhapaddhati. The Jewish merchants accepted several goods from the West coast of India to the Egyptian markets. These incorporated spices, aromatics, dyes, medicinal herbs, bronze and brass vessels, textiles, pearls, drops, coconuts, etc. India also exported teakwood which was required for ship-structure and homes construction in the approximately treeless regions of Persian Gulf and South Arabia. Some surplus foodgranules, mainly rice, were also sent out from the The fine and embroidered leather mats of Gujarat were according to Marco Polo highly priced in the Arab world. India was also recognized for its iron and steel products, particularly the swords and spears, which enjoyed a wide market in Western countries. As distant as imports from the West are concerned, the mainly important thing was the horse. As the number of feudal lords and chiefs increased in the early medieval era, the demand for horses also increased manifold. Horses were brought both through land and sea. Ibn Battuta described that horse-dealers coming through the North-western land routes earned big profits. According to an Arab author, Wassaf (A.D. 1328) more than 10,000 horses were brought annually to the Coromandel coast, Cambay and other ports of India in the thirteenth century. Horses were brought from such spaces as Bahrein, Muscat,Aden, Persia, etc. Besides horses, dates, ivory, coral, emeralds, etc. were also brought to India from the West. Ports There were a number of ports on the Indian coasts, which not only served the inland trade network but also acted as a link flanked by the eastern and western trade. On the mouth of the Indus, Debal was a significant port which according to Al Idrisi (twelfth century), was visited through vessels from Arabia as well as from China and other Indian ports. Chief ports on the Gujarat coast were Somanatha, Broach and Cambay. Somanatha had links with China in the Contemporary Research Spectrum- A Multidisciplinary Refereed Journal| 23


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East and Zanzibar (in Africa) in the West, Broach or ancient Bhrigukachha has had a very extensive history. Cambay is recognized as Khambat in Arabic sources, and Stambhatirtha in Sanskrit sources. Its earliest reference goes back to the ninth century A.D. Sopara and Thana were other significant ports on the Western coast of India. On the Malabar coast, Quilon had appeared as the mainly significant port. The Arab Writers describe that ships coming from the West described at the port of Quilon for collecting fresh water before sailing for Kedah in South-east Asia. Likewise, the Chinese sources of the thirteenth century also state thatChinese traders going to the country of the Arabs had to change their ships at Quilon. Throughout the three centuries flanked by the tenth and thirteenth, the Coromandel coast urbanized into a virtual clearing homes for the ships coming from the East and West. The Arab author, Wassaf, writes that the wealth of the isles of the Persian Gulf and the beauty of other countries as distant as Europe is derived from the Coromandel coast. The mainly significant port in this region was Nagapattinam. Puri and Kalingapattam were significant ports on the Orissa coast. In Bengal the fortunes of Tamralipti were reviving though according to some scholars, it was being superseded through another port of Saptagrama. The traders form a significant link flanked by producers and consumers. They collect agricultural surplus and products of artisans and craftsmen from dissimilar regions and distribute them in excess of a wide region. Throughout the early medieval centuries, the procedure of collection and sharing of goods involved a big number of merchants, big as well as small, local as well as inter-local. There were hawkers, retailers and other petty traders on the one hand and big merchants and caravan traders on the other. Trade was followed through the people of all varnas and castes. Some were compelled to take it up while others establish it more lucrative than other economic behaviours. The early medieval India brought the mercantile society back into prominence, and big number of merchants carrying luxury and essential goods from one lay to another. They accumulated fabulous wealth through commercial exchanges and acquired fame in society through creation gifts to temples and priests. Several of them took active part at several stages of management, and even occupied the ministerial posit ions in royal courts. The literature and inscriptions of the era refer to the big number of merchants who were recognized through the specialized trade they followed. Some of the merchants employed retailers or assistants to help them in trading behaviours. As inter-local trade urbanized a group of merchants specialized in examining and changing coins for traders Money lending also became one of the major behaviours of merchants. There appeared a separate group of merchants, described nikshepa-vanika in western India, who specialized in banking or money lending. The Lakhapaddhati, a text from Gujarat, refers to a merchant’s son who claimed his share in the ancestral property to start the business of money lending. Medhatithi, a legal commentator, speaks of the association or corporation of moneylenders. In other side The modern literature, though, presents a bad picture of moneylenders and describes them as greedy and untrustworthy who cheat general man through misappropriating deposits. This era also witnessed the emergence of several local merchant groups,i.e. the merchants who were recognized after the region they belonged to. They were mostly from Western India. As this region had a wide network of significant land routes connecting coastal ports with the cities and markets of northern India, the merchants of sure specific spaces in this region establish it more profitable to specialize in inter-local trade. Therefore, the merchant groups described Oswal derive their name from a lay described Osia, Palivalas from Patlli, Shrimali from Shrimala, Modha from Modhera and so on. Mainly of them are now a days collectively recognized as Marwaris, i.e. the merchants from Marwar. Separately Contemporary Research Spectrum- A Multidisciplinary Refereed Journal| 24


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from their functional and local names, merchants were also recognized through several common conditions, the two mainly general being—shreshthi and sarthavaha. Both these conditions were recognized from very early times. Sresthi was a rich wholesale dealer who existed in a city and accepted on his business with the help of retailers and mediators. At times he lent out goods or money to small merchants, and therefore acted as a banker too, though, as we have already pointed out, money lending was becoming a separate and specialized action. The sarthavaha was the caravan leader under whose guidance the merchants went to distant spaces to sell and purchase their goods. He was supposed to be a highly capable person knowing not only the routes but also the languages as well as the rules of swap in dissimilar regions. The expansion of agriculture and the availability of surplus from the 8th-9th century onwards led to augment in commercial exchanges in South India too.It resulted in the emergence of a full time trading society looking after the local swap. This society also participated in wider inter-local and inter-oceanic trade. As in the North, South Indian merchants too specialized in the trade of specific commodities such as textiles, oil or ghee, betel leaves, horses, etc. At the local stage, local markets described nagaram were the centres of swap. They were situated in a cluster of agrarian settlements, and they integrated not only collection from hinterland but also commercial traffic from other regions. The numbers of these nagarams increased considerably throughout the Chola era in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, and the term nagarattar, i.e. member of the nagaram assembly, became a generic term for all Tamil merchants. As growth of trade brought economic prosperity to merchants, they sought to gain social prestige through participating in the maintenance of temples, priests and religious functions. Numerous inscriptions refer to the grant of cash or goods through merchants for these purposes. Some merchants became very influential and joined the ranks of state officials and ministers. A tenth century inscription refers to a merchant of Modha caste who was the chief of Sanjan (close to Thane) in Maharashtra. In Gujarat, the merchant family of Vimala played a significant role in the political and cultural life of the region. He and his descendants Vastupala and Tajapala occupied significant ministerial positions at the court and are recognized for structure the well known marble temples dedicated to Jaina thirthankars at Mount Abu. A thirteenth century inscription from central Gujarat reveals that several significant merchants, traders and artisans were a part of the local administrative bodies. The foreign authors and travellers such as Al-Idrisi (twelfth century) and Marco Polo (thirteenth century) praise Indian traders for their truthfulness and honesty in business dealings It points out that merchants who indulged in big level sea or land trade enjoyed great reputation.This period of political and cultural creativity coincided with the rapid development of commodity production, the manufacturing by hand of goods which made India's reputation in these early times as a land of fabulous wealth and elegance. This reputation attracted people to the subcontinent, feeding further the vitality of commerce within and beyond South Asia. References: 

B. D. Chattopadhyaya, The Making of Early Medieval India, 1994.

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John S. Deyell, Living Without Silver: The Monetary History of Early Medieval North

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India

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Kesavan Veluthat, The Early Medieval in South India, New Delhi, 2009.

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R. Champakalakshmi, Trade. Ideology and urbanisation: South India 300 BC- AD 1300, 1996.

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5. Sircar, D.C., Studies in the Geography of Ancient and Medieval India, 1990.



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Home Environment Fostering Creativity Dr. Rita Singha Roy Assistant Professor, Department of Education, Swami Niswambalananda Girl’s College, Uttarpara, Uttarpara Kotrung, District – Hooghly, West Bengal, Pin – 712232, India, E-mail: [email protected] ABSTRACT The present state of civilization embodies the cumulative gifted or creative feats of mankind in both its expressional and instrumental aspects. Creativity is a complex and multi faceted phenomena of human behavior. Creativity is one of the most highly valued qualities of man as creative acts affect enormously all spheres of life. It is a way by which we relate the outer world of objects and events to our inner world of image and ideas. It not only involves appreciating skills and environment but also encounters obstacles and challenges to overcome. Human personality as well creativity is a developmental outgrowth of the constant interaction between genetic potentiality and environmental influences. There are different environmental agencies that nurture creativity and home is one such inevitable agency. Home plays a major role in fostering and nurturing creativity among the young people.

Key Words: Creativity, Nurture, Foster, Environment, Home, Children, Parents. Introduction Human interest for creativity has been long and fascinating. In all fields of pursuits, creativity has been a dominating force. It leads to learning insightful experience and discovery of the novel. It is a way by which we relate the outer world of objects and events to our inner world of image and ideas. It not only involves appreciating skills and environment but also encounters obstacles and challenges to overcome. Creativity is a universally accepted characteristics of mankind attributed in the beginning of a mystical origin. The modern age of scientific research has completely revered the idea. At the 1967 meeting of The National Academy of Gifted Children, it was proposed that the creative and gifted children be designated as a new category in the field of special education of children.

The ability to generate novel and useful ideas and solutions to everyday problems is an important competence of creativity (Amabile, 1996). Creativity can be evaluated by emotional variables such as personality, motivation and self-efficacy. Promoting the development of creativity is a purpose that is less often or at least less explicitly, stated. Young children, after their infancy, continue to grow physically in a steady manner while they continue to grow cognitively in a rapid manner. Young children begin to explore and adapt themselves to the surrounding environment using their sensory abilities. Although it is universally held that creativity is the highest and finest form of mental functions and is acclaimed the peak of human achievement. Creativity is the ability to produce work that is original yet appropriate, something that others have not thought of but that is useful in someway. Instead, of following established rules, a creative work pulls together previously disparate ideas. And it typically involves hard work and overcoming obstacles on the way to the final product (Weisberg, 1993). Creativity is of great value to individuals on the job and in daily life. In addition, it is vital for societal progress. Without creativity, there would be no new inventions, scientific findings and progress in arts, social programs or psychological research.



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Definition of the Term Creativity The term creativity is not very easy to define. It might have originated from the Latin word “create” which means “to grow”, ort from the word “creare” which means “tomake’. Historically speaking, creativity was thought of as a divine inspiration by Kalidas and Tagore. Kant defined the term as something natural that cannot be taught. Freud associated the term creativity, with frustrated sexual urges and Nietzsche, Van Gough, Cesora and Lambrose with madness (Mangal, 2000).The East and the West also differ in their approach to creativity. According to Eastern point of view, in the first hexagram or kaun of the Chinese “Books of Changes”, the creative principles functionwhen superior persons harmonies their way of life with the flow (Nandi, 2008). From the Western point of view, the English word Creativity may be, linked, with the conceptof origin itself. According to the Western psychological approach, the term Creativity, is described as, the process of communicating a finished or final product (Torrance, 1962) and bringing something new into being (May, 1975). Some of the American, Asian and Native American traditions used the term creative imagination as an enrichment and enhancement of everyday life. The American and BritishPsychologists have used the term creativity synonymously with imagination, originality, divergent thinking, giftedness, talent inventiveness and intuition. According to Lubart definitions of creativity vary greatly among cultures (as cited in Huffman et al., 1997). According to Jones (1995), “to be creative is to exhibit the power or ability to create…….. an original product of human invention or artistic imagination”. There is not a single universally accepted definition of creativity. Mooney (1963) has spoken of four significant different approaches to the problem of creativity: the person, the process, the product and the environment. Creativity, as Rock, Evans and Klien (1969) hold, has three basic approaches: creativity as a process, as a product and as an attribute to one’s personality. Rhodes (1961) analyzed fifty definitions and indicated four categories, into which the various definitions of creativity may be classified- person, process, product and press. The term creativity is used interchangeably to denote anything from composing a musical piece to writing a good dissertation. Creativity is a serious, dynamic and complex process. It knows no special time, place, medium and person. Creative potentiality is normally distributed and ranges from very low to immeasurable creativity. Considering the nature of creativity, it appears that the factor analytical model of creativity is a worth-while strategy for empirical studies to explore the nature of creativity. Study Method: Qualitative analysis method was used for the present study. Data Collection: Data was collected through secondary sources like books, journals and websites. Objective of the Study: The objective of this study is to find out how home environment helps in nurturing and fostering creativity among the young children? Conditions Fostering Creativity From the very nature of creativity, it is clear that creativity cannot be forced, but be permitted to emerge. The farmer cannot make the germ develop and sprout from the seed, He can only supply the nurturing conditions which will permit the seeds to develop its own potentialities similar in the case with creativity. By setting up conditions of psychological safety and freedom, one can maximize the likelihood of an emergence of constructive creativity. Rogers (1976) identified the following conditions of creativity:



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1. Psychological Safety: This may be established by three associated process a. Accepting the individual as an unconditional worth: When a teacher or parents feels basically that the individual is of worth in his own right and in his own folding, no matter what his present condition or behavior, he is fostering creativity. b. Providing a climate in which external evaluation is absent: When we cease to from judgments of the other individual from our own focus of evaluation, we are fostering creativity. For the individual to find himself in an atmosphere where he is not being measured by some external standard is enormously free. c. Understanding Sympathetically: In this climate, one can permit his/her self to emerge and to express itself to the world. This is the basis of fostering creativity. 2. Psychological Freedom: When a teacher or parent permits the individual a complete freedom of symbolic expression, creativity is fostered. This permissiveness gives the individual complete freedom to think, to feel, to be whatever is most inward within him. Home Environment Fostering Creativity Human personality is a developmental outgrowth of the constant interaction between genetic potentiality and environmental influences. Creativity is not an exception. There are different environmental agencies that nurture creativity and home is one such inevitable agency. A great variety of studies have been conducted in the field of environmental influence on creativity with special reference to the family. Most of them refer to Western countries. Unfortunately there are only few studies in Indian context A group of researches at the University of Chicago headed by Benjamin Bloom (1985) have provided valuable insight into the ways in which families influence creative development carried out from different dimensions. The investigation comprised young adults who were at the cross roads of becoming distinguished as experts in one field of activity. The findings showed that the family was in close contact throughout the persons’ childhood and parents were willing to go to enormous lengths to help the individual do well. They supervised homework and at times checked it. They were hardworking energetic favoring active non-passive pursuits attaching importance to maximum success. To sum up, whatever the areas of expertise, the child’s early interest in it came about as a fairly predictable consequence of learning in the particular cultural milieu of that individual’s everyday family life. Weisberg and Springer (1961) did a detailed study based on families of 31 highly gifted 9 years old and gave them a criterion test of divergent thinking. The parents showed expressiveness together with lack of domination for the children. They accepted any regressive tendency that is mere tolerant of a temporary return to babyish behavior. Mackinnon (1962) and Schaefer and Anastasi (1968) have indicated, that creative individuals are seen to have their father and other relatives who provide them models of effectiveness and resourcefulness and also people within their environment who share their fields of interest. Springer (1961) pointed out that the degree to which the father was professionally autonomous was very significantly associated with children’s divergent thinking. Another demographic finding as observed by Roe (1952) is that eminent men are first born children more than chance would allow. Researches done by Holland (1961) and Drerdahl (1964) affirmed a nonintrusive, non-authoritarian attitude of parents of the creative children t6owards their wards. Singer’s study (1973) revealed that creative artists are likely to come from middle-class family. Research Contemporary Research Spectrum- A Multidisciplinary Refereed Journal| 28


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studies of Barron (1963) have prove d that sometimes unhappy home environment produce a creative individual than a happy one. An important condition of creative environment is that unhappiness should not be smothering a crippling sort, but it should be of a kind that can be met, grappled with transcended even capitalized on. Many studies focused on family influences and child rearing practices in the nurture of creativity. Esserman and Schussel (1970), found striking birth order effects creative development; first born children especially first-sons were found significantly more creative in the sciences than latter born males, who appeared to possess artistic creativity. A child’s birth-order apparently affects the acquisition of creative potential by influencing the course of both intellectual and personality development. Getzels and Jacksons (1961, 1962) studied the family background of both intelligent and creative children and found differences between mothers of high intelligent children and those of creative children. The former expressed admiration for conventional qualities in children, were vigilant over their children’s performance in school and restricted their children’s independence more often than the later children’s confronting and lack originality were found to be related to the mother’s authoritarian child-rearing attitudes (Nicklos, 1964). Adult creative achievement was found to be related to experience of responsibility and independence during childhood (Drerdahl, 1964 and Mackinnon, 1964). Domino’s (1969) results may serve as a reasonably accurate summary of other reports in this area. The mothers of creative children in comparison to mothers of controlled groups showed greater self-assurance and initiative; preferred change and unstructured demands, valued autonomy and independent endeavor; were less sociable, conscientious, dependable and inhibited, less concerned with creating a favorable impression and less nurturing and obliging towards others. These traits suggest that mothers of creative children may themselves be more creative than the general population and foster creativity in their children through the force of their own unstereo- typed behavior. Lytton (1971) suggested that the children of more liberal parents are more creative, as they allow their children to develop at their own desired direction even to the point of being tolerant of some backsliding to more infantile behavior. On the basis of umber of studies Simonton (1990) observed that creative development is nurtured by the availability of cultural enrichment in the homes of the gifted. The parents of future creators tends to display a broad array of intellectual and athletic hobbies and interests accompanied by a love of learning that encourages the developing child to explore the ample material available in the immediate environment. The children should visit museum, works of arts and read various books and magazines. The home environment favors diversity, freedom and autonomy. According to the function of the ‘Child’s Oedipal Response to the Affectional Approach to the Opposite Sexed Parental Theory’, boys who were close to their mothers and girls who were close to their fathers during the period 4-7 years of age will become more creative than others. Such a theory explains why there appear to more creative man than women. The child at this time is enhanced by the warm effect of the opposite sexed parent. The child creativity manipulates his immediate environment and enlarges the bridge between his fantasy world and his real world (Simonton, 1990). On the basis of a number of studies, Simonton (1990), observed those who achieve success in creative endeavors tended to have suffered higher incidence of parental loss, particularly orphan-hood in comparison to the norm. The presence of such early trauma is most conspicuous in those who exhibit artistic forms of creativity, especially poetry .He had also observed the exposure to creative role model contributes the development of creative potential. Thus the amount of creativity evinced by one generation is directly proportional to the availability of suitable role model in the preceding generations. Guildford (1961) proved that heredity also helps to develop creative thinking. Many



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geniuses who had showed spontaneous evidence of their talents very early in childhood, was to be conceived of the importance of heredity. M. Sekhar’s study (1980) , ‘A Study of Creativity in Relation to Home Environmental Factors’ showed that factors of cordial relationship, democratic attitude of parents, acceptance of the child by the parents and relationships with younger siblings in the family showed a positive relationship with creativity. Moreover, the total number of siblings in the family, socio-economic status of the parents and single-talented and double-talented families, all has an impact on the creative development of the child. (Dacey, 1989), evidence suggests that the family is a critically important influence on, and quite possibly the major force behind, the ethnology of creative behavior.

Wright and Wright (1986) have developed a three-pronged model of the creative family environment. The three main components of the creative family environment are said to be respect for the child, stimulation of independence, and an enriched learning environment. Hirish-Pasek (1991)'s study showed that children of control type of parent have low creative ability to perform and rate of consistency is also low. Lee and Le (2002) examined the relationship of young children's creative thinking ability and creative personality with creative home environment and showed that there was a significant relationship. Different studies have proved that home environment that is not strictly controlled and limited to the atmosphere provides ample the opportunity to the children to experience a variety of interests and pursuits creative activities. But many other aspects left, like how do broken homes, parents separated for reasons other than mutual discordance, single parents and so on, influence in the nurture of creativity and seem all to be investigated in order to elicit a better picture for home influence on the fostering creativity. References               

Amabile, T.M., Hennessy, B.A., & Grossman, B.S. (1986). Social Influences on Creativity: The Effects of Contracted-for Reward. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 14-23. Amabile, T. M. (1989). Growing Up Creative: Nurturing a Life of Creativity. Buffalo, New York. Creative Education Foundation. Amabile, T.M, (1996). Creativity in Context: Update to The Social Psychology of Creativity, Boulder, and Co. West view. Anderson, H.H. (1959). Creativity and Its Cultivation. Harper and Row, New York. Bloom, B.S. (ed.), (1985). Developing Talents in Young People. Ballantine, New York. Dacey, J. S. (1989). Discriminating Characteristics of the Families of Highly Creative Adolescents. The Journal of Creative Behavior, 23(4), 263-271. Drevdahl, J.E. (1964). ‘Some Developmental Environmental Factors in Creativity’. In Widening Horizons In Creativity (ed. Taylor, C.W.) Wiley, New York. Dutt, N.k. and Lal, G. (1977). The Creative Potential and Education. Indian Book Agency, AmbalaCantt. Guilford, J. P. (1956). The Structure of Intellect. Psychology Bulletin, 53, 267-293. Guilford, J. P. (1961). General Psychology. Dvan Nostrand Co. Inc. London. Lee, S. D. and Lee, K. H (2002). Integrated Initiative Test Manual. Seoul: Hakmoonsa. Lytton, H. (1971). Creativity and Education. Routledge and Legan Paul Ltd., London. Torrance, E. P. (1970). Guiding Creative Talent. Englewood Cliffs, Prentice Hall. New Jersey. Torrance, E. P. (1995). Why Fly? A Philosophy of Creativity. Norwood, NJ: Ablex, Wright, C., & Wright, S. (1986). A Conceptual Framework for Examining the Family's Influence on Creativity. Family Perspective, 20, 127-136.



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A Comparative Study on Intelligence of Secondary School Students in Lakhimpur and Sonitpur Districts of Assam Mr. Jadab Dutta Research Scholar, Department of Education, Rajiv Gandhi University, Rono Hills, Itanagar791112, State- Arunachal Pradesh, India, E-mail Id: [email protected] & Dr. Suresh Rajkonwar Associate Professor, Department of Education, Nazira College, P.O- Nazira, Dist-Sivasagar, State - Assam, Pin-785685, India & Prof. J.C Soni Department of Education, Rajiv Gandhi University, Rono Hills, Itanagar, Pin -791112, State - Arunachal Pradesh, India ABSTRACT Intelligence is the general capacity of an individual or a mental energy of an individual, which enables him to adjust effectively in the environment and deal with novel situations of life. It is an organization comprising of the abilities of readiness, correctness and of understanding complicated and abstract things. It is an inborn natural power that makes a man capable of overcoming difficulties and problems of life. The present study investigated the intelligence of secondary school students in Lakhimpur and Sonitpur districts of Assam. This study is conducted on a sample of 1000 Students of comprised500 boys and 500 girls selected randomly from 32 Government and Private secondary schools of both districts of Assam. The descriptive survey method is used for data collection using group test of mental ability was constructed and standardized by Dr. S. Jalota.The findings of the study reported that there was not any significant difference in intelligence of government and private school students; no significant difference in the intelligence ofschool boys and girls; and there is no significant difference between in the intelligence of rural and urban secondary school students of both the districts of Assam.

