contemporary science education research

CONTEMPORARY SCIENCE EDUCATION RESEARCH: PRE‐SERVICE and IN‐SERVICE TEACHER EDUCATION

A collection of papers presented at ESERA 2009 Conference EDITORS M. F. TAŞAR & G. ÇAKMAKCI

CONTEMPORARY SCIENCE EDUCATION RESEARCH: PRE‐SERVICE & IN‐SERVICE TEACHER EDUCATION

CONTEMPORARY SCIENCE EDUCATION RESEARCH: PRESERVICE and INSERVICE TEACHER EDUCATION Edited by MEHMET FATİH TAŞAR Gazi Üniversitesi, Ankara, TURKEY Gültekin ÇAKMAKCI Hacettepe Üniversitesi, Ankara, TURKEY

ISBN 9786053640325 © Copyright ESERA, 2010 Referencing articles in this book The appropriate APA style referencing of articles in this book is as follows: Kocakülah, M. S. (2010). Mapping development in pre‐service physics students’ understanding of magnetic flux and flux change. In M.F. Taşar & G. Çakmakcı (Eds.), Contemporary science education research: preservice and inservice teacher education (pp. 167‐174). Ankara, Turkey: Pegem Akademi. The copyrights of individual papers remain with the authors. A 3‐page synopsis of each paper in this book was reviewed by two referees of an international panel and where appropriate and possible suggestions were made for improvement. Additionally, authors had the opportunity to gather ideas from colleagues during their presentations at the ESERA 2009 Conference before they submitted the full‐text papers for this collection. Decisions and responsibility for adapting or using partly or in whole any of the methods, ideas, or the like presented in this book solely depends on the readers’ own judgment. ESERA or the editors do not necessarily endorse or share the ideas and views presented or suggest or imply the use of the methods included in this book.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS xi

Preface

PART 1: Pre-Service Science Teacher Education Learner-orientation in teacher education: creating horizontal and vertical linkages to promote the development of diagnostic competence Claudia von Aufschnaiter Gabi Dübbelde Janine Cappell Marco Ennemoser Jürgen Mayer Joachim Stiensmeier-Pelster Rudolf Sträßer Anett Wolgast Professional identity and competence in science teaching among student teachers Markus Wilhelm Dorothee Brovelli Markus Rehm Alexander Kauertz

9-15

The role of teacher education courses in developing teachers’ subject matter knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge Yasemin Gödek Altuk

17-21

Pre-service primary school teachers' self-determinated behaviour for science learning Iztok Devetak Saša A. Glažar Janez Vogrinc Mojca Juriševič

23-26

Learning styles of biology teacher candidates Pınar Köseoğlu

27-31

Examination of the relationship between the knowledge level and opinions of pre-service teachers about concept maps Fatma Şaşmaz-Ören Nilgün Tatar

33-42

On the use of the virtual mach-zehnder interferometer in the teaching of quantum physics fundamental concepts: promoting discussions among pre-service physics teachers Alexsandro P. Pereira Fernanda Ostermann Cláudio J. de H. Cavalcanti

43-50

Fostering preservice elementray school teachers’ nature of science views through a situated learning model Mehmet Aydeniz Rita A. Hagevik James Roberson

51-57

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Effectiveness of a course on pre-service chemistry teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge and subject matter knowledge Sevgi Aydın Betül Demirdöğen Ayşegül Tarkın Esen Uzuntiryaki

59-69

An examination on pre-service and in-service teachers’ sense of efficacy beliefs Ayşegül Tarkın Sevgi Aydın Esen Uzuntiryaki Yezdan Boz

71-75

Exploring conceptual integration in the pre-service chemistry teachers’ thinking Oktay Bektaş Ayla Çetin Dindar Ayşe Yalçın Çelik

77-83

Pre-service teachers’ beliefs about the relationship between basic chemistry concepts, the “real world,” and their occupation Gregory Durland Faik O. Karatas George M. Bodner

85-89

Conceptual understanding of fifth grade primary and pre-service primary students about image and image formation in plain mirrors Aysel Kocakülah

91-96

The comprasion of the conceptual understandings of science and technology teacher canditates in terms of physics chemistry and biology disciplines Hasan Özcan Mustafa Sabri Kocakülah A model of teacher preparation aimed at favouring the diffusion of research-based teaching practice Ugo Besson, Lidia Borghi Anna De Ambrosis Paolo Mascheretti

101-110

Why do we need to know this? – connecting chemistry concepts to daily life events Ayşe Yalçın Çelik Ayla Çetin-Dindar Oktay Bektaş

111-117

The Turkish adaptation of the science motivation questionnaire Ayla Çetin-Dindar Ömer Geban

119-127

How practising teachers and teachers in training value key ideas about sexual reproduction Susana García-Barros Cristina Martínez-Losada Rut Jiménez-Liso

129-134

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97-100

Lesson appraisals written for pre-service science teachers: the impact of different mentoring regimes. Roger Lock Allan Soares Julie Foster

135-141

The relationship among learning approaches, learning styles and critical thinking dispositions of the pre-service science teachers İsmail Önder Şenol Beşoluk Eda Demirhan

143-150

Inquiry in classrooms: what do future primary teachers say about experimental activities and formative needs? A.L. Cortés Gracia B. Martínez Peña J.M. Calvo Hernández M.J. Gil Quílez M. de la Gándara Gómez

151-155

The development of pre-school student teachers´ attitudes towards science and science teaching during their university studies Bodil Sundberg Örebro University Christina Ottander

157-166

Mapping development in pre-service physics students’ understanding of magnetic flux and flux change Mustafa Sabri Kocakülah

167-174

PART 2: In-Service Science Teacher Education German chemistry teachers’ curriculum emphases and their distinction between different types and levels of secondary schools Silvija Markic Ingo Eilks Bernd Ralle

177-185

Research on the attitudes of secondary education physics, mathematics and primary education science pre-service teachers’ regarding physics laboratories Betül Timur Esin Şahin

187-195

Adaptation: a field for the development of teleological views. primary school teachers’ efforts to teach a scientific explanation Lucia Prinou Lia Halkia Constantine Skordoulis

197-202

Effect of a trial science course for primary teachers: a case study of the teacher license update system in Japan Shiho Miyake Makiko Takenaka

203-209

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Design and implementation of a training program in IBSE for in-service elementary school teachers, in a developing Latin American country Ingrid Sánchez Adry Manrique Mauricio Duque

211-221

Professional knowledge of chemistry teachers - test development and evaluation Sabrina Witner Oliver Tepner

221-228

The role of learning communities in implementing context- and competence-oriented biology instruction Markus Lücken Doris Elster

229-238

Growth in teacher self-efficacy through participation in a high-tech instructional design community Colleen Megowan-Romanowicz Sibel Uysal Muhsin Menekse David Birchfield

239-244

Professional development in the use of discussion and argument in secondary school science departments Shirley Simon Katherine Richardson Christina Howell-Richardson Andri Christodoulou Jonathan Osborne

245-252

Teachers and SSI in Sweden Margareta Ekborg Eva Nyström Christina Ottander

253-262

Puppets, dialogic teaching and teacher change Stuart Naylor Brenda Keogh

263-268

The teacher and continuous formation: what goes into classroom practice Anne L. Scarinci Jesuína L. A. Pacca

269-275

Secondary science teachers and the religious arguments advanced by students: results of a prospective enquiry conducted in France Laurence Maurines Sylvie Pugnaud

277-286

Experimental activity in primary education: restrictions and challenges Javier Arlegui De Pablos Julia Ibarra Murillo Miguel R. Wilhelmii María José Gil Quílez

287-293

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Impact of professional development on a national scale: the national network of science learning centres Mary Ratcliffe Alison Redmore Catherine Aldridge Caroline Hurren Miranda Stephenson

295-302

Various means of enacting a program to develop physics teachers’ beliefs and instructional practice Silke Mikelskis-Seifert Reinders Duit

303-311

Engaging girls in physics: lessons from teachers’ action research and professional development in England Angie Daly Laura Grant Karen Bultitude

313-322

Language in science education and the influence of teachers’ professional knowledge Sandra Nitz Claudia Nerdel Helmut Prechtl

323-329

Using empirically analyzed pupils’ errors to develop a PCK test Melanie Jüttner Birgit Jana Neuhaus

331-340

Teachers’ affective learning in teacher development activities using classroom videos as the mediating artifact Fei Yin Lo Benny Hin Wai Yung

341-350

Biology teachers as designers of context-based lessons Nienke Wieringa Fred Janssen Jan van Driel

351-362

Implementation of national standards in science education Martin Lindner Andreas Ammann Claudia H. Overath

363-372

Preliminary effects of a large in-service scheme on school program and classroom practice in elementary science and technology education ‘n the Netherlands Thomas van Eijck Ed van den Berg Edith Louman

373-383

Evaluating the effectiveness of a learning-process oriented training of physics teachers Rainer Wackermann Georg Trendel Hans E. Fischer

385-388

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Preface This collection of papers includes scholarly works on pre-service and in-service science teacher education. There are 23 papers in part 1 while there are 25 articles in part 2. They resemble a nice blend of studies from Japan, to USA, and many countries in Europe. We are sure that the readers will find them provocative and inspiring for their own works and applications also. By looking at these articles we can find ways of improving practices in teacher education and provide suggestions for our colleagues. Thus, this book is not an end in itself but a means of further debate in the field. We wish to thank all of the contributors in this book for their hard work.

M. Fatih Taşar Gazi Üniversitesi, Ankara G. Çakmakcı Hacettepe Üniversitesi, Ankara

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PART 1 PRESERVICE SCIENCE TEACHER EDUCATION

© ESERA, 2010

Contemporary Science Education Research: PRESERVICE & INSERVICE TEACHER EDUCATION

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LEARNER-ORIENTATION IN TEACHER EDUCATION: CREATING HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL LINKAGES TO PROMOTE THE DEVELOPMENT OF DIAGNOSTIC COMPETENCE Claudia von Aufschnaiter, Gabi Dübbelde, Janine Cappell, Marco Ennemoser, Jürgen Mayer, Joachim Stiensmeier-Pelster, Rudolf Sträßer, Anett Wolgast Justus Liebig University Giessen

Abstract The research project focuses on the development and evaluation of a curriculum that creates vertical and horizontal linkages between mathematics education, science education, and pedagogical psychology to promote prospective teachers to establish an understanding of learner-oriented components of professional knowledge. The curriculum not only addresses learner-oriented aspects in its content, the structure of the instruction also aims to take into account how we expect prospective teachers to develop knowledge about the teaching and learning in their subject. Addressing both levels of learner orientation, therefore, refers to what prospective teachers are supposed to learn and how this content is taught to students. Data will be gathered in two cohorts one of which will be followed for four years, the other for three years. Combining summative and formative evaluation methods, the project aims to explore what and how prospective teachers learn about assessing pupils’ competences and constructing instruction of appropriate learning demand.

Introduction During the last couple of years, an increasing number of research projects have addressed teacher profession and teacher knowledge (for an overview see e.g., Abell, 2007). Often focusing on Shulman’s construct of pedagogical content knowledge (PCK, e.g., Shulman, 1987) these studies aim to investigate the knowledge teachers “have” at different stages of their career and/or post to specific interventions. Within the construct of PCK, knowledge of students’ content specific understanding and competences, their learning processes and how to promote students’ learning is highly valued. It is the teachers’ competence to diagnose students’ understanding and to construct instruction of appropriate learning demand that is regarded to be an integral part of teacher profession. In order to establish these competences with teachers, empirical results on how pupils conceptualize and learn particular subjects are needed. Furthermore, education itself needs to take into account (assumed) conceptions (beliefs) and teachers’ learning pathways in order to construct appropriate instruction. Therefore, the notion of “learner orientation” has a twofold meaning in teacher education: at a more content oriented level it refers to pupils and their knowledge. At a more structural level it refers to the design of teacher education programs. Both levels are addressed in our research: (1)

The content of the curriculum is constructed and taught jointly by mathematics educators, science educators, and pedagogical psychologists. Within the different disciplines, content is vertically linked; and between the disciplines content is linked horizontally by focusing on the same examples, results, and references but adding different perspectives. The reason why we have chosen to cross-connect pedagogical psychology with sciences and mathematics rather than, for instance, with subjects such as language or history is the large number of results on pupils’ (pre-)conceptions available (e.g., Duit, 2007; Driver et al., 1994). These results

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and related methods to assess learners’ understanding in science and mathematics are addressed in the curriculum. (2)

The structure of the curriculum is created to match the (assumed) learning pathway of prospective teachers. Drawing on results of students’ learning (e.g., v. Aufschnaiter, 2006; v. Aufschnaiter & v. Aufschnaiter, 2007) the curriculum pays special attention to the presentation and analysis of “cases” (including video analyses of pupils’ learning activities, analyses of pupils’ products, structured classroom observations and teaching activities, and structured reflections of the prospective teachers’ experiences as learners and teachers). During instruction, these cases are more and more interrelated and theoretical information is added rather than prospective teachers being exposed to “theory” and expecting them to transfer theoretical knowledge into teaching practice. Thus, the approach might be characterized as a “bottom-up” strategy to teacher professional knowledge.

The aims of the project are twofold: (a)

Data collected will serve for an evaluation of (1) in order to identify as to whether prospective teachers develop an understanding of the content taught and how this understanding can be characterized. (However, we are not yet aiming to compare learning outcomes with treatment groups.)

(b)

The other aim of the project is to explore prospective teachers’ learning pathways and how specific learning opportunities promote or hinder them to develop concepts about teaching and learning.

Rationale Even though knowledge about pupils’ learning and methods of assessment are considered to be important aspects of professional competences, these competences are typically not addressed in detail in current research projects. In particular, a coherent model to describe diagnostic competence can be built can hardly be found in current frameworks. In order to establish and evaluate diagnostic competence with prospective teachers at university level (for both bachelor and master studies), a group of researchers at our university has set-up a framework aiming to model diagnostic competence (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Model for diagnostic competence.

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The framework draws on Shulmans’ distinction between content knowledge (CK), pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) and pedagogical knowledge (PK) and identifies facets of (subject-matter) diagnostic competence in all three areas (CK, PCK, PK). These facets are either a prerequisite of assessment (such as content specific knowledge about the topic/subject that is to be assessed) or refer to methods and results of assessment (such as questionnaires to assess students’ conceptions). Furthermore, we have included those competences that utilize methods of assessment and results directly for the development of instruction. Table 1 provides some examples of standards which are described with the model. Table 1. Examples of standards of diagnostic competence1 Content Knowledge

Pedagogical Content Knowledge

Pedagogical Knowledge

Prospective teachers…

Prospective teachers …

Prospective teachers …

(1a) specify subject-matter knowledge relevant for educational purposes, also in respect to federal frameworks for subject-matter education.

(3a) specify content-specific and process-based cognitive student learning dispositions and illustrate these with examples.

(10a) describe characteristics of high and low achievers and of learning disorders.

(1b) illustrate essential subject-matter concepts and theories by examples which are typical for math and science instruction at schools.

(3b) are able to identify levels of (12b) plan learning environments difficulty of tasks, task formats and with respect to typical learning contexts. processes and cognitive learning dispositions.

(2a) master practical work which is used to gain knowledge within the discipline.

(6b) plan learning environments with respect to (individual) subjectmatter knowledge and learning pathways as well as students’ disciplinary interests and motives.

(2c) interpret content and methods of the discipline on the basis of an adequate understanding of the characteristics of sciences.

(7f) evaluate appropriateness and (13g) make use of diagnostic success of subject-matter learning methods while working in environments by referring to schools in order to identify learner oriented criteria. specific cognitive dispositions.

(13a) present examples of methods for diagnosing cognitive and affective conditions.

In our research, the model is used for two different purposes. It informs us about the design of the curriculum which aims to establish the competences with prospective teachers. As we are responsible for pre-service teacher education, we have not included competences which can only be established with extensive in-service training. Furthermore, the model also provides the frame of reference for evaluating prospective teachers’ competences. In order to avoid conflicting curriculum design with curriculum evaluation we mainly use established instruments which were developed by other research groups (see below).

Methods The project will last for four years (see Figure 2). Within this span of time, two cohorts of prospective teachers (at the beginning typically about 20 years old), will be followed through their university education (which takes about 3-4 years). At least some of the students who started their education in 2008 will enter in-service training. For each cohort, all students will be included who have chosen either two sciences as subjects or a science subject and mathematics. These students are trained for middle and also partly for upper secondary level. For cohort 1 the sample size is about 70 students. We are currently calculating exact numbers from students’ answers on different questionnaires delivered to them during the last few months. Our summative instruments comprise questionnaires on components of teacher professional knowledge and on students’ biographical data, their attitudes and their prior experiences. These are administered to all participants at the beginning of their university instruction (i.e., for our two cohorts in December/January 2008 und December/January 2009) and then about once per year. Items of the questionnaires are taken from established instruments widely used especially in Germany (such as in the German COACTIV-Project, e.g. Krauss et al., 2004; TEDS-M or MT21, e.g., Blömeke, Kaiser & Lehmann, 2008, see also Tatto et al., 2008; or the German SPEE-

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Project, Riese & Reinhold, 2009). We also use typical student questionnaires assessing conceptual understanding of math and science and their nature (such as the Force Concept Inventory in physics). For smaller subsamples of about 30 students in each cohort, formative instruments will be added. These are student portfolio, videoing of student activity, students’ written reports about their assessment of pupils’ understanding and their approaches to constructing instruction. Coding procedures will be applied to qualitative data using categories from both, research on students’ learning (e.g., v. Aufschnaiter, 2006) and our theoretical considerations about components of teacher profession (also underlying the construction of the questionnaires) (Table 1 and e.g., Abell, 2007; Anderson & Mitchener, 1995; Borko, 2004; Tatto, 2000).

Figure 2. Overview about the design of the project.

Results During the last months, instruments and parts of the curriculum have been piloted with cohort 1 (Figure 2). We are currently analyzing the data and will have more detailed results ready in 2010. However, so far our first results demonstrate that •

for the CK-component, prospective teachers seem to hold similar misconceptions than pupils. We are not surprised by this result, but it has implications for our project. As long as prospective teachers have subjectmatter learning difficulties themselves, they will not be able to identify pupils’ misconceptions. In our further research, we will investigate what kind of effect students’ initial CK has on the development of their diagnostic competence (and vice versa). We will also analyze whether contrasting students with their own learning difficulties improves their focus towards pupils’ learning difficulties.

•

initially, our students’ self-perceptions about their educational skills and their ability to consider different perspectives are relatively high. Thus, even though they are at the beginning of their pre-service teacher training they seem to regard themselves as already (almost) competent to teach. Related research questions to this result are for instance: What kind of effect do these self-perceptions have on the development of diagnostic competence (and vice versa)? Do students with different self-perceptions work on tasks and problems of the curriculum differently? (In what way?)

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Conclusions and Implications Even though an increasing number of projects have paid attention to teacher profession, empirical research on teacher knowledge, especially on the processes by which this knowledge develops, is still rare. By tracing prospective teachers for a longer period and by focusing on learning processes of individuals the project aims to shed more light into (prospective) teachers’ learning. Furthermore, trying to establish a linked curriculum will reveal challenges to cooperation in education at university level. At least in Germany, we do not yet have a culture of “open pockets” and, therefore, creating cross-connections between different disciplines is also a means to identify strengths and weaknesses in university education.

Notes 1The

translation from German to English might have caused some misleading formulations. Therefore, these examples are only meant to illustrate some competences rather than providing precise descriptions of these competences.

References Abell, S. K. (2007). Research on science teacher knowledge. In S. K. Abell & N. G. Lederman (eds.), Handbook of research on science education (pp. 1105-1149). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Anderson, R. D., & Mitchener, C. P. (1995). Research on science teacher education. In D. Gabel (Ed.), Handbook of research on science teaching and learning (pp. 3-44). New York: MacMillan. Blömeke, S., & Kaiser, G. (eds.). (2008). Professionelle Kompetenz angehender Lehrerinnen und Lehrer [Professional competencies of beginning teachers.]. Münster: Waxmann. Borko, H. (2004). Professional development and teacher learning. Mapping the terrain. Educational Researcher, 33(8), 3-15. Driver, R., Squires, A., Rushworth, P., & Wood-Robinson, V. (1994). Making sense of secondary science. Research into children's ideas. London: Routledge. Duit, R. (2009). Bibliography - STCSE: Students' and teachers' conceptions and science education. Online available at: http://www.ipn.uni-kiel.de/aktuell/stcse/stcse.html [12.01.2009]. Krauss, S., Kunter, M., Brunner, M., Baumert, J., Blum, W., Neubrand, M., et al. (2004). COACTIV: Professionswissen von Lehrkräften, kognitiv aktivierender Mathematikunterricht und die Entwicklung von mathematischer Kompetenz. [Professional knowledge of teachers, mathematics education which activates cognitive processes, and the development of mathematical competence.] In J. Doll & M. Prenzel (Eds.), Bildungsqualität von Schule: Lehrerprofessionalisierung, Unterrichtsentwicklung und Schülerförderung als Strategien der Qualitätsverbesserung (pp. 31-53). Münster: Waxmann. National Board for Professional Teaching Standards (NBPTS) (2003). NBPTS Adolescence and Young Adulthood Science Standards. http://www.nbpts.org/the_standards/standards_by_cert?ID=4&x=67&y=9 [03.08.2009] National Research Council (NRC) (1996). National Science Education Standards. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. National Science Teacher Association (NSTA) (2003). Standards http://www.nsta.org/pdfs/NSTAstandards2003.pdf [03.08.2009]

for

Science

Teacher

Preparation.

Riese, J., & Reinhold, P. (2009). Entwicklung und Validierung eines Instruments zur Messung professioneller Handlungskompetenz bei (angehenden) Physiklehrkräften. [Development and validation of an instrument to assess professional competencies of (beginning) physics teachers.] Lehrerbildung auf dem Prüfstand, 1(2), 625640. Shulman, L. S. (1987). Knowledge and teaching: Foundations of the new reform. Harvard Educational Review, 57(1), 122.

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Tatto, M. T. (2000). Teacher quality and development: Empirical indicators and methodological issues in the comparative literature: Paper commissioned by the Board on International Comparative Studies in Education of the National Academies/National Research Council. Tatto, M. T., Schwille, J., Senk, S. L., Ingvarson, L., Peck, R., & Rowley, G. (2008). Teacher education and development study in mathematics (TEDS-M). Conceptual framework, policy, practice, and readiness to teach primary and secondary mathematics. Online available at: https://teds.educ.msu.edu/20080803_TEDS-M_CF.pdf [25.01.2009]. von Aufschnaiter, C. (2006). Process based investigations of conceptual development: An explorative study. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 4(4), 689-725. von Aufschnaiter, C., & von Aufschnaiter, S. (2007). University students’ activities, thinking and learning during laboratory work. European Journal of Physics, 28(3), S51-S60.

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PROFESSIONAL IDENTITY AND COMPETENCE IN SCIENCE TEACHING AMONG STUDENT TEACHERS

Markus Wilhelm, Dorothee Brovelli

University of Teacher Education Central Switzerland (Lucerne)

Markus Rehm

University of Education Ludwigsburg

Alexander Kauertz

University of Education Weingarten

Abstract This study aims to explore the interdependence of professional identity and students’ views on teaching competence. Questionnaire data were obtained for 311 students from different teacher training programs at 6 universities in Germany and Switzerland. Three aspects of professional identity were considered: subject matter expert, pedagogical expert and didactical expert. Views on teaching competence were also investigated in three categories: competencies with respect to subject matter content (science competence), teacher (self-competence), and learner (tutorial competence). Students were asked to self-evaluate their teaching competencies and to rate the relative importance they attribute these competencies. The questionnaires were shown to have reasonable reliability and validity. Results show that perceived stronger science competence correlates with a professional identity as a subject matter expert, while perceived stronger self-competence could lead to any type of professional identity. Furthermore, a given professional identity seems to influence how much students value competence in the matching category, e.g. pedagogical experts consider tutorial competence especially important. Results vary significantly for different teacher training institutions. In particular, students from the sole teacher training institution with combined science disciplines showed significantly higher values for a professional identity as “subject matter expert” than students from institutions teaching science in separate disciplines. This suggests serious implications for the design of programs in teacher education.