Key Words: Intelligence, Mental Ability and Secondary School Students Introduction Intelligence is an important determinate of one’s performance in any field of activity, it tries to make an estimate of one’s future success or failure. It is the future reference to predict the degree of attainment or success of an individual in an area or activity. Behaviour is generally influenced by the intellectual potential of a person. Intelligence refers to a student’s ability and capacity and maintaining a definite direction in thinking to attain goal. Wundt in Germany, Galten in England and Cattel in America discovered that individuals differ in the accuracy and speed of their responses when they are tested in single functions. Intellectual development responds to the influence of this nature. Although dull children can’t be made bright children, who tend to remain bright, yet there are evidences that a child may be born with high degree of potential ability to act intelligently, but unless he is stimulated through learning (improved environment) to exercise that capacity he may appear to be relatively dull or retarded. Intelligence is the necessary condition for achievement. It is impossible to achieve without corresponding intelligence which is comprised of mental abilities. Ability is about the Contemporary Research Spectrum- A Multidisciplinary Refereed Journal| 31


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quality of being able to do something which serves as the foundation of achievement. Stern (1914) defined intelligence as a general capacity of an individual consciously to adjust his thinking to new requirements. It is the general mental adaptability to new problems and conditions of life. Keeping all these discussion, we may attempt a viable definition of intelligence as a sort of mental energy, in the form of mental or cognitive abilities, available with an individual which enables him to handle his environment in terms of adaptation to face novel situations as effectively as possible. In terms of this definition, we can assess a person’s intelligence in proportion to his ability to use his mental energy to handle his problems and lead a happy and well-contented life. Review of Related Study Makhija (1973) conducted a study on interaction among values, interests and intelligenceanditsimpactonscholasticachievements.Themajorfindingsofstudy were: (i) Intelligence had a significantly positive influence on scholastic achievement. (ii) Students, who were not oriented to political value, exploited their mental ability to much less extent than those who were highly oriented to it. (iii) Students who valued beauty, form, symmetry and grade in their life developed vocational interests in literary pursuit and avoided, as far as possible, sports and outdoor activities. (iv) Students who were oriented to practical and utilitarian view of life tended to exert their intellectual capacities more in the mechanical fields of vocations. (v) Students who valued power, competition, and renown, etc. in their life utilized their mental abilities to excel in crafts and scientific studies. (vi) Intelligent students interested in science and medicine found religious value helpful in their performance but obstructive if they were interested in recreational activities. Dhami (1974) conducted a study on intelligence, emotional maturity and socioeconomic status as factors indicative of success in scholastic achievement and found: 1. Intelligence and emotional maturity contributed to success in scholastic achievement. The contribution of intelligence was more than that of socioeconomic status. 2. Aclose and significantly high relationship existed between intelligence and emotional maturity. 3. The relationship between scholastic achievement and socio-economic status, though statistically significant, was not very high. 4. The relationship between scholastic achievement and intelligence, between scholastic achievement and emotional maturity and between socioeconomic status and scholastic achievement differed significantly from each other. 5. The socio-economic status had positive effect on emotional maturity especially the factors of parent’s education, family income, cultural level of the family, the type of house the family lived in and the vocational aspirations of learners. 6. The effect of socio–economic status on the scholastic achievement of girls was more striking. 7. The relationship between scholastic achievement and intelligence was higher in case of students of private schools than for those of government schools. 8. There was higher relationship between scholastic achievement and emotional stability in the case of class IX boys than in the case of class X boys who were more anxiety ridden due to the coming public examinations. Srivastava (1980) studied the relationship between intelligence, interest, adjustment and family status as predicators of educational attainment of high school students. The results were: 1. There was substantial correlation between achievement and intelligence and moderate correlation between achievement and socio-economic status. 2. Scientific, clerical Contemporary Research Spectrum- A Multidisciplinary Refereed Journal| 32


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interest and educational adjustment were substantially correlated with achievement. 3. Mechanical interest and emotional and social adjustment also had significant positive correlation with achievement. Gakhar (1985) conducted a study on intelligence, creativity and achievement in mathematics. The findings were: (i)There was a significant correlation between measures of intelligence and creatively taken singularly on one side and achievement in mathematic son the other side. (ii) Intelligence and achievement in mathematics free from creativity and also creatively and achievement in mathematics free from intelligence remained insignificantly correlated. (iii) Intelligence and creativity were equally good predicators of achievement in mathematics. (iv) Conjoint effect of intelligence and creativity was higher as compared to their respective predictions in respect of mathematical achievement. Dixit, Mithlesh (1985) designed a comparative study of the academic achievement and intelligence of adolescent boys and girls studying in classes IX and XI. Half of them were boys and half were girls. The results indicated that there was no difference in the academic achievement of intellectually superior and very superior boys and girls. At all other intellectual levels, the academic achievement of the girls was superior to that of boys. In general, the intelligence test scores of the boys were higher than those of the girls. Mehrotra (1986) studied the relationship between intelligence, socio-economic status, anxiety, personality adjustment and academic achievement of high school students. The main findings of the study were: 1. Both for boys and the girls there was an inverse relationship between level of anxiety and academic achievement. 2. Both for boys and girls there was a positive relationship between socio-economic status of family of students and academic achievement. 3. There was a positive relationship between intelligence and academic achievement. 4. There was a positive relationship between level of adjustment and academic achievement. 5. In general, the girls had a comparatively higher level of anxiety than the boys. Kaur (1992) studied the inter relationship between creativity, intelligence and academic achievement of 11th grade boys and found that relationship between creativity and intelligence was low but positive; academic achievement commonly influenced the correlation between creativity and intelligence; relationship between creativity and intelligence was non-linear; low positive relationship existed between creativity and academic achievement; creativity commonly influenced the correlation between academic achievement and intelligence; the relationship between intelligence and academic achievement was linear. Balasubramanian (1993) studied how far intelligence was related to pupil’s academic achievement in English and found: (i) Intelligence of pupils positively influenced their academic achievement in English. (ii) Pupils having higher level intelligence preferred English medium classes and urban schools. (iii) Sex of the pupils had no influence on their intelligence as well as academic achievement in English. (iv) Pupils preferred schools of different types of management irrespective of their level of intelligence. (v) The medium of instruction and locality in schools had no influence on pupil’s academic achievement in English. (vi) The sex of the pupils and the nature of management of the school had no significant influence on their academic achievement.



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Kumar (1994) studied the interaction effect of intelligence, cognitive style and approaches to studying on achievement in biology of secondary school pupils and found: (i) Regarding main effect of intelligence, significant main effect was noticed on achievement in biology for the total sample and for the sub samples. (ii) There was no significant main effect of cognitive style on achievement in biology for the total sample for boys. For girls, this variable had significant main effect on achievement in biology and in the comprehensive category. (iii) Regarding main effect of approaches to studying significant main effect of deep/surface approach hes existed on achievement in biology total score, comprehension and in higher objective category for the total sample. In knowledge and application at egoriesno significant main effect of deep/surface approach was found. For boys significant main effect existed on comprehension category only. Among girls significant main effect was found on achievement in biology total score, comprehension and in higher objective category.There was no significant main effect on knowledge and application categories of achievement in biology. Regarding organized/disorganized method there was significant main effect on comprehension category for the total sample and on comprehension and objective category for girls but not for boys. (iv) There was no first order inter action f intelligence X cognitive style: intelligence X deep /surface approach on achievement in biology. (v) There was significant first order interaction of cognitive style X organized /disorganized method on higher objective category and the above variables in combination on achievement in biology total score, knowledge, and comprehension and application categories. (vi) Achievement in biology total score, comprehension, application and higher objective categories, no significant first order interaction were found. (vii) There was no significant second order interaction of intelligence X cognitive style X deep/surface approach or organized/disorganized method on achievement in biology. Allik and Realo (1997) studied intelligence, academic abilities and personality. From the study it was found that low intelligence persons used their intellectual abilities for seeking excitement and elaborating fantasies while high intelligence persons used their intellect for regulating and controlling their affective lives. Petrill and Wilkerson (2000) conducted a study on intelligence and achievement: a behavioural genetic perspective and examined the relationship between intelligence, standardized tests of intelligence, and academic achievement from a behaviour genetic perspective. Results suggested that genetic, shared environmental, non-shared environmental influences had an impact on intelligence and academic achievement. Behavioral genetic studies also suggest that the importance of genes might vary as a function of age. Other studies suggested that genes drived the correlation and that the no shared environmental drived the discrepancy between measures of intelligence and achievement. Implications for the identification of intellectually and academically relevant environmental influences were discussed. Vyas (2002) studied learning style, mental ability, academic performance and other ecological correlate so funder graduate dole scent girls with the objective to study the effect of ecological correlates on the academic performance of girls students by taking a sample of 545 adolescent girls and found that most of the girls showed academic attainment of average level; no significant difference in the achievement of girls belonging to arts and science group; there was significant difference in the learning style and mental abilities of girls residing in urban and rural area.



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Meijeretal (2004) studied the joint contribution of sleep, intelligence and motivation to school performance. The relationship of chronic sleep reduction, eagerness, achievement motivation and intelligence with school performance demonstrated that the less chronic sleep reduction, great ereagerness, higher achievement motivation and intelligence gave rise to a better school performance. Panda (2005) studied correlation between academic achievement and intelligence of class IX students with the objective to study the relationship between academic achievement and intelligence by taking a sample of 765 secondary school adolescents studying in government, aided and private schools and found that there was lower lationship between intelligence and academic achievement in different categories of school and also there was a significant difference in academic achievement of students studying in different categories of school. Panigrahi (2005) studied academic achievement in relation to intelligence and socioeconomic status of high school students with the objective to examine the influence of intelligence and socio economic status on academic achievement of high school students by taking a sample of 100 students from Bhubaneshwar city of Odisha and found that there was significant and positive correlation between academic achievement and intelligence; high intelligence leads to better academic success; a low positive correlation between academic achievement and socio economic status; there was no significant difference between boys and girls with respect to academic achievement. Motah, Mahendrenath (2008) conducted a study entitled “The Influence of Intelligence and Personality on the Use of Soft Skills in Research Projects among Final Year University Students. The study examined the moderating influence of the “Big Five” model of personality, emotional intelligence, and the impact of multiple intelligences, on the use of soft skills among final year students. The work investigated the variables which affect students in the elaboration of their research projects during their final year of study. 187 students reading for their final years were asked to fill out questionnaires comprising questions on the personality traits as proposed in the Big Five model and on Multiple Intelligences. This study provided information about how young students used soft skills in their work, and how multiple intelligences and their personality influenced the preparation and presentation of their final year project. Dhall et al. (2009) studied intelligence as relatedo self-confidence and academic achievement of school students with the objective to explore the relationship between intelligence and academic achievement among secondary school students by taking a sample of 1000 students and found that there was a significant relationship between academic achievement and intelligence of secondary school students; there existed a significant difference between boys and girls of secondary school in terms of intelligence; there existed significant difference between boys and girls of secondary school in terms of academic achievement. Habibollah et al. (2010) made a study on “Intelligence and academic achievement: an investigation of gender differences”. The objective of this study was to examine if a relationship exists between intelligence and academic achievement and if the relationship differs between males and females. Two research questions are examined in this paper: (i) what is the relationship between different aspects of intelligence and academic achievement? Contemporary Research Spectrum- A Multidisciplinary Refereed Journal| 35


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(ii) Is there any significant gender differences regarding the relationship between different aspects of creativity and academic achievement? Participants (N=153; male=105 and female=48) completed creativity test. Cumulative grade point average (CGPA) was used to select the participants. Intelligence was measured using the Catell Culture Fair Intelligence Test (CFIT-3a & b). Pearson Correlation analysis indicated that aspects of intelligence were not related to academic achievement for both males and females. The finding of this study was: There existed no significant relation between males and females regarding which aspect of intelligence related to academic achievement. Saikia. Pallabi & Choudhary (2014) made a study on “Effect of Intelligence on Academic Achievement of Secondary School Students- A Study in Lakhimpur District of Assam”. The objective of this study was to study the academic achievement of the secondary school students according to gender and place of residence; to determine the level of intelligence to gender and place of residence. This study is conducted on a sample of 100 class X students from government and provincialised schools of Lakhimpur district of Assam. The normative survey method is used for data collection. The findings of the study was: (i) there is difference between boys and girls student on the academic achievement in the test examination, (ii) there is difference between rural and urban students on the average academic achievement in the test examination and (iii) it is also found that the mean score of intelligence for both rural and urban students is quite high. Implications of the Review of the Related Literature with the Present Study Review of related literature allows the researcher to acquaint himself with current knowledge in the area in which he has proposed to conduct his research. It serves the following purposes:  It provided as sources of problems and helped in identifying and selecting a problem of interest.  It gave an understanding of the status of research in the problem area.  It enabled researcher to develop an understanding of the research methodology which refers to the way the study is to be conducted. It developed an insight into tools and instruments, and statistical methods through which validity of the results is to be established.  It enabled the researcher to define the limits of his field. It helped the researcher to delimit and define his problem.  It made researcher up to date on the work which others have done.  It provided researcher to avoid unintentional duplication of well-established findings  It provided clues to the research approaches, methods, instrumentation and data analysis. Need of the study The present study has been designed to study Intelligence of Secondary School Students in Lakhimpur and Sonitpur Districts of Assam. Here, the Intelligence is a vital Contemporary Research Spectrum- A Multidisciplinary Refereed Journal| 36


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factor in academic achievement. It may be explained as the capacity for knowledge and understanding especially as applied to the handling of novel situation; the power of meeting novel situation successfully by adjusting behaviour to the total situation. It is an organization comprising of the abilities to readily, correctly, understand the complicated and abstract things. It is an inborn natural power that makes a man capable of overcoming difficulties and problems of life. Intelligence is a variable that contributes towards academic achievement, and the evidence of the same is presented by a large number of researches. In view of number of researches, the researchers of the present study have gone through the studies. Statement of the Problem The problem of the present study has been stated as follows: “A Comparative Study on Intelligence of Secondary School Students in Lakhimpur and Sonitpur Districts of Assam” Objectives of the Study The study is designed with the following objectives: 1. To study the intelligence of government and private secondary school students of Lakhimpur and Sonitpur districts of Assam. 2. To find out the difference between rural and urban secondary school students in relation to intelligence of Lakhimpur and Sonitpur districts of Assam. 3. To compare the gender differences of: a. rural, b. urban, c. government, d.private in relation to intelligence of secondary school students of Lakhimpur and Sonitpur districts of Assam. Hypotheses of the Study The hypotheses are stated as under: 1. There is no significant mean difference in intelligence of government and private secondary school students of Lakhimpur and Sonitpur districts of Assam. 2. There is no significant mean difference between rural and urban secondary school students in relation to intelligence of Lakhimpur and Sonitpur districts of Assam. 3. There is no significant mean difference between male and female of government secondary school students in relation to intelligence. 4. There is no significant mean difference between male and female of rural secondary school students in relation to intelligence. 5. There is no significant mean difference between male and female of urban secondary school students in relation to intelligence. 6. There is no significant mean difference between male and female of private secondary school students in relation to intelligence. 7. There is no significant mean difference between rural male and female of private secondary school students in relation to intelligence. 8. There is no significant mean difference between urban male and female of private secondary school students in relation to intelligence.



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Methodology of the Study The Descriptive approach is used in the study. The present study is a comparative study on intelligence of Secondary School Students in Lakhimpur and Sonitpur districts of Assam. Keeping in view the nature of study, the survey method was found to be more suitable. Population of the Study The population of the present study constitutes all the secondary school students studying in class X of Lakhimpur and Sonitpur districts of Assam. Sample of the Study The sample is of small number of representative individuals from the population. This study is conducted on a sample of 1000 Students, 500 boys and 500 girls selected randomly from 32 Government and Private secondary schools of Lakhimpur and Sonitpur districts of Assam. The final sample is selected randomly. Due representation is given to rural and urban localities as well as management of schools. Tools Used The group test of mental ability was constructed and standardized by Dr. S. Jalota was employed by the researchers for the purpose of data collection. Statistical Techniques Used In this study various statistical measures such as Mean, SD and t-test are used. Result and Discussion Collected data through above mentioned inventories were analyzed in terms of mean, standard deviation and t-test method. The results have been presented in the tables. Hypothesis 1: There is no significant mean difference in intelligence of government and private secondary school students of both the districts of Assam. Table 1: Mean, Standard deviation and t-value of the government and private secondary school students of both the districts of Assam Group

N

Mean Standard deviation t-value

Intelligent\ Government 744 58.41

13.52

Private

7.36

256 75.18

24.66

Remarks Highly Significant

It is found that the mean scores of both government and private students are 58.41 and 75.18 respectively. When the t-test was applied to test the significance of the mean difference between these groups, it reported a t-value 24.66. This was found to be highly significant. Hence hypothesis 1 is rejected. This means that there is a great difference in intelligence of government and private secondary students of both the districts.



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Hypothesis 2: There is no significant mean difference between rural and urban secondary school students in relation to intelligence of both the districts of Assam. Table 2: Mean Standard deviation and t-value of the rural and urban secondary school students of both the districts of Assam Group

N

Mean

Standard deviation

Intelligence Rural Students 500

62.75

15.17

Urban students 500

62.66

13.31

t-value

Remarks

0.1

Not Significant

It is found that the mean scores of both rural and urban students are 62.75and 62.66respectively. When the t-test was applied to compare the mean scores of both the groups, it was found that the calculated t-value (=0.1) is less than the table value 1.96 at 0.05% level of significance. This means that the mean difference is not significant. Hence, hypothesis 2 is accepted. This further means that rural and urban secondary school students are at similar level of intelligence in both the districts. Hypothesis 3: There is no significant mean difference between male and female of government secondary school students in relation to intelligence. Table 3: Mean, Standard deviation and t-value of the male and female of government secondary school students of both the districts of Assam

Intelligence

Group

N

Mean

Standard deviation t-value

Male

372

58.89

13.35

Female

372

57.93

13.69

0.97

Remarks Not Significant

It is found that the mean scores of government male and female students are 58.89and 57.93 respectively. The computed t-value between their mean differences is 0.97 which is found not significant at 0.05 level. Hence the hypothesis 3 is accepted. Therefore male and female students of government schools are found to be of similar level of intelligence in both the districts. Hypothesis 4: There is no significant mean difference between male and female of rural secondary school students in relation to intelligence. Table 4: Mean, Standard deviation and t-value of the rural male and female secondary school students of both the districts of Assam

Intelligence

Group

N

Mean

Standard deviation

Male

250

63.84

14.41

Female

250

61.67

15.85

t-value

Remarks

1.61

Not Significant

It is found that the mean scores of both male and female of rural students are 63.84 and 61.67respectively. When the t-test was applied to compare the mean scores of both the groups, it was found that the calculated t-value (=1.61) is less than the table value 1.97 at Contemporary Research Spectrum- A Multidisciplinary Refereed Journal| 39


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0.05% level of significance. This means that the mean difference is not found significant. Hence hypothesis 4 is accepted. This further means that male and female of rural secondary school students have been found to process similar level of intelligence in both the districts. Hypothesis 5: There is no mean significant difference between male and female of urban secondary school students in relation to intelligence. Table 5: Mean, Standard deviation and t-value of the urban male and female secondary school students of both the districts of Assam

Intelligence

Group

N

Mean

Standard deviation

Male

250

62.47

13.72

Female

250

62.84

12.92

t-value

Remarks

0.31

Not Significant

It is found that the mean scores of both male and female of urban students are 62.47 and 62.84respectively. When the t-test was applied to compare the mean scores of both the groups, it was found that the calculated t-value (=0.31) is less than the table value 1.97 at 0.05% level of significance. This means that the mean difference is not significant. Hence hypothesis 5 is accepted. This further means that male and female of urban secondary school students have similar level of intelligence in both the districts. Hypothesis 6: There is no significant mean difference between male and female of private secondary school students in relation to intelligence. Table 6: Mean, Standard deviation and t-value of the private male and female secondary school students of both the districts of Assam

Intelligence

Group

N

Mean

Standard deviation

Male

128

75.52

7.06

Female

128

74.83

7.67

t-value

Remarks

0.75

Not Significant

It is found that the mean scores of both male and female of private students are 75.52 and 74.83respectively. When the t-test was applied to compare the mean scores of both the groups, it was found that the calculated t-value (=0.75) is less than the table value 1.98 at 0.05% level of significance. This means that the mean difference is not significant. Hence hypothesis 6 is accepted. This further means that male and female of private secondary school students have similar level of intelligence in both the districts. Hypothesis 7: There is no significant mean difference between rural male and female of private secondary school students in relation to intelligence. Table 7: Mean, Standard deviation and t-value of the private rural male and female secondary school students of both the districts of Assam

Intelligence

Group

N

Mean

Standard deviation

Male

64

74.64

8.29

Female

64

75.70

7.68

t-value

Remarks

0.75

Not Significant



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It is found that the mean scores of rural male and female of private students are 74.64and 75.70respectively. When the t-test was applied to compare the mean scores of both the groups, it was found that the calculated t-value (=0.75) is less than the table value 2.00 at 0.05% level of significance. This means that the mean difference is not significant. Hence hypothesis 7 is accepted. This further means that rural male and female of private secondary school students are similar level of intelligence in both the districts. Hypothesis 8: There is no significant mean difference between urban male and female of private secondary school students in relation to intelligence. Table 8: Mean, Standard deviation and t-value of the private urban male and female secondary school students of both the districts of Assam

Intelligence

Group

N

Mean

Standard deviation

Male

64

74.61

5.48

Female

64

73.95

7.63

t-value

Remarks

2.10

Significant

It is found that the mean scores of urban male and female of private students are 74.61 and 73.95respectively. When the t-test was applied to compare the mean scores of both the groups, it was found that the calculated t-value (=2.10) is greater than the table value 2.00 at 0.05% level of significance. This means that the mean difference is significant. Hence hypothesis 8 is rejected. This further means that urban male and female of private secondary school students have great difference of intelligence in both the districts. Conclusion The study showed that there are major differences in the intelligence of secondary school students of both districts whether they belong to government and private male/female and urban male and female private students. This study also showed that there is a no difference between rural and urban govt., male/female; govt., male/female of rural; male/female of urban; male/female of private and rural male and female of private secondary students of both the districts on intelligence. Suggestions for Further Research     

Studies can be carried out in relation to emotional intelligence of students at whole level. Studies can be carried out in relation to emotional maturity and emotional intelligence of students at whole level. Similar study on senior secondary students will be a significant area of research to depict their personality characteristics. The present study is conducted on class-X students. Similar studies may be undertaken on this variable at the other levels of education as well. In the present study cross sections that have been investigated are male/female, rural/urban and government/private. Many others cross sectional comparison of various other categories of students like poor/rich, home/residence, tribal and nontribal studying in government/private schools may be carried out.



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Studies can be carried out in relation to intelligence in different communities including minority groups. Studies can be carried out in relation to intelligence with respect to students at secondary level coming from nuclear and joint family structure. The relationship between family members and friends has bearing on intelligence and forms another area of research. Studies can be carried out in relation to intelligence and academic achievement of students comparing other remote and advanced districts of Assam. Studies can be carried out in relation to intelligence and creativity of students at whole level.

References    

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Stern, W., Psychological Methods of Testing Intelligence, Baltimore: Warwick and York: INC, 1914, p. 3. Wechsler, D., The Measurement of Adult Intelligence (3rd ed.), New York: Williams and Wilkins, 1944, p. 3. Jalota, S. (1976) Manual for General Mental Ability Test. Ivory Printers, Chandigarh. Makhija, G.K. (1973), Interaction among values, Interests and Intelligence and its impacton Scholastic Achievements. Ph.D. Psy., Agra University. In: M. B. Buch, ed.(1983).Third Survey of Educational Research(1978-1983). NewDelhi: National Council for Educational Research and Training Sri Aurobindo Marg, P.673. Dhami, G.S. (1974), Intelligence, Emotional Maturity and Socio-economic status as Factors Indicative of Success in Scholastic Achievement. Ph.D. Edu., Punjab University. In: M.B. Buch, ed.(1983).Third Survey of Educational Research(1978-1983).New Delhi: National Council for Educational Research and Training, Sri, Aurobindo Marg, P. 663. Srivastava, N.(1980). Intelligence, Interest, Adjustment and Family Status as predicators of Educational Attainment of High School Students. Ph.D. Edu., Gora University. In: M.B. Buch, ed. (1983). Third Survey of Research in Education (1978-1983). New Delhi: National Council for Educational Research and Training, Sri Aurobindo Marg, PP. 694-695. Gakhar, S.C. (1985). Intelligence, creativity and achievement in mathematics: Aregression analysis. Journal of the Institute of Educational Research, 9(3), pp. 16-20. Dixit, Mithilesh Kumari (1985). A Comparative Study of Intelligence and Academic Achievement of Adolescent Boys and Girls studying in classes IX and XI. Ph.D. Edu., Kanpur University. In :M.B. Buch, ed.(1991).Fourth Survey of Educational Research(19831988).New Delhi: National Council of Educational Research and Training, Sri Aurobindo Marg, P. 821. Mehrotra, S. (1986) A study of the Relationship between Intelligence, Socio economic Status, Anxiety, Personality Adjustment and Academic Achievement of High School Students. Ph.D. Edu., Kan. University. In: M.B. Buch ed. (1991). Fourth Survey of Research in Education (1983-1988). New Delhi: National Council for Educational Research and Training, Sri Aurobindo Marg, P. 836. Balasubramanian, N. (1993), A study of pupils academic achievement in English in relation to their intelligence. The journal of English Language Teaching, Vol. XXVIII, No.5,pp. 128137. In: Indian Educational Abstracts, Issue4, January 1998, pp. 89-90. Kumar, Sudheesh P.K. (1994). Interaction Effect of intelligence ,Cognitive Style and Approaches to studying on Achievement in Biology of Secondary school pupils. Ph.D. Education, University of Calicut. In: Indian Educational Abstracts, Issue 2, January 1997, P. 85. Allik, Juriand Realo, Anu(1997), “Intelligence, Academic Abilities and Personality”. Personality and Individual Differences, 23(5), PP.809-814. In: Psychological Abstracts,85(3), Contemporary Research Spectrum- A Multidisciplinary Refereed Journal| 42


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1998, P. 1082, Sr. No. 7618. Petrill, Stephen A. and Wilkerson, Bessie. (2000), Intelligence and Achievement: A behavioural genetic perspective. Educational Psychology Review. 12(2), PP. 185-199, In: Pychological Abstracts, 87(8), 2000, PP. 3182-3183, Sr.No. 24980. Meijer, Anne Marie and Vanden Wittenboer, GodfriedL. H. (2004). The Joint contribution of Sleep, Intelligence and Motivation to School Performance. Personality and Individual Differences, 37(1), PP.95-106. In: Psychological Abstracts, 90(10), 2004, P. 3858, Sr. No. 30039. Panda, M.(2005) Correlation between Academic Achievement and Intelligence of Class IX Students, Edutracks, Vol.5, No.1, Hyderabad, Sri Suresh Chandra Sharma, Neelkamal Publication Pvt. Ltd. Panigrahi, M.R. (2005) Academic Achievement in relation to Intelligence and Socio Economic Status of High School Students, Edutracks, volume5, No2, Hyderabad, Sri Suresh Chandra Sharma, Neelkamal Publication Pvt ltd. Mahendrenath Motah (2008), The Influence of Intelligence and Personality on the Use of Soft Skills in Research Projects among Final Year University Students: A Case Study, Proceedings of the Informing Science & IT Education Conference (In SITE). Dhall, Shikha& Thukral, Praveen (2009), “ Intelligence as Related to Self-Confidence and Academic Achievement of School Students”. Habibollah. Naderi, Rohani. Abdullah, H. Tengku Aizan & Jamaluddin. Sharir (2010), “Intelligence and academic achievement: an investigation of gender differences”. Life Science Journal, Vol 7, No 1, http://www.sciencepub.net, pp.83-87. Saikia. Pallabi & Choudhary (2014), “Effect of Intelligence on Academic Achievement of Secondary School Students- A Study in Lakhimpur District of Assam”. Golden Research Thoughts, ISSN 2231-5063, Vol. 3, Issue-10, http://www.aygrt.isrj.net , pp-01-07.



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Library Movement in India: with Iyyanki Venkata Ramanayya Jahar Biswas Ex-LIS Student, E-mail: [email protected] ABSTRACT Though Indian libraries started from very early ancient times, comparatively library movement in India is not older. For spreading the consequence of education in the large number of people, a good number of able libraries were established. It has an important role as the mass media. In this article, the researcher has mentioned some important periods, dates, places and Iyyanki Venkata Ramanayy in the Indian scenario up to 21st Century. Still Indian library movement is developing.

Introduction Library movement in India has remarkable achievement as especially in these 100 years. “After Independence, India has experienced growing population of literate and educated citizens due to various efforts in universalisation of elementary education through programs like, Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan(SSA), District Primary Education Program (DPEP), and National Literacy Mission and so on.” For the same, facilitating educated people with the sufficient documentary and knowledge resources, government and other agencies have established public libraries. The society information centers and village knowledge centers are the current additions to this effort that would transform India into an information society, where information and knowledge resources are considered as prime and significant ingredient for development. Ancient Period of library movement up to 12th Century: In India since the ancient times libraries have been functioning as light houses for those who wanted to read and to extend the boundaries of various disciplines. In the ancient times, libraries were essentially places for scholarship, archives of government and business transactions, and places for intellectual discourse, in addition to being social and cultural institutions Nalanda Library (4th Century India). Library movement up to 19th Century: The period of Mughal is considered as the golden period of Indian history for its educational, literary, and library activities. The libraries also made remarkable progress during their times. 1. Humayun converted a pleasure house in puranaquila in Delhi into a library. 2. Akbar maintained an “imperial library”. 3. Jahangir is said to have maintained a personnel library which moved with him wherever he went. The head librarian was known as “Nizam” and the assistant librarian as “Muhatin” or “Darogha”. Other staff of libraries during Mughal period is Scribes, Book Illustrators, Calligraphers, Copyists, Translators, Bookbinders and Gilders”.



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Public / State Libraries In the seventeenth and the eighteenth century, the development of libraries received an impetus due to rise of European settlement in India. A number of Academic institutions were established during the British period by the East India Company and by the Christian missionaries. Some of the scattered manuscripts of the early periods have been collected and preserved in many modern manuscripts libraries. These are found in many states in India. Those of Baroda, Banaras, Bombay, Calcutta, Madras, Mysore, Poona and Trivandrum are well known. Academic Libraries 1. The first college to be started in this country is the Fort William College in 1800. 2. The first modern university was started at Calcutta in 1857 based on the patterns of London University 3. 1869 Mr. Joy Krishna Mukherjee donated Rs. 5,000.00 to the University for Purchasing Books for the library The senate in the year 1872 succeeded in constructing a beautiful building at a cost of Rs. 4, 34,697.00. 4. This is the first and oldest university library that was established in British India. 5. In 1937, the Calcutta University Library selected the professionally qualified librarian, Dr. Nihar Ranjan Roy. He for the first time in India introduced the DDC and AACR rule for providing effective library services to the user. Library Movement up to 20th Century Academic libraries: 1. Madras University Library was opened in 1907. The government of India gave a special grant. In 1924, Dr. S. R. Ranganathan joined the Madras University Library as librarian. He was the first professionally qualified librarian in Indian history. 2. The Bombay University library was established very lately due to the lack of donation. It was the university authorities of Bombay that offered a donation of Rs. 20,000.00 for construction of library building. In 1939, the Central government provides a special grant to the University of Bombay library to strengthen its collection. 3. Punjab University Library: Punjab University was established in 1882 and in the year 1908 Punjab University Library was opened. 4. Banaras Hindu University was established in 1916. In 1926-27 the construction of the library was made by the Sir Siyaji Rao, the Maharaja of Baroda. Library Movement up to 20th & 21st Century: Library Legislation in India: The Indian Union consists of 28 States and 7 Union Territories far enacted library legislation. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Tamil Nadu (Madras) Public Libraries Act, 1948 Andhra Pradesh (Hyderabad) Public Libraries Act, 1960 Karnataka (Mysore) Public Libraries Act, 1965 Maharashtra Public Libraries Act, 1967 West Bengal Public Libraries Act, 1979



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6. Manipur Public Libraries Act, 1988 7. Haryana Public Libraries Act, 1989 8. Kerala Public Libraries Act, 1989 9. Goa Public Libraries Act, 1993 10. Mizoram Public Libraries Act, 1993 11. Gujarat Public Libraries Act, 2001 12. Orissa Public Libraries Act, 2001 13. Uttar Pradesh Public Libraries Act, 2005 14. Uttarakhand (Uttaranchal) Public Libraries Act, 2005 15. Rajasthan Public Libraries Act, 2006 16. Bihar Public Libraries Act, 2007 17. Chhattisgarh Public Libraries Act, 2007 18. Pondicherry Public Libraries Act, 2007 19. Arunachal Pradesh Public Libraries Act, 2009 LIS Education in India:      

  

John Macfarlane, the first Librarian of the Imperial Library (now the National Library) Kolkata started the first in- service training program for the staff in 1901. W.A. Borden initiated training for librarians at the invitation of Maharaja Sayajirao Gaikwad of Baroda in 1911. Don Dickinson started a systematic training program at the Punjab University in Lahore in 1915.This was first university course in the undivided India. He also prepared a manual namely, “The Punjab Library Primer”. Andhra Desa Library Association, founded in 1914, started conducting training classes for library personnel in 1920 at Vijaywada. M. Vishveshwaraiah, the Diwan of Mysore state in 1920, started training course for librarians at Bangalore as, “Programmed of Library Development.” University of Madras in collaboration with the Madras Library Association started offering a certificate course in librarianship form 1929, which was taken over by the University in 1931. In 1937, it converted the certificate course in librarianship to Postgraduate diploma course of one year duration. Andhra University, the Imperial Library, and the Bengal Library Association imparted training through Certificate/Diploma courses for shorter duration of varying period. Banaras Hindu University in 1941, University of Bombay in 1944, Calcutta University in 1946, and Delhi University in 1947 too started diploma courses. Aligarh Muslim University is the first university to start the degree course as Bachelor of Library Science. At present, there are about 100 universities in India which are imparting different levels of courses in LIS training from certificate course to PhD. DRTC and INSDOC (now NISCAIR) offer two-year Associate ship program.

Iyyanki Venkata Ramanayy: Born: 1890 and Death: 1979, Konkuduru, East Godavari District, Andhra Pradesh, Residence: East Godavari District, Ramachandrapuramtaluka, Komkuduru, Other names: Father of library. He (24 July 1890 – 1979) is recognized as the "Architect of Public Library Movement in India". He is the first Indian to be awarded the Kaula Gold Medal. Through his career as an influential library leader throughout the entire country, Ramanayya was seen as a respected peer and mentor by S. R. Ranganathan. He was born in konkuduru village of Contemporary Research Spectrum- A Multidisciplinary Refereed Journal| 46


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Ramachandrapuramtaluq in East Godavari district of Andhra Pradesh to VenkataRatnam and Mangamamba. He studied in Tailor High School and influenced by Bipin Chandra Pal entered public service. Shri Iyyanki entered public life in the year 1907 at the age of 19 and was instrumental in establishing the First State Library Association in Indian – Andhra Desa Library Association (1914), Bengal Library Association (1925). He contributed to the foundation of the Madras Library Association (1928), Punjab Library Association (1929) at state level and All India Public Library Association (1919) at the national level. During 1934–1948 he toured the coastal districts and organized library tours in large scale by the district secretaries. As a result hundreds of libraries are opened and many are reopened. He organized training camps for the library secretaries in 1920 and 1934. It is not exaggeration if one can say he toured almost all villages in Andhra Pradesh With unmatched missionary zeal, ShriIyyanki founded literary journals like Andhra Bharati (1910), the first Telugu illustrated monthly from Machilipatnam, which catered to many generations keeping them informed of Telugu related information. He also founded the "Granthalaya Sarvasvamu" in Telugu in the year 1916 (the first professional journal on Library Science from Vijayawada), as well as the Indian Library Journal in the year 1924 (the first professional journal on Library Science published in English from Vijayawada) at his own cost and boosted the profession. He helped establishment of Raja Rammohan Library in 1911 in Vijayawada. He started All India Citizens' Library Association in 1919. He was secretary Andhra Pradesh Library Association and organized an All India Library Meeting in the year 12 November 1912 in Madras. This meeting led to the forming of Indian Library Association (ILA). Later ILA declared 14 November as National Library Day. Since 1968, 14–20 November has been celebrated as National Library Week all over India and various programs are organized to let the public know about the libraries. References:            

Augustine, C.A and Devarjan, G. “Public Library System in India”. New Delhi, ESS Publication, 1990 Barua, B.P. “Library movement in India: problems and prospects”. In Granthana, V.4(1&2), 1994, p-9 Bhatt, R.K. “History and development of libraries in India”. New Delhi, Mittal Publications, 1995 Chakraborty, N.C. “Library movement in India: an introductory essay”. Delhi, Hindusthan Publishing Corporation, 1962 Dutta, B.K. “Libraries nad librarianship and ancient and medieval India”. Delhi, Atma Ram, 1970 Kaula Endowment Awards Medals Scholarships Misra, J. “History of libraries and librarianship in modern India”. Delhi, Atma Ram, 1979 Prof Kaula Endowment for Library and Information Science, Silver Jubilee Report (1975–2000) Raut, R.K. “Library legislation in India”. New Delhi, Reliance Publishing House, 1986 Satyanarayana, R. "ShriIyynkiVenkataRamanayya and the Library Movement in India: A Personal Tribute”. Annals of Library Science and Documentation,Volume 19. 1972. pg 157. Satyanarayana, R. "ShriIyynkiVenkataRamanayya and the Library Movement in India: A Personal Tribute”. Annals of Library Science and Documentation, Volume 19. 1972. pg 157. www.rrrlf.nic.in



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A Vital Role of Teacher in Inclusive Education (Specaly Dysgraphia) JayantaAcharya Assistant Professor, Hope Institute of Bengal, District-Howrah, West Bengal, India [email protected]

ABSTRACT The word ‘Inclusion’ is a special type of life philosophy. This theory includes every aspect of life. This concept of education helps exceptional children to develop freely in spite of their drawbacks. As we discussed earlier, that school is a miniature of society where we can notice different kind of learners such as gifted children, slow learner, hearing impaired, visually impaired, learning disability, children with physically or mentally challenged ,backward class in reference to economy , social, cultural ,street or platform children , delinquent children etc. so, if the teacher focuses on a particular type of backward children then others will be neglected and will be separated from the flow of a particular educational system. As every child is special, so its needs are also different and it’s expect individual attention to fulfil their needs. Inclusion process involves all these type of children expected in their common expectation. So teachers play an important role in any education system. Teacher is an artist who moulds and shapes the physical, intellectual and moral powers of children. Teaching is an attempt on controlling and modifying learners’ behaviour by showing them how they need to behave and what they need to do in order to be able to derive long-term benefits from the contents of the courses they have done or are doing. Teachers are thus controllers both of the behaviour of the learners and of the ‘what’ and ‘how’ of the activities which a part of their instructional design is. Teachers are often likened to gardeners who sow seeds, graft plants and nurture them, for teachers open their students to a world of newer ideas, help them to understand those ideas, and ensure their germination through independent, creative, and critical thinking. They are also compared to potters because their basic functional role is to shape and mould young prominently in our tradition. In this arena, a teacher’s ability, responsibility, devotion, humanity can guide perfectly these children to reach the perfect goal.

Introduction Dictation is one of prevalent topics in relation to learning disabilities which is considered by the experts and psychologists in the current century. Dysgraphia or disorder in dictation is a major written disorder. The applied studies demonstrate that this disability causes students’ fatigue and losing their interest and finally will result in academic failure. Dysgraphia is a specific learning disability that affects writing abilities. It can manifest itself as difficulties with spelling, handwriting and expressing thoughts on paper (National Center for Learning Disabled, 2009). The International Dyslexia Association (2009) defined dysgraphia as “a specific learning disability that affects how easily children acquire written language and how well they use written language to express their thoughts” (p. 1). “Dysgraphia is a Greek word. The base word graph refers both to the hand’s function in writing and to the letters formed by the hand. The prefix dys indicates that there is impairment. Graph refers to producing letter forms by hand. The suffix ia refers to having a condition. Thus dysgraphia is the condition of impaired letter writing by hand, that is, disabled handwriting and sometimes spelling” (The International Dyslexia Association, 2008, p. 1). Causes of Dysgraphia The causes of disorder of written expression are unknown. Different manifestations of the disorder may have different causes. For example, people who cannot form letters correctly on the page may have delays in hand –eye coordination and difficulties concentrating. People who are unable to write words from memory or dictation appear to have deficits in their visual memory. They cannot remember what the words look like. People who produce legible script but cannot organize their thoughts on paper may be suffering from cognitive processing Contemporary Research Spectrum- A Multidisciplinary Refereed Journal| 48


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problems. Because disorder of written expression is a little – studied disorder, specific causes have not yet determined. Characteristics of Dysgraphia 

Cramped fingers on writing tool

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2.Odd wrist, body, and paper positions

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3.Excessive grammar errors

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4.Excessive punctuation errors

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5. Mixture of upper and lowercase letters

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6.Inconsistent letter formations and slant

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7.Irregular letter sizes and shapes

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8.Unfinished cursive letters

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9. Misuse of line and margin

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10. Poor or illegible handwriting

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11. Paragraphs and stories that are missing elements and that do not make sense or lack logical transitions

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12. Deficient writing skills that significantly impact academic achievement or daily life. Cognitive Constructs in Written Language Production

NEURO DEVELOPMENTAL CONSTRUCT

POSSIBLE IMPACTS ON WRITTEN LANGUAGE

Attention

*Poor planning � Uneven tempo � Erratic legibility � Inconsistent spelling & use of conventions � Uneven memory flow � Poor self-monitoring, careless errors � Impersistence

Spatial Production

*Poor spatial planning of page � Deficient visualization of words & letters � Poor margination � Organization problems � Deficient {dyseidetic} spelling � Uneven spacing between letters & words � Poor use of lines

Sequential Production

� Slow learning of serial motor movements for letter forms & connected writing



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� Letter transpositions & omissions in spelling � Poor narrative sequencing � Organization problems � Lack of transitions & cohesive ties Memory

� Weak word retrieval � Deficient spelling � Fluctuating recall of motor engrams for letters � Poor recall of rules {inadequate application of punctuation,capitalization, grammar} � Dysfluent writing � Poor legibility � Preference for printing over cursive writing � Loss of train of thought � Deterioration of writing skills in continuous writing, as compared with words & simple sentences

Language

� Impoverished vocabulary � Poor written expression � Dysphonetic spelling � Vague referencing � Lack of cohesive ties � Awkward phrasing & unconventional grammar � Inappropriate use of colloquial language � Inadequate narration � Simplistic sentence structures & lack of variety

High-order Cognition

� Constricted, simplistic, concrete ideation � Lack of development of ideas & descriptive elaboration � Poor audience awareness � Paucity of written output � Weak opinion development

Different types of Dysgraphia Phonological Dysgraphia: The hallmark feature of this deficit lies in the inability to spell by sound, thus rendering an over-reliance on the visual features of letters and words to assist with spelling. The spelling of unfamiliar words, nonwords, and phonetically irregular words are impaired. However there is little impairment in a student’s ability to copy words write from dictation, or spell relatively familiar words.



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Dysphonetic Spelling Examples Target Word

Misspelling

Analysis

point

pot

syllable omission

train

chan

syllable substitution

old

od

syllable omission

climbing

cling

vowel omission

job

joib

vowel substitution

video

veio

consonant omission

kitchen

tihn

consonant omission

Surface Dysgraphia: The hallmark feature of surface dysgraphia is the breakdown in the orthographic representation of words, thereby causing the student to over-rely on sound patterns when spelling.   

This disorder is also characterized by poor knowledge of the idiosyncratic properties of words, that is, poor lexical representations (Romani, et al., 1999). These children have little difficulty spelling by sound; though struggle with phonetically irregular words with alternative spelling patterns. Most spelling miscues appear phonologically consistent. Surface Dysgraphia Spelling Examples Target Word

Misspelling

onion

unnyun

juice

juse

mighty

mite

said

sed

build

bild

knock

nok

laugh

laf

yacht

yot

plate

plat

Mixed Dysgraphia: This disorder stems from a combination of both phonological and orthographical errors when spelling, and faulty sequential arrangement of letters leading to very inconsistent spelling skills. * These students often demonstrate multiple perceptual and lexical difficulties pertaining to the written language process, as there is no usable key to unlock the spelling code.



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* The most severe type of spelling disorder, and often co-occurs with more severe types of reading disabilities. Mixed Dysgraphia Spelling Examples Target Word

Misspelling

Analysis

advantage

advangate

letter order reversal

pocket

poct

syllable omission

cobweb

coweb

consonant omission

kitchen

kinchen

insertion error

worried

werie

consonant deletion

work

wrok

letter order reversal

illusion

elushn

orthographic error

Semantic/Syntactic Dysgraphia: An inability to master the implicit rules for grammar which dictate precisely how words and phrases can be combined lies at the heart of semantic/syntactic dysgraphia. Breakdowns in Written Language Output 

*Word omissions.

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Word ordering errors.

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Incorrect verb and pronoun usage.

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Word ending errors.

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Lack of punctuation.

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Lack of capitalization.

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Discrepancy between oral and written language.

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Excessive time needed for minimal output

Role of Teacher Use the following to select and implement strategies that would be most beneficial for a student’s needs: 

Experiment with chair and desk size (ensure proper height and posture).

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Provide a slanted writing surface (use a 4 in. binder as a slant board).

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Provide increased opportunities for activities that require one-handed manipulation (MATN, 2001) (painting, erasing, and sky-writing) to establish hand dominance.

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Use an enlarged copy or one with wider margins and/or triple-spaces lines.

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Color code where to stop and start on paper or use colored paper (MATN, 2001).

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Experiment with different types of lined papers (raised lines, colored lines, extra space between lines, graph paper). Contemporary Research Spectrum- A Multidisciplinary Refereed Journal| 52


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

Use writing instruments that are easier to handle or grasp (primary – larger pencils; intermediate – mechanical pencils; weighted pencils).

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Stabilize paper to prevent writing surface from moving using tape, clipboards, sticky notes, and glue sticks.

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Use specialized materials to enlarge or change the shape of writing tools (different shapes of pencil grips such as Stetro, triangular, or pear-shaped).

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Provide both written and oral directions for the same activity.

What kinds of activities would improve handwriting? a) Playing with clay to strengthen hand muscles b) Modelling clay games c) Keeping lines within mazes to develop motor control d) Connecting dots or dashes create complete letter forms e) Tracing letters with index finger or eraser end of pencil f) Imitating the teacher modelling sequential strokes in letter formation and Copying letters from models. g) Check board practice should precede pencil and paper writing What Can Writing Teachers Do To Help? 

Provide classroom charts that specify tasks for structuring the writing process.

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Provide extra time for writing assignments.

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Provide models of what writing projects should look like.

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Provide checklists to prompt the use of targeted writing traits

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Use highlighters or colored pencils to focus on specific conventions (e.g., parts of speech, punctuation, and capitalization).

Writing Strategies: A. Ideas: • Use literature that illustrates good ideas • Teach students to discriminate intriguing, interesting ideas from irrelevant or overly general ideas • Help struggling writers create lists of their ideas and select the best ones that provide focus and clarity • Teach students how to ask questions to develop ideas B. Organization: • Have students sequence the events in a story • Have students write 3 or 4 different endings and discuss which one is best and why • Model a piece of writing that has sentences with unnecessary fillers.



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• Replace “And then”; teach transition words C. Voice: • Read aloud from books that have a strong voice • Match writings to their intended audiences (e.g., letter to a friend, business letter) • Have students write an event from different perspectives e.g., (a house fire from the perspective of a child, an adult, a fireman) • Attach a “voice” to people in photographs D. Word Choice: • Word walls of favorite lively words • Burying tired, overused words • Write a simple description of an object, and then rewrite it with stronger words • Replace the verbs to make a paragraph stronger E. Sentence Fluency: • Have the students count the number of words in their sentences, and write the first word in each sentence to see if there is a variety of sentence beginnings. • Teach a variety of sentence starters • Teach connecting words such as “however”, “therefore” • Use early emergent books and rewrite them to improve sentence fluency. F. Conventions: (Spelling, grammar, punctuation, capitalization) • Teach conventions based on what students need to learn given their age and ability. • Conventions need to be focused upon one at a time, at a minimum of 3 times per week, in short 15 minute lessons with repetition and practice. • Don’t ask students to edit all conventions at once • Students below 4th grade need to revise one trait at a time. Struggling writers who are older than 4th grade should focus on only 2-3 traits at a time. What Can Spelling Teachers Do To Help? 

Practice spelling high frequency words.

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Practice proofreading for spelling errors.

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Teach mnemonic strategies to retain word spellings.

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Word walls or create decks of cards with word commonly misspelled or organized alphabetically on, or in, a folder.

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Personal spelling dictionary using alphabetized dividers.

Special note: Teachers can double grade assignments with spelling graded and without spelling graded (based on content only).



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What Can Reading Teachers Do To Help? 

Reduce written work (alternate using fill-in blanks, multiple choices, complete sentences, short answers) on tests and other assignments.

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Allow extra time on assignments or shortening the length of the assignments.

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Provide chapter outlines or teacher notes.

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Story mapping.

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Enlarge worksheets.

What Can Math Teachers Do To Help? 

Reduce workload, e.g., solve every other math problem.

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Minimize the number of problems per page.

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Enlarge worksheets.

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Provide graph paper to keep number problems lined up – allow one block for each number.

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Highlight math signs, key words in math problems or instructions.

Conclusion Nature loves order. No one is inferior or superior. But history is witness to the fact how the so called human being has left no stone unturned in violating and abusing some sections of society especially disabled people now called Special. Children with learning disabilities are found across all ages, socio-economic levels and races. The problems of these children may range from mild to severe. The learning disabled students can be trained to improve their learning by given special education. They should not be neglected by the society. Children with learning disabilities need support from parents, teachers and peers. Teachers should cooperate and guide parents regarding their child’s specific needs. The B.Ed. colleges could run foundation courses in disabilities for teachers as part of their regular curriculum; this will ensure all teachers gain knowledge in all disability areas.In this arena, a teacher’s ability, responsibility, devotion; humanity can guide perfectly these children to reach the perfect goal. References 

Alexander, M. P., Friedman, R. B., Loverso, F. ,& Fischer R. S. (1992). Lesionlocalization of phonological agraphia. Brain and Language, 43, 83-95.

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Annoni, J. M., Lemay, M. A., Pimenta, M. A., & Lecours, A. (1998). The contribution ofattention mechanisms to an irregularity effect atthe graphemic buffer level. Brainand Language, 63, 64-78.



Berninger, V.W. & Wolf, B. J. (2009). Teaching students with dyslexia and dysgraphia. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co., Inc.

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International Dyslexia Association. (2008). Understanding dysgraphia. Retrieved on May 6, 2010,from http://www.interdys.org/ewebeditpro5/upload/Understanding_Dysgraphia_Fact_Sheet_12-01-08.pdf

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Maryland Assistive Technology Network (MATN). (2001). Adapted pencils to computers: Strategies for improving writing. Retrieved on May 19, 2010 from http://cte.jhu.edu/adapted pencils.pdf



Hudson, P.J, Morsink, C.V, Branscum, G.andboone, R. (1987). Competencies for Teacher of students With Learning Disabilities.Journal of Learning Disabilities.



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

Johns, J.L. & Wham, M. Reading and learning strategies for middle and high school students. Kendall Hunt Publishing Company. Dubuque, IA (2000)



Identification of learning disabilities and Intervention Techniques.T.Prabu,P.Pachaiyappan,M.Ramamorthy.ISSN2250-1991VOL-3 Issu-4 April2014

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Tabrizi, M. (2009). Treatment of Spelling Disorder. Tehran: Agah Publication.