Introduction To improve pre-service teacher education it is essential to understand how different structures of science teacher education programs influence the professional development of teachers. The present study sets out to develop instruments to assess student teachers’ professional identity, their perceived competencies in science teaching, and the relative importance they attribute to these competencies. In addition, the interdependence of professional identity and students’ views on teaching competence is investigated by analyzing the data obtained for students from different teacher training programs. Data for students from different universities is compared with a particular focus on the comparison between combined vs. separate science education.

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Rationale Professional Identity of Science Teachers Identity has been defined in a number of ways based on mainly two lines of tradition, the psychoanalytical and interactionist perspectives. The reported study is based on the definition of identity by Keupp, Abhe & Gmür (2002). This definition synthesizes both traditions, is widely supported by empirical research, and is continuously being confirmed and enhanced by its authors. According to Keupp et al. (2002) individuals pursue identity projects, i.e. construct their identity in a creative daily process of action and reflection called identity work. Keupp et al. (2002) consider professional identity to be a partial identity within the patchwork of identity constructions. The professional identity of science teachers has been receiving extensive attention by research. Van Veen, Sleegers, Bergen & Klaassen (2001) e.g. reveal that professional identities of mathematics and science teachers differ significantly from those of teachers of other subjects as evidenced by their orientations towards instruction and goals of education. Luehmann (2007) addresses the question of how science teacher preparation should be designed to promote the development of an identity as a reform-minded science teacher. Varelas, House, & Wenzel (2005) describe beginning teachers’ ambivalence between their “scientist” identities and their “science teacher” identities after apprenticeships at science labs. Other investigations have examined whether teachers regard themselves primarily as subject-matter experts or pedagogical experts, following Caselmann’s classification in “logotrop” (particularly interested in subject matter) and “paidotrop” teachers (particularly interested in educating children) (Caselmann, 1970). Some researchers supplement these two aspects by a third: that of didactical expert (particularly interested in preparing and executing teaching and learning processes), which might be related to, but is not identical with, being a pedagogical expert. Beijaard, Verloop, & Vermunt (2000) conclude that “teachers derive their professional identity from (mostly combinations of) the ways they see themselves as subject matter experts, pedagogical experts, and didactical experts”. Replacing traditional by integrated science courses can be regarded as a threat to the teacher’s sense of self, as Helms (1998) points out. Aikenhead (2003) considers the formation of an adequate professional identity to be one of the major challenges for the transformation from a discipline-based science approach to an integrated one. This raises the question of what kind of teacher education is suitable for student teachers to be able to develop an adequate professional identity, and if and how professional identity affects teaching competence.

Teaching Competence of Science Teachers Research on teaching competence aims to increase teacher effectiveness. Teachers’ competencies can be divided up into three categories: competencies with respect to subject matter content (science competence), teacher (self competence), and learner (tutorial competence), also known as the didactic triangle (see figure 1). self-competence

tutorial competence

science competence

Figure 1: Teaching competencies divided up into three categories following the didactic triangle. The importance of science knowledge for effective science teaching was confirmed by the meta-analysis of students’ learning performance (Mayer, Mullens, & Moore, 2000). Moreover, teachers need the special form of subject matter knowledge for teaching that is considered part of Shulman’s pedagogical content knowledge

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(Shulman, 1987; Van Dijk, & Kattmann 2007). In addition, a basic understanding of the nature of science is generally expected from teachers (AAAS, 2007). Teachers’ competencies with respect to the learners (tutorial competence) include understanding students’ specific learning difficulties and knowing ways to overcome these difficulties, two essential elements of pedagogical content knowledge (Shulman, 1987). The ability to stimulate student inquiry and self-directed learning of science is also part of this category, as well as competence in the assessment of learning progress. The third category, that of the teacher, can be called the teacher’s self-competence, and includes the ability to analyze their own teaching and the willingness to engage in professional development, which impacts teacher effectiveness, according to Mayer et al. (2000). Additionally, competence in taking emotional aspects of learning and teaching into account is being increasingly considered important in teacher education (Van Veen, & Lasky, 2005). General pedagogical knowledge, knowledge of educational contexts etc. have been omitted from this study (Rocard, 2007), since it focuses on competence particularly for teaching science (Osborne, & Dillon, 2008). Teachers’ conceptions of the relative importance of different aspects of teaching affect their behavior in the classroom. Of course, their pre-service training will affect their perceived teaching competence. It might be expected that professional identity is affected by self-assessment of teaching competencies and vice-verse, and that a strong professional identity again affects the rating of the importance of certain teaching competencies. Therefore, the present study sets out to investigate the interdependence of the structure of teacher training, the student teachers’ professional identity, their perceived teaching competence and the importance they attribute to these competencies.

Teacher Training in Separated and Integrated Science Programs While integration of the scientific disciplines is pursued more and more in the lower grades of secondary school, education students are still being trained most commonly in separate-discipline science courses, less frequently in an interdisciplinary approach. So far it is largely unknown whether these different structures of science teacher education have significant influences on the development of the teacher students’ professional identity or professional competencies. To improve pre-service teacher education it is essential to understand whether these different structures influence the pre-service professional development of teachers.

Methods 311 science teacher students at 6 universities with different educational structures (separate-discipline and integrated) in Germany and Switzerland were surveyed using online questionnaires. Regarding “professional identity”, three sets of 11 items each were developed (subject-matter expert, pedagogical expert, and didactical expert), which were to be answered on a five-point Likert scale (I disagree… I agree). Regarding “teaching competence”, students were asked for both a self-evaluation of the above named teaching competencies and a rating of the importance they attribute to them by means of five-point scales for three sets of 8 items each (for categories science competence, self-competence, and tutorial competence). In order to test for validity, students were asked to award 100 points to the three aspects of “professional identity” (Beijaard et al., 2000). 226 students also filled in an additional questionnaire on “teaching competence” (Rehm et al., 2007).

Results The three scales for “professional identity” show good reliability (Cronbach’s > .70). Only for pedagogical expert and didactical expert was a substantial partial correlation found (r = .56, p < .001) as might be expected from the similarity of the underlying concepts (see Rationale). External validity was investigated by means of a regression analysis where the scale values from the questionnaire were used as predictors for the points the students awarded to each aspect (convergent and discriminant validity), and yielded satisfactory results. For the scales on “teaching competence” Cronbach’s was .62 < < .75. Calculations of the correlations between the scales (internal

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validity) and correlations with the questionnaire on teaching competence reported by Rehm et al. (2007) (external validity) suggest that the scales validly measure student teachers’ views on teaching competence. When students are asked for a self-evaluation of their teaching competencies, the results do not significantly depend on the teacher training institution the students come from. In particular, studying science in separate or combined disciplines does not affect the student’s perceived teaching competencies, as shown in figure 2.

Separate disciplines (N=226)

3.80

Combined disciplines (N=96)

Mean

3.60 3.40

3.53 3.41

3.43 3.34

3.20

3.32

3.36

3.00

1 = low 5 = high

Error bar: +/- 0.5 SD

2.80 selfcompetence

science competence

tutorial competence

Figure 2: Perceived teaching competencies for students from universities with separate and combined science education. However, significant differences can be found with respect to professional identity and the importance attributed to certain competencies. Interestingly, students studying science in an interdisciplinary approach showed significantly higher values for a professional identity as “subject matter expert” than students from institutions teaching science in separate disciplines (see figure 3). The former students also consider teacher competence in the categories “self-competence” and “tutorial competence” to be less important. In order to investigate the interdependence of the student teachers’ professional identity, their perceived teaching competence and the importance they attribute to these competencies, six regression analyses were conducted separately. In this way the beta-weights reported in figure 4 were determined (entering predictors simultaneously). The first to third regression was calculated with the three scales for perceived teaching competencies as predictors for a professional identity as subject-matter, didactical, and pedagogical expert. For the fourth to sixth regression these professional identities were used as predictors for the three scales rating the importance of teaching competencies. The assumption that professional identity is influenced by perceived teaching competencies can not be shown in general. While feeling competent in subject matter content correlates with a professional identity as subject matter expert, perceived self-competence could lead to any type of professional identity. Although the regression coefficients are rather small, the relation between a given professional identity and the importance attributed to competence in the matching category shows the expected correspondences with the largest coefficients.

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d = 0.35 p < 0.05

4.4

d = 0.54 4.35

p < 0.05

4.2

4.22

4.18

Combined disciplines (N=96)

4.11

4.0 Mean

Separate disciplines (N=226)

4.03

3.8

1 = low 5 = high

3.82

3.6

Error bar: +/- 0.5 SD

3.4 didactical expert

subject-matter expert

pedagogical expert

Figure 3: Professional identity of students from universities with separate and combined science education.

science competence

subject matter expert

.18

self competence

.28

perceived teaching competencies

.20 .21

.32 .21

tutorial competence

.25

didactical expert

.33 .16 .16 .29

pedagogical expert

.31

professional identity

science competence self competence tutorial competence importance attributed to teaching competencies

Figure 4: Beta-weights of the regressions, adjusted p < .001 for all reported coefficients, non-significant coefficients are not reported; largest beta-weights of each regression are highlighted.

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Conclusions and Implications The questionnaires developed in this study were shown to have respectable reliability and validity. Results imply that different types of professional identity and self perception lead to different beliefs about teaching. Hence, student teachers might stress different teaching competencies in their classroom work and have different needs for personal professional development. Teacher education seems to impact the development of professional identity and students’ views on teaching. Subject-matter experts attribute importance to all teaching competencies, but most to science competence. Pedagogical experts attribute importance to all teaching competencies too. For those student teachers, the tutorial competence is the most important. Didactical experts do not attribute a lot of importance to science competence. This means: Only a balanced professional identity will lead to a wide range of competencies in science teaching. Teacher training must strengthen the self-competence of beginning teachers, if a balanced professional identity is to be achieved. Further research will improve the assessment of teaching competence by including a survey with case vignettes. The ongoing pilot study seems to support the results of the questionnaire. Moreover, the effects of separate vs. combined disciplines in science teaching need to be clarified.

References AAAS, American Association for the Advancement of Science (2007): http://www.project2061.org/publications/ bsl/online/bolintro.htm. Aikenhead (2003). Chemistry and Physics Instruction: Integration, Ideologies, and Choices. Chemical Education: Research & Practice, 4 (2), 115-130. Beijaard, D., Verloop, N., & Vermunt, J. D. (2000). Teachers’ perceptions of professional identity: An exploratory study from a personal knowledge perspective. Teaching and Teacher Education, 16, 749–764. Caselmann, C. (1970). Wesensformen des Lehrers. (4. Aufl. (zuerst 1949)). Stuttgart: Klett. Helms, J. V. (1998). Science—and me: Subject matter and identity in secondary school science teachers. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 35(7), 811– 834. Keupp, H., Ahbe, T., Gmür, W., Höfer, R., Mitzscherlich, B. Kraus, W., & Straus, F. (2002). Identitätskonstruktionen. Reinbek bei Hamburg: Rowohlt. Luehmann, A. (2007). Identity development as a lens to science teacher preparation. Science Education 91(5), 822 – 839. Mayer, D.P., Mullens, J.E., & Moore, M.T. (2000). Monitoring school quality – An Indicators Report. National Center for Education Statistics, U.S. Department of Education. Osborne, J., & Dillon J. (2008). Science Education in Europe: Critical reflections. A Report to the Nuffield Fundation, http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/fileLibrary/pdf/Sci_Ed_in_Europe_Report_Final.pdf. Rehm, M., Wilhelm, M., Brovelli, D., Malti, T., & Häcker, T. (2007). Integrierte Naturwissenschaften auch in der LehrerInnenbildung? In: Höttecke, D. (Hrsg.).: Naturwissenschaftlicher Unterricht im internationalen Vergleich. Berlin: LIT Verlag; 589-591. Rocard, M., Csermely, P., Jorde, D., Lenzen, D., Henriksson, H. L., & Hemmo, V. (2007), Science Education Now: A Renewed Pedagogy for the Future of Europe, High Level Group on Science Education, Office of Official Publications of the European Communities, http://publications.europa.eu. Shulman, L. S. (1987). Knowledge and teaching: Foundations of the new reform. Harvard Educational Review, 57, 1–21. Van Dijk, E., Kattmann, U. (2007). A research model for the study of science teachers’ PCK and improving teacher education. Teaching and Teacher Education 23, 885–897. Van Veen, K., & Lasky, S. (2005). Emotions as a lens to explore teacher identity and change: Different theoretical approaches. Teaching and Teacher Education 21, 895-898.

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Van Veen, K., Sleegers, P., Bergen, T., & Klaassen, C. (2001). Professional orientations of secondary school teachers towards their work. Teaching and Teacher Education 17(2), 175-194. Varelas, M., House, R., & Wenzel, S. (2005). Beginning teachers immersed into science: Scientist and science teacher identities. Science Education 89(3), 492 – 516.

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THE ROLE OF TEACHER EDUCATION COURSES IN DEVELOPING TEACHERS’ SUBJECT MATTER KNOWLEDGE AND PEDAGOGICAL CONTENT KNOWLEDGE Yasemin Gödek Altuk Ahi Evran Üniversitesi

Abstract There have been considerable changes in initial teacher preparation in England. Since 1992, university departments of education and schools have equal responsibility in preparing teachers. The principal route for educating new teachers is through the one year Postgraduate Certificate in Education (PGCE) courses. The aim of this study is to explore the perceptions of secondary science student teachers, newly qualified teachers and PGCE tutors about the role of the PGCE courses in knowledge base (Subject Matter Knowledge- SMK and Pedagogical Content Knowledge- PCK) development. Participants’ perceptions were revealed through in-depth interviews and a short questionnaire. The results show that there is a difference between the philosophies of the universities and the schools in terms of the support provided, participants’ conceptions concerning the process of learning to teach and the role of ‘experience’, the difficulty in the implementation of the reflective practitioner model in schools, and the difficulty in relating the theory to the practice. Unless students’ perceptions are challenged through informing them about the nature of the reflective practitioner model and students’ own role in this model, it will be difficult for the teacher education courses to have a strong effect on students’ professional development.

Introduction In England, apprenticeship, competency, and reflective practitioner models have been the major traditions. In each models, there are different conceptions concerning the process of learning to teach, and the role of training courses (Furlong & Maynard, 1995). Since 1982, school-based competency model is in use in England, and Initial Teacher Education and Training (ITET), is mainly carried out by one-year Post Graduate Certificate in Education (PGCE) courses. The competency model is understood to be the achievement of a series ‘standards’ defined by the ITET curriculum. The Teacher Training Agency (TTA) sets the standards against which all student teachers must be assessed in order to achieve Qualified Teacher Status (Holden & David Hicks, 2007). In the ITET curriculum, evidence of both Subject Matter Knowledge (SMK) and Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) (Shulman, 1986, 1987) is expected from student teachers, ‘trainees need to be alert to the differences between having a secure knowledge of the subject and knowing how to teach it effectively’ (DfEE, 1998: 128). On the other hand, reflective practitioner model has a significant role in the process of learning to teach (Furlong & Maynard, 1995). Various researches were carried out on student teachers with the focus on the development of their knowledge, understanding and skills (Kyriacou, 1993). However, it is not yet possible to claim to have sufficient understanding of the nature and acquisition of the process of becoming teacher (Bennett, 1993, Kyriacou, 1993, Korthagen et al., 2006). Student teachers’ perceptions lie at the heart of teaching (Kagan, 1992) because even though their perceptions remain unrecognized by teacher educators, perceptions influence professional growth. Therefore, perceptions concerning the teacher education courses might give information about the effectiveness of the types of training experiences provided (Gödek, 2002). This research mainly aims to explore the perceptions of student teachers, newly qualified teachers (NQTs) and PGCE tutors (tutors) about the role of the PGCE courses in

17


teachers’ knowledge base (SMK and PCK) development. The sub-questions are: What are participants’ perceptions concerning the role of PGCE courses, in helping knowledge base development? Is there any weakness in the PGCE courses? What should be done to overcome these?

Methods This study was carried out in one of the universities in England; however it is not simply a programme evaluation. In-depth interviewing, and a short questionnaire including open-ended items aimed to find out participants’ views about the main sources of SMK and PCK development, both strengths and weaknesses of their courses, and their suggestions about the possible improvement of the support given. Interviews were conducted with secondary science student teachers (students) and tutors at the last point of training year, and with NQTs at the end of their first year of teaching. In the interviews, six biology, six chemistry, and four physics students were interviewed. The NQTs who consisted of five biologists, four chemists, and two physicists completed their PGCE course in six different universities. The tutors consisted of three biologists, one chemist and one physicist. 35 students including twenty-two biologists, ten chemists, and three physicists also participated this research by filling in a questionnaire.

Results The results mainly indicate a discrepancy between the participants’ views. This difference reflects the participants’ conceptions concerning the nature and the role of the PGCE courses. The PGCE courses consist of both the university-based and school-based elements. However, for students and NQTs the PGCE course meant only the university-based elements. When they talking about the elements of support, they were only referring to the university-based elements or the teaching practice but did not seem to consider them in partnership.

1.

The role of the PGCE courses in students’ SMK development

From tutors’ views, the university-based aspect of the course was mainly based on the reflective practitioner model. Due to the philosophy of the university, the time constraints and the individual differences in terms of students’ SMK background, the development of the SMK was students’ own responsibility. The university supported students through the subject audits, resources, method sessions, and assignments, and students were expected to identify their own weaknesses mainly through the subject audits and take the initiative to develop themselves through researching, reflection, and observing other teachers. However, reading, teaching practice and experience, the help and advise from teachers, and training course sessions were found to be the main sources of SMK development (Table 1). None of the NQTs referred to the sessions. Table 1. Things which served to develop students’ and NQTs’ SMK Sources

Students (N=16) %

NQTs (N= 11) %

Reading

100

91

Having to teach

100

82

Teachers

81

82

Training course sessions

69

-

18


In contrast, students and NQTs expected that SMK should be taught within the university. Their expectations were similar to the way in which they were taught during their schooling years, which is a mixture of apprenticeship and competency models. Therefore, learning the SMK through self-development and reflection did not seem to be valued. ‘It is something that obviously we have not got time to do, to actually teach them. … There are very limited opportunities to teach them their subject knowledge on the course. …We do not really fill the gap. I think it has got to be the students’ responsibility to fill the gap. Because we cannot run 45 different programmes for them. …Getting back to subject knowledge, I think a lot of that can be addressed in the school. Again, by going to observe lessons. Again, that is up to students’ initiative’ (TC1). 'So I think for them to have somebody to talk to about that gap that you have in your subject knowledge might be helpful for next year. …Possibly teach it, or possibly give you some ideas on how you could teach it, because through doing that it does actually bring up your subject knowledge and also it gives you some fresh ideas as well’. (C5) ‘… I thought, part of the PGCE course would be to increase those weaker areas and teach me the things, make sure I understood the things that I was supposed to be teaching. …‘Strengthening subject knowledge, teaching of range of practicals you do for certain topics. … It would have been nice if there had been time for that. To say “Right! This is what you need to teach. Let’s check you all understand it. Do you understand this? Have a go these problems, have a go at some exam questions” for the tutors to tell you where you have got wrong in the subject knowledge …for each bit, really. For the weaker bits anyway.’ (NB1) 'I think one of the weaknesses was that they seemed to rely very heavily on individual self-improvement, individual teaching yourself if you like. There was quite a lot of support if you went to them and they did produce quite a comprehensive training pack, if you like, step by step guidance on how to go through the planning procedures, how to apply the National Curriculum statements. … That was all in print, that was everything that was given to us. So it was almost like a self-taught aspect, really. So in many ways I would say that was the weakness. Because you have quite a lot pressure on you to actually do that as well as going into a profession’. (NC2)

2.

The role of the PGCE courses in students’ PCK development

In the university, students were expected to try to relate the theory to the practice themselves, and reflect on their experiences. Even though, students were supported through sessions and assignments, these were not valued as much as teachers’ support. For all students, teachers were the main source of their PCK (Table 2). The kinds of help valued were that teachers helped them in checking lesson plans, giving advice about teaching methods, giving some tips about how to organise and structure the lessons, organising practicals and demonstrations, deciding on the practicals, materials, and worksheets. Furthermore, experience and teaching practice, reading, training course sessions, PGCE course assignments were found to be the main sources of PCK development. Table 2. Things which served to develop students’ PCK Sources

Students (N= 16) %

NQTs (N=11) %

Teachers

100

-

Reading

63

-

Having to teach (teaching practice)

56

100

Training course sessions

50

-

Observation and feedback from teachers

44

-

PGCE course assignments

31

-

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However, students and NQTs also expected the university to give some recipes about science teaching concerning identifying and overcoming pupils’ misconceptions, models and analogies, teaching strategies. ‘Giving some more concrete examples of how we could consolidate children’s ideas first [in the School of Education]. …It would have been good if we had had some definite method of consolidating ideas. …I think they did do it very well here. But the only real improvement, maybe, could be just giving us a more concrete list of ways in which we could account for their misconceptions’ (P2). ‘They (teachers) have done it for so long. …They come up with much better ideas than in books. Because they already know what works and what will not work. Because when I look in a book I find an idea I try it and some pupils get confused and some don’t but if I go and ask a teacher, they will tell me straightaway.’ (P1) ‘The people in the department have been very useful. They would say things like “Well, be careful when you’re teaching this or the other because they will think that …unless you approach it in this way …” or “Be careful with that person because that person cannot think at that level. Therefore they are not going to be able to understand that unless you put it in a different way that would not be suitable for the rest of the group’. (B2) Therefore, their expectations were mainly based on apprenticeship and competency models. Therefore, learning the PCK through self-development and reflection also did not seem to be valued by them.

3.

The role of students as learners in the process of learning to teach

For tutors, students were not expected to be over-confident in their knowledge base. They should accept own weaknesses, realise the gaps within the subject, continue to ask for help from the teachers and colleagues, and to reflect on their experiences. However, only a few students and NQTs recognised that reflection was crucial for them. ‘…If you keep teaching, the best way to improve your understanding and learning is by teaching and if you teach for one or two years then you’ll start to realise what you keep getting wrong, your misconceptions. And so eventually, after one or two years, there should be no misconceptions. …First of all you have to know that you are doing it wrong. You have to know that you’ve made a mistake, that you’ve not understood a topic right yourself. And that might become clear when kids ask you questions. Then, from their questions, you realise that you must be … teaching them wrong. …Some kids might say “No!”. One bright kid in the class might already have previous knowledge. … Then, you will look like a fool, that you don’t know your topic. …The only way you can do it is, personally, in your planning stages. …[by] evaluation, what went good about the lesson, what went bad. … [You need to evaluate but] not many people did it. Most people [have] too much work. To do twenty evaluations in a week, many people struggle to do it. Maybe do it for only half of the lesson or a quarter of the lessons. … The only way you can improve it is by thinking about it’ (P1). ‘I think I try and evaluate my own performance a lot more and, rather than putting the blame on the students, I just accept it is a very difficult thing to do. And if they aren’t getting anything, I …improve my own technique and implement the change.’ (NC3)

4.

The problems of learning to teach in the PGCE courses

The problems identified were mainly, the difference between the philosophies of the university and the schools, students’ conceptions concerning the process of learning to teach and the role of ‘experience’, the difficulty in the implementation of the reflective practitioner model in the schools, and the difficulty in relating the theory to the practice. The university and schools supported students in different models of learning to teach. While the support provided by the university was based on the reflective practitioner model, the support provided by the schools seemed to be based on the apprenticeship and competency models. However, students and NQTs mainly tended to value the support based on apprenticeship and competency models. Students’ and NQTs’ expectations, therefore, point out that they had only limited knowledge about the nature of the reflective practitioner model and their role as learners in this model. Moreover, having to teach the subject was found by NQTs to be more valuable than their course.