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Zoccolotti, P., and Friedmann, N. (2010). From dyslexia to dyslexias, from Dysgraphia to Dysgraphias from a Cause to Causes: a Look at Current Research on Developmental Dyslexia. Cortex. 46(10), 1211-1215.



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Indian Education: Ancient and Modern-A Comparative Study Dr. Jayashree Medda (Khan) Ex Research scholar, Department of Education, University of Kalyani, Kalyani, District – Nadia, West Bengal, India, E-mail: [email protected] ABSTRACT Education is a huge and complicated task requiring the set up of teaching objectives determined by the philosophy of education, planning of education system, design of classes, research of teaching method, the teachers’ qualification, and the study of educational psychology. Every civilized society found education as one and only means of its progress and prosperity through all round development of people by inculcating social values, along with fulfilling their material needs. Ancient India had its own system of education based on contemporary need and ancient philosophical thoughts on educational objectives. The ancient system having become stereotyped and formal and unable to meet the needs of modern civilization new educational plan was adopted to cope with the cotemporary need. Yet we find that the existing systems is not perfect enough to meet the educational goal in all aspects. To understand the present system with all its merits and demerits it is the important to understand and evaluate what elements of permanent value the ancient educational systems possessed and what difference it has with the present system regarding educational philosophy, objectives, schemes of education and educational administration.

Objectives of the study 

To discuss the educational thought and system of education in ancient India



To point out the similarities and differences of ancient thought and system of



Indian education with that of the modern day.

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To discuss the problem of modern system of education and come to a conclusion.

Research Methodology The present paper has been developed on the basis of secondary literarature available on the subject. The paper has incorporated findings from various reports ,websites, books, research papers,and other sources.A descriptive and comparative approach of research methodology has been followed with a discussion at the end. Introduction India has a rich tradition of learning and education right from the antiquity. These were handed over generations to generations either through oral or written medium. Ancient India is with us today in the living tradition of the Hindu religion, the basis of Indian culture. India has kept true to its ancient tradition of non-violence and spiritual search, even as it became part of the modern world. The Gurukul system of education supported traditional Hindu residential schools of learning, typically the teacher’s house as a monastery. Education was free, but students paid “Gurudakshina”, a voluntary contribution after the contribution of their studies. The system of education of modern India differs from that of the ancient time in a number of ways though some points of similarity are found. Philosophy of Education Educational philosophy of ancient India stems from the contemporary philosophy of life. Perception of life in the perspective of the whole is Mukti or Emancipation. The individual Contemporary Research Spectrum- A Multidisciplinary Refereed Journal| 57


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must achieve his emancipation, his escape from bondage, from disease, decline and death. By applying this knowledge one may attain the world of spirit and the Absolute. This education enabled highest achievement of life i.e., Salvation [Moksha] through self-realization. These religious thoughts continued to inspire the thoughts of great Indian thinkers for ages together and will do so in the ages to come. Among the main classical schools of Indian thought are (1) the so-called orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy, which include Exegesis (Mimamsa), Vedanta and its numerous subschools, Atomism (Vaisesika), Logic (Nyaya), Analysis (Samkhya), and Yoga; and (2) the Buddhist (so-called nonorthodox) schools of Madhyamika, Buddhist Idealism (Yogacara), and Abhidharma (which includes numerous subschools). Indian philosophy also comprises the materialist and skeptical philosophies of Carvaka and the religious schools of Jainism. Ancient Indian thought, which is also philosophic in a broader sense, originated as early as 1200 BC and appears in scriptures called Veda. Ancient Indian philosophy also includes the mystical treatises known as Upanishads (700 to 100 BC), early Buddhist writings (300 BC to AD 500), and the Sanskrit poem Bhagavad-Gita (Song of God, about 200 BC). Classical Indian philosophy is less concerned with spirituality than ancient thought; rather, it concentrates on questions of how people can know and communicate about everyday affairs. Indian philosophy of the later classical and modern periods (1200 to present) may be distinguished from most Indian religious and spiritual thought. Among the exceptions are philosophies represented by famous advocates of ancient Indian spiritual views, such as mystic philosopher Sri Aurobindo Ghose – a nationalist revolutionary who opposed British rule of India in the early 20th century – and Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, who was president of India from 1962 to 1967, within the period immediately following the country's struggle for independence. Indian philosophy is extensive, rich, and complex. Scholars analyze not only its significance and its insights, but also its classical teachings about knowledge and language. Meanwhile, the majority of Western students of Indian thought have been drawn to its religious and mystical teachings. Modern Indian philosophy was developed during British rule(1750–1947). The philosophers in this era gave contemporary meaning to traditional philosophy. Swami Vivekananda, Rabindranath Tagore, Sri Aurobindo, Mahapandit Rahul Sankrityayan, Swami Sahajanand Saraswati, Ananda Coomaraswamy, Ramana Maharshi and Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan interpreted traditional Indian philosophy in terms of contemporary significance. Osho and J. Krishnamurti developed their own schools of thought. Today, there are several spiritual personalities: philosophers, teachers (gurus) or thinkers, such as Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, Sri Sri Ravishankar, Deepak Chopra, Amma, Anadamayi and movements such as the Brahmakumaris and ISKON.1 Objectives The aim of education in ancient India was the ultimate outcome of the Indian theory of knowledge and the corresponding scheme of life and values. That scheme takes full 1

Retrieved from http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Indian_philosophy

www.ron-turner.com/indianphilosophy.html -



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account of the fact that Life includes Death and the two form the whole truth as it is a whole cycle and the whole truth leads to ultimate merger with the Supreme. The aims of education in ancient India constituted the development of personality, formation of character of the individual and the preservation and the enrichment of morality and culture. The educational system in those days was able to achieve these aims. The system was able to inculcate civic virtues, and to turn out citizens well-qualified to follow their professions and discharge their duties in life. It infused piety and promoted integrity. The educational system was not only able to preserve the heritage of the past but also to enrich it from generation to generation. At that time education was treated as a matter of personal concern and it was not at all emphasized on mass production like modern education industry. The making of man was regarded as an artistic and not the mechanical process. According to the ancient Indian education the training of the mind and the thinking process were essential for the acquisition of knowledge.2 Modern Indian thinkers such as Swami Vivekananda, Rabindranath Thakur, Dr.Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan and Mahatma Gandhi, found the importance of ancient values in modern Indian education. Ancient philosophy of education emphasized the formation of character, development of personality along with self-dependence and loyalty to national heritage which are not to be ignored in the present day because simply career oriented education does not meet the demands of both personal and social life in the long run. Content of Education At the Gurukuls, the teacher imparted knowledge of Religion, Scriptures, Philosophy, Literature, Warfare, Statecraft, Medicine, Astrology and History. The corpus of Sanskrit literature encompasses a rich tradition of poetry and drama as well as technical, scientific, philosophical and generally Hindu religious texts, though many central texts of Buddhism and Jainism have also been composed in Sanskrit. Today the students in the elementary level and the secondary level are given common education in language group, social science group and science subjects. But they get specialized education in higher level. Education was specialized in ancient times too. Scheme of Education System Method The education system involved three basic processes, which included ‘Sravana’, ‘Manana’ and ‘Nidhyasana’. In the ‘sravana stage of education, students received 'shrutis' knowledge, which was passed orally from one generation to another. The second stage was 'Manana' which means that pupils had to think themselves about what they have heard. They have to make their own inferences and assimilate the lesson taught by their teacher into the life. The third stage 'Nidhyasana' means complete comprehension of truth and its use in the life. The system therefore was scientific and effective in proper transmission of knowledge.

2

Education in India www.mapsofindia.com



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Medium of Instruction Sanskrit was the language of teaching in ancient India. It was supposed to be the language of learned men. Education in modern India is imparted through many regional languages and Sanskrit language is now taught as a particular subject. Monitorial System: The origin of monitorial system existed in ancient India. This much-applauded mutual instruction or monitorial system was the so-called Bell-Lancasterain "discovery" in pedagogy. Historians of education are familiar with the fact that the plan of making one boy teach others has been indigenous to India for centuries. Bell, himself, in his Mutual Tuition (pt. I. ch.I, V).describes how in Madras he came into contact with a school conducted by a single master or superintendent through the medium of the scholars themselves. And, in fact, in England the monitorial system or the method of making every boy at once a master and a scholar is known as the "Madras system." 3 Environment The Brahmanic settlements were probably most frequently situated in forests in ancient times. The contact with nature and absence of the evils of city life must have been important factors in creating an atmosphere which was most helpful in the formation of spiritual ideals. Though the Brahmanic education was no doubt carried on also in towns, especially in later times, the forest sanctuary has always been the Indian ideal. The Great modern thinker Rabindranath Tagore also found the lap of nature as the proper place to impart knowledge. There are instances of teachers taking students close to nature to give them practical knowledge in geography, biology, physical science etc Ways of Teaching Principles of teaching: The ancient ways of teaching was fully psychological. It was generally opposed to corporal punishments. The teachers generally taught the students on psychological principles. Memorization was a laborious process in those days and the student had to conserve and memorize the learning. To relieve the monotony of the laborious process of learning by heart and to create some interest, stories and fables were told to the students. So, in ancient period, the principles of modern educational psychology such as importance of individual difference, removal of fatigue or monotony in learning, proper guidance, creation of motivation and interest in learning etc were applied by the teacher. Individual method: The method of instruction was scientific in ancient period. Each pupil was separately instructed by the teacher. As each student received individual attention, he could not go to the class unprepared. There was a daily examination of every student and no new lesson was taught until the old one was mastered. Though difficult to follow, modern thinkers of education of the twentieth century are availing the benefits of educational technology to meet the individual demands which makes instructional method more fruitful.

3

Education in Ancient India-Hindu Wisdom



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Timing Ancient Indians were convinced that no good results would follow if education is begun in late life. During our childhood, mind is pliable, memory keen and intellect receptive; it is only at this period of life, that it impossible to form good habits which may be of life-long use to us. Ancient Indians have therefore insisted that education ought to commence in childhood. It was held that the 5th year and the 8th year would be the proper time for the beginning of the primary and the secondary education respectively. Our modern educationalists had, however, recognized that and therefore we find children getting admitted in the first class at the age of six. Role of teacher Ancient Indian education is marked with a unique teacher taught relationship that made education much more meaningful than is seen in modern India. The student got a place equal to or sometimes superior to that of the son of the teacher. The problem of the student was realized by the teacher as his own problem and the teacher helped the student in all possible ways he can. Today the need of effective teacher training is basically due to the lack of the capacity of the teacher to come closer to the pupil and develop a healthy teacher-taught relationship. To avoid student unrest and quest of knowledge among the students it is essential to evoke this high ideal of relationship in every sector of education in modern India. Examination There were no annual examinations followed by mass promotions and detentions like modern educational system. The teachers used to give opportunity to every student to participate in the debates, discussions etc in which way they improved their independent thinking, evaluating power, talent to take decisions and be impartial. Under modern conditions it has become difficult to give individual attention to every student to assess his progress in learning, problems in individual life etc. Still its importance as a useful method of instruction is recognized by modern educationists and sometimes arrangements are made, as far as practicable, to meet the students in small groups in order to solve their problems and difficulties, to assess their shortcomings and to guide them individually. Administration There was no centrally controlled education system in ancient India. According to the norms of religion, education was free. The home of the preceptor was the institution and the education of the students was controlled by the preceptor himself. We have seen already that the item of students’ fees was a minor one in the income of the teacher (private) and did not figure at all in the budgets of public colleges and Universities. The question, therefore, naturally arises as to how education was being financed in ancient India. Vidyadana or a gift in the cause of education was pronounced to be the best of gifts, possessing a higher religious efficacy then even the gift of land (bhumidana). Religion had a great hold over the public mind in ancient times and this spiritual exaltation of Vidyadana secured so wide an ample a response to the cause of education, both from the public and the state that it used to become possible to impart free education at least to all poor students, wishing to derive its benefits. There was a tradition of giving direct monetary help to learned Brahmanas promoting the cause of education. Contemporary Research Spectrum- A Multidisciplinary Refereed Journal| 61


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Education in Modern India is controlled both by the state and private organizations. Though the Government of India promises free and universal elementary and secondary education, aspiring parents spend a lot on the cause of good and fruitful education for their children. Conclusion: Modern education system of India is on its way to incorporate high ideal of national integrity, through developing the values of morality, wisdom and industry. The social order seems gradually to have declined because of unlimited development and progress in technology and economy. These obviously are not the ultimate goals of human effort, but only means for human beings to obtain a better life. The beatitude of life should be the aim of all development and progress. How to make our life happier and to keep such happiness forever is the question which must be answered. It is the time to examine the meaning of life and to seek a sound metaphysical foundation to support one's worldview. Between popular consensus and philosophical sophistication, between the ultimate concern and temporary benefits, a decisive choice must be made and find a strong, effective motive for cultivating human life and becoming perfect in order to live an eternally happy life. The modern education systems of India a is not free from the loopholes that hinder in the proper implementation of the policies and programmes undertaken by the governing agencies. The inadequacy in the achievement due to improper teaching method as had been discussed in ancient thoughts finds its relevance even today. The problem of education lies, not in comparing and clarifying various opposed theories of training, but in promoting action toward the achievement of the goal of education. Realizing the educational purpose is identical to becoming human, no matter how many different theories there are about moral education, the goal of teaching remains to become human. In education the teacher has not only to instruct students about the moral principles of good and evil, but also to show them why human beings have to do well and avoid evil. This is the key word of the metaphysical foundation of moral education. Effort may be taken to look back to the culture of education of the ancient times to get some knowledge for rectifying or modifying the modern systems of education and make them more effective and fruitful in all possible ways. References: 

Altekar A S. “Education in Ancient India” (second edn) Benaras,1944.

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Education in India Under The Rule of the East India Company - By Major B. D. Basu 2nd edition. Calcutta

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B. D. Basu, The Destruction of The Indian System of Education

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Hindu Superiority - By Har Bilas Sarda p. 173 - 174)

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Coomaraswamy, A.K, Buddha and Gospel of Buddhism; London, 1928.

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Das, S.K; The Education System of the Ancient Hindus; Calcutta, 1930

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Dutta, D., History of Indian Education; Calcutta Univertsity,1969

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Hopkins, E.W.; The Religious of India, Boston, 1895.

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Keay, F.E.; Indian Education in Ancient and Later Times,1938

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Mackey, E., Early Indus Civilizations, London, 1948

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Ancient Indian Culture at a Glance - By Swami Tattwananda



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

Bhandarkar D.R: “Lecture on the Ancient History of India” Charmichael Lectures

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1918, Calcutta1919.

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Bhandarkar D.R: “Some Aspect of Ancient Indian Culture” Madras, 1940

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Bhandarkar,D.R; “Lectures on the Ancient History of India.”Carmichael Lectures



Bloomfield .M.: “The Religion of the Veda” New York, 1908



Chattopadhyaya B.D.(General editor): “Readings in early Indian History”



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A Classification of Human Error: Phenotype and Genotype Madhuri Ray Assistant Professor, Department of Philosophy, Swami Niswambalananda Girls’ College, Uttarpara, Uttarpara Kotrung, District – Hooghly, West Bengal, Pin – 712232, E-mail: [email protected] & Lopamudra Choudhury Associate professor, Department of Philosophy, Jadavpur University, Jadavpur, West Bengal, India ABSTRACT Hiding error is a common human tendency. But if people accept their error they may learn from that. In handling error people have to find out what type of errors are done by them in their everyday life. Finding the underlying causes of errors one can reduce error. In this context we categorized human error into two types: phenotype and genotype. When we identify error from its origin, it will be a genotype classification and on the other hand if we classify error on the basis of outcomes of different errors, it will be a phenotype classification of error.

Key Words:human error, genotype, phenotype, mode errors, description errors, omission, commission, priming, anticipations Study Method: Reference method was used for the present article.Data Collection: Data was collected through books, journals and websites. In the Indian epic Mahabharata the critical question is -what is the greatest wonder? Wise Yudhisthir answers that, day after day countless people die, yet the living wish to live forever.4 About ‘human error’ also human psychology is very strange. There is no doubt that everybody commits error; in addition it may be said that each one among us generates uncountable errors ; even after that everyone tries to prove that he is not responsible for any error. We think so, because we treat error only as a negative outcome. But error is not only a negative outcome; error is a way of learning. Winston Churchill said “All men make mistakes, but only wise men learn from their mistakes.” So if we want to learn from our error at first we have to know what types of error are committed by us. In this context it is very relevant to classify error from different aspects. Here we are going to classify human error on the basis of their origin and outcome. Before explaining the phenotype and genotype classification of human error we briefly discuss the concept of human error. The word "error" comes from the Latin word ‘errare’. It means wandering or straying. According to Oxford dictionary ‘error’ as noun means the state or condition obeying wrong in conduct or judgment.5 ‘Mistake’, ‘fault’, ‘blunder’, ‘slip’, ‘failure’ all are synonyms of the word ‘error’. But in modern era ‘human error’ has a specific meaning. In this context two popular definitions of human error are given by Meister and J. Reason. Meister defines human error thus: “An error is a discrepancy between the operator’s actual performance and the performance desired of him” 6 and according to Reason (1990)“Error will be taken as a generic term to encompass all those occasions in which a 4

Mahabharata by KrishnaDvaipāyanaVyasa translated by Pratap Chandra Roy(2nd edition) http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/error 6 Meister, D. (1986)Human factors and Evaluation.Published by Elsevier Science Ltd; Amsterdam ,1986 P.249 5



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planned sequence of mental or physical activities fails to achieve its intended outcome, and when these failures cannot be attributed to the intervention to some chance agency.”7 So in very simple words it may be considered that human error is an intentional action with unintended outcome. Much works have been done on the taxonomy of human error. In a very primarily level we may classify human error into two types: genotype and phenotype. The words ‘phenotype’ and ‘genotype’ are taken from the biological sciences. Genotype is a type that is created on the basis of the ‘internally coded, inheritable information’ carried by all living organisms (Blamire, 2000). This stored information is used as a ‘blueprint’ or set of instructions for building and maintaining a living creature. A phenotype is defined as the ‘outward, physical manifestation’ of an organism. These are the physical parts of the organism, anything that is part of the observable structure, function or behavior of a living organism. In the field of human error, the genotype of an error similarly relates to its origin. The source or genotype of the error lies in the cognitive or internal level of the system. As an example if an error takes place during the decision formation process or interpretation of situation that will be a genotype error. In simple words this genotype classification of error has been done on the basis of the underlying mechanism of human action process. This classification will be more distinct to us if we give some examples of each type of error. Some interesting examples of genotype error are given in below: Mode errors Generally mode errors occur when devices have different modes of operation, and the action appropriate for one mode has different meanings in other modes. Example: "I had just completed a long run from my university to my home in what I was convinced would be record time. It was dark when I got home, so I could not read the time on my stopwatch. As I walked up and down the street in front of my home, cooling off, I got more and more anxious to see how fast I had run. I then remembered that my watch had a built-in light, operated by the upper right-hand button. Elated, I depressed the button to illuminate the reading, only to read a time of zero seconds. I had forgotten that in stopwatch mode, the same button [that in the normal, time-reading mode would have turned on a light] cleared the time and reset the stopwatch."8 Description errors Description errors are error resultant from performing a correct action on a wrong object. Example: ‘A former student reported that one day he came home from jogging, took off his sweaty shirt, and rolled it up in a ball, intending to throw it in the laundry basket. Instead he threw it in the toilet. It wasn't poor aim: the laundry basket and toilet were in different rooms.’9 Capture errors When a frequently done activity suddenly takes charge instead of (captures) the intended one it is called the capture error.

7

Reason, J. T. (1990).Human Error, Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, England; New York 1990 p.9 Norman,D.(2002)The design of everyday things p.110 9 Ibid, p. 107-108 8



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Example: Very absent-minded person in going to their bedroom to dress for dinner have been known to take off one garment after another and finally to get into bed, merely because that was the habitual issue of the first few movements when performed at later hour. Associative activation errors When internal thoughts and associations as external data trigger an action causing behavior that was not intended, the action is called associative activation error."My office phone rang. I picked up the receiver and bellowed 'Come in' at it."10 Loss-of-activation errors Where the goal was forgotten, but the rest of the action continued may be called Lack-ofactivation errors. Example: “I was at the end of a salad line, sprinkling raisins on my heaping salad, and reached into my left pocket to get a five-dollar bill. The raisins knocked a couple of croutons from the salad to the tray. I reached and picked them up, intending to pop them into my mouth. My hands came up with their respective loads simultaneously, and I rested the hand with the croutons on the tray and put the bill in my mouth, actually tasting it before I stopped myself.”11 Some examples of phenotypeerror are: Error of omission When an error occurs because all sufficient acts are not carried out properly, this is error of omission. We may provide following grammar error as its examples: Examples: Error: She came and asked my book. Correction: She came and asked for my book. Error of commission When someone does an action which is unnecessary or which creates interferences for a successful action is called commission error. In English literature over inclusion is including in this type of error. Example :Write dinning room instead of dining room. Selection error When performer selects wrong step this type of errors may occur. Lexical misselection is an example of this type of error Example of misusing comma instead of semicolon Error: Call me tomorrow, I will give you my answer then. Correction: Call me tomorrow; I will give you my answer then. Anticipations When an action is coming up what is desired for the next section called anticipation error. Actors and newsreaders are especially prone to these kinds of errors. Examples: Error: It's hot too in Rome in the summer Correction: It's too hot in Rome in the summer.

10 11

Ibid, p.109 Norman,D.A. (1981) Psychological Review volume 88 number 1 p.10



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Priming This type of errors is developed from the repetition of prior sounds or actions. Reason gives the following example of it:Many children's games are based on leading people into error through recurrent sound primes. Here is an example: From what tree does an acorn come? (Oak.) What do you call a funny story? (Joke.) What do you call the white of an egg? Here, the vast majority of people will respond with 'yolk' ‘albumin.’

,where thecorrect answer is

So, it may be said that we always hide our error. But it is not proper way to handle them. As Benjamin Wiker, says “Sometimes a clearly defined error is the only way to discover the truth”12, we have to define our error first and then we should try to reduce them eliminating their causal factors. Classifying error is the preliminary way in reducing error. In classifying error at first we may follow the similar outcome of some errors; then we may analyze the internal similarity of those errors. These two types of classification have described here namely phenotype and genotype classification. In such way if we look for the root causes of human error we will observe that there are some cognitive factors like inattention or memory loss are responsible for our error. And it will also very clear to us that error is unintentional so they are not judgmental. So without hiding our error we should be careful in reducing our error by handing its cognitive factors. It will be much helpful in taking precaution for human inducing adverse event like air accident or marine accident too. References Books and journals 

Brown, H. D. (1980) Principles of Language Learning and Teaching-4th edition, Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice- hall,2000



Reason, J. T. (2008) The Human Contribution: Unsafe acts, Accidents and Heroic Recoveries.,; VT: Ashgates , Burlington ,USA 2008



Reason, J. T. (1990) Human Error, Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, England; New York 1990



Meister, D. (1966) Human Factors in Reliability. In W.G. Ireson (ed.) Reliability Handbook, p.1238;McGraw-Hill; New York, 1966



Meister, D. (1986) Human factors and Evaluation. Published by Elsevier Science Ltd; Amsterdam (1986)



Norman, D. A.(1981) Categoriation of action slip. Psychological Review, Vol 88(1), Jan 1981



Norman,D. (1990,2011) The Design of Everyday Things: A member of the Presious Books Group.New YorkFactors/Ergonomics , New York, 2011

Websites

12

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http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/error

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http://www.holybooks.com/mahabharata-all-volumes-in-12-pdf-files/

Popular quote ofThe Mystery of

the Periodic Table



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NAWAB SIRAJ - UD – DAULAH: an Unbending Ruler against Foreign Domination but a Game of Many Conspiracies and many Conspirators Md. Sablul Hoque Assistant Professor, Department of History, D. N. College, Aurangabad, District - Murshidabad, West Bengal, India, E-mail: [email protected] . ABSTRACT We are habituated to hear that downfall of Nawab Siraj-ud-daulah was effected by the treachery of Mir Jafar (the Bakshi of the Nawab) and the Nawab himself was also responsible for his own downfall. But this is nothing but myth. Actually, the Imperialist historians have done this to justify the foreign rule and to hide their collaborators who also acted as conspirators to materialize their ill design. This paper focuses on the real history of the downfall of the Nawab. In the 18th century merchants flocked in Bengal. The British misused dastaks by selling them to other merchants. Not only that, they started fortifications and gave shelter to Nawab Siraj-uddaula’s offending subjects. The Nawab ordered the English to stop all these illegal and his sovereignty-breaking activities, but they defied the Nawab while the French respected the Nawab’s order.As a result, a conflict arose between Siraj-ud-daulah and the English East India Company who began to conspire against the Nawab with a league of Jagat Seths, Ghaseti begum, Umichand, Mir Jafar etc. The Nawab tried to bring about a solution of the difficulties cropped up between him and the English, but he failed for the latter’s defying attitude. But relations between the Nawab and the British became worse and the latter were firm to overthrow the former. They tried hard for the Nawab,s downfall and brought several key figures of Murshidabad darbar to the English side. The house of Jagat Seth actually played the key role for the English victory at Plassey on 23rd June, 1757. However, after his defeat at Plassey, Siraj-ud-Daulah was killed in the month of July, 1757 at the instigation of Robert Clive and the Seths. Thus, Siraj-ud-Daulah became martyr for the cause of his subah’s independence. Actually he was the first freedom fighter who had to sacrifice his life at the trap of conspiracies hatched against him by foreign as well as native traitors.