20


This indicates that NQTs believe the importance of experience. It should be argued that learning to teach by experience itself might not be helpful to develop knowledge base. Even though self-development and reflection were suggested by tutors for SMK development, the experiences of students and NQTs show that during their training year, there was very little or no opportunity to increase their knowledge base when the realities of the classroom and time constraints were considered. For three groups, the structure of the course was not appropriate in relating the theory to the practice.

Conclusions and Implications Helping students is very complex task for teacher education courses if different needs of each individuals are considered. Teacher education courses needs to be considered as an initial step for teachers’ professional career. It should not be expected that these courses can cover all knowledge base development in a limited time. Therefore, continuous self-progress seems essential for students and NQTs throughout their career. Teacher education courses need to provide students opportunities to gain the knowledge and the skills necessary for developing their own knowledge base independently. So, there seems a need for more increased collaboration between universities and schools, and more awareness by the schools about the universities’ intentions to develop a more coherent model of student support. Therefore, it might be suggested that unless students’ perceptions are challenged through informing them about the nature of the reflective practitioner model and students’ own role in this model, it will be difficult for the teacher education courses to have a strong effect on students’ professional development.

References Bennett, N., 1993, ‘Knowledge bases for learning to teach’, in Bennett, N., and Carré, C., (Eds.), ‘Learning to Teach’, London: Routledge. DfEE (Department for Education and Employment), 1998, ‘Teaching: High Status, High Standards requirements for courses of Initial Teacher Training’, Circular 4/98, DfEE. Furlong, J., and Maynard, T., 1995, ‘Mentoring Student Teachers: The growth of professional knowledge’, London: Routledge. Gödek, Y., 2002, ‘The Development of Science Student Teachers’ Knowledge Base in England’, Unpublished EdD thesis, University of Nottingham, Nottingham. Holden, C., & Hicks, D., 2007, ‘Making global connections: the knowledge, understanding and motivation of trainee teachers’, Teaching and Teacher Education, 23, 13-23. Kagan, D. M., 1992, ‘Professional growth among preservice and beginning teachers’, Review of Educational Research, 62, 2, 129-169. Korthagen, F., Loughran, J., & Russell, T., 2006, ‘Developing fundamental principles for teacher education programs and practices’, Teaching and Teacher Education, 22, 1020-1041. Kyriacou, C., 1993, ‘Research on the Development of Expertise in Classroom Teaching during initial training and the first year of teaching’, Educational Review, 45, 1, 79-87. Shulman, L. S., 1986, ‘Those who understand: Knowledge growth in teaching’, Educational Researcher, 15, 2, 4-14. Shulman, L.S.,1987,‘Knowledge and Teaching: Foundations of the new reform’, Harvard Educational Review, 57, 1.

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22


PRE-SERVICE PRIMARY SCHOOL TEACHERS' SELFDETERMINATED BEHAVIOUR FOR SCIENCE LEARNING Iztok Devetak, Saša A. Glažar, Janez Vogrinc & Mojca Juriševič University of Ljubljana

Abstract In this study student’s motivation for learning science was analyzed. 165 pre-service primary school teachers participated in the study. The results indicated that the students displayed more controlled than autonomous motivation for learning science, and were much more motivated towards learning biology as opposed to physics and chemistry. Moreover, within the science subjects (i.e., biology, chemistry, and physics) intrinsic motivation was higher for learning concrete contents rather than more abstract ones. The results imply that some significant changes need to be made to higher education science teaching in order to bring about a marked improvement in students’ intrinsic motivation for learning science. In this way we would also have motivated teachers for teaching science in primary schools.

Introduction According to Ryan and Deci (2000) intrinsic motivation is an individual’s inherent inclination from which stems his/her tendency to learn about particular areas of life regardless of the presence of external enticements. The self-determination theory (SDT) is a theory of human motivation concerned with the development and functioning of personality within the social context. It emphasizes that understanding human motivation requires a consideration of innate psychological needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness. The theory focuses on the degree to which human behaviors are volitional or self-determined. This means the degree to which people endorse their actions at the highest levels of reflection and engage in the action with a full sense of choice. According to this theory external activities should be designed in such a way that students would value and self-regulate these activities without external pressure. This process is realized through internalization (the process of taking in a value or regulation) and integration (a process by which individuals transform the regulation into their own so that it will emanate from their sense of self) (Ryan & Deci, 2000). In other literature on educational psychology (Stipek, 1998), intrinsic motivation is most frequently described in terms of three interconnected elements which the child develops by the end of primary school: (1) as a special inclination to tackle more demanding tasks which present a challenge; (2) as learning triggered off by curiosity or special interests; (3) as a development of competence and a mastering of learning tasks in which learning is seen as a value in itself. Intrinsically motivated learners achieve better results in knowledge tests, get higher achievement scores, and have a highly positive learning self-concept. In comparison to their peers with low intrinsic motivation, they show less academic anxiety, and are less dependent on external motivational stimuli (Gottfried, 2001). Personal satisfaction experienced through learning is also linked to higher creativity (Amabile, 1985, cited in Csikszentmihalyi & Nakamura, 1989). Highly intrinsically motivated students are more successful in learning new concepts and show better understanding of the learning material (Stipek, 1998). Rennie (1990) concluded that higher science achievements are related to the learner’s active engagement in learning tasks, to his/her positive attitude towards the subject and to a highly positive self-concept in science, which all imply the learner’s intrinsic motivation to learn.

23


The purpose of the study is to test three hypotheses: (1) Pre-service primary teachers’ learning behaviour in science settings is significantly more controlled than autonomous; (2) Pre-service primary teachers are significantly more controlled regulated for learning chemistry and physics than biology; and (3) Pre-service primary teachers are significantly more intrinsically motivated for learning more concrete material (macroscopic concepts observable in the real world) than abstract concepts in chemistry, biology and physics.

Rationale Students’ intrinsic motivation for learning science is rather low at all levels of education. That implies the importance to deeply understand the teachers’ motivation for learning science as their influence on students’ motivation has been widely recognized (Juriševič et al., 2009). As the influence on teacher’s cognition is possible and more sensitive during the pre-service period than later in professional development, we decided to research preservice primary teachers’ motivation for learning science and according to our results enhance the higher education teaching of science.

Methods A total of 165 pre-service primary teachers participated in the study. On average, the students were 18.6 years old. The sample represented an urban and rural population with mixed socioeconomic status. A 152-item paperpencil questionnaire was used in the study. It was a modified form of two questionnaires used in previous research (Black & Deci, 2000; Juriševič et al., 2008). Each questionnaire has been shown to effectively assess motivation for learning chemistry. The modified questionnaire developed for this study is a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 not at all true to 7 - very true. It comprises 12 items which measure the level of self-determined learning behavior and 140 items which measure the level of intrinsic motivation for learning science. The questionnaire showed satisfactory measuring characteristics. The research was a non-experimental, cross-sectional and descriptive study. The instrument was applied on the research sample in school year 2007/08 in April. Students spent about 25 minutes to complete it. Descriptive statistics were obtained for illustrating students’ level of self-determined motivation and a paired-sample t-test was used to determine the differences’ significance between students’ motivation for different science subjects.

Results The results show that pre-service elementary teachers are significantly more non-self determined – controlled (M=30.23; SD=5.87) than self-determined – autonomous (M=26.67; SD=4.73) in learning science (t = - 7.68; df=164; p ≤ .000). Results also show that pre-service primary teachers are significantly more self-determined for learning biology than for chemistry or physics. The difference in self-determination for learning chemistry and physics is not significant (Table 1). Table 1. Pre-service primary teachers’ level of self-determined behavior for learning different science subjects. Self-determination for different subjects learning

M

SD

biology physics biology chemistry chemistry physics

19.30 15.41 19.30 15.29 15.29 15.41

4.81 5.08 4.81 5.01 5.01 5.08

24

t

df

p

8.48

164

≤ .000

9.63

164

≤ .000

.36

164

.720


Pre-service primary teachers show higher levels of intrinsic motivation for learning concrete levels of science concepts (e.g., experiments, human body, astronomy) rather than abstract ones (e.g. matter particles, genetics, forces) in all three science subjects (i.e., biology, chemistry, and physics).

30

More abstract

More concrete

25 20

18,6 12,8

12,7

18,2 16,3

15,3

15

18,4 13,5

12,1

10 5 0 particles

symbols

chemical chemistry of calculations elements

chemical reactions

electrolyte chemistry

water chemistry

oil chemistry

food chemistry

Figure 1. Pre-service elementary teachers’ level of intrinsic motivation for learning different chemistry topics. All the differences between the level of motivation for learning different chemistry topics are statistically significant, except: symbols – particles; symbols – calculations; particles – calculations; reactions – water; reactions – food and water – food.

Conclusions and Implications According to the results the first hypothesis that says "Pre-service primary teachers self-regulated behavior is significantly more controlled than autonomous" can be confirmed. Pre-service teachers’ represent more controlled than autonomous functioning in learning science. The second hypothesis that says "Pre-service primary teachers are significantly more controlled regulated for learning chemistry and physics than biology" is not confirmed, because the differences in pre-service teachers’ autonomous behavioral regulation for learning physics is not significantly different than learning chemistry. The last hypothesis says that "Pre-service primary teachers are significantly more intrinsically motivated for learning more concrete material (macroscopic concepts observable in the real world) than abstract concept in chemistry, biology and physics." is confirmed, because it can be concluded that pre-service teachers show significantly lower level of intrinsic motivation for learning abstract concepts (chemical symbols, and calculations, and learning about particles and their interactions) than macroscopic ones (chemistry of elements, and electrolyte chemistry, chemical reactions, and water, oil, and food chemistry). The main implications from this study are that teacher educators at university level should: (1) constantly monitor and promote pre-service teachers level’s of intrinsic motivation for learning specific topics in science; (2) if necessary extrinsically motivate pre-service teachers at the beginning for learning science; (3) stimulate towards more autonomous self-regulated learning behavior in science of pre-service teachers; (4) be interested in pre-service teachers mental models about specific science concepts; (5) accept pre-service teachers’ perspective about learning science; (6) accept pre-service teachers’ proposals for modifying learning and teaching activities and climate in science lessons; (7) stimulate positive pre-service teachers’ self-perceived competences for learning science (i.e., academic self-concept) and (8) assure adequate feed-back information about pre-service teachers’ achievements in science learning with minimal pressure and control.

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References Black, A. E., & Deci, E. L. (2000). The Effects of Instructors’ Autonomy Support and Students’ Autonomous Motivation on Learning Organic Chemistry: A Self-Determination Theory Perspective. Science Education, 84, 740–756. Csikszentmihalyi, M., & Nakamura, J. (1989). The dynamics of intrinsic motivation: A study of adolescents. In R. Ames & C. Ames (Eds.), Research on motivation in education, Vol. 3: Goals and cognitions (pp. 45–72). San Diego, CA: Academic Press. Gottfried, A. E., Fleming, J. S., & Gottfried, A. W. (2001). Continuity of academic intrinsic motivation from childhood through late adolescence: A longitudinal study. Journal of Educational Psychology, 93, 3–13. Juriševič, M., Razdevšek Pučko C., Devetak, I., & Glažar, S. A. (2008). Intrinsic Motivation of Pre-service Primary School Teachers for Learning Chemistry in Relation to their Academic Achievement. International Journal of Science Education, 30, 87–107. Juriševič, M., Glažar, S. A., Vogrinc, J., & Devetak, I. (2009, January). Intrinsic Motivation for Learning Science through Educational Vertical in Slovenia. Paper presented at the Fifth Biennal Self International Conference Enabling Human Potential: The Centrality of Self and Identity, Al Ain, United Arab Emirates. Rennie, L. J. (1990). Student participation and motivational orientation: What do students do in science? In K. Tobin, J. Butler, & B. J. Fraser (Eds.), Windows into science classrooms: Problems associated with higher-level cognitive learning (pp. 164–198). London: The Falmer Press. Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation: Classic Definitions and New Directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, 54–67. Stipek, D. (1998). Motivation to learn: From theory to practice. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

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LEARNING STYLES OF BIOLOGY TEACHER CANDIDATES Pınar Köseoğlu

Hacettepe Univeristy

Abstract This study aimed to identify the learning styles preferred by the students at Hacettepe University, Faculty of Education, Department of Biology Education and analyze them in terms of the gender variable. In the study which is of a descriptive nature, the “Kolb Learning Style Inventory” was used, which was developed by Kolb and the feasibility of which in Turkey was demonstrated by Aşkar and Akkoyunlu (1993). The study group comprised of the 132 students studying at Hacettepe University, Faculty of Education, Department of Biology Education in the 2008-2009 education year. Percentage, frequency and chi-square were used in the analysis of the data obtained as a result of the inventory. As a result of the study, it was concluded that the learning style of the great majority of biology teacher candidates was ‘assimilating’ (55.73%), and that the students with the ‘accommodating’ (9.16%) learning style constituted the smallest group. There was no significant relationship between the teacher candidates’ gender and their learning styles.

Introduction Every student has a different learning style specific to themselves. Learning environments should be designed in a way to appeal to every learning style in order for education targets to be achieved. In order for education environments to be arranged according to learning styles, first the students’ learning styles need to be identified by the teachers. When the students’ learning styles are known, the most appropriate teaching strategy, method and technique can be selected and an education in line with the students' interests can be conducted. Various learning style models were proposed by researchers. These are; Gregorc learning styles model, Dunn learning styles model, McCarthy 4MAT, Kolb learning styles model etc. One of these models is the Kolb learning style model. These learning style models are types emphasizing the cognitive dimension. Kolb’s Experiential Learning Theory constitutes the basis of the Kolb learning style model. Different to other cognitive learning theories, experiential learning emphasizes the role of experiences in the learning process. This theory defines learning as the formation of knowledge through transformation of experiences. It is argued that there are two dimensions in the learning process, namely grasping and transforming (Kolb, 1984: 41). These two dimensions, though independent of each other, are of a supportive nature to each other. In line with this, there are four fundamental categories in the Kolb learning style model: Concrete experience, abstract conceptualization, active experimentation and reflective observation. According to the experiential learning theory, learning is a cycle. One of these four categories gains prominence for the individual occasionally and during a learning experience it is inevitable to go through this cycle an indefinite number of times. Students are classified according to which one they prefer out of the concrete experience or abstract conceptualization (how they grasp the information) and active experimentation or reflective observation (how they transform, internalize the information) (Felder, 1996). However, when identifying the learning styles of the students, one element does not give the dominant learning style of the individual on its own. A combination of these four elements provides each individual’s learning style. The combined scores indicate the individual’s different preferences from abstract to concrete (AC-CE), active to reflective (AE-RO). These two groups of learning constitute the basis of Kolb’s two dimensional learning styles. As a result of the combination of the four elements within the two dimensions, it is identified which of the four

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dominant learning styles individuals prefer. These are; converging, assimilating, diverging and accommodating learning styles. The characteristics of the converging, assimilating, diverging and accommodating learning styles within Kolb’s learning style and of the individuals with these learning styles are as follows (Felder, 1996; Ergür, 1998; Kolb, 1984): 1. Diverging: These individuals go from the part to the whole. Accordingly, they like detail. During the learning process, they follow certain steps meticulously. They like trial and error. Problem solving, decision making, systematic planning are the major characteristics of individuals with this learning style. 2. Converging: They prefer observation to activity. They prefer summary information. They like information to be presented systematically. The weakest points of individuals with this type of learning style is difficulty in making a choice between the options and taking a long time in decision making. 3. Assimilating: They are individuals who prefer structured, systematic information. They prefer audio and visual presentations and lectures. Their strong points are that they are able to plan very well, define problems and develop theories. Their weak points are daydreaming and lacking in practicality. 4. Accommodating: They like concrete experiences. They are inquisitive. They like learning through research and discovery. They learn by doing and feeling. Their weak points are that they make impractical plans and are lacking in completing tasks on time.

Methods Research Model This research is a descriptive study conducted with the survey method with the aim of identifying students’ dominant learning styles.

Study Universe and Sample The study universe comprised of 215 students studying at Hacettepe University, Faculty of Education, Department of Biology Education in 2007-2008 education year, and the sample comprised of the 131 students from the universe who could be reached. Of these students, 79% are female, and 21% are male students.

Data Collection Tool In the study, in order to identify the students’ learning styles, the 12 item Kolb Learning Style Inventory (LSI) was used, which was developed by Kolb (1985) and the feasibility of which in Turkey was demonstrated by Aşkar and Akkoyunlu (1993). The Kolb (1985) LSI norms were taken into account in identifying the learning styles. There are four statements in each of the 12 items in the LSI. Of these statements, the first statement relates to concrete experience ability (CE), the second to reflective observation ability (RO), the third to abstract conceptualization ability (AC), and the fourth to active experimentation ability (AE). As a result of the scores the students give to each statement, a score between 12 and 48 is obtained for each statement. After calculating the total CE score, RO score, AC score and AE score of the 12 items, the combined scores are obtained in the form of AE-RO and AC-CE. AERO and AC-CE combined scores vary between -36 and +36. A positive score obtained in AC-CE indicates that learning is abstract; and a negative score that it is concrete. A positive score obtained in AE-RO indicates that learning is active; and a negative score that it is reflective (Kolb, 1985; Aşkar and Akkoyunlu, 1993). The intersection point of the two scores gives the most suitable learning style for the individual.

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Data Analysis Percentage, frequency and chi-square were used in the analysis of the data obtained as a result of the inventory.

Findings Distribution of the Learning Styles of the Biology Teacher Candidates As a result of the data analysis, the dominant learning styles of the teacher candidates are shown in Table 1; Table 1. Distribution relating to Learning Styles of Teacher Candidates Learning styles F % Assimilating 73 55.73% Diverging 29 22.14% Converging 17 12.98% Accommodating 12 9.16% Total 131 100.00% On examining Table 1, it is concluded that the dominant learning style of the great majority of biology teacher candidates is ‘assimilating’ (55.73%), and that the students with the ‘accommodating’ (9.16%) learning style constituted the smallest group. Additionally, 22.14% of the students have a diverging learning style and 12.98% a converging learning style.

Learning Styles of the Biology Teacher Candidates According to Gender The findings indicating whether there is a significant relationship between the dominant learning styles of the teacher candidates and their gender are shown in Table2. Table 2. Chi-Square Test Results for the Difference in Learning Styles of Teacher Candidates According to Gender Learning Styles Total Diverging Converging Assimilating Accommodating Female N 23 12 59 10 104 % 22.1% 11.5% 56.7% 9.6% 100.0% Male N 6 5 14 2 27 % 22.2% 18.5% 51.9% 7.4% 100.0% Total N 29 17 73 12 131 % 22.1% 13.0% 55.7% 9.2% 100.0% X2 = 1.011 sd = 3 p = .799 > 0.05 According to the values in Table 2, there is not any significant relationship between the gender of the teacher candidates and their learning styles (X2 = 1.011 = .799 > 0.05). In other words, the students’ gender is not effective in identifying the dominant learning styles.

Discussions and Recommendations In the present study, it was concluded that 55.73% of biology teacher candidates have the ‘assimilating’ learning style according to the Kolb learning styles model. The less prevalent styles are, in the correct order, ‘diverging’, ‘converging’ and ‘accommodating’ learning styles.

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As a result of past investigations; it is concluded that the dominant learning style of the great majority of biology teacher candidates is ‘assimilating’ and that the students with the ‘accommodating’ learning style constituted the smallest group. (Kilic 2002; Peker 2003; Peker and Aydin 2003;; Mutlu 2004; Peker 2005; HASIRCI, 2006; coach; 2007 ).This research findings supports the literature . In assimilating learning style students prefer structured, systematic information. Assimilators concern themselves with ideas and abstract concepts. The learning modes associated with accommodative learners include concrete experience and active experimentation. They like learning through research and discovery. They learn by doing and feeling. As a result of teachers uses traditional teaching methods more, students learning styles and preferences are affected in that direction. In order for a more effective education and instruction environment to be prepared, educators should be aware of the students’ learning types and plan education activities according to the students’ learning style characteristics. Educators can obtain information on the learning styles of the students in their classes by conducting the learning style inventory to the students in their classes at the beginning of the education and instruction year. Thus, they will need to develop the instruction method – techniques and necessary instruction materials to be used in class according to the learning objectives. Educators should reach all of the students with different learning styles. Therefore they should create a teaching environment taking into account all the learning styles in their class. Pre-service teacher candidates should be provided with information on learning styles and learning styles based teaching prior to service.

References Aşkar, P. ve Akkoyunlu, B. (1993). Kolb Öğrenme Stili Envanteri. Eğitim ve Bilim, (87), 37-47. Ergür, D.O. (1998). H.Ü. Dört Yıllık Lisans Programlarında Öğrenci ve Öğretim Üyelerinin Öğrenme Stillerinin Karsılaştırılması. Yayınlanmamış Doktora Tezi, Hacettepe Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Ankara: Türkiye. Felder, R.M. (1996). Matters of style. ASEE Prism, 6 (4): 18-23. Hasırcı Kaf, Ö. (2006)., Sınıf Öğretmenliği Öğrencilerinin Öğrenme Stilleri, Eğitimde Kuram ve Uygulama, 2(1), ss.15-25. Kılıç, E. (2002)., Baskın Öğrenme Stilinin Öğrenme Etkinlikleri Tercihi ve Akademik Başarıya Etkisi, Eğitim Bilimleri ve Uygulama, Cilt: 1, Sayı :1, Temmuz. Koç, D. (2007). İlköğretim Öğrencilerinin Öğrenme Stilleri: Fen Başarısı Ve Tutumu Arasındaki İlişki (Afyonkarahisar İli Örneği), Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Afyonkarahisar Kocatepe Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Afyonkarahisar, Türkiye Kolb, D. (1984), Experiential Learning: Experience As The Source Of Learning And Development. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall Kolb, D.A. (1985). Learning Style Inventory: Self Scoring Inventory and Interpretation Booklet. Boston: McBer and Company. Mutlu, M. (2005)., Öğrenme Stillerine Dayalı Fen Bilgisi Öğretimi, Y.Y.Ü. Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, Cilt:2. Özbek, Ö. (2006)., Ögrenme Stillerine Uygun Olarak Düzenlenen Ögretim Etkinliklerinin Akademik Basarı, Hatırda Tutma Düzeyi ve Tutumlara Etkisi, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Çanakkale On Sekiz Mart Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Sınıf Ögretmenligi A.B.D. Çanakkale.

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Peker, M. (2003)., Kolb Ögrenme Modeli, Milli Egitim Dergisi, sayı: 157. Peker, M. ve Aydın, B. (2003)., Anadolu ve Fen Lisesindeki Öğrencilerin Öğrenme Stilleri, P.Ü. Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, Sayı:14, ss.167-172. Peker, M. (2005)., İlköğretim Matematik Öğretmenliğini Kazanan Öğrencilerin Öğrenme Stilleri ve Matematik Başarısı Arasındaki İlişki, Eğitim Araştırmaları, S.Bahar, Sayı:21. Tekkaya, C., Çakıroğlu, J., ve Özkan, Ö. (2002). A Case Study on Science Teacher Trainees. Eğitim ve Bilim, 126, 15-21.

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EXAMINATION OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE KNOWLEDGE LEVEL AND OPINIONS OF PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS ABOUT CONCEPT MAPS Fatma Şaşmaz-Ören Celal Bayar University

Nilgün Tatar

Cumhuriyet University

Abstract Concept maps are frequently used in science and technology education. Updated curriculum, textbooks in use and the level achievement examinations made in elementary education institutions shows that concept maps are preferred in teaching new concepts and evaluating the already-learnt ones. Accurate use of concept maps by teachers in the lessons is closely related to the level of the knowledge teachers have. In the scope of this study, pre service classroom teachers were firstly taught how to prepare and use concept maps and then their level of knowledge was increased via practices. To determine the level of knowledge of the participants; they were asked to prepare concept maps which were then evaluated via rubric method. The participants were classified into low, mid and high-level groups on the basis of the scores they took from the rubric. Finally, 147 participants were asked open-ended questions to learn about their opinions on this issue. Quantitative and qualitative data obtained by this way were analyzed to determine the relationship between the level of knowledge and the opinions of the prospective teachers about preparation and use of concept maps.

Introduction Concept maps were developed by Novak on the basis of Ausubel’s meaningful learning theory. As important graphical tools, concept maps can quickly and easily provide information about how students establish interconceptual relations in their minds, the way they structure information, and where they experience problems. Furthermore, other significant characteristics of concept maps are that they facilitate organization of concepts and require that students use their creativity and logical thinking abilities, and therefore, improve such abilities. According to Chang et al. (2005), “a concept map consists of a set of propositions, which are made up of a pair of concepts (nodes) and a relation (link) connecting them”. Concept maps are graphic tools developed to arrange this complex structure, to organize the concepts and to present the relationship between the concepts. According to Novak and Gowin (1984), all the classroom activities should be organized and implemented in such way to direct students to meaningful learning. A concept map represents a person’s structural knowledge about a certain concept or subject. Learners should be carefully introduced to powerful meta-cognitive learning tools that enable them to build structural representations of the knowledge they are to acquire, such as concept mapping, in order to foster the transition from passive (rote) learning towards more engaged meaningful learning strategies (Zele et all, 2004). Teachers can easily use concept maps in planning their lessons, arranging the concepts they will teach, determining student needs and evaluating the already-taught information. From this aspect, concept maps can be used in the classroom both as a learning-teaching strategy and an alterative evaluation tool. Therefore, teachers should have knowledge of how to prepare and use concept maps.

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Concept maps are used for a wide variety of purposes in the literature: to access mentor teachers’ practical knowledge (Zanting, Verloop & Vermunt, 2003), to determine its impact on certain variables such as students’ knowledge, treatment, attitudes to science (Ugwu and Soyibo, 2004), to enhance creativity and impact on writing achievement (Riley & Ahlberg, 2004), to investigate conceptual understanding of basic ecological concept (Zak & Munson, 2008), to use on problem-based learning scenario discussions (Hsu, 2004), to find out account for relational conceptual change (Liu, 2004), to investigate leaders’ own perceptions of learning through experience (Pegg, 2007), to study school-children’s understanding of leisure-time (Gill & Persson, 2008), to enhance learning achievement in concept application (Chang & Chang, 2008), and to examine of students’ learning achievement and interests (Chiou, 2008). Obviously, a majority of the studies focus on students’ knowledge acquisition and achievement about any subject. Studies on the use of concept maps for evaluation purposes mostly concentrate on validity, reliability (McClure, Sonak & Suen, 1999; Stoddart, Abrams, Gasper & Canaday, 2000; Ozdemir, 2005), cognitive validity (Ruiz-Primo, Schultz, Li & Shavelson), quantitatively and qualitatively evaluating (Jacobs-Lawson & Hershey, 2002), and comparison of different scoring systems (West, Park, Pomeroy & Sandoval, 2002; Rye & Ruba, 2002; Yin, Vanides, Ruiz-Primo, Ayala & Shavelson, 2005; Zele, 2004). Different approaches have been developed in evaluating concept maps. Novak and Govin (1984) argue that concept maps can be evaluated by scoring propositions, hierarchy, cross-links, and examples. In such an evaluation, scoring will differ with the validity and significance level of established links, particularly with regard to scoring of cross-links. While a significant and valid cross-link that reveals a student’s creativity receives a high score, lower scores will be assigned to those links that are valid but do not provide a synthesis between related concepts. Kaya (2003) argues that in evaluating concept maps, one should pay attention to the accuracy, consistency, and validity of interconceptual relationships, rather than to a simple counting and scoring of the constituent elements (e.g., crosslink, hierarchy etc.). Three different methods are usually employed to evaluate concept maps. The first method involves assigning different scores to the parts of concept maps such as hierarchy, relationships, and cross-links and evaluating a map using the sum of these scores. In the second method, a criterion map is prepared (by a teacher or an expert) and students’ maps are evaluated on the basis of this map. The third method combines the first two; that is, the criterion concept map and the student’s concept map are first evaluated according to the criteria in the first approach, which is followed by dividing the total score on the student’s concept map by the total score on the criterion concept map to obtain a percentage value (Novak & Govin 1984; Ruiz-Primo & Shavelson, 1996; Chang, Sung, Chang & Lin, 2005; Kaya, 2003). In a study that examined the effect of concept maps and Vee mappings on students’ knowledge acquisition about nutrition and plant reproduction, Ugwu and Soyibo (2004) based their evaluation of concept maps on hierarchy, relationships, cross-links and examples. These parts that make up concept maps were scored in the study as follows: hierarchy (any six correct ones)= 3×6=18; relationships (20-25 correct ones)=25 (maximum); cross-links (if correct), any 2-3=3 (maximum); examples (if correct), any 4=4 (maximum); total points scored for each map=50. Riley and Ahlberg (2004) used ICT (information and communications technologies)-based concept mapping in their study. In this study, evaluation of concept maps was based on three components: (1) nodes (each concept counted as one), (2) links (links emanating from each node counted and totaled), (3) connectivity index (number of links divided by number of nodes).

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Hsu (2004) employed Novak and Govin’s (1984) scoring system to evaluate concept maps. Thus, proposition, hierarchy, cross-link and example were scored respectively and a total score was obtained for each student. Scoring was as follows: one point for each meaningful, valid proposition has shown (proposition), five points for each valid level of the hierarchy (hierarchy), and ten points for each valid and significant cross-link; two points for each cross-link that is valid but does not illustrate a synthesis between concepts or propositions (crosslink), one point for each example (example). Similarly, Sahin (2002) evaluated in her study the concept maps constructed by students by the method introduced by Novak and Govin (1984) and simplified by Markham, Mintzes and Jones (1994). Thus, the study assigned 1 point to each concept and each related branch, 3 points to extra branches, 5 points to each hierarchical level, and 10 points to each cross-link. Furthermore, Sahin (2002) also developed a double-ended scoring system consisting of 0 and 1 by reviewing the four maps constructed by each student during a term. Scoring was made by comparing the 1st map with the 2nd, the 2nd with the 3rd, and the 3rd with the 4th map. In each comparison, 1 point was assigned if there was any restructuring, adjustment, and addition, and 0 point was assigned if there was not. In a study by Kinchin, De-Leij and Hay (2005), concept maps constructed by students account for 20 marks in their final grades. The distribution of these marks was as follows: a maximum of 5 marks were awarded for overall structure (hierarchy, clarity and integration), 10 marks for links and annotations and 5 marks for absence of mistakes (glaring omissions and misconceptions). Keppens and Hay (2008) distinguish between two methods used to evaluate concept maps: quantitative and qualitative methods. Researchers classify quantitative evaluation methods into three, which are holistic scoring method, weighted component scoring methods and the closeness index, and explain that the purpose of quantitative methods used to evaluated concept maps is to produce a total order of different learners’ understanding of the domain or numerical data that can be employed for statistical hypothesis testing. Qualitative assessment methods are divided into three: linkage analysis, spoke, chain, net differentiation and qualitative simulation. Authors argue that these evaluation methods allow a descriptive evaluation of concept maps. These methods make a synthesis of the various features and provide a descriptive diagnosis of underlying extent of understanding. Gill and Persson (2008) employed in their study two different methods to score concept maps: numerical and content analysis. The researchers assert that concept maps are quite useful tools to obtain both quantitative and qualitative data on students’ knowledge about abstract concepts. Pre-service teachers’ learning and beliefs and opinions are closely related. In this context, if one is to collect evidence about the subjects’ utilization levels for a particular application on any subject after it is implemented, one of the best ways to do so is to take their opinions. Therefore, the study obtained pre-service teachers’ opinions about the applications of concept mapping. A review of the studies that took opinions about applications of concept mapping reveals that students often find this technique to be convenient and useful. Half (50%) of the students who participated in Santhanam, Leach and Dawson’s (1998) study stated about concept maps that they ‘helped in understanding relationships between concepts’. Also in this study, students believed that concept maps ‘encouraged thinking more deeply’ (%33). In Laight’s (2004) study, 63% of the subjects answered ‘yes’ to the question ‘are concept maps useful?’.

Rationale This study aimed at improving knowledge of pre service classroom teachers on preparation and use of concept maps up to a level where they can prepare successful programs and teach the concepts effectively. Nevertheless, another purpose of the study was to determine pre-service teachers’ opinions about concept mapping applications.

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Methods In this study mixed method was used. The scores given to the concept maps prepared by the pre service teachers constituted the quantitative data and the data obtained from the open-ended questions constituted the qualitative data of the study. Study sampling was composed of 213 pre service teachers. 116 candidates are male, 97 candidates are female. Candidates were enrolled in a “Science Education” course at the spring semester of 2008. They took this course in the sixth semester. The implementation of the study lasted for 11 weeks. Firstly they were, instructed about the aims and the nature of the concept maps, during an introduction by means of a sample map— debating the importance of clearly stated propositions to describe the interrelationships between concepts. Participants observed several types of concept maps related to different areas. Then, they were asked to construct simple concept maps in the classroom so as to increase their level of knowledge. After then, they were asked to use the concept maps in the weekly course presentations they made on science and technology subjects taught in the 4th and 5th grades. Concept maps they used while making their presentations were evaluated together with their classmates and asked for opinions and suggestions from their classmates. In this study, analytic rubric was used in the evaluation of the concept maps. The criteria included in the rubric were determined on the basis of the criteria used by Novak and Gowin (1984) while evaluating the concept maps. Rubric contains five specific performance: absent (1), limited (2), need to improve (3), successful (4), excellent (5). The rubric has these criteria; propositions, concepts, hierarchy, crosslink, examples, connecting (linking) words, direction of the arrows. Below is an example of the parts of the rubric used in the study: For the part on “Examples”, ‘Absent’ (1 point): No examples were used in the concept map constructed, ‘Limited’ (2 points): Less than half of the text’s examples were used in the concept map constructed, ‘Need to improve’ (3 points): More than half of the text’s examples were used in the concept map constructed, ‘Successful’ (4 points): Only 1 or 2 of the text’s examples are missing in the concept map constructed, ‘Excellent’ (5 points): All of the text’s examples were used in the concept map constructed. After the completion of the course presentations, pre service teachers were distributed a text on “Ecosystem” and they were asked to prepare concept maps by using this text. This application lasted 30 minutes. After that, their personal concept map was graded by rubric. The participant scores were classified into three groups on the basis of their scores, as low, mid and high level. At the end of the study, 147 of participants were asked open-ended questions to learn their opinions about concept maps. In the context of the interviews, prospective teachers were asked to explain their knowledge and skills related to the use of concept maps; the areas in which they succeeded and failed; whether they would use concept maps in their professional lives and, the reasons behind their thoughts.

Results The mean score of the sampling was 21.3. The participants were classified into three groups on the basis of their scores: “high level” group (26-35 points); “mid level” group (17-25 points) and; “low level” group (8-16 points). Table 1 shows that number of participants in each level. Table 1. Number of participants Participants Level High level Mid level Low level Total

Number of Participants N % 45 21.1 134 62.9 34 15.9 213 100.0

Number of Participants (interviewed) N % 32 15.0 93 43.7 22 10.3 147 69.0

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147 pre service teachers were asked open-ended questions to learn their opinions about the preparation and use of concept maps. First of all, they were asked questions about the knowledge and skills they adopted while preparing concept maps. Candidate teachers’ thoughts existed in Table 2. The participants in the “high level” group stated that they understood how to establish a connection among concepts; that they learned how to prepare and use concept maps; that they learned of organizing the information in a better way and; that they adopted reasoning skills. The participants in the “mid level” group expressed that they learned how to establish meaningful relationships among concepts, how to prepare and use concept maps, how to organize/construct information hierarchically and how to give long-lasting information. Moreover, they expressed learning the general concepts of the chapters and adopting improved analysis and synthesis skills. The participants in the “low level” group stated that they learned how to establish connection among concepts and characteristics and importance of concept maps. Besides, they gained considerable skills on association, correlation and sequencing, focusing and making analysis-synthesis. Table 2. Pre-service teachers’ thoughts about preparation and use of concept maps Level

High level

Mid level

Lower level

Knowledge and skills How to establish connection among concepts How to prepare and use concept maps Organizing the information in a better way How to teach information visually and by relating to each other An easily-remembered learning method How to teach abstract concepts with concrete concepts Reasoning skills Analysis and synthesis skills Creative and critical thinking How to establish meaningful relationships among concepts How to prepare and use concept maps How to organize/construct information hierarchically Characteristics and importance of concept maps How to give long-lasting information for students How to easily achieve meaningful and effective learning The general concepts in the chapters How to determine misconceptions and pre knowledge Deductive and inductive skills Analysis and synthesis skills Expression skills How to evaluate my students by using alternative assessment tools Mental thinking, programmed and planned skills Creative and critical thinking skills How to establish connection among concepts Characteristics and importance of concept maps Association, correlation and sequencing skills Focusing Analysis and synthesis skills Effective and comprehensive thinking How to constructing the information in a better way Summarizing the subject I completely learned the subject Systematic thinking

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N 17 6 6 5 3 2 1 1 1 30 15 12 11 11 8 7 5 5 3 2 2 1 1 6 4 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1


Table 3. Pre-service teachers’ successes and failed areas while preparing concept maps Level

High level

Mid level

Low level

Successes/ Easily completed areas Arranging the concepts according to a hierarchical order Exemplification Determination of essential and sub essential concepts Constitute of concept maps with familiar concepts Constitute and use of concept map with the aim of assessment

N 13 5 4 4

Failed/Forced areas Establish of crosslink Determine the directions of the arrows Organize concepts in hierarchical order There is no forced or failed areas

N 14 4 2 2

2

Determine the directions of the arrows

2

Fill in the blanks that were given essential skeleton concept maps

1

Determination of essential and sub essential concepts Organize concepts in hierarchical order Using concept map with the aim of assessment

32 13 8

Writing propositions

4

Designing of concept map Reading of concept map Determination of the connecting (linking) words Establishing of crosslink

3 3 3 3

Constitute of concept maps with the help of the text

2

Constitute of chain concept maps Constitute of hierarchic concept maps Determination of types of concept map Arranging the concepts according to a hierarchical order Determination of essential and sub essential concepts Establish of crosslink

2 2 1 9 4 1

Constitute of hierarchic concept maps

1

Using concept map with the aim of assessment Drawing

1 1

Constitute of concept maps that were given concept as a list Drawing Establishing crosslink Determine the directions of the arrows There is no forced or failed areas Read the concept map with using directions of the arrows Determine the connecting (linking) words Exemplification Organize concepts in hierarchical order Determine of types of concept map Determine of essential and sub essential concepts Constitute of chain concept maps Writing propositions Using concept with the aim of assessment Establishing crosslink Determine the directions of the arrows Organization of concepts Constitute of concept maps that were given concept in a text There is no forced or failed areas Writing propositions

1 1 37 8 7 6 3 3 3 3 2 1 1 1 6 2 2 1 1 1

The study demonstrates that pre-service teachers at high, medium and low levels most often referred in their opinions about the construction and use of concept maps to the acquisition of the knowledge and skills required to establish inter-conceptual relationships. By the same token, Hsu (2004) argues in his study that concept mapping strategies may be useful for analysis of individual student’s thinking processes for understanding relationships between different concepts. Similarly, one of the interviewed teachers in Liu’s (2004) study found concept maps to be highly useful, stating that “concepts and relations in concept maps are a good indication about how students understood”. Participants in all levels stated that they understood how to connect among concepts and how to prepare and use the concept maps. Other common skills for all levels are analysis and synthesis skills. It is remarkable that the prospective teachers in the “high” and “mid level” groups mainly focused on the role and effective utilization of the concept maps in learning-teaching process and on adoption of related knowledge and skills. The opinions expressed by the prospective teachers in the “low level” group were mainly focused on their own learning skills. They did not process this knowledge and these skills within the framework of professional life. Prospective teachers were asked to list the areas in which they succeeded and in which they failed in the preparation process of concept maps. Table 3 shows that preservice teacher’ opinions about their success and failed areas while preparing concept maps. The participants in the “high level” group expressed that they were successful in establishing conceptual hierarchy, exemplification, determining essential and sub essential concepts, constitution of concept maps with familiar concepts. The students in this group expressed that they found it is difficult to establish a crosslink, to determine the directions of the arrows and to put organizational concepts in hierarchical order. The participants in the “mid level” group found themselves successful in detecting the basic and sub-essential

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Table 4. Pre-service teacher’ answers about using the concept maps in their professional lives Level

High Level

Mid Level

Low Level

Level High Level Mid Level Low Level

I want to use it when I become a teacher because; It makes the subject/knowledge more concrete and understandable It ensures that the subject/knowledge is seen as a whole/ is taught more easily It ensures that knowledge is permanent It ensures meaningful learning It helps to visualize verbal subjects/ Learning is better through seeing Students can better establish relationships between concepts It makes the class more entertaining/ prevents it from being monotonous It reveals illusions about concepts It helps to summarize the class It identifies the deficiencies in what the students have learnt It helps to construct knowledge It increases student participation It improves he students’ skills to think creatively It is an alternative assessment tool It is easy to prepare and use It increases permanent learning Students can better understand relationships between concepts It ensures meaningful learning Students can visualize concepts in their minds/it is a visual material It makes the subject/knowledge concrete It facilitates learning It makes the class more entertaining, ensures active participation/activeness It helps both to reveal pre-existing knowledge and make an assessment It helps to summarize the subject It keeps the student alert/helps to motivate It can be used in each of the different parts(introduction, process, assessment) of the class It reveals illusions about concepts Helps to introduce the concepts to the students in a more detailed way Helps the students to think multi-dimensionally It is easy to prepare and use It helps to make the student aware of the target at the beginning of the class It improves the students’ skills to analyze, synthesize and comment It helps to construct knowledge /Establishes connection between old and new knowledge It improves the students’ creativity It saves time It ensures permanent and effective learning It is one of the best methods to summarize the topic It ensures meaningful learning It makes teaching more entertaining/Is effective in attracting students’ attention It felicitates the student’s construction of knowledge It prevents illusions about concepts Ensures integrity between subjects/knowledge It is effective in the identification, reinforcement and assessment of the student’s lacking information It saves time It improves thinking systematically I do not want to use it when I become a teacher because; I may have difficulty in rather complex subjects on which I am not really ascendant Timing problem may arise if planning is not good Preparation requires time and attention It may lead the student to memorize I think it will take too much time It is difficult to prepare It is not suitable to use in classes such as Mathematics I think that it is not suitable to use in the first two classes of primary education I think it will take too much time

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N 13 9 8 7 7 5 5 4 4 3 3 2 1 1 1 26 22 16 15 8 8 8 7 7 7 6 6 5 4 3 3 2 2 1 1 9 3 3 4 2 2 2 2 1 1 N 2 1 1 1 3 3 2 2 1


concepts and in grouping the concepts and organize them in hierarchical order. They stated that they failed in establishing cross links, reading the concept map with using directions of the arrows and deciding on the connecting words. The participants in the “low level” group, on the other hand, deemed themselves successful arranging the concepts according to a hierarchical order and determining essential and sub essential concepts. They expressed that they had difficulty in establishing cross links, detecting the directions of the arrows and organizing concepts. Also, the participants in all levels found themselves successful in the hierarchical arrangement of the concepts and unsuccessful in the detection of the direction of the arrows showing the way to read the concept maps. Participants were asked whether they would use concept maps in their professional life. Their answers state Table 4. While their answers examined, 24 prospective teachers in the “high level” group want to use concept maps when they become a teacher. Because they thought that concept maps makes the subject/knowledge more concrete and understandable, ensures that the subject/knowledge is seen as a whole/ is taught more easily, and it ensure that knowledge is permanent. Participants in the “mid level” group expressed that concept maps increases permanent learning, enable students can better understand relationships between concepts, and it ensures meaningful learning. Participants in the “low level” group explained that they would use concept maps because they ensure permanent and effective learning. But, they tended not to use concept maps as much as mid and high level of participants. This situation can result from many factors such as the approach adopted in learning-teaching process, professional selfreliance and the level of knowledge and attitudes towards the lesson. Some prospective teachers unwilling to use these tools when they are qualified as teachers have explained that there is time problem, preparation of the tools is difficult and it is not suitable for every course and class level.

Conclusions and Implications In the study, the pre-service teachers were instructed on how to use concept maps and their information and opinions were identified about the concept maps following the implementation of applications. At the end of the study, the individual concept maps constructed by the pre-service teachers were evaluated and the subjects were categorized in three groups with regard to their information levels. The pre-service teachers indicated that they improved their knowledge and skills in many areas (connection among concepts, establish meaningful relationships among concepts, etc.) when constructing and applying concept maps. An examination of the pre-service teachers’ opinions (Table 2) revealed that the instruction about concept maps enriched their opinions in many aspects. Their opinions show that they will focus on student-centered education in their future instruction, rather than on traditional education. Similar to our study results, McCombs and Whisler (1997) stated that using concept maps to reflect on the teaching of a particular topic will promote the idea of students’ multiple perspectives and help the teacher to appreciate the value of a more learner-centered teaching approach. According to Kinchin, De-Leij and Hay (2005), concept mapping activities reflect a student-centered teaching philosophy. Besides, Vanleuvan (1997) suggested that prospective teachers develop stronger belief in classroom management, lesson planning, evaluation of the learned subjects and cooperation after learning how to use concept maps. There are certain parts in which pre-service teachers are successful and have difficulty when constructing concept maps. The participants found themselves successful in the hierarchical arrangement of the concepts and unsuccessful in the detection of the direction of the arrows showing the way to read the concept maps. Connecting words and the directions of the arrows are the tools that turn concept maps into readable graphic tools. The direction of the arrows shows the order to be followed while reading the concepts and turns the map into a meaningful text. A tool without connecting words and arrows is only a diagram. One of the main points found difficult by the participants was the establishment of cross links between the concepts. Crosslink is the indicator of not only the relationship established between the concepts in the mind of the individual but also the types of the schemes that were developed in his mind. According to Kaya (2003), cross links are the most important indicators of how the person who prepares the concept map perceives and integrates the concepts related with that subject.

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A majority of the pre-service teachers indicated that they plan to use concept maps in their future teaching. They attributed this to the benefits of concept maps for students and teachers. Those pre-service teachers who do not plan to use concept maps mentioned the problem of time. They also believe that concept maps may not be appropriate for every course and every grade. As a result of an examination of the study data and similar studies, some recommendations could be noted. (1) Training on concept maps for pre-service teachers should contain both theoretical and applied instruction. Applied studies on how to use them in classroom will improve pre-service teachers’ levels of knowledge and skills. (2) This study examined how concept maps improve pre-service teachers’ knowledge levels and opinions. Similar applications could be used to examine different cognitive and affective skills of pre-service teachers such as their scientific process skills, attitudes towards courses and teaching, and self-competence in teaching. (3) Teachers’ knowledge, skills, and opinions about concept maps can also be improved through in-service training.