Introduction: Bengal was very prosperous in the 18th century under the rule of the Nawabs. The Nawabs conducted the political & economic affairs of the province with vigor and efficiency. As a result, the provincial administrative system seems to have grown stronger and the economy richer. Murshid Quli’s revenue and administrative reforms paved the way for the rising of a strong banking and commercial class that became important in the history of Bengal. The big Zaminders and merchant banking class now heralded their sway in the political affairs of the subah. Thus a new equation developed in the 1st half of the 18th century. Individuals rallied round the Nawab, but their chief aim was to further their own interests 1. The most striking example of this character was the house of Jagat Seth who became the greatest banker by establishing close personal relationship with the Nawabs of Bengal. As in the pre- Plassey period Bengal’s economy was very sound trade and commerce flourished. Markets expanded. “At that time it was one of the richest, most populous and best cultivated kingdoms in the world.”3 The potentiality of trade and the comparative peace and order in the subah attracted to it merchants from various parts of India, Asia and Europe. At the same time many of the Nawab’s officials were unscrupulous and intrigued against him with the collaboration of the English merchants, which culminated in the battle of Plassey. From the very beginning of his accession to the throne of the Bengal subah (15 April, 1756) Siraj-ud-Daulah had to face his formidable enemies i.e. the English and his near relations, Shaukat Jang and Ghaseti Begum. Even his courtiers and officials became partisans and intrigued against him thereby strengthening his adversaries. So, conflict ensued. In the whole scenario of conflict the Nawab was always true to his words and patriotic zeal but his opponents reversed their words and did not feel any patriotism resulting the Nawab being Contemporary Research Spectrum- A Multidisciplinary Refereed Journal| 68


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cheated by them lost his realm as well as his life at the hand of a foreign business class i.e. the English and the Indian conspirators. It is against this backdrop that I shall analyze the tragic end of Nawab Siraj - ud - Daulah and about his honesty and patriotism. The Advent of the European Companies in Bengal and Their Activities: The foreign companies altered the whole scenario of politics and economy of the province. And ultimately this led to the British occupation of Bengal. The Dutch and the English companies started their Bengal trade from around the middle of the 17th century. Alivardi at his deathbed forbade Siraj not to allow the British to construct their fort or raise army; otherwise, the subah would go beyond his control. However, the companies enjoyed several advantages in Bengal, such as; they could purchase much cheaper and much better quality of calicoes. From around 1717AD onwards, the English was allowed to enjoy more facilities in regards of their trade by Farrukhshiyar’s Farman (Royal Order). By this Farman, the English could transact their business in Bengal without giving any duty. But they later on began to misuse the Farman thereby increasing the sufferings of native merchants and on the other hand, defrauding the Nawab huge amount of revenues which was one of the main bones of contentions between the Nawab and the English East India Company. In spite of this, the Nawab expressed his intention to pardon their fault and permit their residence here if they “will promise to remove the foregoing complaints of their conduct and will agree to trade upon the same terms as other merchants did in the time of the Nawab Jaffeir Cawn (Murshid Quli Khan)”.-K.K. Datta: Siraj ud-daulah;The Prelude to Empire, P.58. Accusation against the Nawab and its Futility: But it is a matter of great regret that for long historians have accused the young Nawab Siraj - ud - Daulah for the outbreak of hostilities between him and the English East India Company in 1756-57. Hill maintained this view that the Nawab went against the British as a result of his own vanity and avarice. The Nawab’s grievances against the British were considered by him as pretexts put forward by the Nawab for attacking the British. But it is a fact that Siraj was not against the British at the outset. However, a little after his accession situations changed. Both the English and the French began openly to repair and strengthen their fortifications. Like Murshid Quli Jafar khan and Alivardi Khan, he felt that it would not be advisable to allow the Europeans to build strong fortifications within dominions, as this would adversely affect his own authority. In view of the military and political exploits and successes of the Europeans in southern India and the virtual sub-ordination of the rulers of Hyderabad and Arcot to their control , Sirajud-Daulah , like his grandfather , thought it necessary to take adequate precautions for the European interference in Bengal politics (K.K. Datta: Siraj ud-daulah ,P-13). The Carnatic episodes must have greatly influenced his policy towards the Europeans in Bengal. Secondly, the British started to conspire against the Nawab with Ghaseti Begum, a Nawab’s rival in the succession race. Law writes that the British stopped all communications with the Nawab4 in the expectation that none could stop Siraj’s rival to occupy the throne of the subah. Before discussing Siraj - ud - Daulah’s specific grievances, let us examine how the Nawab’s ‘vanity’ and ‘avarice’ were responsible for the outbreak of the hostilities. If he was vain and his vanity was one of the main causes of the conflict, the Nawab would have taken revenge on the British immediately after defeating his two main rivals, Ghaseti Begum and Shaukat Jung, for succession. But he did not. A few weeks after his accession, Siraj forbade the British to stop fortifications and demolish the redoubt nda drawbridge built at Fort William. Drake, the English factor, not Contemporary Research Spectrum- A Multidisciplinary Refereed Journal| 69


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only ignored the letter but its bearer Narain Singh, the Nawab’s messenger, was driven out from Calcutta. However, unlike the British, the French treated the messenger with great courtesy. Arrogance of the British: Besides fortifications, abuse of dastaks and refuge given to the Nawab’s offending subjects were responsible for the conflict between the Nawab and the English company. In1755 the Court of Directors asked the Council in Calcutta to “be extremly careful to prevent all abuses of the dusticks” (Holwell opined in his letter to the Court of Directors dated Nov.1756: “that the abuse of dusticks should be one cause of complaint K.K. Datta: Siraj ud-daulah P-14). Notwithstanding, the English not only illegally covered their private trade but sold the dastaks to Asian merchants resulting the huge loss of the Nawab’s exchequer. This was important in the sense that it was a step of defying the Nawab’s authority. So, the Nawab was firm to drive the British out of the country if they did not stop their illegal private trade and the abuse of dastaks5. On the other hand, there is a clear reference in the account of Dacid Rannie (Aug’ 1756) that the British gave shelter to the “Nawab’s subjects”, though they were neither their servants nor their merchants’ (Ibid P.1415). Further, refuge given to Krishnadas, the son of Raj Ballav, accused of embezzling govt. funds as the revenue administrator of Dhaka, proved how the British were arrogant and cherishing defying attitude against the Nawab. Under these circumstances, the Nawab appointed Khwaja Wajid, the prominent Armenian merchant, to negotiate with the British. But Wajid’s diplomatic mission failed. Drake humiliated him and drove him out of Calcutta. Drake was not only arrogant and adamant but intent of war. Action of the Nawab: When Wajid’s negotiations failed, the Nawab attacked English factory at Kashimbazar, which capitulated in May 1756. The terms were :- i). No protection to be given in Calcutta to any Nawab’s offending subjects; ii). The drawbridge at Perrin’s garden and the new fortifications to be demolished and iii). No dastaks to be given to other merchants. The Nawab did not plunder or confiscate English properties. Nor did he demand money from them which proves that the Nawab was not “avarice” or inhuman. However, Drake was so infuriated by the capitulation of the Kashimbazar that he was reported to have told Shib Babu ( Khwaja Wajid’s agent in Calcutta) that the sooner he (Siraj) came (to Calcutta) the better and he (Drake) would make another Nawab (The Prelude to Empire,P-60;Hill,I P-116 and117). Drake’s attitude is sufficient to unearth the real culprit of developing hostilities in between Nawab and the British. Whatever may be, after the fall of Kashimbazar the Nawab,s army marched towards Calcutta to chastise the British. Calcutta too failed to the Nawab’s army (June 1756).The English became fugitives and took shelter at Faulta near Calcutta. They tried to secure their occasional assistance from some Indian gentlemen (Hill, 1) including Nabakrishna of Sobhabazar. They became successful in getting help of Manikchand, Jagat Seth, Umichand etc. Thus the English at Faulta got rid of their danger. On 17th December both Admiral Watson and Colonel Clive (Hill, II, P-121) wrote directly to the Nawab in strong and threatening tone (Ives’ Voyage, P.98; Hill II, P-70). However, after the fall of Calcutta, Holwell and others were arrested and brought to Murshidabad. Holwell pleaded his freedom by paying enough money. But the Nawab set the wretched man free minus taking anything from him. This also confirms that the Nawab was not “avarice” or too inhuman as most historians would have us believe.



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So, it is very clear from the above evidences and analyses that Drake’s imprudence, obduracy and belligerence were very much responsible for developing hostilities. The Dutch records also confirm that the British were more to blame for the outbreak of hostilities. The Dutch Council also reported in July 1756 that the British had created the trouble6. Enmity Developed: So, it was bound to develop enmity between Siraj-ud-Daulah and the British. The company started conspiracy against the Nawab to oust him from power with the league of Indian conspirators, such as, Jagat Seth, Umichand, Mir Jafar, Roy Durlabh etc, who wanted to effect a change in the Govt. to further their own selfish interests, even by enlisting the support of a foreign power, ignoring the fate of the country. According to M. Law, the Seths were the originators of the Plassey revolution; without them the English would never have carried out what they have...................... (K.K. Datta: Siraj ud-daulah). The cause of the English had become that of the Seths. Further, It was the same house of Saukars (bankers) which overthrew Sarfaraz Khan (1740) to enthrone Alivardi(Ibid). In fact, at that time many of the Nawab’s courtiers were very much greedy and corrupt. They helped the British overthrow Siraj - ud - Daulah for their personal gains. So the conspirators had to recourse to treachery. Treachery and Conspiracy in the Early Stage: In the treacherous works that culminated in the battle of Plassey and defeat of Siraj - ud - Daulah, many figures, both Indians and Europeans were involved, which unearths many untold and unheard facts. When the English came back from Faulta and attacked Buzbuz, Manikchand who was in charge of Calcutta from Nawab’s side , left the battlefield after little resistance. Before this Manikchand gave the English the strongest assurance of his assistance. Umichand and Manikchand had friendly corespondence with the English; they negotiated between the Nawab and the English understanding how to run with the hare and keep with the hound (Revd. Long). Later when the English came to power in Bengal, they offered a job to Manikchand’s son as a reward of his help to the British for 30 years7. In fact, Manikchand was the first traitor against the Nawab and in favor of the British, which latter on culminated in the battle of Plassey of 1757. Besides Umichand and Manikchand, Nanda Kumar, the faujdar (A criminal judge or a Magistrate) of Hoogly came to the scene of treachery. However, before the Nawab attacked Calcutta for the 2nd time, Umichand, the Calcutta merchant and mansabder of two thousand, who was for long closely connected with the Murshidabad darbar and administration, supplied detail information to the British about the Nawab’s side8. This was not a small treacherous work. However, this time the Nawab was defeated by the English who gained very advantageous position by the Treaty of Alinagar (9th Feb. 1757). Nanda Kumar was a dangerous traitor. The Nawab ordered him to help the French against the British. But when the English attacked Chandernagar, he acted as a friend of the English ignoring the Nawab’s order of protecting the French against their attack , by remaining totally inactive against them as he was given Rs. 12000.00 as bribe by the English as a result of Umichad’s advice9 (Prativa Ranjan Maitra; Nawab Begum Ujir, Berhampore, Murshidabad,2007, P-57). When Nanda Kumar died Rs. 52 lacs were found in his house10 leading to the assumption that he took bribes several times from the British & acted for them & against the Nawab. He even deceived the Nawab by giving him misinformation about the English. As a result, the English easily captured Chandernagar defeating the French. Had Nanda Kumar helped the



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French the battle of Plassey might have not taken place and the history of India became totally different. The capture of Chandernagar by the English dealt a crushing blow to the French power and prestige in Bengal, and meant a significant gain of the English in national and international politics (K. K. Datta - Siraj - ud – daulah, London, 1971, P-79). It destroyed the chances of French - Muslim combined force in Bengal and made the English comparatively more powerful to go against the Nawab. The English made a plan from this time onward not only removal of the French influence but also toppling the Nawab by a new one whom they could more easily use for their own interest. Now the English pressed on the Nawab to expel the French (Hill, II). Intimidated and perplexed Nawab lost his ever- known firmness and resolute attitude to protect the French. So he complied the English demand though it was suicidal and injudicious. Clive also confessed in his statement to House of Commons that after capturing Chandernagar they were agreed upon the necessity of a political revolution in Bengal. So, conspiracy was started against the Nawab to topple him. Treachery and Conspiracy in the Middle: Among the English conspirators William Watts was the main. He was the chief of Kashimbazar factory. He represented the Nawab’s court at Murshidabad. In the growth and development of the conspiracy his role was most important. With the help of Umichand he communicated several figures at Murshidabad darbar11. It was with the help of Umichand that the British initiated the process of conspiracy and gradually took to their side many important figures in the Murshidabad darbar12. And he was successful in getting Mir Jafar to the English side13. Not only that , Watts would come to the Seth’s palace , Rang Mahal at Murshidabad , at night by wearing borkha and boarding a palanquin by deceiving the guards14. Here conspiracy would have been held with the Seths and others to overthrow Siraj - ud - daulah. The ring-leaders of the Indian conspirators were Jagat Seth and then Umichand, Roy Durlabh etc, though the Seths were the most crucial. They didn’t go against openly, but acted behind the scenes15. As regards Mir Jafar, it is true that he wasn’t the Nawab’s choice in the begining , but the Nawab was pleased on him after he exerted himself in the attack of Calcutta and he was made bakshi ( Commander-in-chief ). He with Roy Durlabh and Yar Latif betrayed his master in the battle of Plassey16. His role was significant though it appears that he was the tool in the hands of Jagat Seths and Roy Durlabh17. Mir Jafar, at first didn’t agree to the proposals of the Seths who wished him to replace Siraj as the Nawab18. However, it was decided that Yar Latif , a mansabdar of 2000 , would be made Nawab by overthrowing Siraj but later he was dropped and Mir Jafar was chosen by the British as he was the candidate of the Seths. In the conpiracy to overthrow Siraj - ud - Daulah the most crucial role was played by the house of Jagat Seths19, as said earlier. Yar Latif and Mir Jafar were their protégés. As the latter’s relations with the Seths were better, the British ultimately preferred him to Yar Latif. They knew well that without the active support of the house, downfall of Siraj was not possible20. Even 20 years after the revolution of 1757, Law de Lauriston, noted in 1777 that without the intrigues of the house of the Seths, the revolution in Bengal was not possible. The Jagat Seths had very close connection with the Nawab’s Murshidabad court and established an influence over the Nawab and his administration. It is a fact that the British and the Seths joined hands against the Nawab for their own interests. The British became the Nawab’s enemy as the latter was firm to stop the former’s illegal private trade, misuse of dastaks and fortifications. On the other hand, the Seths feared that the Nawab would deprive Contemporary Research Spectrum- A Multidisciplinary Refereed Journal| 72


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them of their main source of accumulation of wealth. The sources of income, power a prestige of thend house depended upon their monopoly of imperial mints, revenue collection, determination of rates of exchange, money lending etc. Role of the Sethsin the Conspiracy: In fact, it was the house of Jagat Seth which brought about political revolution in Bengal during the 1st half of the 18th century and they were real king makers in Bengal21 of which something is discussed earlier. When Mr. Watts conveyed in the Seth’s house - meeting that they had not enough money for the ensuing battle against Siraj, the Seths assured them with supplying money whatever needed for the purpose22. According to Siyar - ul - Mutakharin , they offered the British 3 crore of rupees of that time as a cost of expedition against the Nawab23. Prior to Plassey, the Seths befriended the English fugilives at Faulta and earned the thanks of Clive24. Jean Law wrote (in his Memoir), “ the path which led to the Plassey had it’s beginning in Murshidabad and it was the Seths who placed the feet of the English in the path”.J.H.Little: The House of Jagat Seth, Calcutta Historical Society, 1967, P-XIII. Golam Hossain maintains the view in his work Riyaz- us - Salatin that the Nawab struck on the face of Jagat Seth in an open darbar and threatend him with circumcision. For this insult they went against the Nawab. But this is nothing but a ‘bazar gossip’ as Dutch records or Persian chroniclers or important European agents --- Watts , Scrafton a Jeandn Law didn’t mention about this ; Golam Hossain had an antipathy against the Nawab as he was Siraj - ud - Daulah’s rival Shaukat Jang’s tutor and pro-British. The real matter is that the Seths were not antagonistic to the Nawab at the beginning. Orme stated clearly that with the Seths, Siraj - ud - Daulah ‘behaved with civility’. It seems that the Seths’ attitude changed after the fall of Calcutta to the British. Siraj ud - Daulah distributed important posts to Mir Mordan, Mohanlal and Abdul Hadi removing old officials like Mir Jafar , Hakim Beg and Roy Durlabh from their key posts. This, possibly, sent signal to the Seths that the daring Nawab chould become a threat to them. “Hence they became scared of Siraj - ud - Daulah and gradually joined the conspiracy to overthrow him”. Inspite of this, the Nawab behaved with them maintaining courtesy and took their consultations in principal matters, which reversed the lot of the Nawab badly. Treachery and Conspiracy in the Final Stage: Whatever may be, the conspiracy was ripping gradually with the passing of time. But problems cropped up in signing the agreement between the British and the Indian conspirators. Umichand demanded 5% of all the Nawab’s treasures. Another difficulty came to the fore in getting the agreement signed as Roy Durlabh was out of station at that time. He was very close to Mir Jafar who would not sign so important an agreement without taking the former’s consent. Roy Durlabh came back in Murshidabad on 2nd June 1757; his opposition was dispelled with a promise of 5% of Nawab’s all treasures. As regards Umichand, Watts and Clive decided to deceive him and they did. A false agreement mentioning his demand was signed and shown to him who had no doubt about it’s authenticity. Now the agreement was signed, sealed and delivered by Mir Jafar to Watts on 5th June 1757. It was after this, that the British at last took a bold, decisive step and decided to break the treaty of Alinagar signed with Siraj. They needed an excuse for fighting against the Nawab. Clive on the ostensible cause, blamed the Nawab for breaking the terms of the treaty of Alinagar and corresponding with the French, though the Nawab was not so at all, as he was always faithful to the treaty about which Clive confessed later that the Nawab complied



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the treaty. However, on 13 June Clive made known the Nawab of his (Clive’s) intended march to Plassey. Now the revolution of Plassey became inevitable. At this, Siraj-ud-Daulah’s army marched towards Plassey to counter the British. His soldiers and arms were much more than his enemy. But most of the Nawab’s army under Mir Jafar, Yar Latif and Roy Durlabh stood like puppets and didn’t fire even a shot. Only loyal generals like Mohanlal, Mir Mordan and Abdul Hadi fought with much courage and bravery. After four hours of fighting victory seems to be clear on the Nawab’s side25. But unfortunately, Mir Mordan struck by a cannon ball became seriously wounded in the afternoon and he died soon after that. At this the Nawab became perplexed not knowing what to do. He pathetically & repeatedly urged Mir Jafar to save his honor and the honor of the Subah. But the Bakshi misguided the Nawab by advising him to stop fighting for the day and start afresh next morning. The Nawab sent for Roy Durlabh who gave the same advice as Mir Jafar did26. Mr. Thornton writes, “the work commenced by one of the traitors (Mir Jafar) was completed by another (Durlabh Ram). Puzzled and firmed to overcome the situation, he recalled his loyal commanders repeatedly, who stopped fighting against their will. The Nawab’s commanders turned back. The British took the opportunity & launched fresh attack. As a result, the Nawab’s soldiers dispersed. By the evening, the English came out victorious. Downfall of the Nawab: After tasting the taste of conspiracy & facing defeat the Nawab left Murshidabad in disguise for Rajmahal in the expectation of French military help to fight against the British for restoring prestige and honor of his Subah . But unfortunately, he was caught in the way and brought back to Murshidabad where he was put to death at the instigation of the English chiefs and Jagat Seth (Riyaz - us - Salatin). With this the sun of Subah Bengal’s independence set. It is also mention worthy here that Mohanlal was caught and kept under the custody of rebel Roy Durlabh who took his effects and life (Scott’s History of Bengal). In this way, Siraj - ud - Daulah sacrificed his life for protecting of his motherland’s independence. In fact, he was the first freedom fighter27 and first martyr28 in the course of protecting independence. He could save his life & rein his whole life if he would bow down before the British’s unjust & humiliating demands, but he did not. He sowed the seeds of fighting against a foreign power intended to establish the colony in Indian subcontinent. Conclusion: However, we can’t deny the fact that it was the house of Jagat Seth and Umichand , not Mir Jafar , who were most responsible for the downfall of Siraj - ud - Daulah and who paved the way of establishing British colony in India. Actually, they sold our country to the foreigners. Umichand roped in the key figures at Murshidabad durbar, supplied valuable information about the Nawab’s side to the British and kept constant contact with them for the downfall of the Nawab. On the other hand, without the help of the house of Jagat Seth, the British could not bear the cost of the battle & the conspiracy against the Nawab could not be materialized and successful. If we evaluate we can easily say that Siraj - ud - Daulah didn’t sell his subah to any one. Whatever may have been his faults; he had neither betrayed his master nor sold his country. “Nay more, no unbiassed Englishman, sitting in judgment over the events that passed in the interval between the 9th Feb. and the 23rd June, can deny that the name of Siraj - ud - Daulah stands higher in the scale of honour than does the name of Clive. He was the only one of the principal actors in that tragic drama who didn’t attempt to deceive” --Contemporary Research Spectrum- A Multidisciplinary Refereed Journal| 74


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Malleson. “Siraj - ud - Daulah may not have been inspired by patriotism in the modern sense of the term. But this is much true that he wanted to assert the authority of his govt. against those who were definitely hostile to him and also against the growing political and commercial ambition of the English in Bengal. He was conscious that both were prejudicial to the consolidation of his rule and general interests of the Province. The weaknesses in his character should not lead one to ignore the justifiability of this attitude. The short rule of Siraj - ud - Daulah........... had a tragic end. Opposition all round and frustration in almost all quarters made him gradually vacillating and indecisive, which also were responsible for his failure. But the cruel behavior of those who were revengeful even in his last day deserves severe condemnation”. ----- K. K. Datta.:-Siraj - ud – Daulah, London 1971, P-106. 

NOTES

1. Sushil Chaudhury - The Prelude to Empire Plassey Revolution of 1757, Manohar Publication, New Delhi 2000, P-15. 2. Ibid, P-16 3. Ibid, P-19 4. Ibid, P-42 5. Ibid, P58 6. Ibid. 7. Kamal Bandyapadyay - Murshidabad Theke Balchi, Vol. - 1. 8. The prelude to Empire, P-125 & 126 9. Ibid. 10. Murshidabad Theke Balchi, Vol-1 11. Sushil Chaudhury - The Prelude to Empire P-105. 12. Ibid. 13. Ibid. 14. Murshidabad Theke Balchi, Vol. - 1. (Bengali) 15. The Prelude to Empire P-114. 16. Ibid. P-115. 17. Ibid P-116. 18. J. H. Little - The House of Jagat Seth P-183. 19. The Prelude to Empire P-117. 20. Ibid.P-118. 21. Ibid. P-119. 22. Golam Ahmad Murtuza - Chepe Rakha Itihas. (Bengali) 23. The House of Jagat Seth.P-172. 24. Ibid. 25. Riyaz - us – Salatin; The Prelude to Empire .P-159. 26. The Prelude to Empire P-159, Murshidabad Theke Balchi, Vol- 1. 27. Md Khairul Anam - Indian Freedom Movement and Murshidabad: 1905 - 47. 28. Saptahik Kalam, a Weekly, 19th July 2003, published from Calcutta. (Bengali)



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An Analysis of Emotional Intelligence of the College Students and its Relation with Their Interpersonal Sensitivity Mousumi Chakraborty Assistant Professor, Hope Institute of Bengal, District-Howrah, West Bengal, India & JayantaAcharya Assistant Professor, Hope Institute of Bengal, District-Howrah, West Bengal, India E-mail [email protected] ABSTRACT Family is the first and most important socializing agency, which integrates and regulates the individual’s behavior as he/she strives to satisfy his/her basic needs. Family members, particularly parents, are the chief architects in shaping the personality of the child. The range and depth of emotions which parents display to their children builds up the psychological interior of their children (Bharadwaj, 1995). Emotional and social adjustment of children who are loved, accepted, nurtured, trusted and who have close emotional ties with their parents are definitely superior to those of children from homes where family relationship is less favourable (Chakra and Prabha, 2004). The person, who succeeds in managing emotions, can bounce back far more quickly from life’s setbacks. It has been found that there is link between emotional intelligence and interpersonal relations, empathic feelings, perspective taking, self-monitoring in social situation, social skills, cooperativeness, affectionate relationship, marital satisfaction and satisfaction in relationships. All researches indicate that emotionally intelligent people are more successful and have less mental problems as they handle emotional stress productively (Verma et. al., 1989). Emotional intelligence appears to be an important set of psychological abilities that relate the life success.