References Chang, S.L. & Chang, Y. (2008). Using online concept mapping with peer learning to enhance concept application. The Quarterly Review of Distance Education, 9(1), 17–27. Chang, K.-E., Sung, Y.-T., Chang, R.-B. & Lin, S.-C. (2005). A new assessment for computer-based concept mapping. Educational Technology & Society, 8 (3), 138–148. Chiou, C.-C. (2008). The effect of concept mapping on students’ learning achievements and interests. Innovations in Education and Teaching International, 45 (4), 375–387. Gill, P.E. & Persson, M. (2008). On using concept-maps to study school-children understands of leisure-time. Leisure Studies, 27 (2), 213–220. Hsu L.-L. (2004). Developing concept maps from problem-based learning scenario discussions. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 48 (5), 510–518. Jacobs-Lawson, J.M. & Hershey, D.A. (2002). Concept maps as an assessment tool in psychology courses. Teaching of Psychology, 29 (1), 25–29. Kaya, O. N. (2003). An alternative evaluation method in education: concept maps. Hacettepe University’s Journal of the Faculty of Education, 25, 265–271. Kaya, O. N. (2003). Concept maps in science education. Pamukkale University’s Journal of the Faculty of Education, 13 (1), 70–79. Keppens, J. & Hay, D. (2008). Concept map assessment for teaching computer programming. Computer Science Education, 18 (1), 31–42. Kinchin, I.M., De-Leij, F.A.A.M. & Hay, D.B. (2005). The evolution of a collaborative concept mapping activity for undergraduate microbiology students. Journal of Further and Higher Education, 29 (1), 1–14. Laight, D.W. (2004). Attitudes to concept maps as a teaching/learning activity in undergraduate health professional education: influence of preferred learning style. Medical Teacher, 26 (3), 229–233. Liu, X. (2004). Using concept mapping for assessing and promoting relational conceptual change in science. Science Education, 88 (3), 373–396. Mcclure, J.R., Sonak, B. & Suen, H.K. (1999). Concept map assessment of classroom learning: reliability, validity and logistical practicality. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 36 (4), 475–492. McCombs, B.L. & Whisler, J.S. (1997) The Learner-Centered Classroom and School: Strategies For Increasing

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Student Motivation and Achievement, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Novak, J. D. & Gowin, D. B. (1984). Learning How to Learn. New York: Cambridge Univ. Pres. Ozdemir, A.Ş. (2005). Analyzing concept maps as an assessment (evaluation) tool in teaching mathematics. Journal of Social Sciences, 1 (3), 141–149. Pegg, A.E. (2007). Learning for school leadership: using concept mapping to explore learning from everyday experience. International Journal of Leadership in Education, 10 (3), 265–282. Riley, N.R. & Ahlberg, M. (2004). Investigating the use of ICT-based concept mapping techniques on creativity in literacy tasks. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 20, 244–256. Ruiz-Primo, M.A. & Shavelson, R.J. (1996). Problems and issues in the concept maps in science assessment. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 33 (6), 569–600. Ruiz-Primo, M.A., Schultz, S., Li, M. & Shavelson, R.J. (1999). On the cognitive validity of interpretations of scores from alternative concept mapping techniques. CSE technical report 503. Retrieved September 18, 2009, from http://research.cse.ucla.edu/Reports/TECH503.pdf Rye, J.A. & Ruba, P.A. (2002). Scoring concept maps: an expert map-based scheme weighted for relationships. School Science and Mathematics, 102 (1), 33–44. Santhanam, B., Leach, C. & Dawson, C. (1998). Concept mapping: how should it be introduced, and is there a long term benefit?. Higher Education, 35, 317–328. Stoddart, T., Abrams, R., Gasper, E. & Canaday, D. (2000). Concept maps as assessment in science inquiry learning – a report of methodology. International Journal of Science Education, 22 (12), 1221–1246. Sahin, F. (2002). An investigation on the use of concept maps as evaluation tools. Pamukkale University’s Journal of the Faculty of Education, 11 (1), 18–33. Ugwu, O. & Soyibo, K. (2004). The effects of concept and vee mappings under three learning modes on Jamaican eighth graders’ knowledge of nutrition and plant reproduction. Research in Science and Technological Education, 22 (1), 41–58. Vanleuvan, P (1997). Using concept maps of effective teaching as a tool in supervision. Journal of Research and Development in Education. Vol: 30 No: 4 pp: 261-277. West, D.C., Park, J.K., Pomeroy, J.R. & Sandoval, J. (2002). Concept mapping assessment in medical education: a comparison of two scoring systems. Medical Education, 36, 820–826. Yin, Y., Vanides, J., Ruiz-Primo, M.A., Ayala, C.C. & Shavelson, R.J. (2005). Comparison of two concept-mapping techniques: implications for scoring, interpretation, and use. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 42 (2), 166– 184. Zak, K.M. & Munson, B.H. (2008). An exploratory study of elementary preservice teachers’ understanding of ecology using concept maps. The Journal of Environmental Education, 39 (3), 32–46. Zanting, A., Verloop, N. & Vermunt, J.D. (2003). Using interviews and concept maps to Access mentor teachers’ practical knowledge. Higher Education, 46, 195–214. Zele, V. E., Lenaerts, J. & Wieme, W. (2004). Improving the usefulness of concept maps as a research tool for science education. International Journal of Science Education, 26 (9), 1043-1064.

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ON THE USE OF THE VIRTUAL MACH-ZEHNDER INTERFEROMETER IN THE TEACHING OF QUANTUM PHYSICS FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS: PROMOTING DISCUSSIONS AMONG PRE-SERVICE PHYSICS TEACHERS Alexsandro P. Pereira, Fernanda Ostermann & Cláudio J. de H. Cavalcanti Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul

Abstract This papers focus on the use of a Virtual Mach-Zehnder Interferometer in the teaching of quantum physics fundamental concepts. First, a didactical activity developed for pre-service physics teachers, based on the exploration of this computer program, is outlined. Second, an analysis of the dialogue of two students as they progress through the activity is presented. Finally, we present some arguments to support the assertion that the Virtual Mach-Zehnder Interferometer can be a powerful didactical tool to improve learning of quantum physics fundamental concepts.

Introduction The Virtual Mach-Zehnder Interferometer (VMZI) was developed by our research group (Pereira et al 2009b) to show the students how quantum phenomena deviate from our everyday experience (Müller and Wiesner 2002). The didactical task, based on the exploration of the VMZI, stimulated a number of dialogues between pre-service physics teachers, which were examined using the analysis of discourse. This methodology helps us to better understand how meanings are created and developed within a social group. The appropriation of quantum physics concepts among students is discussed in this paper according to the dialogues of two pre-service teachers, as they progress in the didactical activity. The findings for these two students are presented in short case studies. The actual sample consisted of fourteen students, working together in pairs. The didactical task consists on the exploration of the VMZI, considering a conceptual discussion over the quantum interference phenomenona (Pessoa Jr 2005, Scarani 2006). In order to establish an analogy between quantum physics and wave theory of light, we propose a number of VMZI observations within both classical and quantum mode. The aim of this approach is to help the students to predict, in a qualitative way, the photon’s behaviour, avoiding some usual misunderstandings. A short guide was written to direct the students throughout the task. In order to stimulate discussions along the activity, the students were asked to interpret some phenomena observed in the VMZI, including the interference patterns for single photons at the detectors.

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Methodology Data gathered in this study are part from a wider investigation, developed alongside a course from the seventh stage of the Physics Education course at the Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, during the second semester of 2007. After an initial survey of the previous conceptions of fourteen pre-service physics teachers concerning the wave-particle duality - accomplished by sixteen conceptual questions test on the photoelectric effect, the double slit experiment and the Mach-Zehnder Interferometer (Pereira et al, 2009a) - an opening sequence of eight seminars on ondulatory optics and quantum physics, ministered by the students themselves, has been carried out. In the following week, a formal presentation of the Mach-Zehnder Interferometer has been ministered by the discipline's teacher. In the eleventh meeting, one didactical task focusing on the exploration of the VMZI was implemented. In the following week, the discipline's teacher taught the mathematical formalism of the quantum physics. He applied this formalism to the Mach-Zehnder interferometer by means of a conceptual discussion, presenting some different epistemological interpretations of the theory. The data collected consisted mainly of video-tape records (two lessons of ninety minutes per week, for approximately ten weeks). The didactical task based on the exploration of the VMZI was carried out in the computer laboratory of the Physics Institute. It took approximately three hours, distributed in two encounters. The present students (eleven in total) had five computers equipped with the VMZI, one microphone and one sound recorder. The dialogues established within each group were recorded and their transcriptions were later analyzed.

Initial hypotheses for the use of the VMZI According to the results of other studies (Budde et al 2002, Olsen 2002), it is possible to develop teaching hypotheses on the use of the VMZI in quantum physics lessons. These hypotheses allow us to manage some activities that can avoid the inadequate appropriation of some concepts. Teaching hypothesis 1: An analogy between quantum physics and wave theory of light. The VMZI functioning in both classical and quantum mode can help the students to use the correspondence principle, since it shows that experiments using single photons reproduce gradually the same results as experiments using a laser beam. Teaching hypothesis 2: The conceptual problem concerning the photon's path choice. The experimental arrangement of the Mach-Zehnder interferometer can help the students to glimpse the conceptual problem of the photon's path choice, which can highlight the notion that quantum objects and classical particles have quite different behaviours.

Dialogues between Guto and Gerson Following the students' arguments, it is possible to check our initial hypotheses by contrasting the students' dialogues with the observed phenomena in the VMZI. The aim here is to identify which phenomena simulated by the program, as well as which questions pointed by the written guide, support the adequate appropriation of the quantum physics' concepts. On the following we present a synthesis of the didactical task performed by the students Guto and Gerson (fictitious names). Many of the transcribed dialogues corroborate the hypothesis traced in the previous section.

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VIRTUAL INTERFEROMETER OPERATING IN CLASSICAL MODE Initially, the students have removed the second beam splitter and turned on the laser source, as shown in figure 1. They could then certify that the second beam splitter is the element responsible for the interference pattern formed by the two laser components, as shown in the following dialogue:

Figure 1. Laser beam division. Dialogue 1: (01) Guto: There is no interference. These two light beams will cross each other and will not interfere. (02) Gerson: Yes. Next, the students have placed a polaroid filter, oriented at 90° to the horizontal direction, in one of the arms of the interferometer, as shown in figure 2. It was possible for the students to identify the polarization direction of the laser beam emitted by the source, as shown in the next dialogue.

Figure 2. Determining the laser beam polarization. Dialogue 2:

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(01) Guto: Here you can see that when the angle is zero, it's still on both of them. (02) Gerson: What? (03) Guto: When the angle here is zero. (04) Gerson: Uh-huh. (05) Guto: It means that it allows the laser to pass through both directions. When I turn it to 90°... (06) Gerson: It changes over here, have you seen it? (07) Guto: Yes! So it blocks here where we have the polaroid. Which means... (08) Gerson: It doesn't let it go through. (09) Guto: It doesn't let it go through. That's the polarization direction of the laser beam. Right after that, the students have removed the polaroid filter and replaced the second beam splitter, as shown in figure 3. The following dialogue shows that the students had no difficulty to interpret the phenomena.

Figure 3. Ring pattern. Dialogue 3. (01) Guto: It's the interference patterns. (02) Gerson: Yes. (03) Guto: In the center, one is constructive and the other is destructive.

VIRTUAL INTERFEROMETER OPERATING IN QUANTUM MODE Selecting the single photon option, the students can remove the second beam splitter and replace both screens by photon detectors, as shown in figure 4. They naturally interpreted the phenomena in terms of probability, as shown in the following dialogue.

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Figure 4. Photon indivisibility. Dialogue 4. (01) Gerson: It's random. 50% chance of transmission or reflection. (02) Guto: Yes. It's random. Next, the students replace the second beam splitter, as in figure 5. This new setup has led the students into the following dialogue. Dialogue 5. (01) Guto: Only one of them appears. Oh, of course! The interference pattern! If it comes in the center, isn't it here where we had the... (02) Gerson: The constructive? (03) Guto: Constructive... Where there was a bright center... Where we got the photons... Then here I would really expect to have photons. (04) Gerson: It's just one photon at a time, right? (05) Guto: One photon at a time. (06) Gerson: It doesn’t divide itself! (07) Guto: That's the point of quantum theory, isn't it? (08) Gerson: So if it's just one at a time, there could have been no difference, right? (09) Guto: That's the point. It interferes with itself.

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Figure 5. Quantum interference with photon detectors. When replacing again the photon detectors by screens, as in figure 6, the students obtain, for single photons, the same ring pattern previously observed (in dialogue 3). Dialogue 6. (01) Guto: Now there's the beam splitter and there's interference. As you have a 50% chance (of incidence) here or here... (02) Gerson: Yes. (03) Guto: But there's an interference pattern. You'll always have a bright center. (04) Gerson: If it's one photon at a time, how does it interfere? (05) Guto: Yes, if you imagine it as a corpuscle, it travels in one of the possible paths. But in quantum mechanics, it just... (06) Gerson: is not valid.

Figure 6. Quantum interference with screens. While answering the question "How would you explain the interference pattern observed for single photons?" the students reached an agreement, as stated below:

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Dialogue 7. (01) Gerson: We can say that classically one could not have any interference, while in quantum mechanics... (02) Guto: In quantum mechanics, it looks like as if the photon interacts with itself! (03) Gerson: But we must consider it as a wave. (04) Guto: Yes.

Conclusions Through the didactical task sequence suggested by the guide, the students naturally established an analogy between quantum physics and the wave theory of light, as shown in the quotes from dialogues 5 (turns 1 to 3) and 7 (turns 3 and 4). Moreover, many of the phenomena observed in the VMZI could show the photon's odd behaviour, avoiding the misconception in which quantum objects are seen as classical particles. This can be observed in the quotes from dialogues 5 (turns 4 to 9), 6 (turns 4 to 6) and 7 (turns 1 and 2). The didactical task suggested in this work was very important and positive factor in the formation of these pre-service physics teachers. Through it, it was possible to contextualize a number of concepts and principles introduced in courses that were taken in previous semesters, such as photon, probability density, quantum interference, among others. In this way, the VMZI turned out to be a powerful tool, not only concerning the motivation for studying quantum physics, but also when it comes to improve the comprehension and the construction of meanings shared by the scientific community.

Acknowledgments The second author of this paper thanks the partial help from the CNPq.

References Budde, M.; Niedderer, H.; Scott, P.; Leach, J. ‘Electronium': a quantum atomic teaching model. Physics Education 37 (3): 197-203, 2002. Müller, R.; Wiesner, H. Teaching quantum mechanics on an introductory level. American Journal of Physics 70 (3): 200-209, 2002. Olsen, R. V. Introducing quantum mechanics in the upper secondary school: a study in Norway. International Journal of Science Education 24 (6): 565-74, 2002. Pessoa Jr., O. Conceitos de física quântica. São Paulo: Livraria da Física, 2005. Pereira, A. P.; Cavalcanti, C. J. H.; Ostermann, F. Concepções relativas à dualidade onda-partícula: uma investigação na formação de professores de Física. Revista Electrónica de Enseñanza de las Ciencias 8 (1): 72-92, 2009a. Pereira, A. P.; Ostermann, F. Cavalcanti, C. J. H. On the use of a Virtual Mach-Zehnder Interferometer in the teaching of quantum mechanics Physics Education 37 (3): 197-203, 2009b. Scarani, V. Quantum physics a first encounter: interference, entanglement, and reality. New York: Oxford University Press, 2006.

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FOSTERING PRESERVICE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL TEACHERS’ NATURE OF SCIENCE VIEWS THROUGH A SITUATED LEARNING MODEL Mehmet Aydeniz, Rita A. Hagevik & James Roberson The University of Tennessee, Knoxville

Abstract The purpose of this study was to determine if, through a situated learning model, the use of inscriptions in science notebooks could change elementary pre-service teachers’ views of science. The construction of and collective interpretation of the inscriptions stimulated development of nature of science (NOS) beliefs through explicit reflection on the science inquiry-based learning activities used in the pre-service elementary teachers science methods course. This study illustrated that one way pre-service elementary teachers can develop sophisticated NOS beliefs is to engage in the use of inscriptions while reflecting on how science is done.

Introduction Science educators have been advocating the teaching of “nature of science” in schools for the last 100 years (Lederman, 1992). Nature of science refers to understanding the epistemological assumptions of science. Epistemic assumptions of science deals with values, beliefs and norms used to produce scientific knowledge or science as a way of knowing the physical, natural and social world. This includes understanding the nature of questions that the scientists ask, the ways in which the scientific knowledge is produced and validated, the standards used for collecting and interpreting evidence, and most importantly understanding how the scientific knowledge is subject to change in lieu of new evidence or new ways of interpreting existing evidence (Abd-El-Khalick & Lederman, 2000; W. F. McComas, 1998; Schwartz, Lederman, & Crawford, 2004). McComas (1998) defines nature of science as: The nature of science is a fertile hybrid arena which blends aspects of various social studies of science including the history, sociology, and philosophy of science combined with research from the cognitive sciences such as psychology into a rich description of what science is, how it works, how scientists operate as a social group and how society itself both directs and reacts to scientific endeavors. Through multiple lenses, the nature of science describes how science functions (pp. 4-5). Our understanding of the nature of science has evolved with the influences of postmodernist paradigm on science education research and curriculum. Instead of viewing scientific knowledge as the only truth or an unchangeable truth, most science educators now emphasize the tentative nature of science (Abd-El-Khalick, Lederman, Bell, & Schwartz, 2001; V. L. Akerson & Hanuscin, 2007). The tentativeness nature of science implies that science is responsive to new evidence or new interpretations. The emergence of new evidence or new ways of interpreting the same evidence can lead to changes in or modifications to the established scientific truths. These contemporary views of science have been advocated in recent reform documents including Science for All Americans (American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1993) and National Science Education Standards[NSES] (National Research Council, 1996) and prevalent in science education literature.

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These views that include: (a) scientific knowledge is both reliable and tentative, (b) no single scientific method exists, but there are shared characteristics of scientific approaches to science (e.g., scientific explanations are supported by, and testable against, empirical observations of the natural world), (c) creativity plays a role in the development of scientific knowledge, (d) there is a crucial distinction between observations and inferences, (e) though science strives for objectivity, there is always an element of subjectivity (theory-ladeness) in the development of scientific knowledge, and (f) social and cultural contexts play a role in the development of scientific knowledge (Abd-El-Khalick et al., 2001; V. L. Akerson & Hanuscin, 2007; Schwartz et al., 2004) are commonly referred to as the tenants of science. Beliefs about science are a critical element of teachers’ professional knowledge base which includes epistemic beliefs, pedagogical beliefs and beliefs about assessment (Aydeniz, 2007). Although developing a sophisticated understanding about the nature of science has been an educational goal, many misconceptions regarding students’ understanding of what science is, how science is done and who conducts science are prevalent in science classrooms from elementary to college (Abd-El-Khalick et al., 2001; V. L. Akerson & Hanuscin, 2007; National Research Council, 1996). Of interest in this study is preservice elementary teachers’ understanding of the nature of science.

Rationale Previous research has shown that pre-service elementary teachers hold naïve conceptions of science, meaning that they view science only through an objectivist, absolutist view. In adddition, the same line of research shows that many elementary teachers either do not teach their students about the nature of science or reinforce a view of science that is counter to the epistemologies of science. For instance, they think of science as consisting of the scientific method and an unproblematic body of knowledge consisting of facts. One cannot blame pre-service elementary teachers for holding such naïve views about the nature of science or for promoting views of science that are not congruent with the views of science advocated in science education reform documents and science education literature. School science curricula and science instruction in the classroom including college classrooms promote objectivist views of science and focus only on conceptual and procedural aspects of science with limited attention to the epistemic aspect of science (V.L. Akerson, Abd-El-Khalick, & Lederman, 2000). One place where pre-service elementary teachers can be guided to develop more sophisticated views of the nature of science is during their science methods course. This study focused on pre-service elementary teachers’ understanding of the nature of science through engagement in conducting inquiry-based experiments and the use of inscriptions. The purpose of this study was to determine if the use of inscriptions in science notebooks along with explicit teaching and reflection on the nature of science could enhance their views of science. In an effort to make contribution to science education literature on NOS, we used an explicit, reflective instructional approach to enhance 79 pre-service elementary teachers’ understanding of NOS.

Theoretical Framework We used the situated learning theory to understand the developmental trajectory of pre-service elementary school teachers’ understanding about science through inscriptions (Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989; Greeno & Van De Sande, 2007). The situative approach characterizes learning in terms of students’ participation in practices of inquiry and discourse that involves interactions with the symbolic representation of knowledge and ongoing discussions among members within the learning environment (Kozma, 2003; Lave & Wenger, 1991). A situative approach to learning not only emphasizes the participatory nature of the learning process but also analyzes the participants’ use of (material tools; i.e., inscriptions) to negotiate meaning and develop understanding (Kozma, 2003). When learning is conceptualized through a situative perspective, the cognitive and social experiences and the situations in which the learning takes place becomes central to the process of learning (Engstrom, 1993; Merriam & Caffarella, 1999).

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The principles of situated learning emphasize the role of discourse, participation and peer support and ongoing challenge for facilitating students’ learning (Lave &Wegner, 1991). We describe how these principles guided the design of our instructional activities in the methods section.

Methods Participants Seventy-nine pre-service teachers (4 male and 75 female) who were majoring in psychology (50%), special education (21%), and political science, history, English, Spanish, anthropology, geography or liberal studies (15%), and others who had received an undergraduate degree previously (14%), would receive a Masters degree in Elementary Education the following spring or summer after completing an internship year participated in the study. The average number of science courses taken by the participants in high school and college was six with three being in high school and three in college. Most of the science courses were in biology and chemistry.

Instructional Intervention This study took place in an elementary science methods course (SCE 422). One of the goals of SCE 422 course is to help pre-service elementary teachers to develop sophisticated beliefs about the nature of science. In order to promote pre-service elementary teachers’ understanding of science and how scientists conduct science we introduced an intervention that consisted of pre-service teachers conducting inquiry-based scientific experiments in the physical and life sciences using science notebooks. Using science notebooks has been shown to be effective in elementary students’ learning of science, mathematics, reading and writing (Klentschy, 2005; Klentschy, Garrison, & Amaral, 1999). We challenged 79 preservice science teachers to document their learning of science through inscriptions using science notebooks. The nature of science was explicitly taught through discussions using inscriptions constructed by the students as a context. We provided instruction on inscriptions and how they are used in science, showing many examples of those produced by scientists. Our focus was to use science notebooks as an authentic science task in order to facilitate the participation, discourse, support and challenge for learning about the nature of science as the students engaged in hands-on inquiry-based experiments that would be appropriate for their elementary students. The pre-service teachers constructed their own inscriptions in their science notebooks throughout the experiments, which were then peer reviewed and discussed before the instructor assessed them. Students reflected on the changes they made to the inscriptions or to their conclusions and/or learning in their notebooks and on the processes of science as they designed, conducted, recorded, and reflected on their results and conclusions. Their results, thoughts and reflections were shared in class. A scientist in physical or life sciences was present to offer input and/or to answer students’ questions. Through argumentative discourse they were given the opportunity to negotiate meaning and develop understanding about various aspects of science. The instructor of the course explicitly emphasized various aspects of science including tentative, social and communicative aspect of science.

Data Sources and Analysis Data were collected through multiple means: students’ responses to VNOSD-2, a structured interview protocol, and science notebooks used by the students for designing inquiry experiments, recording the results of their inquiry experiments, construction of inscriptions, and analysis of data. Our data analyses took place in two stages. The first set of analyses focused on understanding the complexity of inscriptions constructed by the students over time. Three researchers, which included the authors as well as others, analyzed all 79 notebooks at least two

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times during the course. We examined preservice elementary teachers’ views of science and their production of inscriptions, the quality of inscriptions, changes in inscriptions over time, and the complexity of the students’ transformation of inscriptions from simple to complex as students completed inquiry science experiments in the physical and life sciences. The coders categorized each inscription in each notebook by using a color-coding system for each type. The categories included lists, diagrams, photographs, concept maps, graphs, data tables, equations, composite diagrams, and social inscriptions. We counted the total number of inscriptions for each category for each participant for each experiment, and reported the changes in the complexity of inscriptions constructed by each individual participant over time. The second set of analyses focused on understanding the developmental trajectory of participants’ views of NOS. Three researchers, which included the authors and others, analyzed all 79 notebooks at least two times during the course. Two different researchers analyzed the VNOS-D2 instrument independently. All coders resolved differences on how to code, following patterns established by previous researchers (V.L. Akerson et al., 2000; Pozzer & Roth, 2003; Roth, Bowen, & McGinn, 1999). The pre and post interviews were transcribed. The pre and post VNOS-D2 instrument, pre and post interviews, and three online reflections were analyzed using a qualitative software, QDA Miner (Provalis Research, 2004).

Results The results of this study show that the situated, reflective learning model both enhanced pre-service elementary science teachers’ understanding of science over the course of a semester and increased the complexity of inscriptions that the pre-service elementary teachers generated.

Changes in NOS Views VNOS-D2 pre and post analyses showed that 12% of the participants held a naïve view of science in the beginning while none held this view at the end of the course. A total of 69% of the participants possessed a mixed view of science at the beginning, evidenced by questions being answered with an appropriate conception and others answered inappropriately, while only 47% fell into this category at the end. At the beginning of the study, only 19% of the participants held a sophisticated view, but by the end 53% exhibited a sophisticated understanding. We established the three categories of naïve, mixed, and sophisticated to highlight the movements of the participants regarding their understanding of NOS. It is of interest to note that by the end of the study those that held a naïve conception in the beginning had moved to either a mixed or sophisticated understanding. Moreover, both the naïve and mixed categories saw a decline in the number of participants within them, while the percentage of participants possessing a sophisticated understanding rose 179%. Table 1. Changes in Students’ NOS Views NOS Sophistication Pre Post Naive 12% 0% Mixed Views 69% 47% Sophisticated 19% 53%

Changes in Construction of Inscriptions Analysis of inscriptions showed a significant change both in the number of inscriptions constructed and the complexity of inscriptions constructed by students over time. There were significant increases in the total number of inscriptions across all categories (i.e., concept maps, graphs) from the beginning to the end of the course (t (77) = 3.73, p.05. The multivariate η2 based on Wilks’s Λ was .12.

Conclusions and Implications In light of the results, no significant differences were found between pre-service and in-service teachers, experienced and novice teachers, and in-service teachers with MS and/or PhD degree and in-service teachers with only BS degree on none of the subscales of the efficacy beliefs. In Campbell (1996), and Lin and Tsai (1999), inservice teachers’ efficacy beliefs scores outnumbered that of pre-service teachers. Moreover, De la Torre Cruz and Casanova Arias (2007) found a significant mean difference between in-service and pre-service teachers’ teaching efficacy beliefs in terms of classroom management. However, in the same research, pre-service teachers’ general teaching efficacy beliefs were higher than those of in-service teachers. Although a significant difference was expected in the present study, the reason of the non-significant difference may be the unrealistic efficacy beliefs of pre-service teachers. Moreover, the internship provided in preservice teacher education may not provide real and sufficient experience for pre-service teachers. Additionally, although experienced teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs mean scores were higher than that of novice teachers on each subscale (Table 1), there was no significant difference between the novice and experienced teachers’ efficacy beliefs. This result contradicted with studies of Tschannen Moran and Woolfolk Hoy (2002, 2007) which showed that experienced teachers’ efficacy beliefs were higher than that of novice teachers with respect to classroom management and instructional strategies subscales. Similar to the result of the current study, there was no significant difference between the two in terms of student engagement efficacy. Although Campbell (1996) found a significant mean difference between teaching efficacy beliefs of teachers who had BS degree and teachers who had post graduate degree, in the current study, there was no significant difference between the two. The reason may be that the graduate programs may not support teaching efficacy beliefs of teachers.

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For implication, pre-service teachers should be provided sensible and efficient teaching experience in preservice teacher education. Additionally, in graduate teacher education programs, instructors should be aware of the significance of self-efficacy beliefs; moreover, activities and projects should be integrated to these programs to increase pre-service and in-service teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs.

References Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: a social cognitive theory. N.J.: Prentice-Hall. Bandura, A (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: Freeman. Campbell, J. (1996). A comparison of teacher efficacy for pre and in-service teachers’ in Scotland and America. Education, 117, 2-11. De la Torre Cruz, M. J., & Casanova Arias, P. F. (2007). Comparative analysis of expectancies of efficacy in inservice and prospective teachers. Teaching and Teacher Education, 23, 641-652. Gibson, S., & Dembo, M.H. (1984). Teacher efficacy: A construct validation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 76, 569-582. Ghaith, G., & Yaghi, H. (1997). Relationships among experience, teacher efficacy, and attitudes toward the implementation of instructional innovation. Teaching and Teacher Education, 13, 451-458. Guskey, T. R. & Passaro, P. D. (1994). Teacher Efficacy: A study of construct dimensions. American Educational Research Journal, 31, 627-643. Lin, S. S. J., & Tsai, C. (1999, March). Teaching efficacy along the development of teaching expertise among science and math teachers in Taiwan. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the National Association for Research in Science Teaching, Boston, MA. Midgley, C., Feldlaufer, H., & Eccles, J. (1989). Change in teacher efficacy and student self and task related beliefs in mathematics during the transition to junior high school. Journal of Educational Psychology, 81(2), 247-258. Nespor, J. (1987). The role of beliefs in the practice of teaching. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 19, 317-328. Pajares, M. F. (1992). Teachers’ beliefs and educational research: cleaning up a messy construct. Review of Educational Research, 62(3), 307-332. Ross, J.A. (1992). Teacher efficacy and the effects of coaching on student achievement. Canadian Journal of Education, 17, 51-65. Tschannen-Moran, M. & Woolfolk-Hoy, A. (2001). Teacher efficacy: capturing an elusive construct. Teaching and Teacher Education, 17, 783-805. Tschannen-Moran, M., & Woolfolk Hoy, A. (2002, April). The influence of resources and support on teachers’ efficacy beliefs. Paper Presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New Orleans, LA. Tschannen-Moran, M., & Woolfolk Hoy, A. (2007). The differential antecedents of self-efficacy beliefs of novice and experienced teachers. Teaching and teacher Education, 23, 944-956. Woolfolk, A.E., & Hoy, W. K. (1990). Prospective teachers' sense of efficacy and beliefs about control. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82, 81-91.

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EXPLORING CONCEPTUAL INTEGRATION IN PRE-SERVICE CHEMISTRY TEACHERS’ THINKING Oktay Bektaş

Erciyes University

Ayla Çetin Dindar Selçuk University

Ayşe Yalçın Çelik Gazi University

Abstract An important feature of meaningful learning is the connecting of new material to existing knowledge. Therefore, pre-service teachers should not only learn individual scientific models and principles, but should be taught to see how they are linked together. The focus of this research is investigating the extent to which pre-service chemistry teachers achieve conceptual integration of the science they learn about in university. The present paper describes the use of a semi-structured interview schedule designed to investigate pre-service chemistry teachers’ understanding of a range of aspects of chemistry. The ability of this approach is demonstrated through an account of one student’s scientific thinking, showing both how student applied fundamental ideas widely, and also where conceptual integration was lacking.

Introduction Conceptual integration can be defined as the knowledge structures of an individual organized in such a way that there is strong linking between different areas of the person’s individual knowledge (Taber 2005). To achieve conceptual integration, meaningful learning is important. Constructivist models of learning emphasize that connecting the new knowledge of students to be acquired with the existing knowledge is essential in order to promote meaningful learning (Limon, 2001). Long-term maintenance of knowledge increases the levels of integration of new learning with entrenched knowledge structures. On the other hand, unsuitable linkages may well support knowledge recall to the loss of scientific understanding leading to misconceptions. From this perspective, teaching that supports students in seeing how new material links with prior learning should both facilitate meaningful learning and reinforce the prior learning (Taber, 2008). Although much of the research has explored student thinking around particular concept areas (Boo, 1998; Cakmakçı & Leach, 2005; Hackling & Garnett, 1985; Haidar & Abraham, 1991; Harrison & Treagust, 1996), little of these has looked specifically at conceptual integration. For example, Ganaras, Dumon, and Larcher (2008) checked whether the concept of chemical equilibrium had become an integrating concept for prospective physical sciences teachers. They conducted a quantitative survey among students from various teacher training institutes of universities in France. They tried to evaluate to what extent students aware of the dynamic nature of equilibrium, and to how far their experimental knowledge was improved by this concept. Researchers showed that the majority of prospective physical sciences teachers did not gain the concept of chemical equilibrium as an integrating and unifying concept. Students in this study integrated

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chemical equilibrium only through the chemical reaction concept. However, chemical equilibrium can be integrated with thermodynamic, kinetic, the structure of matter, etc. Taber (2008) decided to develop an interview questionnaire that could be used to explore the extent of conceptual integration in students studying chemistry and physics in the college. Questions regarding mechanics, electricity, chemical reactions, physical changes, and bonding were used in his study in England. He used in –depth case study in his study because he wanted to analyze the individual students as discrete cases. Four volunteered students who were two males and two females took part in his case study. He examined cases under the titles which are forces, force and motion, interactions between charges, energy, and particle models. In conclusion, Taber saw that these students had some difficulties in the integration of these concepts.

Rationale As stated above, various research studies have been conducted about the conceptual integration. However, the number of these studies is very limited. Likewise, Taber (2003b) found that students did not tend to bring the relevant physics concepts to mind when learning about the chemical bonding and Taber (1998b) stated that students considered that linking to physics during the chemistry learning was an unreasonable demand. For instance, even though the nature of forces between charged particles was understood by students, alternative mechanisms were created by them in order to explain the bond formation and the stability of chemical structures. Moreover, students thought that there are the needs of atoms, so reactions occurred. Also, students believed that octet structures were judged to mechanically have inherent stability. They thought this situation even in extreme cases like a hypothetical Na 7- ion (Taber, 2002a). Because of these reasons, conceptual integration seemed to be a potentially productive focus for this research. The purpose of the present study is to understand whether the pre-service chemistry teachers achieve the conceptual integration across the some chemistry topics and between physics, chemistry, and biology concepts during a semester.

Research Questions 12-

How much integration is there between pre-service chemistry teachers’ chemistry concepts? How much integration are there between pre-service chemistry teachers’ physics, chemistry, and biology concepts?

Methods In this section, sample, instruments, interview questions, and data analysis parts are explained.

Sample Semi structured interviews were administered to a sample of six pre-service chemistry teachers (4 females and 2 males) enrolled in the course of Basic Chemistry Laboratory at a university in Ankara. All the participants volunteered to be interviewed. These students were selected according to their academic achievement (2 lower achiever students, 2 middle achiever students, and 2 higher achiever students). These students theoretically took basic chemistry, basic biology, and basic physics while they studied this laboratory session. These are students where we might expect significant evidence of conceptual integration, and who should manage the challenge of an interview of around an hour’s duration.

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Instrument Targeting research on conceptual integration requires more detailed investigations with individual learners (Taber, 2008). Therefore the semi-structured interviews were carried out both at the beginning of the semester and at the end of the semester to see in depth the levels of integration of students. Also, it was aimed to understand whether the pre-service chemistry teachers achieve the conceptual integration. The interviews took place in a comfortable private location. Each interview was tape-recorded with the students’ knowledge and permission. The interviews began with the explanation of purpose and collection of some personal data and they were all transcribed for further analysis. It was envisaged that the interview process should be completed within a one-hour time frame.

Interview Questions In order to form interview questions, literature review was made and integrating and unifying concepts and subjects was determined by researchers. Finally, these questions were examined by some science educators. Interview questions were related to the particles, the chemical change, the effect of pressure and temperature on solubility of gases, the atomic models, the strength of the acids, and the chemical equilibrium. Same interview questions were asked to six participants both at the beginning of the semester and at the end of the semester. All the questions are given below: 1-

2345-

6-

Could you draw the figure of NaCl solution by means of considering particles? a. Why does the water solve the salt? And How? b. If there is no conceptual integration, what do you think about the intermolecular attractions, polarity, and attraction / repulsion forces? Are the chemical changes reversible? Why? a. If there is no conceptual integration, what do you think about the chemical equilibrium? It is better for fishes to live in cold water than hot water. Can you explain why? a. If there is no conceptual integration, what do you think about how does temperature affect on solubility of gases? What is the bends? What is the reason of the bends? a. If there is no conceptual integration, what do you think about how does pressure affect on the solubility of gases? Do you know anything about models? a. If there is no conceptual integration, have you ever heard of models in the physics, chemistry, and biology? b. What do you think about the atomic models? What is the pH? Or what is the meaning of pH? a. Does pH only have a mathematical meaning? (Does pH only equal –log[H+]?) b. If the concentration of hydrogen is low, how can we say about the value of pH? c. If the value of pH is big, what do you think about the strength of acid?

Data Analysis All transcriptions were read by researchers and it was tried to understand whether the students can integrate between concepts and science courses. There were two categories which were the integration and no integration as a coding system in this study. All students’ answers were examined according to these categories at the first and second interview. Sometimes students were examined as cases, but this was not the aim of study.

Results Analysis of data showed that participants had some difficulties when they integrate their chemistry concepts both to the other chemistry topics and to the physics and biology concepts. They tried to link among the concepts that were “the life of fishes and solubility”, “the bends and the solubility”, “the chemical equilibrium and the

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chemical change”, the chemical bonding and dissolution”, “the strength of acids and mathematics”, “atomic models and physics and biology”, “particles and physics” across the interviews. Some integrations are detailed in the below. Draw the figure of NaCl solution by means of considering particles. The data analysis revealed that most pre-service chemistry teachers could not integrate their chemistry knowledge regarding the solubility of salt to the bonding and intermolecular forces concepts. Even though the participants could give mostly correct responses to the probe questions which look for the theory of the concepts at the second interview, the pre-service chemistry teachers could not link their chemistry knowledge to the bonding concepts, on the whole. Two participants could be able to relate between the solubility of salt in the water and the concept of polarity at the first interview. Therefore, the others could not make any integration between concepts and they only drew on their papers. The following figure is drawn at the first interview by one of the students. It is referred to chemical phenomena at three different levels of representation at chemistry –macroscopic, symbolic and submicroscopic (Treagust, Chittleborough, and Mamiala, 2003). In this drawing, student only made a drawing at the symbolic level, but he did not mention about the surrounding Na+ and Cl- ions from water molecules and did not think about the polarity and intermolecular forces between H2O molecules and ions.

Figure 1. Figure of NaCl solution which is drawn at first interview one of the students When the probe questions were asked to participants, one pre-service chemistry teacher mentioned about the conductivity of electricity while she was explaining ionic solution at the first interview. She also stated that the concept of the conductivity of electricity had been taught in the physics sessions. However, this participant could not give any information about the electricity or conductivity in their physics sessions. She also could not do any explanation regarding how the NaCl dissolves in the water by using her knowledge about electricity and conductivity. At the second interview, five of the participants could integrate the relationship between these phenomena. However, these five participants could be able to make a contact between these concepts after the probe questions were asked. At the second interview, same participant talked about conductivity of electricity. However, she developed her ideas at this time. She thought that NaCl solution conducted the electricity since the salt had got the positive and negative ions and these ions looked like the key – lock as in the biology. She also stated that NaCl solution conducts the electricity, but sugar solution does not conduct it because sugar does not have any ions. She also stated that polar substances can be solved in the polar solvent. In addition to this, she said that salt and water is a polar substance. Therefore, she thought that water has partial charges and salt has positive and negative ions. In conclusion, she made integration between the subject of solubility and the subject of intermolecular attractions, polarity, and attraction / repulsion forces. Moreover, other student mentioned about the London forces, ion – dipole interaction, and hydrogen bonding, while he explained his view. The following table shows that the extent to which pre-service chemistry teachers achieves conceptual integration at this question.

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Table 1: Conceptual integration at first question (Numbers in the table stand for the number of students) Dissolution of the salt in the water No integration

Integration

1st interview

2nd interview

1st interview

2nd interview

Conductivity of electric

5

5

1

1

Electronegativity

6

4

-

2

Polarity

5

3

1

3

Two students could make integration between the NaCl solution and the concept of electronegativity at the second interview. These students stated that oxygen in the water molecule has bigger than hydrogen with respect to electronegativity and because of this difference of electronegativity, polarity forms in the molecule. Therefore, when they did drawing regarding the solution of salt, they did not only drawing, but also they made an explanation how to solve the salt in the water by integrating the concepts of bonding. However, they had some misconceptions which are seen literature about the solutions and bonding during the integration (Coll & Treagust, 2003, Uzuntiryaki & Geban, 2005). Are the chemical changes reversible? Why? For this question, all participants could not do the conceptual integration to the chemical equilibrium at first interview. Likewise, five pre-service chemistry teachers did not do any comment about the relationship reversibility and chemical equilibrium and only one student made an explanation about these phenomena at the second interview. It is given the manuscript regarding the explanation of this student below. Researcher (R): I think that chemical changes are irreversible. Am I right? Participant (P): No, there was equilibrium event. There was two-way arrow at the equilibrium. Forward and backward reactions are shown with these arrows. So, chemical changes are reversible, I think. Researcher (R): Are all chemical events reversible? Participant (P): I think, there are situations which are reversible such as chemical equilibrium. Do you know anything about models? At the first interview, one participant said that she knew the models in the biology course and she reminded the human body models in biology. She did not know anything regarding the models in the chemistry. However, when the question 3b was asked to her, she reminded some knowledge regarding the atomic models. Another student mentioned that she had seen circuit models from the internet and had learned these models in the physics session. She who also was not asked the probe question thought about the atomic models. Another pre-service chemistry teacher said that he knew the particulate and waved nature of matter and learned this information at the physics session. When he was asked to draw the atom model which is true according to him, he drew the following model and stated that he learned it at the chemistry and physics session.

Figure 2. Atomic model which is drawn by participant at the first interview.

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All participants did not mention about how the relationship there is between the reality and models at first interview. They asserted that they only learned theoretical knowledge about models at the science sessions and they said that they thought the models as real in their life. At the second interview, they integrated between the models in the science lessons and understood the relationship between the reality and models. They stated that models about science were learned at the physics, chemistry, and biology sessions and they thought that meaning of the model is the same all science lessons. What is the pH? Or what is the meaning of pH? When they were asked the meaning of pH, they only explained it mathematically. They integrated mathematical knowledge to the chemistry knowledge, but at this time they could not do any comment about pH as chemical respect. They only defined that pH equals the logarithm of concentration of hydrogen (pH = -log [H+]). When they were asked the meaning of this definition, they did not exactly explain this definition. Therefore they did not successfully integrate the mathematical meaning of pH and the chemical meaning of pH at the first and second interview. When they were asked the probe questions, they tried to explain their knowledge about pH. For instance, one participant stated that if the concentration of hydrogen is high, then pH is low. Likewise, they truly explained regarding the strength of acids. Therefore, they tried to integrate the concepts such as inverse ratio, direct ratio, pH, the strength of acids, the concentration of hydrogen.

Conclusions and Implications This study states that pre-service chemistry teachers have some difficulties in integrating both some chemistry concepts and physics, chemistry, and biology concepts. These difficulties has also been detected in the literature (Ganaras, Dumon, & Larcher 2008; Taber, 2008). For instance, when they encountered the chemical reaction, they thought that the chemical reactions are one way. When they learn the chemical equilibrium at their chemistry sessions, then they comment about two way reactions. However, for instance, when they learn acid-base reactions such as neutralisation, they do not think about chemical equilibrium. Therefore, they limit their chemistry concepts with one subject and do not try to integrate between other chemistry concepts (Ganaras, Dumon, & Larcher 2008). Likewise, they do not try to integrate among chemistry, physics, and biology concepts (Taber, 2008). Pre-service teachers should develop self regulative abilities to learn and teach chemistry concepts. They should not see themselves as a student while they learn chemistry concepts. They should understand that they will teach chemistry their students in the future and they must be careful when they learn a new thing regarding chemistry. Teaching staffs, assistant professors, or professors in the university should think about the pre-service teacher’s prior knowledge. They should help pre-service teachers who have learning difficulties related to chemistry concepts. Nature of science, history of science should be emphasized while some science topics such as atomic models, acids and bases, and electricity are taught in the classroom. In order to achieve conceptual integration on the students another studies should be done like that the effectiveness of instruction.

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References Boo, H. K. (1998) Students’ understandings of chemical bonds and the energetics of chemical reactions. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 35, 569–581. Cakmakcı, G.; Leach, J. (2005) Turkish secondary and undergraduate students’ understanding of the effect of temperature on reaction rates. Paper presented at the European Science Education Research Association (ESERA) Conference, Barcelona, Spain Coll, R. K., & Treagust, D., F. (2003). Investigation of Secondary School, Undergraduate, and Graduate Learners’ Mental Models of Ionic Bonding Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 40(5), 464–486. Ganaras, K., Dumon, A., & Larcher, C. (2008). Conceptual integration of chemical equilibrium by prospective physical sciences teachers. Chemistry Education Research and Practice, 9, 240-249. Hackling, M. W. & Garnett, P. J. (1985). Misconceptions of chemical equilibrium, European Journal of Science Education, 7, 205–214. Haidar, A.H., & Abraham, M.R. (1991). A comparison of applied and theoretical knowledge of concepts based on the particulate nature of matter. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 28(10), 919-938. Harrison, A.G. & Treagust, D.F. (1996). Secondary students’ mental models of atoms and molecules: Implications for teaching chemistry. Science Education, 80 (5), 509-534. Limon, M. (2001). On the cognitive conflict as an instructional strategy for conceptual change: a critical appraisal. Learning and instruction, 11, 357-380. Taber, K. S. (1998b). The sharing-out of nuclear attraction: or I can’t think about Physics in Chemistry, International Journal of Science Education, 20 (8), pp.1001-1014. Taber, K. S. (2002a). Chemical misconceptions—Prevention, diagnosis and cure: Volume 1: theoretical background. London: Royal Society of Chemistry. Taber, K. S. (2003b). Understanding ionisation energy: physical, chemical and alternative conceptions, Chemistry Education: Research and Practice, 4 (2), pp.149-169. Taber K.S, (2005). Conceptual integration and science learners - do we expect too much? Invited seminar paper presented at the Centre for Studies in Science and Mathematics Education, University of Leeds, February 2005 Taber, K. S. (2008). Exploring conceptual integration in student thinking: Evidence from a case study. International Journal of Science Education, 1 – 29. Treagust, D.F., Chittleborough, G. & Mamiala, T. L. (2003). The role of submicroscopic and symbolic representations in chemical explanations. International Journal of Science Education, 25(11), 1353-1368. Uzuntiryaki, E., & Geban, O. (2005). Effect of conceptual change approach accompanied with concept mapping on understanding of solution concepts. Instructional Science, 33, 311–339.

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PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS’ BELIEFS ABOUT THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN BASIC CHEMISTRY CONCEPTS, THE “REAL WORLD,” AND THEIR OCCUPATION Gregory Durland, Faik O. Karatas & George M. Bodner Purdue University

Abstract In modern societies citizens are frequently presented with numerous issues that require them to have a basic understanding of science in order to make informed decisions. However, students often fail to connect the science concepts learned in class with real world issues. To facilitate an increase in science literacy, science education must be reformed beginning in elementary grades (K-8). Therefore, elementary teachers must provide the experiences and connections necessary for students to develop a proper understanding of, attitude toward, and intelligent beliefs about science. However, many elementary teachers find science disconnected from everyday life and thinking. Thus, if elementary education students do not believe that chemistry is related to everyday life, including their occupation, they may not feel it is important to learn and understand, therefore committing a negative attitude towards it. This study addresses the different ways students majoring in elementary education perceive the concepts presented in a chemistry course designed for them. Preliminary results suggest that pre-service elementary teachers felt that chemistry is only somewhat related or applicable to the real world and felt that most people (including some of the participants) do not need to understand basic chemistry and can get through life without it.