Introduction The term Emotional Intelligence has received considerable attention recently, earlier psychologists and philosophers had already laid down the foundation. According to Spinoza (1677), both the emotion and the intellect together contribute to the ultimate cognitive tool. He talked about three levels of cognition or knowledge that is emotional cognition, intellectual cognition and a kind of intuition. Aristotle (1984) also stresses on what reason dictates when one gets angry with the right person to the right degree at the right time. “Reasons without effect would be impotent, affect without reason would be blind (Tomkins, 1962). To quote, Moreover (1960) “the emotions are of quite extraordinary importance in the total economy of living organisms and do not deserve being put into opposition with ‘intelligence’. Mahoney (1991) also states that cognitive constructivist’s view, feeling knowing and action as inseparable experiences of our adaptation and development. The emotions are it seems, themselves a higher order of intelligence (Salovey, Woolery and Mayer, 2001). Objectives of the Study 1) To collect the academic achievement of college students. 2) To find out relation between the emotional intelligence and the academic achievement of the college students. 3) To determine the each component and total emotional intelligence of boys’ college students. 4) To determine the each component and total emotional intelligence of girls’ college students. Contemporary Research Spectrum- A Multidisciplinary Refereed Journal| 76


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Hypotheses of the Study On the basis of above assumptions the researcher framed the following hypotheses H0 1: There would be no difference between the boys’ and girls’ respondents on conscientiousness component of emotional intelligence. H0 2: There would be no difference between the boys’ and girls’ respondents on intuitiveness component of emotional intelligence. H0 3: There would be no difference between the boys’ and girls respondents on influence component of emotional intelligence. H0 4: There would be no difference between the boys’ and girls respondents on interpersonal sensitivity component of emotional intelligence. Delimitations of the Study Keeping in view the nature of the problem, research design and also the constraints of time and resources the present study has been delimited in the following way :A. Sample :

Population: - The 2st year and 3nd year college students were taken as population for the present study.



Area: - This study has been conducted in the area of Kolkata.



Number of the college: - Only one college, Bangabasi Morning College has been selected for administering the test.



Sample size: - The tests were administered on two hundred (200) students.

B. Time: - Only one year. Sample The total no. of sample was 200 of which 100 were from 2nd year and 100 were from 3rd year students. Out of 100 2nd year students 50 were boys and 50 were girls and same in case of 3rd year students. The students who had answered the questionnaire completely were retained. Therefore, summing up to the sample of 200 subjects consisting of 100 boys and 100 girls as the final size of the sample. Tools Tool-questionnaire (close ended). Questionnaire refers to device for securing answers to a series of questions by using a form, which the respondent fills in himself. Goods, Hatt (1952) Administration of tools The data collection of main study was carried out with prior permission of the Principal of the Bangabasi Morning College. Then class teacher were contacted and requested to spare their classes to get the responses from the students of each class. The questionnaire was administered on the students of each class separately. To establish good rapport with the students, introduction was given about the objectives of the study, importance of their cooperation and their sincere responses just before the administration of questionnaire. They were also informed that the secrecy of their information will be strictly maintained. The Contemporary Research Spectrum- A Multidisciplinary Refereed Journal| 77


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necessary clarifications were given to the students as and when they raised doubts while answering the questionnaire. They were given enough time to answer all the questions. They were asked to fill in the personal information first and then emotional intelligence questionnaire. Evaluation of the Answer Scripts The investigator used a questionnaire consisting of 84 statements. There are seven dimensions. Each dimension has twelve items. The score of each dimension ranges from 12 to 60. Each statement was constructed having five probable answers according to Likert’s 5 point scale for giving responses such as never, seldom, sometimes, usually and always. For positive statement the scoring will be 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and for negative statement it will be 5, 4, 3, 2, 1. So, the maximum score in the questionnaire will be 420 and minimum will be 84. In case of positive statement higher score indicate more emotional intelligence and lower score indicate less emotional intelligence and vice versa. Analysis and Interpretation of Data TABLE - 1: Showing Conscientious scores and frequencies of boys’ college students. Scores mean scores obtained by the boys’ students on conscientious dimension of emotional intelligence. Scores 1-12 13-24 25-36 37-48 49-60

f 0 0 39 61 0 N=100

Calculation of Mean and Standard Deviation of conscientious scores of boyscollege students:N1 = 100, M1 = 37.82, σ1 = 5.85 TABLE - 2: Showing Conscientious scores and frequencies of girls’ college students. Scores mean scores obtained by the girls’ students on conscientious dimension of emotional intelligence. Scores 1-12 13-24 25-36 37-48 49-60

f 0 0 31 69 0 N=100

Calculation of Mean and Standard Deviation of conscientious scores of girls college students:N2 = 100, M2 = 38.78, σ2 = 5.5 Contemporary Research Spectrum- A Multidisciplinary Refereed Journal| 78


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TABLE - 3: Showing mean and S. D. difference of conscientious between Boys’ and Girls’ college students Serial No.

Types of student & number

1

Boys’ student 100

37.82

5.85

2

Girls’ student 100

38.78

5.55

Mean S. D. t-value 1.19

df

Level of Significance

198

Not Significant

Result indicates that the mean difference is not significant. There is no difference in conscientious between boys’ college students and girls’ college students. TABLE - 4: Showing Intuitiveness scores and frequencies of boys’ college students. Scores mean scores obtained by the boys’ students on intuitive dimension of emotional intelligence. Scores

f

1-12

0

13-24

0

25-36

12

37-48

63

49-60

25 N=100 Calculation of Mean and Standard Deviation of intuitiveness scores of boys college students:N3 = 100, M3 = 44.06, σ3 = 7.13 TABLE - 5: Showing Intuitiveness scores and frequencies of girls’ college students. Scores mean scores obtained by the girls’ students on intuitive dimension of emotional intelligence. Scores

f

1-12

0

13-24

0

25-36

8

37-48

58

49-60

34 N=100

Calculation of Mean and Standard Deviation of intuitiveness scores of girls college students:N4 = 100, M4 = 45.62, σ4 = 7.12 Contemporary Research Spectrum- A Multidisciplinary Refereed Journal| 79


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TABLE - 6: Showing mean and S. D. difference of intuitiveness between Boys’ and Girls’ college students Serial No.


Mean

S. D. t-value df Level of Significance

1

Boys’ student 100

44.06

7.13

2


45.62

7.12

1.55

198

Not Significant

Result indicates that the mean difference is not significant. There is no difference in intuitiveness between boys’ college students and girls’ college students. TABLE - 7: Showing Influence scores and frequencies of boys’ college students. Scores mean scores obtained by the boys’ students on influence dimension of emotional intelligence. Scores

f

1-12

0

13-24

0

25-36

13

37-48

87

49-60

0 N=100

Calculation of Mean and Standard Deviation of influence scores of boys college students :N5 = 100, M5 = 40.94, σ5 = 4.04 TABLE - 8: Showing Influence scores and frequencies of girls’ college students. Scores mean scores obtained by the girls’ students on influence dimension of emotional intelligence. Scores

f

1-12

0

13-24

0

25-36

19

37-48

81

49-60

0 N=100

Calculation of Mean and Standard Deviation of influence scores of girls college students:N6 = 100, M6 = 40.22, σ6 = 4.71



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TABLE - 9: Showing mean and S. D. difference of influence between Boys’ and Girls’ college students Serial No.


Mean

S. D. t-value df

1

Boys’ student 100

40.94

4.04

2


40.22

4.71

1.16


198

Not Significant

Result indicates that the mean difference is not significant. There is no difference in influence between boys’ college students and girls’ college students. TABLE - 10: Showing Interpersonal sensitivity scores and frequencies of boys’ college students. Scores mean scores obtained by the boys’ students on interpersonal sensitivity dimension of emotional intelligence. Scores

f

1-12

0

13-24

0

25-36

11

37-48

89

49-60

0 N=100

Calculation of Mean and Standard Deviation of interpersonal sensitivity scores of boys college students:N7 = 100, M7 = 41.18, σ7 = 3.75 TABLE - 11: Showing Interpersonal sensitivity scores and frequencies of girls’ college students. Scores mean scores obtained by the girls’ students on interpersonal sensitivity dimension of emotional intelligence. Scores

f

1-12

0

13-24

0

25-36

18

37-48

82

49-60

0 N=100

Calculation of Mean and Standard Deviation of interpersonal sensitivity scores of girls college students:N8 = 100, M8 = 40.34, σ8 = 4.61 Contemporary Research Spectrum- A Multidisciplinary Refereed Journal| 81


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TABLE - 12: Showing mean and S. D. difference of interpersonal sensitivity between Boys’ and Girls’ college students Serial No.


Mean

S. D.

1

Boys’ student 100

41.18

3.75

2


40.34

4.61

t-value

df


1.41

198

Not Significant

Result indicates that the mean difference is not significant. There is no difference in interpersonal sensitivity between boys’ college students and girls’ college students. Conclusion The relationship between two variables is expressed by starting that there is positive significant correlation between two variables. It means that the increase in the nature of one variable corresponds to the increase in the nature of another variable correspondingly and positively. Age of the respondents ranged between 19-21 years and graduate. Qualification of their parents is mostly graduate. Most of them come from nuclear family having 1or 2 brothers or sisters. The emotional intelligence at the general level refers to the ability to recognize and regulate emotions in it and others. The models of emotional intelligence emphasized that emotional intelligence is the competency, ability and encompass specific traits, which can be develop through socialization, training and interventions (Goleman, 1995; Bar On, 1997; Saarni, 1997). Emotional intelligence encompasses cognitive and affective potentialities. It means emotional intelligence has no specific limitations in its developmental process and it is independent of gender. Limitations of the Study Although the investigator tried to precede this study to the best of his effort sincerely but there are certain limitations as the study was conducted within the restricted scope and facilities. The following are the limitations of the study:

The sample selected by the researcher was not truly or randomly selected. The researchers had followed the principle of the statistical sampling. So, the sample may not be considered to be a representative one.



Due to shortage of time, the researcher was unable to apply test to a large number of students. So, the researcher makes an inattentive study with a limited number of students. If the samples were larger, the more gerenalized result could be obtained.



The study was conducted in only one college which might not represent fully the cross-section of the total population.



The investigation was conducted on two class-level, 2nd and 3rd year only. For validity, study on different class-levels should be prepared.



Reliability of the test was determined only by Test-Retest method.



Only two hundred students (both boys and girls) were involved in the study.





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Due to the constraint, the present researcher had taken into consideration the students of both the sex in urban areas of the district, Kolkata. The students of semi-urban, metropolitan, and rural colleges were not taken into consideration. That is why, the samples might not be considered to be a representative of all the sections of the strata.

Recommendations for Further Study

 The present study may be tested under different geographical settings like rural, urban and tribal areas.

 To identify the development of emotional intelligence across the culture.  To study the effect of emotional intelligence on the different age groups.  To study the relationship between emotional intelligence and psychological problems.  To study the development of emotional intelligence in relation to socio-economic status.

 The college students of 2nd and 3rd year were taken as population for the present study. Emotional intelligence questionnaire may be applied on classes XI-XII.

 One college has been selected for administering the test. The number of college may be increased.

 The selected college is Co-education College. Boys’ and Girls’ college may be taken into consideration.

 The tests were administered on two hundred (200) students. The sample may be large.  A study may be conducted taking other and more dimensions of emotional intelligence.

 A study may be conducted to find out the relation between emotional intelligence and creativity. Bibliography 

Abraham, R. 1999, Emotional intelligence in organizations: a conceptualization. Genetic, Social & General Psychology Monographs, 125(2): 209-224.



Aritstole, 1984, The complete works of Aristotle: The revised oxford translation (J. Barness, Ed.). Princeton: Princeton University press.

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Bandyopadhyay, Amiya Kanti. 2007, A comparative study on the academic achievement in Physical science and life science in Madhyamik pariksha by the students of Basudevpur Vidyasagar Bidyapith, Paschim Medinipur. M. Phil. dissertation, Synopsis of the Dissertations Submitted for M. Phil. in Education Course, NSOU-IASE Publication Vol. III. 123-124pp., Kolkata.

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Banerjee, G. 2005, A comparative study of some different types of schools in relation to their academic success. M. Phil. dissertation, Synopsis of the Dissertations Submitted for M. Phil. in Education Course, NSOU-IASE Publication Vol. III. 3-4pp., Kolkata.

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Bar-On, R. 1997, The Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i): A test of emotional intelligence. Toronto: Multi-Health Systems.



Bharadwaj, R. L., 1995, Development of parenting Scale. Indian Journal of Psychometry and Education. 26 (2): 109-112.



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

Chakra, A. and Prabha, R., 2004, Influence of family environment on emotional competence of adolescents. Journal of Community Guidance and Research, 21 (2) : 213-222.



Chouhan, V.L. and Bhatnagar, 2003, Assessing emotional maturity, emotional expression and emotional quotient of adolescent male and female students. Journal of community guidance and research, 20 (2) : 157-167.

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Copper, R. K., 1997, EQ map. San Francisco: All and Essi System.

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Cronbach, L. J. 1960, Essentials of psychological testing (2ndedn.,) New York : Harper and Row.

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Das, Gourab. 2005, A study of the influence of socioeconomic environmental status on academic achievement of the students of class IX of Sodepur Chandrachur Vidyapith, Panihati region. M. Phil. dissertation, Synopsis of the Dissertations Submitted for M. Phil. in Education Course, NSOU-IASE Publication Vol. III. 36pp. Kolkata.



Dienstbier, R. A. 1984, The role of emotion in moral socialization. In: C. E. Izard, J. Kagan and R. B. Zajine (Eds.), Emotions, Cognition and Behaviour. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

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Dulewicz and Higgs, 2001, Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire, NFER – NELSON Publishing Company Ltd., Windsor, Berkshire, United Kingdom.

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Dutta, Soma. 2005, The relation between intelligence and achievement in mathematics of the students of class VIII and IX at Dhakuria Sree Ramkrishna Vidyapith. M. Phil. dissertation, Synopsis of the Dissertations Submitted for M. Phil. in Education Course, NSOU-IASE Publication Vol. III. 44pp. Kolkata.



Dwivedi, Somenath. 2005, A study on the problems of academic achievement of the tribal students of class IX in Belpahari S. C. High School under W.B.B.S.E., Paschim Medinipur. M. Phil. dissertation, Synopsis of the Dissertations Submitted for M. Phil. in Education Course, NSOU-IASE Publication Vol. III. 26-27pp., Kolkata.



Finegan, J. E. 1998, Measuring emotional intelligence: where we are today. (Clearinghouse No. TM029315) _Montgomery, AL: Auburn University at Montgomery, School of Education. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED426087).



Gardner, H., 1983, Flames of mind. New York: Basic Books.



Gibbs, N., 1995, Time, New York: Time Warner.



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An Introduction to Superconductivity and High tc Superconductors Pravash Mandal Assistant Professor, Department of Physics, NabadwipVidyasagar College, Nabadwip, District - Nadia, West Bengal, Pin-741302, India, E-mail: [email protected] ABSTRACT Superconductivity is an important field of modern research in solid state physics. In this article, we have explained the superconductivity from phenomenological point of view. The two most important aspects of superconductivity- namely zero dc resistance and perfect diamagnetism, have also been discussed. The distinction between a perfect conductor and a superconductor is interpreted by considering their response in an external magnetic field. Next, we have described the classification of superconductors including high Tc superconductors and given the microscopic theory of superconductors (the BCS theory) in a qualitative way. Lastly, the applications of superconductors in different fields of science and technology are discussed in details.

Key words: Superconductivity, Critical Temperature, High Tc Superconductivity, Meissner Effect, Cooper Pair. 1. Introduction The field of superconductivity has emerged as one of the most exciting fields of research in solid state physics during the last few decades. This phenomenon was discovered by H.KammerlingOnnes in 1911[Onnes,1911] while observing the electrical resistance of mercury at very low temperatures close to 4.2K, the melting point of helium. It was observed that the dc electrical resistance of mercury decreases continuously from its melting point (233K) to 4.2K, then, within some hundredths of a degree, drops suddenly to about a millionth of its original value at the melting point as shown in Fig.1. Similar results were also exhibited by other metals, e.g. Pb, Sn and In. The phenomenon of disappearance of dc resistance of material below a certaincriticaltemperatureTc was termed as superconductivityby Onnes and the material in this state is called a superconductor. Several metallic elements in periodic table and different alloys show superconductivity. Semiconductors like Si, Ge, Se and Tebecome superconductors under high pressure at low temperatures. It is worthwhile to mention that none of the ferromagnetic materials (e.g. Fe, Co, Ni) displays superconductivity. The strong molecular magnetic field inside the materials is believed to be the cause, as strong magnetic field can destroy superconductivity.



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The discovery of superconductivity aroused considerable interest in this field since the material with no electrical resistance, and hence negligible heat losses, could be employed to fabricate powerful and economical devices which consume very little amount of electrical energy. For example, an electromagnet made up of a superconducting material can function for years together even after removal of the supply voltage. However, due to the requirement of very low temperature, itwas not feasible to manufacture such devices. It is both difficult and expensive to attain liquid helium temperature and maintain it for a long time. Thus soon after the discovery of superconductivity, a lot of research work was undertaken to develop a superconducting material having high critical temperature as possible. A number of materials including various metals, alloys, intermetallic and interstitial compounds, and ceramics were employed for this purpose. Besides all these efforts, the maximum critical temperature (Tc) of only 23K was achieved in Nb3Ge, an intermetallic compound of niobium and germanium in the year 1977. Thus the scientists had almost given up hope of producing superconducting devices for which it was necessary to have a superconductor with the transition temperature equal to or higher than 77K, the liquid nitrogen temperature, if not the room temperature. In 1986, Bednorz and Muller[Bednorz and Muller, 1986] reported their discovery on the La-Ba-Cu-O system of ceramic superconductors which showed Tc equal to 34 K. Thus, contrary to the previous findings, a new class of ceramic superconductors was discovered which showed critical temperature considerably greater than that of metallic superconductors. They termed these materials as high Tc ceramic superconductors.They were awarded the Nobel Prize in 1988 for such an important discovery which created an unprecedented worldwide interest in the field of oxide ceramic superconductors. In 1987, a ceramic superconductor of the composition YBa2Cu3O7 was discovered which showed Tc equal to 90 K. In 1988, the value of Tcfurther shot up to 125 Kfor thallium cuprates. The high Tc superconductors are the subject of modern research in superconductivity.Table- 1 gives some data on superconductors in chronological order [Puri and Babbar, 2006].



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It is now understood that superconducting state is a distinct phase of matterhaving characteristic electrical, magnetic, thermodynamic and other physical properties. The most easily observable properties of bulk superconductors are zero dc electrical resistance and the perfect diamagnetism. We describe below the empirical properties of superconductors. 2. Theoretical Approach and Discussion 2.1 Electrical Resistivity As mentioned earlier, a superconductor exhibits no electrical resistance belowTc. The resistance of a superconductor suddenly drops to an extremely small value near the transition temperature as shown in Fig.1. Careful investigations have shown that the resistivity of a metal in superconducting state drops to less than one part in 1017 of its value in the normal state. 2.2 Meissner Effect: Perfect Diamagnetism Meissner and Ochsenfeld [Meissner and Ochsenfeld, 1933] discovered in 1933 that a superconductor expels the magnetic flux as the former is cooled below the critical temperature Tc in an external magnetic field i.e., it behaves as a perfect diamagnet. This phenomenon is known as the Meissner effect. Such flux exclusion is also observed if the superconductor is first cooled below Tcand then placed in a magnetic field. It thus follows that the diamagnetic behavior of a superconductor is independent of its history as illustrated in Fig.2for a superconducting sphere. It also follows from this figure that the Meissner effect is a reversible phenomenon. Since B  0 inside thesuperconductor, we can write from the equation; B   0 H  M  , H  M .Therefore, the susceptibility  isgivenby,  

M  1 (1)whichis true for a perfect H

diamagnet.

It is interesting to note that the perfect diamagnetism of a superconductor cannot be explained simply by considering its zero resistivity. Such a perfect conductor would behave differently under different conditions as illustrated in Fig.3[Puri and Babbar]. Since the resistivity, is zero for a perfect conductor, the application of Ohm`s law E  J  indicates that no electric field can exists inside the perfect conductor.Using one of the Maxwell`s equations, i.e.,



 E  

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B  constant.

B t

Thus, the magnetic flux density passing through a perfect conductor becomes constant. This means that when a perfect conductor is cooled in the magnetic field until its resistance is zero, the magnetic field inside the material gets frozen in and cannot change subsequently irrespective of the applied field. This is incontradiction to the Meissner effect. Thus, we conclude that the behaviour of a superconductor is different from that of a perfect conductor and the superconducting state may be regarded as a characteristic thermodynamic phase of a substance in which the substance cannot sustain electric and magnetic fields. Hence the two mutually independent properties defining the superconducting state are the zero resistivity and perfect diamagnetism, i.e.,

E  0 and B  0 (2)

2.3 Critical Field and Critical Temperature In 1913, KamerlingOnnes observed that a superconductor reverts to its normal state below the critical temperature, if it is placed in a sufficiently strong magnetic field. The value of the magnetic field at which the superconductivity vanishes is called the threshold or critical field, Bc, and is of the order of a few hundred oersteds for most of the pure superconductors. This field changes with temperature. So, we see that the superconducting state is stable only in some definite ranges of magnetic fields and temperatures. A typical plot of critical magnetic field versus temperature is shown Fig.4. Such a plot is also referred to as the magnetic phase diagram. The curve represents a phase boundary between the normal and the superconducting state. Such types of curve are almost parabolic and can be expressed by the empirical relation:

 T Bc T   Bc 01     Tc

  

2

  

(3)

Where Bc 0 is the critical field at 0 K. Thus, at the critical temperature, the critical field becomes zero,i.e., Bc Tc   0 (4)



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2.4 Types of superconductors Superconductors have been classified as Type-I and Type-II depending on their behaviour in an external magnetic field i.e. how strictly follow the Meissner effect. We describe below these two types of superconductors. A) Type-I Superconductors The superconductors which strictly follow the Meissner effect are calledtype-I superconductors. In this type of superconductors, there is a certain minimum value of the magnetic field Hc(T) below which there is a complete expulsion of the magnetic flux. At this value, the flux abruptly penetrates perfectly into the entire specimen, reverting the specimen to its normal state. The variation of magnetization of these superconductors with critical magnetic field is illustrated in [Fig.5.a]. B) Type-II Superconductors In this type of superconductors, there is no penetration of the magnetic field below a certain critical value Bc1 (T) and the penetration begins at this value, and grows further till an upper critical field Bc2 (T) is reached and the penetration is complete. In the region of the partial penetration from Bc1 (T) to Bc2 (T), the specimen assumes a complicated mixed structure of the normal and superconducting states. The specimen is said to be in a mixed state, commonly known as vortex state [Fig.5.b] [Kittel,2005] Superconductors with these features are called Type-II superconductors. The values of Bc for type-I superconductors are typically of the order of 102 gauss. These values are too small for any useful application as coils of superconducting magnet. Hence these superconductors are referred to as soft superconductors. But the so-called hard or type-II superconductors show high values of Bc2. For example, a valueof 41 tesla for an alloy of Nb, Al and Ge at 4.2 K and 54 tesla for PbMo6S8 are reported in the literature [Srivastava, 2011].This hard or type-II superconductors are used as solenoids in superconducting magnets that are capable of producing steady magnetic fields of over 200 KG. With these magnets, it is possible to carry out Magnetic Resonance Imaging(MRI), an important application in medical diagnosis.