Introduction Citizens of the United States are frequently presented with numerous issues that require them to have a basic understanding of science in order to make informed decisions (American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1993). Some examples of these issues are: global warming, stem cell research and alternative energy sources. However, students often fail to connect the science concepts learned in class with real world issues (Nakhleh et al., 1995). To facilitate an increase in science literacy, science education must be reformed beginning in elementary grades (K-8). Therefore, elementary teachers must provide the experiences and connections necessary for students to develop a proper understanding of, attitude toward, and intelligent beliefs about science (Stein, Larrabee, Barman, 2008). However, both pre-service and in-service elementary teachers have been shown to be uncomfortable teaching science. In 1978, it was noted that elementary teachers spent an average of ninety minutes teaching reading versus seventeen minutes for science (Weiss, 1978). Later years were consistent; less time was spent teaching science than any other major subject area (Stefanich & Kelsey, 1989). Weiss (1994) reports that less than one-third of elementary teachers believe they are qualified to teach science and they doubt their ability to teach it effectively (Stevens & Wenner, 1996; Yilmaz-Tuzun, 2008). Watters and Ginns (2000) feel that these beliefs and attitudes develop as a result of the elementary teachers’ own science related experiences in primary and secondary schools. Cobern & Loving (2002) believe that this relationship exists because many elementary teachers find science disconnected from everyday life and thinking. And go on to say, “elementary teachers who feel this disconnection with science would at best approach science teaching as something one does if school authorities demanded it (p. 1017).”

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Rationale Thus, if elementary education students do not believe that chemistry is related to everyday life, including their occupation, they may not feel it is important to learn and understand, therefore committing a negative attitude towards it (Hostettler, 1983; Kumar et al., 2005). When they do become teachers, this lack of understanding could lead to feelings of insecurity and frustration, and a need to rely heavily on outside help when teaching science (Crosby G. A., 1997). This explains why science will continue to be “a little added frill” (Schoeneberger and Russell, 1986, p. 519) in elementary classrooms. Morrisey (1981) supports this notion by stating that the degree in which elementary teachers will teach science is influenced by their knowledge of science as well as their feelings or attitudes towards those cognitions. Tobin, Tippins, and Gallard (1994) also believe that elementary teachers’ beliefs play a critical role in restructuring science education and “future research should seek to enhance our understanding of the relationship between teacher beliefs and science reform” (p.64). They continue by saying: “Teacher beliefs are a critical ingredient in the factors that determine what happens in classrooms” (p. 64). Therefore, both the quality and quantity of science that will be taught in elementary schools will rely on the elementary teachers’ attitudes and beliefs towards science and science teaching (Wallace & Louden, 1992). This study addresses the different ways students majoring in elementary education perceive the concepts presented in a chemistry course designed for them. The research gained in this study provides insight into: 1. Students’ beliefs about the connection between the “real-world” and basic chemistry concepts. 2. Students’ beliefs about the connection between their future occupation as elementary teachers and basic chemistry concepts.

Methods A mixed methods approach was used to explore pre-service elementary teachers’ beliefs about the relationship between basic chemistry concepts, the “real world”, and their occupation. A questionnaire was used to investigate pre-service teachers’ beliefs about the concepts associated with the respective topic previously covered in lecture (properties of matter, solution chemistry, acid-base chemistry). To further understand questionnaire responses, one-on-one interviews were conducted with each participant. These interviews were designed to elicit student discussions about their responses. Interview responses were the focus of this study; however, Likert scale data will be mentioned to serve as a guide.

Participants The participants in this study were pre-service elementary education students enrolled in Chemistry 200 at Purdue University during the fall (pilot study) of 2007 (N=3), spring of 2008 (N=11) and fall of 2008 (N=24). The specific course under study was CHM 200, “Fundamentals of Chemistry.” This two-credit, introductory chemistry course is required by the elementary education program in the College of Education, at Purdue University. Typical class size is approximately ninety students consisting of mostly female (87% in fall semester of 2006) sophomores and junior level students. Lecture occurs once per week for fifty minutes and the course runs for sixteen weeks total. The larger lecture class is then broken down into four separate sections of no more than twenty-four students for the laboratory component of the course. Each laboratory classroom is overseen by one teaching assistant. The only variation in CHM 200 instruction is in the laboratory teaching assistant, but teaching assistants do not have the authorization to vary the laboratories. They may, however, have different teaching styles and abilities, therefore the teaching assistants will be considered a possible confounding variable in this study. Laboratory also meets once per week for two hours and fifty minutes per session.

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Questionnaires Questionnaires were administered in order to probe participants for their beliefs about the concepts associated with the respective topic previously covered in lecture (properties of matter, solution chemistry, acid-base chemistry). The questionnaire asked participants to rate how relevant or applicable the concepts associated with that topic were to both the “real world” and to their occupation as future elementary teachers. Participants were then asked in what ways these concepts are relevant or applicable to both the “real world” and to their occupation as future elementary teachers.

Interviews Semi-structured interviews were developed in order to probe for more details and greater understanding that the questionnaires were unable to achieve. During the interviews, both the researcher and participant had access to the participant’s previously answered questionnaire, so as to easily discuss why the participants rated the relevancy of the chemistry topic to both “the real world” and to their occupation as future elementary teachers the way they did. Other pertinent questions relating to amount of time spent teaching chemistry and other sciences were also asked during the interview. The interviews, which typical lasted 20-30 minutes, were audiotaped and then transcribed for analysis.

Qualitative Analysis Inductive analysis was employed in order to evaluate the different ways students believed these concepts were associated with the “real world” and to their occupations as future elementary teachers.

Results Findings from pre-service elementary teachers’ responses to four-point Likert scale and associated interviews regarding their responses to the Likert scale items are presented in this section. As seen in Table 1, participants rated the relevancy of basic chemistry concepts as 2.7 out of 4. On the other hand, the relevancy or applicability of the basic chemistry concepts to elementary teaching was rated as 3.1. This indicates that pre-service teachers did not strongly believe that chemistry is connected to the “real world,” but they believed that chemistry is to some extent worth teaching. Table 1. Participants’ beliefs about the connection between basic chemistry concepts, the “real world” and teaching Chemistry “real world” Mean (sd)

Chemistry teaching

2.7(0.7)

3.1(0.7)

The following are the results from the interviews. Participants felt that they experience chemistry everyday, but believe that they are not relevant or can get by without them. “Even though people deal with these concepts every day, I believe you can get by without them” “To me, I don’t think they are very relevant, but I know that I do experience them in everyday life” “It’s not essential to know why it’s happening (referring to the green coloring of the statue of liberty)”

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Students’ responses were also found to be more pragmatic and not appreciative of scientific literacy. “Solution chemistry is necessary to understand but I wouldn’t say it’s absolutely vital that we know it for everyday life” “Umm… mainly because I think the average person really doesn’t need to know the basics of chemistry. They can get by in life.” Participants were able to relate chemistry concepts in their lives mostly through food or cooking, household chemicals and sometimes natural (ocean, acid rain) or artificial (pharmaceuticals) phenomena. “I don’t know if this sounds dumb, but just like cooking. Just like sugar and water. Just like stuff that you mix together in recipes and the order in which you do it.” Science in general and chemistry in particular are not the primary teaching topics for these pre-service teachers. However, they are planning to teach science because of “standards” and also because students are more likely to ask questions about science and chemistry phenomena that they encounter in everyday life. “I’m not really going to be able to get away from it (referring to standards)” “I think teachers need to like know everything that they possible can because students are always asking just random questions and I think it’s important that you can answer them…” “Only relevant to the fact that I’ll have to teach it. Well if it’s in the curriculum I can’t really say no. But, I have to teach it if they tell me to teach it.” When asked how the participant will teach it if it is not in the curriculum, the participant replied with: “If I don’t have to teach it and I don’t have time for it; I guess it wouldn’t be the first thing I’d throw in there if I did have time.” The results indicate that when instructors and curriculum designers are designing pre-service elementary science courses, they should focus more of their time and attention on connecting the important concepts to “the real world.” More than one connection will most likely be needed as well as in class demonstrations and laboratories that illustrate where these concepts show up in our everyday lives. The importance of chemistry also needs to be reinforced and pre-service teachers need to be guided towards a greater appreciation and better understanding of chemistry. In this way, chemistry and science in general can be much more than just “a little added frill” (Schoeneberger and Russell, 1986, p. 519) in elementary classrooms.

Conclusions and Implications Preliminary results suggest that pre-service elementary teachers felt that chemistry is only somewhat related or applicable to the real world and felt that most people (including some of the participants) do not need to understand basic chemistry and can get through life without it. Participants did believe that chemistry concepts were more relevant to their future occupation, but most would only teach chemistry concepts in their classes because of state standards. They also felt that chemistry or science in general would not receive the same time allotments as other more important subjects such as reading, writing and arithmetic.

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The results of this study will be valuable to future instructors of the course and may also potentially assist other universities with similar courses or even universities that would like to implement a course of this nature. These findings will allow instructors to reevaluate the course content and the manner in which it is taught. Alternate teaching strategies may be required along with additional time spent on problem areas where students are lacking the necessary connections between concepts, their occupation as teachers and the “real-world”. The knowledge gained in this study will also add to the science education literature on pre-service elementary teachers’ beliefs about basic chemistry concepts.

References American Association for the Advancement of Science. (1993). Benchmarks for Science Literacy: Project 2061. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Cobern, W. W., & Loving, C. C. (2002). Investigation of preservice elementary teachers’ thinking about science. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 39(10), 1016-1031. Crosby G. A. (1997). The necessary role of scientists in the education of elementary teachers. Journal of Chemical Education, 74(3), 271-272. Hostettler, J. D. (1983). Introduction to the “real world” examples symposium. Journal of Chemical Education, 60(12), 1031-1032. Kumar, D. D. & Morris, J. D. (2005). Predicting scientific understanding of prospective elementary teachers: Role of gender, education level, courses in science, and attitudes toward science and mathematics. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 14(4), 387-391. Morrisey, J. T. (1981). An analysis of studies on changing the attitude of elementary student teachers toward science and science teaching. Science Education, 65, 157-177. Nakhleh, M. B., Bunce, D. M. & Schwartz, A. T. (1995). Chemistry in Context: Student Opinions of a New Curriculum. Journal of College Science Teaching,, 25(3), 174-180. Schoeneberger, M., & Russell, T. (1986). Elementary science as a little added frill: A report of two case studies. Science Education, 70, 519–538. Stefanich, G. P., & Kelsey, K. W. (1989). Improving science attitudes of preservice elementary teachers. Science Education, 73, 187-194. Stein, M., Larrabee, T. G., & Barman, C. R. (2008). A study of common beliefs and misconceptions in physical science. Journal of Elementary Science Education, 20(2), 1-11. Stevens, C., & Wenner, G. (1996). Elementary preservice teachers’ knowledge and beliefs regarding science and mathematics. School Science and Mathematics, 96(1), 2-9. Wallace, John. Louden, William. Science Teaching and Teachers' Knowledge: Prospects for Reform of Elementary Classrooms. [Journal Articles. Reports - Research] Science Education. v76 n5 p507-21 Sep 1992. Watters, J. J., & Ginns, I. S. (2000). Developing motivation to teach elementary science: Effect of collaborative and authentic learning practices in preservice education. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 11, 301-321. Weiss, I. R. (1978). Report of the 1977 National Survey of Science, Mathematics and Social Studies Education. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. Weiss, I. R. (1994). A profile of science and mathematics education in the United States: 1993. A report for the national Science Foundation], Chapel Hill, NC: Horizon Research Inc. Yimaz-Tuzun, O. (2008). Preservice elementary teachers’ beliefs about science teaching. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 19, 183-204.

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CONCEPTUAL UNDERSTANDING OF FIFTH GRADE PRIMARY AND PRE-SERVICE PRIMARY STUDENTS ABOUT IMAGE AND IMAGE FORMATION IN PLAIN MIRRORS

Aysel Kocakülah Balıkesir Üniversitesi

Abstract This study aims to reveal pre-service primary teachers’ and their target age group of fifth grade primary school students’ ideas about image and image formation in plain mirrors and to explore shifts in such ideas throughout teaching of the topic. The sample of the study was formed by randomly selected 203 fifth grade students of three primary schools and 148 sophomore pre-service primary teachers in Balıkesir. A conceptual understanding test, which consisted of open-ended questions, was administered before and after teaching during the data collection process. Furthermore, semi-structured interviews were conducted with four fifth grade students and six pre-service primary teachers after teaching. The results of the study showed that both student groups exhibited similar misconceptions in differentiating the real and virtual images on the ray diagrams drawn. The analysis results of the interviews showed that students struggled to draw the image of the object which was placed in front of the plane mirror and proposed interesting ideas about differentiating real and imaginary object. Moreover, it was found out that students confused the image formation with shadow formation or illumination phenomena. Finally, implications concerning teaching of the topic were drawn in the light of the results of this study.

Introduction People can perceive the objects easily and quickly by seeing of which cannot be perceived by touching and tasting. Accordingly, it is inevitable that students come to the class with some experience and background knowledge as the phenomena of seeing and light are strongly related to everyday life. This fact has impelled the science educators to reveal the children’s alternative ideas concerning geometric optic. When studies about children’s conceptual understanding in the area of physics are reviewed, researchers have mostly focused on the topics of mechanics and electrics whereas the topics of heat and optics have paid little attention (Pfundt & Duit, 2005). Moreover, the studies based on the topic of optics are especially related to the concepts of light and vision and few studies have been conducted about image formation. These studies on image formation also consider older children (Goldberg & McDermott, 1987; Galili, 1996; Colin & Viennot, 2001; Tao, 2004; Andersson & Bach, 2005; Hubber, 2005) and teachers or pre-service teachers (Feher & Rice, 1987; Palacios, Cazorla & Cervantes, 1989; Lawrance & Pallrand; 2000). The sample of this study consists of 12 year-old-primary school students and pre-service primary teachers who are chosen voluntarily and in the light of the purpose of the study. This study has two main aims. The first aim is to reveal the ideas of primary students and pre-service primary teachers about image formation in plain mirror. Secondly, it has been aimed to examine changes in the ideas of primary students and pre-service primary teachers before and after traditional teaching about image formation.

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Rationale Studies about the conceptual understanding of students show that most of misconceptions emerge as a result of individuals’ interaction with their surroundings in effort to understand and to interpret the events occurring around themselves (Driver & Easley, 1978). It is therefore important to reveal the form of ideas of the children who come to each class with different experiences and conceptual frameworks before teaching in order to be able to arrange relevant teaching strategies in restructuring non-scientific ideas of the children. In addition, studies in the literature outline the fact that some misconceptions arise from the language used by teachers or textbooks during teaching of topics containing abstract concepts (Wandersee, Mintzes, & Novak, 1994). Hence, it is also important to reveal the conceptual understandings of pre or in-service teachers and their target group students who will be taught by them. In this sense, the forms of pre-service teachers’ and their target group students’ ideas relating to image formation were tried to be outlined and compared with each other in this study.

Methods 203 fifth grade students in three primary schools, which were randomly chosen within the primary schools in the city of Balıkesir, and 148 sophomore students, who were training to be teachers at primary teacher education department in the education faculty of Balıkesir University, participated in this study in the academic term of 20032004. Conceptual understanding tests and semi-structured interviews were used to collect data. The conceptual understanding tests, which involved six open-ended questions covering the conceptual areas of image and image formation in plain and spherical mirrors and image formation by lenses, was developed to be administered to the primary school and sophomore students. The questions in conceptual understanding tests were identified in accordance with two basic criteria. The first one relates to the fact that questions correspond to the instructional curriculum applied to students and the second is whether the selected questions are suitable for the students’ level. Furthermore, question selection was also indirectly influenced and guided by the misconceptions revealed by relevant studies in the literature. The questions prepared by the researcher were administered as a first trial (pilot) study to a group of 45 prospective teachers and also to 38 primary students with the same characteristics as the sample groups. Following a few corrections on the questions, the students were interviewed about their clarity, preciseness, and understandability and the questions were revised and reorganized in accordance with the students’ suggestions. The questions were finalized by taking field experts’ opinions. The conceptual understanding test was applied before and after the traditional teaching of the topic. Furthermore, semi-structured interviews were carried out with four fifth grade primary students and six sophomore primary teacher students to further probe their conceptual understandings. Data obtained from two conceptual understanding test questions, which were used both in the pre and post tests, and semi-structured interviews about the concepts of image and image formation in plain mirrors will be presented in the results. It has been reported that it is not appropriate to allocate the students’ response to predetermined response categories during coding due to the open-ended nature of the conceptual understanding test questions. Consequently, the response categories identified during the analysis of data were composed of students’ explanations given in response to the conceptual understanding test questions. Analysis of the test questions was performed by following two approaches. First, correct response to each question was determined (nomothetic) and secondly specific response categories to explanations given to the questions were allocated under suitable theme headings (idiographic) (Kocakülah, 1999).

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Results Analysis results of responses given to the two questions related to the concepts of image and image formation in plane mirror by fifth grade primary students and pre-service primary teacher students show that the responses, which cannot be accepted scientifically, have a high percentage before teaching. In addition, primary school students reasoned more intuitive answers compared to pre-service students. Although the analysis of post test questions indicates that there is a certain increase in the percentage of scientifically acceptable responses of students in both groups, the increase in the percentage of fifth grade students’ responses in which image formation is confused with shadow formation or lighting, after teaching signals that these concepts are not clearly distinguished from each other during the formal teaching period and such a strategy causes confusion of the concepts. It has also been discovered that a group of both the primary grade five and pre-service students confuse these concepts in the post test. Moreover, semi-structured interviews conducted after teaching reveal that both sample group’s ideas contain many similar lines of arguments which cannot be accepted scientifically. Below are the sample interview transcripts reflecting ideas of a fifth grade primary school student and a pre-service primary teacher student about the properties of an image formed in a plane mirror.

Interviewer: What are the properties of the image? Student 2: The image is reflected as it is; it is upright. Interviewer: Is the image virtual or real? Student 2: I think it is real. Interviewer: Why is it real? Student 2: Because we can see it as it is. Interviewer: How would it look life it were virtual? Interviewer: Then, it would look inverted. Interviewer: How, can you explain? Student 2: If it is inverted, it is virtual, but if we see it as it is; i.e. upright, then it is the real image. In this interview, Student 2 stated that the image formed on a plane mirror is a real image and that a virtual image would look inverted and different from the object.

Interviewer: What are the properties of the image? Student 8: The image has the same length as the object and its right part represents the left and its left part represents the right. Interviewer: Is the image virtual or real? Student 8: It is real on a plane mirror. Interviewer: How can we differentiate a real image and a virtual image? Student 8: It is real if we see it as upright and it is virtual if we see it inverted. Since it is upright here, then it is real. Student 8, one of the students of pre-service primary teacher students, has the same ideas about the image forming on a plane mirror as those of the fifth grade primary student. Both students maintain that the image is real and virtual images will always be inverted. The following two quotations represent a similar case pointing out the common views held by fifth grade primary students and pre-service primary teacher students.

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Figure 3a. Representation of the formation of an image in a plain mirror by Student 3.

Figure 3b. Representation of the formation of an image in a plain mirror by Student 7

Figure 3a presents a diagram drawn by a fifth grade primary student to explain image formation in a plane mirror. The student imagined the mirror just like a lens and expressed that rays are collected somewhere behind the mirror, as revealed by the following quotation. The student also stated that the forming image was on the mirror

Student 3: I will draw a mirror and an object. The rays will be collected at a point behind the mirror. Interviewer: Where does the image form? Student 3: On the mirror. Interviewer: What kind of properties does this image have? Student 3: It is upright, virtual. Interviewer: Why is it virtual? Student 3: It must be inverted in a real image, but I do not remember exactly. The diagram drawn by Student 7 in 3b is in fact similar to that drawn by Student 3. The only difference is that Student 7 stated that refraction occurs in the plane mirror, as seen in the quotation below, which clearly shows that the student confused lenses with plane mirrors. Interviewer: How does this image you see form in a plane mirror? Can you show it by drawing a ray diagram?

Student 7: (He draws a diagram) A ray passes through the mirror... Interviewer: Why did you draw this ray in a curved manner? Student 7: It passes by being refracted and an image forms where the rays intersect. Interviewer: Does refraction occur? Student 7: Yes. Interviewer: What are the properties of this formed image? Student 7: It is upright, symmetrical, and real. Interviewer: Why? Student 7: Because it is as it is. The image does not change; it is only rotated from right to left. Student 7 stated that rays pass through the plane mirror by being refracted. Student 7 does not recognize that reflection occurs in a plane mirror. Moreover, he believes like Student 2 and Student 8 that the image formed is real, an idea which he explained by saying that the image is formed in the same way as the object. Yet, what he later said about the virtual image is highly interesting and deserves attention.

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Interviewer: If it were virtual, would it look different then?


Student 7: It would in dots. Interviewer: What do you mean by in dots? Student 7: I mean it would not be seen clearly. Interviewer: Why is it real? Student 7: Since the object is seen exactly as it is, the image formed is real. About the virtual image, Student 7 believes that the image formed will appear in dots. In order to explain this situation, it is believed that the meanings of the terms “virtual” and “real” should be focused on. Given the lexical meaning and the place of the word “virtual” in colloquial language, it is observed that the word is used for cases “that are not real, imaginary, hypothetical and predictive.” In daily language, its uses in virtual card and virtual environment are also common. This gives to students the impression that virtual things are in fact entities of objects that cannot be seen or seen in as different from what they are. Therefore, they state that the image is real since no difference is observed in the image formed in a plane mirror. This is a phenomenon confused by most students. Furthermore, another interesting point in Student 7’s explanation is his statement that the virtual image will be formed in dots. Since the parts behind the mirror in particular are drawn in geometrical optics in dotted lines, the student imagines that a similar image will be formed in reality. This result demonstrates that the instruction did not sufficiently underline the reason why such a representation was used. The findings obtained both from the analysis of survey data and the interviews reveal a parallelism between the way the fifth grade primary students and prospective primary teachers think, even though there is a large age difference between these two groups. Students’ drawings concerning image formation in a plane mirror and the similar structures they used to explain virtual and real images are quite interesting and thought-provoking. For such ideas held after the instruction demonstrate that traditional instruction is actually not a very effective method to improve conceptual understanding. Furthermore, if one does not correct these similar misconceptions that are common among the prospective teachers and the age group that they will teach once they graduate, they might possibly transfer such misconceptions to many students throughout their professional lives, which make the correction of such misconceptions much more important.

Conclusions and Implications The results gained from this study indicate that pre-service teachers in primary teacher education department and their target group, who were fifth grade students, have a large number of common misconceptions about image formation. They displayed similar misconceptions related to image formation on the ray diagrams, especially drawn to explain the difference between the virtual and real images. In addition, both student groups confused spherical mirrors with the plain mirrors in terms of the behaviour of the light rays and the image formed in the plain mirrors with the image formed by convex lenses in common. They mainly stated some common misunderstandings such as ‘a real image appears only if it can be seen, as can be an object’, ‘an image is real if it is formed upwards and an image is virtual if it is formed downwards’ and ‘a virtual image is the image that cannot be seen clearly’. As image formation is the result of such ray events as reflection and refraction, it should be well debated in which conditions these events occur and should be verified by related experiments. The results of this study suggest that the students have severe difficulty drawing the images of related objects for a given optical system. Therefore, teachers should warn the students that drawings made do not mean copying the picture of experimental set up into a paper. In this respect, teachers should put every effort to be better grasped the concept of ‘light-ray’ by students. The students use the concept of virtual image as ‘the situations appear different than they are’. The word ‘virtual’ is often used as ‘not existing in reality’ or ‘not being like its reality’ also in everyday life. Therefore, the students consider that a virtual image cannot be seen. It is suggested that the term ‘only-visible’ can be used instead of

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‘virtual’ during teaching which may eliminate this kind of concept confusions. The research results show that preservice primary teachers encounter learning difficulties on the conceptual area of image formation. So as to minimize students’ learning difficulties and remedy those misconceptions reported, lecturers in the faculties of education should review their teaching methods they use. The fact that these pre-service students will become primary school teachers teaching the concepts of image and image formation sooner or later should not be ignored. If pre-service teachers are graduated with awareness of the misconceptions that their target students may have, this may lead them to evaluate their teaching strategies and alert them to develop a better teaching approach which will be more beneficial to promote their students’ understanding of image and image formation. Therefore, there is a need for setting new university taught courses related to students’ conceptual understandings in teacher training programmes and graduating the students who are well equipped with contemporary teaching strategies and methods to be used for remedying the misconceptions reported.