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2.5. High Temperature Ceramic Superconductors A new class of oxide ceramic superconductors having critical temperature greater than 30 K was discovered by Bednorz and Muller in 1986, which ushered a new era in the field of superconductivity. These are called high Tc superconductors. The first group of such superconductors was La2-xMxCuO4 (M=Ba, Sr, Ca) with Tc ranging from 25 to 40 K and is usually referred to as `2-1-4` system. This system possesses K2NiF4 structure with an orthorhombic distortion. This discovery was followed by the discovery of another important system having the general formula LnBa2Cu3O7-x (Ln=Y, Nd, Sm, Eu, Gd, Dy, Ho, Er, Yb) with x . This is called `1-2-3` system and has the orthorhombic structure. In 1988, several other non-rare earth based cupper oxide systems involving Bi and Tl were discovered which showed superconductivity between 60 K and 125 K. Many of the properties of these high-Tc superconductors are identical to those of conventional low-Tc metallic superconductors. These include, for example, the existence of energy gap over the entire Fermi surface below Tc and the Josephson tunneling. These superconductors, however, possess certain properties which do not match with those of conventional ones. These are, for example, small isotope effect, small coherence length ( a few lattice spacings) etc. Also, the pressure is found to increase the transition temperature in high Tc superconductors, whereas usually opposite is effect observed in conventional superconductors. Thus, there appears to be a something essentially new in the high Tc superconductors, which has not clearly understood. The identification of the possible conduction mechanism in high Tc superconductors is perhaps the most challenging problem in condensed matter physics these days. 2.6 Theoretical Aspectsof Superconductivity A number of theories have been proposed to explain the phenomenon of superconductivity with varying success. These are, for example, the phenomenological theory of London and London (1935)[6], semi-phenomenological theory of Landau and Ginzburg(1950), and the microscopic theory of Bardeen, Cooper and Schrieffer (1957), also called the BCS theory. Of Contemporary Research Spectrum- A Multidisciplinary Refereed Journal| 90


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these theories, the BCS theory is the most successful one and explains all the properties of superconductors except those of high- Tc ceramic superconductors. Bardeen, Cooper and were awarded the Nobel Prize in 1972 for this work. The BCS theory is briefly discussed below. The BCS Theory: A Qualitative Approach The microscopic theory of superconductivity, popularly known as BCS theory is attributable to Bardeen, Cooper and Schrieffer Bardeen, [Cooper and Schrieffer, 1957]. We now describe the basic principles of this theory in a qualitative way. The all important clue to this theory came from the isotope effectwhich indicated that the vibrational motion of heavy nuclei must play an important role in the mechanism of superconductivity. The missing link was established by Cooper. He introduced the concept of electron-phonon-electron- interaction which is now confirmed as the cause of superconductivity in liquid helium superconductors. Cooper demonstrated that with the creation of a condition favourable for a net attractive interaction between two electrons in a conductor, the conductor is transformed from its normal conducting state to the superconducting state. The current in a superconductor is attributed to the flow bound electron pairs on the basis of the electron-phonon-electron interaction which materializes through a sequence of events. An electron deforms the lattice in its vicinity [Aruldhas andRajagopal, 2005] exciting a photon that travels through the crystal. This phonon is absorbed by a second electron, getting thus coupled to the first electron [Fig.6.a]. Such a pair of electrons is popularly known as Cooper pair, have exactly opposite wave vectors and opposite spins.At finite temperatures below the transition temperature, the Cooper pairs find themselves immersed in the Fermi sea of non-interacting electrons. At absolute zero of temperature, all the electrons in states near the Fermi surface are bound into Cooper Pairs and are in the ground state. In order to explain the zero resistivity exhibited by superconductors, let us consider that one of the electrons of the Cooper pair propagating through the lattice as shown in [Fig.6.b]. The coulomb attraction between the electron and ions deforms the lattice which is propagated along with the electron.This propagating wave is associated with phonon transmission, and the electron- phonon resonance allows the electron along with its pair elsewhere in the lattice to move without resistance.

3.Applications of Superconductors Low temperature liquid helium superconductors have been used to fabricate high fields magnets and some electronic and radiofrequency devices. The superconducting magnets have been employed in NMR spectrometers, and NMR imaging used in medical diagnostics. Contemporary Research Spectrum- A Multidisciplinary Refereed Journal| 91


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Superconductors have been used to produce different devices based on superconducting interfering effects. These include SQUIDS (Superconducting Quantum Interference Devices) and Josephson devices such as square law detector, parametric amplifier and mixer. The SQUID magnetometer can detect magnetic fields of less than 10-4 Am-1 and is used for testing the ceramic superconductors. Besides these, superconductors have also been used to produce electromagnetic shields and a high speed ( 550 km) levitatingtrain. Most of the applications based on liquid helium superconductors make use of Nb alloys, particularly NbTi, owing to their ductile nature and ability to carry moderate currents. The utility of low temperature superconductors is limited because of the requirement of liquid helium temperature which is a great economic disadvantage. The high-Tc superconductors with Tc 77 K have advantage over low -Tc superconductors in the sense that liquid nitrogen can be used as coolant which reduces the cost. In addition to this, liquid nitrogen serves as better coolant than helium because of its large heat capacity. In view of their higher Tc, the use of high temperature superconductors (HTS) in a much larger number of applications seems imminent. With the considerable advancement in the method of sample preparation, good quality wires, tapes and films of cuprates have been produced. But the low current densities and ceramic nature of HTS have seriously limited their applications. These materials are being used to build prototype liquid nitrogen cooled motors or generators operating at modest currents and magnetic fields. The SQUIDS fabricated using these superconductors find applications in medical diagnosis, under sea communications, submarine detection etc. 4. Conclusions The superconductivity, especially high Tc superconductivity has become one of the most exciting fields of study in condensed matter physics in recent times. The reason is that the high Tc superconductors find applications in diverse fields of science and technology. The high Tc superconductors(HTS) having high current densities and Tc approximately the room temperature (300 K) are not yet in reality. Intensive research is going on worldwide to discover the HTS with Tc near the room temperature. It is hoped that the discovery of new superconductors with large current densities and Tc near the room temperature will bring revolution in the scientific world. References 

Aruldhas G. and Rajagopal P.(2011). Modern Physics, PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd.New Delhi.

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Bardeen J., Cooper L.N. and Schrieffer J.R. (1957). Phys.Rev.,106, 162.

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Bednorz J.G. and Muller K.A.(1986). Z. Phys. B. Cond. Matt. , 64, 189.

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Kittel C. (2005). Introduction to Solid State Physics, 8th edition, Wiley India Pvt. Ltd.New Delhi.

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Meissner W. and R.Ochsenfeld (1933).Naturwiss, 21, 787.

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OnnesKammerlingh H. (1911). Akad. Van Wetenschappen (Amsterdam), 14, 113, 818.

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7.Puri R.K. and Babbar V.K. (2006). Solid State Physics, 3rd edition, S Chand & Company Ltd. New Delhi.

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Sritavastava J.P. (2011). Elements of Solid State Physics, 3rd edition, PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi.



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Role of Corporate Bodies in Development of our Society Sadhan Kr. Pradhan Assistant Professor and Head, Department of Commerce, Michael Madhusudan Memorial College City Centre, Durgapur-16, West Bengal, E-mail: [email protected] ABSTRACT Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) refers to a business practice that involves participating in initiatives that benefit society. Liz.Maw, CEO of non profit organisation,noted that CSR is becoming more mainstream as forward-thinking companies embed sustainability into the core of their business operations to create share value for business and society. The next generation of employees is seeking out empolyers that are focused on the tripple bottem line:- “People, Planet and Profit”, CSR encompass a wide variety of tactics from giving non profit organisation a portion of a company’s proceeds, to giving away a product or service to a worthy recipient for every sale made.Here are three broad categories of social responsibility:- Environment: One primary focus of Corporate Social Responsibility is the environment. Business, both large and small, have a large carbon footprint. Any steps they can take to reduce those footprints are considered both good for company and society as a whole. Philanthropy: Business also practice social responsibility for donating to national and local charities, whether it involves giving money or time, business have a lot of resources thatcan benefits charities and local community programs. Ethical Labour Practices: By treating employees fairly and ethically,companies can also demonstrate their corporate social responsibility. This especially true of business that operate in international locations with labour laws that differ from those in The United States.

Introduction Corporate Social Responsibility, often abbreviated “CSR” is a corporation’s initiative to assess and take responsibility for the company’s effects on environmental and social wellbeing. The term generally applies to efforts that go beyond what may be required by regulators or environmental protection groups.CSR may also be referred to as “Corporate Citizenship” and can involve incurring short-term costs that do not provide an immediate financial benefit to the company, but instead promote positive social and environmental change. Early CSR reports often focused on philanthropy as a driver of CSR. That notion has been supplantedby a broad commitment to protecting and improving the lives of the workers and communities in which companies do business. CSR reports now typically address issue impacting virtually every area of operation; governance and ethics; worker hiring opportunity and training; responsible purchasing and supply chain policies ; energy and environmental impact. Some see this work as charity, philanthropy or an allocation of resources that could better be donated by shareowners themselves. D. Dunn and H. Packard – vice President of Global Citizenship said that, in the company’s 2005 global citizenship report, “ it is a vital instrument in our future, essential to our top-line and bottom-line success”. Sustainability and CSR Emphasis on social environmental and economic sustainability was originally viewed in terms of preserving the earth’s resources. In 1987, the world commission on Environment and Development Published “Our Common Future,” a landmark action plan for environmental sustainability. The commission defined sustainability as meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generation to meet their needs. Companies are now challenged by stakeholders including customers, employees, investors



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and activists to develop a blueprint for how they will sustain economic prosperity while taking care of their employees and the environment. Mainstream investors are being challenged to ensure that they review CSR issue when analyzing Companies. The United Nations Environment Program Financial initiative asked one of the world’s largest law firms research whether institytional investors such as pension fund and insurance companies are legally permitted to integrate environmental, social and governance (ESG) issue into their investment decision-making and ownership practices. The resulting report, released in October 2005, concluded that investors were not only permitted to but also sometimes required to take such factors into account. Socially responsible investors have a key catalyst asking companies to develop a CSR agenda for the past decade. In recent years, mainstream financial institutions have also come to value CSR. A january 2005 survey of mainstream investment managers found that 73% predicted that socially responsible invsstment indicators will become common place in mainsteram investing within 10 years, in july 2013; a Spectrum Group of survey found, that 49% of Millennial Investors with more than $ 1 million in networth reported they used socially responsible criteria to fill out their portfolios. Such interest wanted with the age of 43% of Generation X millonaries held the same view, followed by 34% of Baby Boomers and 27% of the oldest chort,which the survey tag as “seniors”. One weakness of CSR and sustainability reports is lack of common measures of performance with which can lead to hyperbole and greenwashing. The Global Reporting Initiative is a Multi-Stakeholder process which seek to refine a set of common, globally applicable( CSR) Sustainability reporting guidelines. This process has incorporated the active participation of representatives from business, accountancy, investment, environmental, humanrights, research and labour organisation from around the world. More than 700 companies have published CSR or sustainability reports in accordance with Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) guidelines. Despite progress made by many companies,adopting of CSR policies and reporting are still in its early stages at most corporations. Global Principles and Guidelines to CSR A comprehensive guidance for companies pertaining to CSR in available in the form of several globally recognised guidelines, frameworks, principles, and tools, some of which are discussed here. It must be noted that the most of these guidelines relate to the larger concept of sustainability or business responsibility, in keeping with the fact that these concepts are closely aligned globally with the notion of CSR. UNGC is the world’s largest corporate citizenship initiative with the objective to mainstream the adoption of sustainable and socially responsible policies by business around the world. The 10 principles of the UN Global Compact have been derived from various UN Conventions such as the Universal Declaration and Fundamental Principles and Rights at work, the Rio- declaration on Environment and development, and the UN Convention Against Corruption. These principles cover four broad areas:1) Human Right (support and respect the protection of international human rights and ensure that business is not complicit with human rights abuses). 2) Labour Rights (uphold the freedom of association and effective recognition of the right to collective bargaining, elemination of all forms of forced and compulsory labour, effective abolition of child labour and elimination of description in respect of employment and occupotion). Contemporary Research Spectrum- A Multidisciplinary Refereed Journal| 94


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3) Environment (support a precautionary approach to environmental challenges, undertake initiatives to promote greater environmental responsibility and encourage the development of environmental friendly technology). 4) Goverance (work against corruption in all forms, including bribery and extortion). Social Accountability and Social Responsibility Social Accountability International ( SAI) is one of the world’s first audiable social certification standard. It is based on ILO, UN and National Law Convention and adopts a management system approach in order to ensure that companies that adopt this approach also comply with it. This standard ensure the protection of basic human rights of workers. The nine basic elements of this standard includes – i) Child Labour, ii) Forced and Compulsory Labour, iii) Health abd Safety, iv) Freedom of Association and the Rights to Collective Bargaining, v) Discrimination, vi) Disciplinary Practice, vii) Working Hours, viii) Remuneration, ix) Management System.According to SAAS, there are 695 facilities. Clause 135, Of Companies Act 2013 In India, the concept of CSR is governed by clause 135 of the Companies Act, 2013, which was passed by both Houses of the Parliament, and had received the assent of the President of India on 29th August 2013. The CSR Provision within the Act is applicable to companies with an annual turnover of 1000 crore INR and more, or a net worth of 500 crore INR and more, or a net profit of 5 crore INR and more. The new rules, which will be applicable from the fiscal 2014-15 onwards, also require companies to set-up a CSR committee consisting of their board members, including at least one independent director. The act encourages companies to spend at least 2% of their average net profit in the previous three years on CSR activities. The ministry drafts the rules, that have been put up for public comment, define net profit as the profit before tax as per the books of accounts, excluding profits arising from branch outside India. The act list out a set of activities eligible under CSR. Companies may implement these activities taking into account the local conditions after seeking board approval. The indicative activities which can be undertaken by a company under CSR have been specified under schedule vii of the act. The draft rules (as of September 2013) provide a number of clarifications while these are awating public comment before notification, some of these highlights are as follows:   a) b) c) d)   

Surplus arising out of CSR activities will have to reinvested into CSR initiative, and this will be over and above the 2% figure. The company can implement its CSR activities through the following methodsDirectly on its own Through its own non-profit foundation set-up so as to facilitate this initiative. Through independently registered non-profit organisations that have a record of at least three years in similar such related activities. Collaborating or pooling their resources with other companies. Only CSR activities undertaken in India will be taken into consideration. Activities meant exclusively for employees and their families will not qualify. A format for the board report on CSR has been provide which includes amongst others, activity-wise, reason for spends under 2% of the average net profits of the previous three years and a responsibility statement that the CSR policy, implementation and monitoring process is in compliance with the CSR objectives, in letter and in spirit. Contemporary Research Spectrum- A Multidisciplinary Refereed Journal| 95


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Reporting- The new Act requires that the board of the company shall, after taking into account the recommendation made by the CSR committee, approved the CSR policy for the cpmpany and disclose its contains in their report and also publish the details on the company’s official website, if any in such a manner as may be prescribed. If the company fails to spend the prescribed amount, the board,in its report, shall specify the reasons.

Clause 135 of the companies act, 2013, require a CSR committee to be constituted by the board of directors. They will be responsible for prepairing a detailed plan of the CSR activities including, decision, regarding the expenditure, the type of activities to be undertaken, roles and responsibilities of the concerned individuals and a monitoring and reporting mechanism. The CSR committee will also be required to re-ensure that all the income accrued on the company by the way of CSR activities is credited back to CSR corpus. The development and welfare programmes in India address all the citizens, the focus is on the disadvantaged, marginalised and excluded. Marginalisation in India is primarily on the basis of gender, disability, ethnicity and location. The leads to social and physical exclusion of such groups from all kind of development. Engaging the marginalised in India is further complicated due to language and literacy variances, information asymmetry, infrastructure constraints, geographical challenges and cultural barriers to name a few. The CSR strategy should ideally indicate which of these marginalised groups it proposes to target. New Rules for Corporate Social Responsibility The much discussed and awaited CSR provision have been notified by the Ministry of Corporate Affairs (MCA) on February 27,2014 giving effect to section 135. The new Companies Act, 2013, dealing with CSR read with schedule vii of the Companies Act and the companies (Corporate Social Responsibility) Rules, 2014. This is furtherness of power provide to the Central Government under section 469 and section 467 of the Companies Act to make and alter rules, regulation etc, and any provisions contained in any of the schedule under the Companies Act. Moreover, any such alteration in the rukes or schedules needs to be placed before both the houses of the parliament for validity. The said section, scheduled and CSR Rules will come into effects from first day of April, 2014. The CSR provision will be aoolicable to companies with an annual turnover of INR 10 billion and more, or a networth of INR 5 billion and more, or a net profit 0.05 billion or more during any financial year, companies that trigger any of the aforesaid conditions must spend at least two percent (2%) of their average net profits made during the three immediately preceeding financial years on CSR activities and/or report report the reason for spending or non-expenditure. The notification having been issued almost a month prior to the date of implementation of CSR provision. The companies will have to gear upto formulate their CSR policy; keeping in mind the revised list of activities enlisted the amended scheduled vii and the CSR Rules. Institutional Coverage of CSR: While section 135 (1) of the Companies Act brings under its purview every company which would mean to include a company incorporated in India. The CSR Rules have made an attempt to broaden the definition of them ‘Company’ to include a foreign company having a branch or project office of a foreign company. This gives an expansionist scope under CSR Rules regulate such companies which prima facie are not included under section 135. Thus, the CSR Rules which were supposed to be supplementary



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to the main provision seems to have overreaching effect well beyond the scope of section 135 as originally completed. Computation of Net Profit:Indian Company-The CSR Rules have clarified the manner in which a company’s net worth will be computed to determine if it fits into the spending norms. In order to determine the net profit, dividend income received from another Indian Company or profits made by the company from its overseas branches have been excluded. More over the 2% of CSR is computed as 2% of the average net profits made by the company during the preceeding three financial years. Foreign Company- The CSR Rules prescribe that in the case of a foreign company that has its branch or a project in India, CSR provision will be applicable to such offices. CSR Rules further prescribe that the balance sheet and profit & loss a/c of a foreign company will be prepared in accordance with section 381 (1) (a) and net profit be computed as per section 198 of the Companies Act. It is not clear as to how the computation of net worth or turnover would be arrived at in case of a branches or project of a foreign company. CSR Expenditure: Expenditure incurred on specification activities that are carried out in India will qualify as CSR expenditure. Such expenditure includes contribution to the corpus or on projects or programs relating to CSR activities. Any activity under taken solely for the benefits of employees and their families will remain outside the purview of CSR activity.Expenditure incurred in undertaking normal courses of business will not form a part of the CSR expenditure. Companies would need to clearly distinguish these activities which are undertaken specially in pursuance of normal course of business and those that are done incrementally as part of the CSR initiatives. Employee’s Contribution towards CSR:Companies are permitted to train their employees and /or personnel of their implementing agencies to build CSR capabilities. Any expenditure incurred in providing such training upto a celling of five percent in one financial year is permitted under the CSR budget. However, owing to celling on the percentage of amount that can be spent for training purposes, the idea of including and computing employees timevalue contribution towards CSR has not been factored at all. Allowing companies to train employees subject to a pre-fixed budget while excluding employees time-value contribution will create a dichotomy in allocation of CSR expenditure. Reporting: It is mandatory for companies to disclose their CSR policy, programs/projects under taken and amount spent in their report and the CSR Rules provides for a separate formate. The report containing details of such activities and CSR policies have to be made available to the company’s website for informational purpose. Conclusion It can be hoped that this rules of the Companies Act 2013, will changed the way Indian Corporate do the business. Making them more responsible and concerned, regarding their duties towards the society and environment as a whole. Thus, will lead to what can be called as sustainable growth in real sense. References    

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Smith Nicola (2013) “Corporate Social Responsibility, power to the people” retrieved on 28 th April 2014. A Handbook on Corporate Social Responsibility in India-CII (Confederation of Indian Industry) Michael Hopkins- Corporate Social Responsibility: An Issues. C.S.Das (2012) Corporate Governance in India , New Delhi: PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd. http://www.mca.gov.in Searching Acts/ Section 135. htm.



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Tourism, Folklore and Community Development – A New Dimension of Folklore Study Dr. Saikat Chakraborty Asst. Manager – Sales & Operations, Citius Travel Solutions, Kolkata & Ex-Research Scholar, Department of Folklore, University of Kalyani, Kalyani, West Bengal, India E-mail: [email protected] & Dr. Sujay Kumar Mandal Associate Professor & Head, Department of Folklore, University of Kalyani Kalyani-741235, Nadia, West Bengal, India, E-mail: [email protected] ABSTRACT Tourism and folklore both are by nature a multidisciplinary field of studies. In India previously folklore study was based on amateur work, romanticism and related with nationalism. It is the time to study folklore from various interdisciplinary aspects and it can play an extraordinary role jointly with tourism for community development. Tourism has a major advantage as it is a smokeless industry and it can absorb different types of human resources. It is the second largest industry all over the world. Similarly in the changing socio-economic scenario, folklore has to adapt itself for its future survival and need to open up its unexplored dimensions. Application of folklore in tourism promotion will open up a new area of folklore. It can play the role of a catalyst in between tourism and economics from the developmental aspects. The tourism industry employed 235 million people across the country and generating 9.4% of global GDP in the last year. The total forecast of the increase of the job in tourism within 2020 will be 303 million (WTTC 2010). In case of East and North-Eastern India, promotion of tourism through folklore has a huge opportunity. Recent statics shows the flow of tourist traffic from outside India is in increasing mode. As per the VoAs registered growth rate of tourism is 41.5% in 2014. Another important initiative for North East was, Alliance Air will operate their ATR air service in different places within 31st March2016. All these data shows an expected growth of Indian tourism industry. It has a great opportunity to apply the unexplored potentiality of folklore in tourism promotion of East and NorthEast India and promote Indian tourism in a different responsible manner within the country and all over the world towards a proper community development.

Key Words:Tourism, Folklore, Community Development 1. Introduction Folklore and tourism both are inter-disciplinary field of studies. From the historical development of folklore study in India shows that it was based on amateur, romanticism and related with nationalism. From the changing global scenario this is the time of extensive study of folklore from the various application oriented aspects. It will not only help for the socio-cultural development but also it will create a positive environment towards the analysis of the relevance of folklore and development in present scenario. Similarly tourism has a great opportunity to play in case of community development, poverty alleviation etc. It is a smoke less industry and the biggest advantage of this industry is, it can absorb different types of human resources that is skilled, semi-skilled and un-skilled. And that is the most important point where community can attach or involve with this industry. Proper involvement of local people will create positive environment for work and it will gradually create the scope of implementation of folklore towards the application of tourism as an added attraction or product. Folklore can play the role of a catalyst in between tourism and economics from the developmental aspects. The residents of any tourist destination received benefits and problems from the tourism industry. More comprehensive and balanced planning is required for the tourism and community development (Murphy; 1985). It is important to involve residents in a particular destination in tourism activity. They have to commit themselves with Contemporary Research Spectrum- A Multidisciplinary Refereed Journal| 98


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their effort, money and positive will for the growth of tourism and then only community development can possible in a particular region (Moscardo; 2008). Knowledge and values are the most important factors in tourism operation. The decision making by the public sector, private tour operators and other intermediaries for the optimal implementation of tourism as a development option will base on their knowledge about tourism. Similarly community has to aware about the benefits of tourism implementation (Butler & Hinch; 2007). Involvement of indigenous people in development planning was started from 1980s. Brundtland in 1992, in his report mentioned the importance of indigenous peoples in future development. The academics, politicians of the whole world recognize indigenous people as the ‘guardians of nature’ (McNeish; 2005). In case of India the rural community is not in a good shape and after the independence ‘our unforgivable failure’ has been the main reason for the mass poverty. At the end of the 20th century, 260 million people of India or one fourth of its total population under ‘poverty line’ and 200 million are in rural areas. According to another estimates one in three Indians, spending less than 1 USD $ a day as per purchase is concern (Bhaduri; 2007). As of now 854 million people all over the world were estimated to be undernourished (Behnassi & Yaya; 2011). North East India has a huge potentiality for tourism development. Tourism Finance Corporation of India can play a vital role in exploration of the possibilities of tourism development (Kumaran; 2008). In 21st century tourism has a great potentiality from the theoretical aspects and in every case people tried to find out the ‘sense of place’ from the tourists point of view. Every destination should have a unique to attract tourists. To create uniqueness, ecological tourism planning, ecological process, community focus etc. need to be analyses or examine. Tourism has a multidisciplinary approach and has can develop many new disciplines in future (Murphy & Murphy; 2004). 2.Relationships of Folklore and Tourism Tourism, folklore and community development has a inter relation. The three subjects are in interdisciplinary in nature. The inter linkages between three subjects and its application is not available in India. This research will try to make a three dimension figure of inter relation of this field of studies and its application in the society (Fig. 1).

Folklore

Tourism

Community Developmentment

Fig. 1 Relationship Model of Tourism, Folklore & Community Development



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India has a great diversity of folklore. As per the history of folklore study in India, especially in Bengal from the British, various Bengali scholars were involved from different point of view. Even several organizations were also taking part to use folklore as a medium of better communication with the so called ‘folk’. For e.g. IPTA or Gana Nattya Sangha played a major initiatives. In their manifesto shows: “In the present deepening economic deterioration of our people, we find that artistes in the cities as well as in the country-side, and theatres all over the country, can barely manage to keep alive. Costs of production and the soaring prices of all the equipment needed on the stage are resulting in the closing down of professional and non-professional theatres. Thousands of artistes and theatre workers are unemployed. We pledge that we shall fight constantly to improve the living conditions of writers, artistes and technicians, so that our arts may flourish” (IPTA Manifesto). It was an example of the understanding of the importance and struggle for fight for the save of cultural heritage, folklore on behalf of Communist Party of India from the back end. In Marx’s theory also stated that the importance of community is more important rather than an individual (Gould; 1978: 13). The manifesto of IPTA again shows the importance of folklore promotion for the nationalistic point of view and I quote some areas from the original as these are rare document – “we demand that all the various nationalities of India be given every facility to develop their own languages and cultures, their own stage, folk art and literature, and we declare that the best vehicles of expression for each nationality are its own national forms in its own language” (Pradhan, Sudhi; 1982). In this present changing socio-cultural and sociopolitical situation of the world, where tourism is recognized the second largest industry, linkage between folklore and tourism for the community development will be a major way of study of folklore from the applied aspects. It has a massive potentiality from the academic as well as industrial side (Robert Chambers; 1983). In most of the cases industry tried to find out something different from mass tourism and try to create an USP (Unique Selling Product) for business purpose in the name of benefit for the host communities (S Singh; D. J. Timothy; R. K. Dowling; 2003). The organizations those who promote or want to promote folklore as an attraction for tourism or folk material as a tourism product has to create some cultural protection measure in consideration of the minimizing the negative impacts of the tourists towards the community or so called ‘folk’. In case of tourism, cultural commoditization is a major issue and it has an adverse effect in the society. It will create the major problem in the sustainability of the rural community (George, Mair & Reid; 2009). Demonstration effect is one of the major issue from the tourism point of view in socio-cultural aspects. This will bring unrest & frustration to the local community. In the 1980s Krippendorf was already pointed out the importance of the involvement of local community in the tourism development. After a decade all the tourism experts suggest the importance of community involvement in tourism has a positive impact in the society from socio-cultural aspects (Krippendorf; 1987). Understanding of residents attitude and perception is important for the regional tourism development project (Chandralal; 2010). Through tourism practice the lifestyle of the local peoples has changed and for e.g. a fishing village became a tourist destination with casino, pubs etc. (Ryan; 2003). The live examples are Pattaya at Thailand, Mandarmoni at West Bengal, India etc. Some countries practiced tourism in a very good manner and try to implement the positive impacts of tourism in terms of economic as well as social point of view. For e.g. Egypt has a very strong base in the tourism industry. Over an all 2.5 million Egyptian local communities are involved directly in the tourism industry and apart from that millions of local community is attached with tourism indirectly.



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Tourism has a multi dimension from the operational aspects. In case of the application of tourism and folklore for the community development, there are several factors need to be maintaining in a sequence. Tourism has four areas which directly associated folklore for the community development a. Adaptation b. Cultural Conservation c. Economic Development and then d. Community Development. a. Adaptation: Tourism has various positive and negative effects from the ground operation level and local community has to adopt the nature of tourism operation from their end. It is the duty of the tourism industry to promote and practice the positive side of tourism. b. Cultural Conservation: At the time of tourism practice there will be a chance of acculturation which is very practical and uncontrollable. Though it is important that a particular community should understand the value of their culture and how to conserve it with the present era of globalization. c. Economic Activity: This is one of the main and major objectives to promote tourism through the promotion of folklore towards community development. As tourism industry is the amalgamation of skilled, semi skilled and non skilled human resource, there is a huge chance to improve the economy of a remote village. d. Community Development: Community development is the result of all the above three things proper application. It is the end result. These are the core area of the application model of tourism and folklore for community development and there is also a buffer zone. Buffer zone is basically based on another four things and these are motivational factors. a. Information Technology: IT can play a great role to build the knowledge to the local community regarding the tourism development and its benefits. It will help the adaptation process. b. Psychology: This will help to understand the behavior as well as different psychological factors, emotions towards the cultural conservation. This is a part of development process for the better understanding of a local community. c. Social Media: In today’s world Social media is a great motivational factor for e.g. Facebook, twitter, LinkedIn, and so on and it can increase the economic activity from various ways. d. Sustainable Development: In the present world scenario any kind of development should be sustainable in the form. To develop a community it is important to understand and implement the sustainable development. Based on these two areas core and buffer, Fig. 2 shows a diagram of the implementation of tourism and folklore for the community development from a very practical aspects.



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Fig. 2 Two Steps Model of Tourism, Folklore and Community Development 3. Tourism and Folklore towards Community Development In 1994 the travel and tourism demand was expected 13.3% real growth and according to WTTC in between 2005 to 2014 the per annum growth will be 3.4% (Eraqi; 2007). In case of any kind of tourism development or activity it has an impact in the host community. For e.g. any kind of events has an effect to the host community from the socio-cultural and economic point of view. It is important to analysis the social and environmental impacts of an event in a particular destination and on the basis of the research planned tourism practice is required for the benefit of the local community (Raj; 2003). The meaning of tourism introduction in a destination means ‘the process of introducing tourism into an area in manner in which it mixes with existing elements’ (Butler; 1999). The acceptance of tourists by the community member is important for the successful tourism operation. The basic meaning of social caring capacity is to study the maximum limit of tolerance of local community regarding the adverse effects of tourism in a particular destination (Murphy; 1993). The study of social caring capacity is suitable in case of the section of tourists those who will visit some offbeat destination and in that destination the acceptance or conflict to the local community. The conflict will arise when the community member has a feeling that the continue tourist flows increased with different kind of demands and effecting their lifestyle. It is Important to introduce a destination from the tourism perspective from a proper scientific method of product development. 1980s was a land mark in year in the field of tourism, as the definition of sustainable development was introduced in that year at World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED; 1980) BY United Nations. The meaning of sustainable development is the right of the people to take part in the decision making process (Wisansing). In case of the effect of tourism in the host community the theory of innovation theories and personality theory is applicable. Initially the relationship of tourists and community is complex in nature as they are not neighbors of them and the relationship is based on ‘affective tie’. At the first time the meeting of tourists & community members will be like ‘on stage’ (Smith; 1989: 271).Also from the opposite side need to update or educate about the various folk materials region wise to the tourists and its importance for the creation of responsible positive promotional tourism environment. Some of the travel related organizations seriously working on this and prepare their own guidelines (TOFT; 2007). NCAER 1998 census report shows about the artisans in India that the estimated total value of different production is Rs.2, 632 Contemporary Research Spectrum- A Multidisciplinary Refereed Journal| 102


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million during 1995 to 1996. As per this study 4.1 million people were engaged in this artisan work in that period of time (Mukhopadhyay; NCAER 1998). The output of tourism industry is important for the analysis of a countries economic growth. According to the total tourism multiplier, it wills 2.1, in which the direct and indirect impacts taken together are 2.1 times of the actual spending of the tourists. If the actual contribution in the GDP is 2.78% then the contribution of direct and indirect impact will be 5.83% (NCAER; 2006). In last 10 to 15 years, tourism is the fast growing economic activities (Singh; 2008). Indian economy is based on agriculture. In different parts of India the village people are involved in agriculture. According to the 2001 census report, more than 77 crore farmers live at 5.5lakhs of Indian village (Gopal, Varma & Gopinathan; 2008). 4. Scope of Community Development through Tourism and Folklore Community development through the involvement of region based folk materials can be one of the major initiatives towards poverty eradication in rural India. For e.g. in forest areas the introduction of Joint Forest Management (JFM) was a remarkable work from the government. A major population that is 275 million people those who are poor basically depend on forests in India (The World Bank; 2006). In case of rural tourism in India, the role of cooperatives is very important. India has a good strength in the area of building village cooperatives in various fields. In the present time India has more than 5 lakh cooperative societies across the country with a membership of 23 crores and working capital of Rs.198.542 million. The distribution of cooperative credits is in the field of agriculture 46.15%, 36.22% in the total fertilizers in the country, production of sugar is 59% and 55% of the handlooms. It has an excellent networking and it cover 100% of the total villages and 75% of the rural households. It is important to connect these cooperatives with the rural tourism for the growth of economy in the rural village areas (Verma; 2006). The increase of tourist arrivals and their money spent is one of the major key factor for the positive growth in the economy. All over the world international tourist spent some USD $ 680 billion in 2005, an increase of USD$ 269.2 billion, which is equivalent to an average increase of 5.2% annually over the period of 1995 to 2005 (UNESC; 2007). The share of the international tourism market, poor countries are still in very backward position, they have only 30% of tourism share. The trends of the tourist arrivals in the developing countries have grown by an average of 9.5% per year science 1990, with a comparison to 4.6% worldwide (Roe, Goodwin & Ashley; 2002). According to the vision of World Tourism Organization the tourism industry will grew on average 1.3 times faster than GDP and expected to grow at a level of 4.0% per year over the next ten years which can open an opportunity for developed as well as all the developing countries to be a part of this process and will share the benefits (Chavali & Sahu; 2008). According to the ‘Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)’ of World Tourism Organization, one of the main aim to ‘reduce by half the proportion of people living on less than a dollar a day’ (WTO; 2001). In case of India, it has also contributed a large number of reductions of poverty level. In 1990 the projection of expected poverty rate fall was 51% and in 2015 the expectation will be about 22% (UN; 2011). Any kind of economic development, women play a great role as they are in the epicenter of the family. In India the livelihood condition of rural women is also an area of concern. The rate of literacy in women is approximately half of the male in India. More than six out of ten women in India is illiterate. According to the Rural Development Institute statistics 86.1 percent of females are engaged in agriculture compared to 74 percent of males, 7.1 percentages of females are engaged in manufacturing whereas the 7 percent males are engaged (Ahuja & Cooper; 2005). In 1980 the government of India understood the tourism as an industry and its importance. Contemporary Research Spectrum- A Multidisciplinary Refereed Journal| 103


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According to recent study due to globalization and open economy, India is one of the biggest forex earners and it will create the opportunity for the infrastructure development in India (Vethirajan; 2010). 5. Conclusions To understand the expenditure that determines the economic contribution of tourism is depends on the basis of different variables. There six factors which can determine the benefits of the tourism (Ryan; 2003). In this case state tourism board and department of tourism can play a vital role with the help of local panchayat and district information offices. Not only government, it is important to take initiatives from the NGOs and industry too. For e.g. Sustainable Travel International, a US-based NGO started working to protect places through travel and tourism (Travel Trends Today; 2015: 4).One outstanding example of this is, U. S Agency for International Development (USAID) in one of their project in Tanzania, established the village women to make handicrafts, established enterprise and sales to tourists (Honey; 2008). This is a perfect example of involvement of folklore and tourism for community development. This will be the inauguration of new era of folklore study and research based on the reality of the need of the society and application of folklore from socioeconomic development aspects. References 

Murphy, Peter E. Tourism A Community Approach. New York: Methuen Inc, 1985.

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Moscardo, Gianna. Building Community Capacity for Tourism Development. Oxford: CAB International, 2008.

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Butler, Richard & Hinch, Tom. Tourism and Indigenous Peoples Issues and Implications. Burlington: Elsevier Ltd, 2007.

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McNeish, John – Andrew. Fighting for Prosperity: “Reflections on the Crisis and Politics of Poverty in Bolivia”, Iberoamericana. Nordic Journal of Latin American and Caribbean Studies 2. 2006.

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Bhaduri, Amit. Development with Dignity – A Case for Full Employment. New Delhi: National Book Trust. 2005, 3.

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Budruk, Megha and Phillips, Rhonda., Quality of Life Community Indicators for Parks, Recreation and Tourism Management, London: Springer, 2011, 121.

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Kumaran, ‘Conference on Tourism in India – Challenges Ahead’: New Tourism Products Development in Northeast India’ (paper presented at the IIMK, Kazikore, May 15-17, 2008).

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Murphy, Peter E and Murphy, Ann E, Strategic Management for Tourism Communities Bridging the Gaps, Clevedon: Channel View Publications. 2004.

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Vahali, DO; Last modified on 03rd Aug2015,

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Pradhan, Sudhi ed., Marxist Cultural Chronicles And Documents (1947-1958) Nabanno Printing Works, (1982),p. 152.

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Chambers, Robert. Rural Development: Putting the Last First. New York. Longmans Scientific and Technical Publishers, 1983.P 10.

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Reality (Massachusetts: The Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1978), 13

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Singh, S, Timothy, D. J. and Dowling, R. K., “Tourism and Destination Communities”, in Tourism in Destination Communities, edited by Singh, S, Timothy, D. J. and Dowling, R. K., (Wallingford: CAB International, 2003), 11.

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George, E. Wanda, Mair, Heather & Reid, Donald G. Rural Tourism Development: Localism and Cultural Change, Ontario: Channel View Publications, 2009.



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Krippendorf, Jost. The Holiday Makers : Understanding the Impact of Leisure and Travel. Oxford: Butterworth Heinemann, 1987.

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Chandralal, Kotuwawegoda Palliyaguruge Lalith, “Impacts of Tourism and Community Attitude towards Tourism: A Case Study in Sri Lanka”, South Asian Journal of Tourism and Heritage, Vol 3, No 2, 2010.

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Ryan, Chris. Recreational Tourism Demand and Impacts, Sydney: Channel View Publications, 2003.

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Eraqi, Mohammed I. “Local Communities’ Attitudes Towards Impacts of Tourism Development in Egypt”, Tourism Analysis, Vol 2, 2007.

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Raj, Razaq. “The Impact of Festivals on Cultural Tourism”, (Paper presented at the 02 nd DeHaan Tourism Management Conference – ‘Developing Cultural Tourism’, Nottingham: December 16, 2003).

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Butler, Richard W. “Problems and Issues of Integrating Tourism Development”, in Contemporary Issues in Tourism Development, edited by Pearce, Douglas G. and Butler, Richard W. (New York: Routledge, 1999), 67.

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Murphy, P. Tourism: A Community Approach. London: Routledge, 1993.

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“Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development: Our Common Future”, Last modified September 09, 2011, http://habitat.igc.org/open-gates/wced-ocf.htm

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Wisansing, Jutamas. “Towards Community Driven Tourism Planning: A Critical Review of Theoritical Demands and Practical Issues” Last modified August 05, 2011, http://gsbejournal.au.edu/1V/Journal/Towards%20Community%20Driven%20Tourism%20Planning.pdf

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Smith, Valene L. Hosts and Guests The Anthropology of Tourism, (Pennsylvania: The University of Pennsylvania Press, 1989) 271.

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NCAER, Tourism Satellite Account for India, (Commisioned by Ministry of Tourism, 2006), Last modified September 21, 2011, http://www.ncaer.org/Downloads/Reports/TourismSatelliteAccountIndia_Jan2006.pdf

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Gopal, R, Varma, Shilpa & Gopinathan, Rashmi. “Rural Tourism Development: Constraints and Possibilities with a special reference to Agri Tourism A Case Study on Agri Tourism Destination – Malegoan Village, Taluka Baramati, District Pune, Maharashtra”(Paper presented at IIMK, Kozhikode, May 17, 2008), Last modified, http://dspace.iimk.ac.in/bitstream/2259/596/1/512-523.pdf

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Roe, Dilys, Goodwin, Harold and Ashley, Caroline. “The Tourism Industry and Poverty Reduction: A Business Primer”, Pro-poor tourism briefing 2, (2002), Last modified, June 04, 2011, http://www.icrtourism.org/Publications/finalbusinessbrief.pdf

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Chavali, Dr. Kavita and Sahu, Dr. Subrat. “Comparative Study of Tourism Websites in India – With special reference to South India”, Last modified, March 15, 2011, http://www.alliancece.in/kavita.pdf

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Ahuja, Bharti & Cooper, Malcolm, “Women’s Role In Indian Rural Tourism: Towards a SocialInfrastructure Model for Rural Development”, (Field work of Ms. Ahuja’s Master’s Degree).

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Vethirajan, Dr.C, “Impacts of Tourism on Indian Economy”, Market Survey, (2010): accessed September 22, 2011, http://ffymag.com/admin/issuepdf/Tourism%20&%20Indian%20EconomyJune10.pdf

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Ryan, Chris. Recreational Tourism Demand and Impacts, Sydney: Channel View Publications, 2003.

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Honey, Martha. Ecotourism and Sustainable Development: Who Owns Paradise? (Washington DC: Island Press, 2008), 21.



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A Study of Cognitive Style As Predictors of Academic Achievement of Secondary School Student Sampa Barman Ph .D. Scholar Department in Education, Rabindra Bharati University and Assistant Professor in Education, Vidyasagar College for Women, Kolkata, E-mail: [email protected] & Professor (Dr.) Subrata Saha Professor in Education, Rabindra Bharati University, E-mail: [email protected] ABSTRACT In the present study an attempt was made to examine of Cognitive Style as predictors of Academic Achievement of class ix student in West Bengal Board of Secondary Education. A sample of 120 students of class ix was drawn from two schools selected from urban and rural areas of Bankura district, West Bengal .Adopted from of Group Embedded Figure Test by Philip Kilotmman, Evelyn Raskin and Herman A. Witkin, administered to collect data on Cognitive Style of the class ix students in W.B.B.S.E. and for the purpose of measuring Academic Achievement of Bengali subject researcher constructed a questionnaire. The obtained data were analyzed by following suitable statistical method.

Key Words:-Cognitive Style, Academic Achievement, Urban, Rural, Girls, Boys Introduction Human behaviour is three type-cognitive, affective, or psychomotor. Cognitive domain is related to acquisition of knowledge, understanding of concept, inter-relationship of various concepts and ideas, application of ideas and skills. Before the 1970s individual differences were synonymous with differences in ability, at least in the field of learning theory. Nevertheless, many psychologists in the 1950s and 1960s became increasingly concerned about the narrowness of abilities measured by standard intelligence tests. Emphasis on abstract logical reasoning seemed to restricts intelligence to ‘’Convergent Thinking’’ towards pre-determined answers but excluded the type of ‘Divergent Thinking’ which leads to imaginative or creative innovation. Guilford 1965 in introduced a model of the structure of the intellect which differentiated between a numbers of cognitive operations, including convergent and divergent thinking .Divergent thought soon became equated with creativity, but although his concepts of fluency, flexibility, and originality are still widely used, the value of his contributions to the understanding of creative thinking in now thought to be questionable. To data as many as 19 different ways of describing cognitive styles have been indentified, all of which consist of bi-polar distinctions (Entwistle, 1988). Witkin,H.A et. al 1962 introduce the concept of Cognitive Style. They mean Cognitive Style is broad-systematic characteristic affecting an individual’s perception to different situation. It means the Cognitive Style is characteristics self consistent modes of functioning which individuals show in their perceptual and intellectual activities. The Cognitive Style whose existence has been demonstrated includes Fieldindependent, dependent, levelling-sharpening, caning-focusing and a number of others. For this study researcher taken only Field-independent and Field-dependent as a measure of cognitive style.



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Language is very important for us because it is medium of communication to each other and mother tongue plays a major role. Rabindranath Tagor is a educational icon in the world. His principle of education was mother tongue should be the medium of instruction. He said ‘’ It was because we were taught in our own language that our mind quickened, learning should as far as possible follow the process of eating. When the taste begins from the first bite the stomach is awakened to its function before it is loaded, so that its digestive juices get full play, nothing like this happens, however, when the Bengali boy is taught in English.’’ SO this study researcher made in attempt to explore the Cognitive Style as predictors of Academic Achievement in Bengali subject of class ix student, because this time is very important for every child. Objectives of the study The objectives of the study are as follows:(i)

To measure the cognitive style of class ix student.

(ii)

To find out the difference between urban and rural students on their cognitive style.

(iii)

To find out the gender difference on their cognitive style.

(iv)

To predict academic achievement in Bengali of students by their cognitive style.

Hypotheses For the present study the following null hypotheses are found:OH1:-There is no significance relationship between cognitive style and academic achievement of class-ix student in W.B.B.S.E. OH2:-There is no significant difference between urban and rural students on their cognitive style. OH3:-There is no significant difference between girls and boys on their cognitive style. OH4:-Academic Achievement in Bengali of class-ix student cannot be predicted by their cognitive style. Delimitations of the study The present study has been delimited in the following way Area:-The study was delimited to urban and rural areas of the district Bankura, West Bengal. Sample:-Only 120 students of class ix student under West Bengal Board Secondary Education taken as sample randomly form the schools selected for the study. Definitions of the Terms Cognitive Style:-Witkin introduced the term ‘’Cognitive Style’’ to describe the concept that individuals consistently exhibit stylistic preferences for the ways in which they organize stimuli and construct meanings for themselves out of their experiences. Two domain of cognitive style was used this study-(i) Field Dependent (ii) Field Independent. (i)Field Dependent:- The former strategy in valves the risk of cognitive strain, necessities frequent modification of exiting categories and makes intellectual function a more difficult Contemporary Research Spectrum- A Multidisciplinary Refereed Journal| 107


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task. This sort of cognitive style is non-analytical or global in nature, known as Field Dependent Cognitive Style. (ii)Field Independent:-Learners usually differs in processing information. Some learners concentrate closely on a small portion while others attend to wider information. The former strategy has the advantages that one can select a few highly task related and task relevant piece of information and focus attention to them. This ability when developed makes possible for analytical way of experiencing called as Field Independent Cognitive Style (Witkin 1977). Academic Achievement:-Achievement means to succeed in reaching a particular goal, status or standard especially by effort, skill, ability, courage etc. Academic Achievement means accomplishment of performance in a given skill or body of knowledge during a specific period of time. Methodology Variables of the study:-In the present study two types variables have been identified, Independent variable and dependent variable, here ‘’Cognitive Style’’ is independent variable and ‘’Academic Achievement in Bengali’’ is dependent variable. Tools Used (i)The adopted form of Group Embedded Figure Test (GFTT) by Philip K.Oltman,Evelyn Raskin and Herman A.Witkin was administered to collect data on Cognitive Style of class ix student under consideration. (ii) For the purpose of measuring Academic Achievement in Bengali subject researcher constructed a questionnaire and it was developed by subject expert and supervisor. Statistical Design:(i)The statistical significance of the difference between mean of variables was tested by t-test. (ii)The prediction of Independent and Dependent variables was tested through the use of regression prediction method. Results and Analysis of data Table 1:-Relationship between the scores on cognitive style and academic achievement in Bengali subject of the students under consideration. variables

Value of ‘r’

df

Cognitive style and academic achievement

.044

116

Significant at 0.05 level The value of ‘r’ between cognitive style and academic achievement of Bengali subject was .044 (from table no 1)at 0.05 level of significant. Though the magnitude of the relationship was not high,but it can be said that the correlation of academic achievement with cognitive style was positive. Therefore 0H1 was rejected.



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Table 2:- Comparison between urban and rural students on their cognitive style. Variables Cognitive Style

Group

Mean

SD

N

Urban

3.23

1.86

60

Rural

3.90

2.06

60

Mean difference

t

df

Level of significance

0.67

6.89

118

0.05

Table 2 shows that the significant difference in favour of Rural Students under consideration on their cognitive style. Rural students scored better in cognitive style (Mean=3.90, SD=2.06) than that of urban students (Mean=3.23, SD=1.86). Therefore 0H2 was rejected. Table 3: Comparison between Girls and Boys students on their cognitive style. Variable

Group

Mean

SD

N

Cognitive Style

Girls

3.82

2.06

60

Boys

3.30

2.08

60

Mean difference

t

df


0.52

5.06

118

0.05

Table 3 shows that the significant difference in favour of girls students under consideration on their cognitive style. Girls students scored better in cognitive style (Mean=3.82, SD=2.06) than that of boys students (Mean=3.30, SD=2.08). Therefore 0H3 was rejected. Table 4: Multiple regression of cognitive style in Field Independent, Field Dependent Girls and Boys (N=120) Predictor variables

Beta

t


FID Girls

.196

3.142

.009

FID Boys

.058

1.619

.007

FD Girls

.516

2.307

.005

FD Boys

.139

1.381

.004

Multiple R2=0.354, F (2,118) =68.331 p S3 i5 t4c (I61gama/‘i’-k1r1gama) > S3 i t4 (Elision of two conjugations) > So i t4 (Gu7a) Contemporary Research Spectrum-A Multidisciplinary Refereed Journal 176

CRSJ, Volume-1, Issue-1. September, 2105

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> Saw i t4 (Sandhi) > Sawit4 (Word formed by synthesis) > Sawit4 + su (singular number in first case – ending) > Sawit1 (Part of speech). The suffix ‘t4c’ is used to suggest one who does something. Words like ‘d1t1’ (who gives), ‘0rot1’ (who listens), ‘jñat1’ (who knows) etc. are used as words and parts of speech in Bengali. Similarly, one who gives birth to a new day suggests ‘sawit1’. As we do not know how the word ‘sun’ is derived in English, we give emphasis only on its practical use. Therefore, we can say that Sanskrit provides us more minute knowledge about words than others. To sum up, as authors of this short essay, We must admit that there are a number of debates aroused about the existence of Sanskrit language when it lacks colloquial form. Nevertheless, it is very helpful to the learners who want to learn themselves like Rabindranath and others. Besides, it is also noteworthy to say that the learners must have a mind-set to know the pros and cons of the aforesaid languages. Bibliography Amarako=a Samagra

– Bhatt1c1rya, Gurun1tha, Vidy1nidhi, Sa9sk4ta Pustak Bh17d1r. – vy1kara7a - kaumud2 – Durg1cara7a - sa9khya - bed1nta-t2rtha, Deb S1hitya Kut2r Private Limited. Bha=a – Prak10a B1}g1l1 Vy1kara7a – Dr. Sun2ti Kum1r Cattop1dhy1ya, R3p1 and Company. Applied English Grammar and composition – P.C.Das, M.L. Dey and co. S1hityadarpa7a# – A0ok Kum1r Bandyop1dhy1ya, /r2 Balar1m Prak10an2. S1hityadarpa7a – Module, The University of Burdwan. Pa7in2yam – L1hi62, /1str2 and Bandyop1dhy1ya, The ^h1k1 Students Library.

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ANNOUNCEMENT EDULIGHT – International, Multidisciplinary, Biannual, Peer Reviewed Journal [ISSN: 2278-9545] has been publishing under the aegis of the COUNCIL OF EDULIGHT since 2012. The Deadline for Submission of the Articles for the forthcoming issue of EDULIGHT JOURNAL, is 31st March, 2016. E-mail: [email protected]

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