References Andersson, B., & Bach, F. (2005). On designing and evaluating teaching sequences taking geometrical optics as an example. Science Education, 89(2), 196-218. Colin, P., & Viennot, L. (2001). Using two models in optics: Students’ difficulties and suggestions for teaching, American Journal of Physics, 69(7), 36-44. Driver, R., & Easley, J. A. (1978). Pupils and paradigms: A review of literature related to concept development in adolescent science students. Studies in Science Education, 5, 61-84, Feher, E., & Rice, K. (1987). A comparison of teacher-student conceptions in optics. In J. D. Novak (Ed). Proceedings of the Second International Seminar on Misconceptions and Educational Strategies in Science and Mathematics (Vol. II, pp.108-117). Ithaca, NY: Deparment of Education, Cornell University. Galili, I. (1996). Students’ conceptual change in geometrical optics. International Journal of Science Education, 18(7), 847868. Goldberg, F. M., & McDermott, L. C. (1987). An investigation of student understanding of the real image formed by a converging lens or concave mirror. American Journal of Physics, 55(2), 108-119. Hubber, P. (2005). Explorations of year 10 students’ conceptual change during instruction, Asia-Pacific Forum on Science Learning and Teaching, 6(1), Article 1. Kocakülah, M. S. (1999). A study of the development of Turkish first year university students’ understanding of electromagnetism and the implications for instruction. Unpublished EdD. thesis, University of Leeds, School of Education, Leeds, United Kingdom. Lawrance, M., & Pallrand, G. (2000). A case study of the effectiveness of teacher experience in the use of explanation-based assessment in high school physics, School Science and Mathematics, 100(1), 36-47. Palacios, F. J. P., Cazorla, F. N., & Cervantes, A. (1989). Misconceptions on geometric optics and their association with relevant educational variables. International Journal of Science Education, 11(3), 273-286. Pfundt, H., & Duit, R. (2005). Bibliography: Students' alternative frameworks and science education. Kiel, Germany: Institute for Science Education at the University of Kiel. Tao, P. K. (2004). Developing understanding of image formation by lenses through collaborative learning mediated by multimedia computer-assisted learning programs. International Journal of Science Education, 26(10), 1171-1197. Wandersee, J., Mintzes, J. J. & Novak, J. D. (1994). Research on Alternative Conceptions in Science. In Gabel, D. L. (Ed.), Handbook of Research on Science Teaching and Learning. Broadway, NY: Macmillan Library Referance.

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THE COMPARISON OF CONCEPTUAL UNDERSTANDINGS OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY TEACHER CANDIDATES IN TERMS OF PHYSICS CHEMISTRY AND BIOLOGY DISCIPLINES Hasan Özcan

Aksaray University

Mustafa Sabri Kocakülah Balıkesir University

Abstract This study aims to compare the conceptual understandings of the candidates for the profession of science and technology teaching, which is segregated as physics, chemistry and biology in the higher education grade, about these segregated disciplines. For this aim, the data collection instruments used in this research were developed on the basis of energy subjects including equivalent number of questions covering all these three disciplines. The data analysed by qualitative analysis method was also exposed to a quantitative analysis and evaluation as making a comparison was aimed at. The evaluation results were expounded through comparative tables.

Introduction The science course which was a part of the primary science curriculum was replaced by science and technology course as a result of the radical and fractional transition process undergone in 2004 education programme. This movement of change and transformation, which was put into practice with the introduction of the programme aiming to train science teachers for primary schools in many universities as a result of the reconstruction process of university education in the 1998-1999 education years, also brought about many renovations in terms of philosophical basis. When the curriculum of primary education department examined, it is salient to find out that there is an equivalent incidence among the distributions and intensities point of view, ensuring an equal distribution of teacher candidates’ interest towards the courses constituting science; physics, chemistry and biology and having the candidate teachers equipped with equal knowledge about these courses can be defined as the main aims of the programme. If so, to which extent can this phenomenon be applicable? The belief that the distribution of interest in such equal terms is not possible ta achieve comes first to the mind. This research aims to prove that this belief which is ranked in the core of the research can be made perceptible. While these aims were put forward by the researchers, the concept of energy, which is an interdisciplinary concept inherent in science and technology course, was defined as the main component of the research. The concept of energy is not only cited in physics, chemistry and biology but is also cited in the fields of engineering and mathematics due to its interdisciplinary character. Besides its interdisciplinary character, the concept of energy can be interpreted in respect of its complexity compared to the other concepts, in that it is so abstract when the matter is the storage of solar energy in the incident of photosynthesis and it is clear enough to be understood by simple observations when the matter is the operating of a turbine by converting the potential energy should be handled with a privileged approach on the basis of education. Teachers, who are responsible for education, are assigned with important roles. The sample of the study was chosen randomly among the candidate

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science and technology teachers and the physics, chemistry and biology trivets of the concepts of energy were particularly consulted.

The Importance of the Study When the related literature was reviewed, there were found many studies on the problems of the teachers who were graduated from different subjects (physics, chemistry, biology) and are still in the profession of teaching and their attitudes towards the science and technology course (Özcan and Kocakülah, 2007; Özcan and Kocakülah, 2007; Akpınar, Unal and Ergin, 2004; Özcan, Tekin and Pekdağ, 2006). However we were unable to find any similar study on the subject which constitutes the main axis of this study and enables the comparison of science topics on the basis of disciplines it covers.

Aim of the Study This study aims to identify how the candidate science and technology teachers situate the concept of energy in the disciplines of physics, chemistry and biology and the compare their conceptual understandings.

Method This study involves 301 candidate teachers of primary science and technology course who got education in the primary science educational department of education faculty. As the data collection instrument, a conceptual understanding test consisting of three questions, each about the disciplines of physics, chemistry and biology relatively, was developed in accordance with the teaching programme on the basis of the subjects of energy. During the development of the questions in the test, science education experts’ views and the support of the literature were sought in order to ensure that the questions chosen for each discipline are equal in terms of their difficulty level. The conceptual understanding test which mostly consisted of open-ended questions was appraised via context analysis and the responses to the questions were categorized in to three main groups as scientifically acceptable answers, the scientifically accepted but partial answers and the scientifically unacceptable answers. These categories were also consisted of particular sub-categories corresponding with a hierarchical order itself. Additionally, as a context analysis was conducted in the first stage, the level of each answer was ranked in itself (A1, A2, A3, etc). The answers given in response to questions by the students were distributed among these levels. The opportunity to compare each discipline both with other disciplines and within itself was attained with the help of this approach.

Findings and Comments The tables at the answers of the candidate science and technology teachers, who formed the sample of the study in the conceptual understanding test consisting of questions in the disciplines of physics, chemistry and biology is presented under the categories of “scientifically acceptable answers”, “scientifically acceptable but partial answers” and “scientifically unacceptable answers“. The percentages of the answers are presented in separate sums according to the categories in the tables. Owing to this way, the comparison of disciplines according to their answers percentages becomes possible.

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Table 1. The Scientifically Acceptable Answers Physics

Chemistry

Level

N

%

Level

N

%

A1

16

5.32

A

78

A2

32

10.63

A3

18

5.98

A4

6

1.99

Total

72

23.92

Total

78

Biology Level

N

%

25.91

A

78

25.91

25.91

Total

78

25.91

As can be seen in Table 1, the candidate science and technology teachers gave % 25.91 scientifically acceptable answers to the disciplines of chemistry and biology and % 23.92 scientifically acceptable answers to the discipline of physics in the conceptual understanding test concerning the concepts of energy. Table 2. The Scientifically Acceptable But Partial Answers Physics

Chemistry

Biology

Level

N

%

Level

N

%

Level

N

%

B1

104

34.55

B1

40

13.29

B1

87

28.90

B2

22

7.31

B2

44

14.61

B2

52

17.28

B3

84

27.91

Total

168

55.82

Total

139

46.18

Total

126

41.86

On the other hand, when these three disciplines are compared in terms of scientically accepted but partial answers, they are listed as % 55.82 for chemistry, % 46.18 for biology and % 41.86 for physics. When it is taken into consideration that each level of B1, B2 and B3 involves separate partial responses there is no difference among the value of answers chemistry appears to be most successful discipline. Table 3. The Scientifically Unacceptable Answers Physics

Physics

Level

N

%

C1

91

C2

5

Physics

Level

N

%

Level

N

%

30.22

C1

3

0.99

C1

21

6.98

1.67

C2

2

0.66

C2

5

1.67

C3

7

2.33

C3

22

7.31

C4

2

0.66

C4

13

4.32

15

4.97

7

2.33

C6

4

1.33

C7

11

3.65

C5

C5

Uncodeable

5

1.67

Uncodeable

7

2.33

Uncodeable

9

2,99

No Response

2

0.66

No Response

4

1.33

No Response

7

1.99

103

34.22

55

18.26

Total

84

27.91

Total

Total

When the answers of the candidate teachers are studied in terms of scientifically unacceptable answers (Table 3), the disciplines are ranked as % 34.22 for physics and % 18.26 for chemistry and % 27.91 for biology.

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Results and Suggestions When a broad evaluation is carried out with the data gathered in terms of science and technology teachers are most successful appears to be biology, the second disciplines in which they are also successful appears to be chemistry and the disciplines. In which they are least successful appears to be appears to be pyysics. When the Table 1 and Table 2 are examined closely, it is observed that while the achievement ratio of the sample is approximate to chemistry and biology the low achievement ratio of physics is astounding. The course of science and technology ranks among the crucial courses as it is the course in which an individual becomes acquainted with science and the nature for the first time and it constitutes the basis of knowledge which will be required in secondary school and university accompanying with its role as preparative for the life in primary school. How to teach are as much important as what the course and context are. Here the institutions that train teachers and teachers who are in charge of their personal improvement are assigned with the most crucial responsibility. Candidate teachers should end their education having comprehended each discipline of science in maximal and being ready for instruction. As in this research, the extent to which the conceptual comprehension the disciplines should be appraised both qualitatively and quantitatively according to the results of the studies conducted via different methods and techniques. Through this way, a new designation in the education pragramme can be created and an opportunity for expanding the individual interest can be attained.

References Özcan, H., & Kocakülah, M. S. (2007). İlköğretim 8. sınıf öğrencilerinin enerji kavramına ilişkin bilişsel yapıları. Eğitimde Yeni Yönelimler-IV: Yapılandırmacılık ve Öğretmen Sempozyumu, Özel Tevfik Fikret Okullari, 17 October, Ankara. Özcan, H., & Kocakülah, M. S. (2007). Fen bilgisi öğretmen adaylarının enerji kavramına yükledikleri anlamlar. Türk Fizik Derneği 24. Uluslararası Fizik Kongresi, 28-31 August, 2007, Malatya, Turkey. Akpınar, E., Ünal, G., & Ergin, Ö. (2004). Farklı alanlardan mezun fen bilgisi öğretmenlerinin fen öğretimine yönelik görüşleri. Milli Eğitim Dergisi, 168, 202-212. Özcan, H., Tekin, G., & Pekdağ, B. (2006). Branşın fen ve teknoloji öğretimine etkisi. VII. Ulusal Fen Bilimleri ve Matematik Eğitimi Kongresi, 7-9 Eylül, Ankara.

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A MODEL OF TEACHER PREPARATION AIMED AT FAVOURING THE DIFFUSION OF RESEARCH-BASED TEACHING PRACTICE Ugo Besson, Lidia Borghi, Anna De Ambrosis & Paolo Mascheretti University of Pavia - Italy

Abstract Despite the number of research results and proposals, physics learning of secondary school students remains often unsatisfactory and science teaching maintains some characteristics considered ineffective by research. To challenge this situation, we have elaborated and tested a model of teacher preparation aimed at favouring the diffusion in schools of innovative teaching practice. The model is focused on analysis and discussion of research-based teaching learning sequences developed by our group and involves three steps. In the first one, a researchbased teaching learning sequence is proposed to teachers: they follow the same path designed for secondary school students, but they are guided to reflect both on the content and on the didactical aspects. Then each teacher prepares a teaching plan for a specific teaching situation and implements it in class. Finally she/he produces a report on his/her work in classroom and discusses it with the whole working group. We have experimented modules concerning different physics topics. As an example, we summarize our module on hydrostatics and the results obtained. We found that the module leads teachers to reconsider the science content, jointly with the teaching approach, and that their personal reconstruction of the topic in a didactical perspective produces a motivation to introduce innovation in their teaching.

Introduction Eleven years ago a book edited by the ICPE (International Committee on Physics Education of IUPAP) wrote: “Despite the results of research in science education and the innovative teaching proposals available in the literature, physics learning of secondary school students remains often unsatisfactory and science teaching maintains some traditional characteristics that research has proved to be ineffective” (Pessoa and Gil-Perez 1998). We think that the present situation could be improved by changing the teachers’ initial and in-service preparation because teachers are the necessary link between research-based innovative proposals and their effective implementation in the classroom. In recent years, a great deal of research has focused on the teacher's role as a transformer of the educational intentions of programs and researchers (Pinto 2005, Hirn & Viennot 2000) and on the design of teacher training projects and experiences (Psillos et al 2005, Eylon & Bagno 2006). Andersson et al. (2005) argue that researchers and teachers should work together to design and assess teaching sequences. According to Tytler (2005), training programs concentrated in a short single period are ineffective in promoting changes in teaching practice: training needs to last a long time and to be inserted into a real school context to embed new ideas into a teacher’s personal experience. Moreover, studies have been carried out on the problem of disseminating teaching sequences, developed and tested in a research environment, in the actual school context on a large scale (Leach & Scott 2002).

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In our group, we think that the science learning of secondary school students could be improved by changing the teachers’ initial preparation and in-service training. Our hypothesis is that the quality of teaching can be successfully improved by helping teachers: 9 to revisit their view of the scientific content they teach on the basis of research results in physics education 9 to implement research based Teaching Learning Sequences (TLSs) in secondary school. At this purpose it is important that teachers feel a need for restructuring their own view of each topic in the teaching perspective. This process of restructuration, which should be sustained with appropriate training activities and materials, includes a reflection on one’s personal understanding of physics and on pupils’ learning processes. The context of our study is the initial and in-service preparation of Italian physics teachers. From initial tests, questionnaires, exams, worksheets, discussions in workshops we got evidence that student teachers have an unsatisfactory understanding of basic phenomena with doubts and problems not resolved in their previous studies and a difficulty to apply general laws and rules to real-world physical situations. Perhaps these limitations are not an obstacle for students who will become professional physicists or engineers because they will have the chance to go in depth into particular aspects or specific topics of physics, but they may create serious difficulties to future teachers.

Rationale and Methods To overcome these difficulties and to fill the gap between research and school practice, we have developed modules for teacher preparation (MTP) focused on the analysis, discussion and implementation of research-based teaching learning sequences prepared by our group. The modules have been tested in initial and in-service teacher preparation. They involve the following steps: a) Presentation of a research-based teaching sequence: teachers follow the same path designed for secondary school students, but they are guided to reflect on the content, on the cognitive concatenation of the path, on pupils’ conceptions and difficulties, and on communication means and models useful in teaching (developing their PCK on the topic). b) Teaching plan. The teachers prepare a teaching plan for a specific class situation, adapting the proposed TLS. c) Implementation in classroom. Teachers implement the adapted TLS in class during their teaching practice in school. d) Report and group discussion. Each teacher writes a report on her/his teaching plan and her/his work in the classroom, and discusses it within the group. The aim is that teachers become able: ¾ to develop a stable and rich pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) on some specific topics, including a critical reflexion on the scientific content, the learning processes involved, the pupils’ conceptions and difficulties, the communication means and models useful in teaching. ¾ to connect their PCK with the teaching practice, reflecting on the relationships between research projects, teaching plan and actual work in class, including the various constraints and unexpected difficulties typical in schools, and the means for surmounting them. The TLSs are the result of a research work based on our “three-dimensional approach” to the design of TLSs, comprising (figure 1): 9 critical analysis of the scientific content, considering also its historical development and its practical applications; 9 analysis of the research results on pupils’ conceptions and on TLSs on the topic; 9 overview of the usual treatments of the subject in textbooks and common teaching practice together with preliminary testing of materials with small groups of students and teachers.

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To facilitate the diffusion in a real school context and to try to bridge the gap between research and practice, TLSs have an open structure, with a distinction between a core of contents, conceptual correlations and methodological choices, which we consider essential for the rationale of the proposal, and a cloud of elements that can be redesigned, omitted or added by the teachers. We think that this core-clouds structure can be useful both to facilitate teacher’ changes and to control them. Teachers’ work can give a useful feedback not only to test the effectiveness and weakness points of the TLS, but also to enrich it with new elements. Some documents were given to teachers to illustrate the aims and features of the TLS.

Figure 1. Our “three-dimensional approach” to the design of a TLS. The TLSs we use have a common approach that aims to: • underline continuity between perceptions and formalization processes, • find coherence between general physical laws and explanations of specific simple phenomena, • favour a qualitative understanding, • encourage to express and to discuss doubts and misunderstandings. As for the use of models, when possible, we try to propose some physical structural models, which aim to account not only for how the system behaves, but also for how and of what the system is made, and for which causal processes and mechanisms can produce the observed phenomena. Such models have an explanatory function and are cognitively fertile, since they promote reasoning, interpretations and predictions and stimulate research on entities and processes which are presumed to exist within the material system. The incompleteness of the models is discussed, together with the degree to which they fit physical reality, i.e. their similarity to material elements and mechanisms that do really exist. We have experimented, in particular, modules concerning fluids, friction, electrostatics, interaction between radiation and matter and greenhouse effect (Borghi et al 2003 and 2007, Besson et al 2007 and 2009). As example, in the next sections we will summarize the teaching path proposed in the MTP on hydrostatics and give some results concerning its experimentation.

The teaching path proposed in the MTP on hydrostatics As an example, we summarize the teaching path proposed in the MTP on hydrostatics. Usual presentations of hydrostatics in Italian high-school textbooks are essentially descriptive, introduce the concept of pressure by using examples related to solids and often neglect to relate among them the laws and concepts introduced, such as Archimedes’ principle, hydrostatic pressure, dependence of pressure on the depth inside a liquid, Pascal’s principle. This approach does not help students understand the idea of pressure inside a liquid and differentiate between the concept of pressure and that of force; as a consequence, the students’ learning difficulties described in the literature are not addressed.

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Our proposal suggests a conceptual path based on the analysis of the fundamental properties of a liquid which follows the steps briefly described below: a) Introductory experiments and observations. b) Construction of a model of liquid to interpret the observed phenomena. c) Use of animation to develop the model and to introduce the concept of pressure. d) Experiments and animation to study the effect of gravity on liquids.

a) Introductory experiments and observations Phenomenological aspects such as fluidity, weight and interaction between air and liquid are focused. At this purpose simple experimental activities are proposed, aimed at promoting students’ observations and discussion on the behaviour of liquids (figure 2).

Figure 2. Introductory experiments on fluids. For example, by using a sealed syringe and a little open vial it is possible to observe the contraction of the air bubble in the vial due to a force exerted on the plunger and discuss the role of the liquid in transmitting forces. It is stressed that the force on the surface of the air bubble due to the water can have a direction different of that of the force applied to the plunger. Discussion of the experiments carried out by the teachers is accompanied by a reflection on common students’ difficulties and conceptions as reported in the literature (Besson 2004, Engel & Driver 1985, Kariotoglou & Psillos 1993, Loverude et al 2003).

b) Construction of a model of liquid to interpret the observed phenomena A model is proposed both by means of real objects and of animation. In its most simple configuration the model consists of a small number of rigid disks in contact. As can be seen in the figures, when a disk is pushed in a given direction, it exerts forces on the other disks in different directions. If the disks are confined they exert forces on the walls. The model is then enriched by considering a larger and larger number of rigid spheres in contact (lead pellets) in a disordered configuration. Despite its simplicity, the model evokes the idea of fluidity and suggests why a liquid in a container exerts forces perpendicular to the walls, when subjected to external forces. Even if incomplete (and its incompleteness is discussed with teachers), this kind of models can lead to richer explanations and suggest new questions and inquiries. Our hypothesis is that physical, analogical models, involving visual representations and stimulating intuition, can help students build mental models of phenomena, improving their understanding and preparing successive abstractions.

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Figure 3. Vial with air bubble in a syringe

Figure 4 Model of liquid

Figure 5. Animation in the hypertext.

c) Use of animation to develop the model and to introduce the concept of pressure A multimedia hypertext, prepared by our group, guides students towards a progressive construction of a stable understanding and allows them following different paths according to their personal needs and choices (see http://fisicavolta.unipv.it/didattica/idrostatica/index2.html). Animations lead to enrich the initial model of liquid, introduce formal elements, and define pressure as a scalar parameter. By considering a larger number of spheres in a disordered configuration, a uniform distribution of the

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forces on the walls of the container is obtained. Animations are used also to visualize forces inside the liquid and to define the pressure as the quantity that describes the compression state of the liquid (fig. 5). Animation represents only twodimension images, but an extension to three-dimensional systems is considered in a discussion with the students to explain the forces exerted by a liquid against the container walls. Pascal’s principle is introduced to formalize the behavior of a liquid when forces on its surface are applied. The consideration of Pascal’s principle is also essential to understand the behavior of a liquid under the action of gravity and to prevent the pitfalls of hydrostatic paradoxes. Students use the hypertext by working in group, they explore autonomously its different parts, answer questions and solve the proposed exercises, while the teacher gives information, helps students, plays a role of guide and tutoring. Teachers are led to reflect on conceptual doubts and difficulties, different possible cognitive paths and common misunderstandings.

d) Experiments and animation to study the effect of gravity on liquids Initial observations on the behaviour of liquids are reconsidered and enriched with more quantitative experiments to show how pressure increases with depth as a consequence of gravity, according to Stevin’s law. Measurements show that the force (thus the pressure) is proportional to the depth of the disk inside the liquid (fig. 6).

Figure 6. How pressure increases with depth. Then experiments on buoyant force are proposed, aimed to help students understand how the Archimedes’ principle is strictly correlated to the increase of pressure with depth, due to gravity. This point is critical because the link between Archimedes’ upthrust and the forces due to the pressure is commonly not considered or not well understood by students. Applets in the hypertext integrate the experimental activities by presenting some crucial aspects of the effects of gravity in order to gradually formalize them by means of Stevin’s law and Pascal’s and Archimedes’ principles. Some critical problems are discussed with student teachers to encourage them to deepen their understanding and to suggest possible ways for helping students surmount misconceptions and difficulties. For example, the question: “Is floating possible in a volume of water smaller then the submerged volume of the body?” is proposed. A simple experiment helps to give an answer (fig. 7). While the difference of level H between the liquid surface and the bottom of the floating body is always the same, the quantity of liquid ensuring floating diminishes with the volume of the container. One of the typical comments of teachers were “It is enough a thin vertical layer of water to support the glass!”. By carrying out and discussing this experiment, student teachers recognize the importance of explaining buoyancy by means of the gradient of pressure in the liquid due to gravity. It is focused how the reference to the displaced liquid in the usual formulation of Archimedes' principle is not general (is true when the volume of the vessel is much greater than that of the submerged body) and can be misleading.

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Figure 7. Floating in a little volume of water

Results Data for the evaluation of the MTPs include: answers to tests, worksheets filled in by the teachers during the working sessions, reports on the experiments, doubts and comments expressed by the teachers, teaching plans, and reports on the work in classroom. We present here only few results concerning some typical aspects of the science teacher competence: 9 Recognizing the complexity of explanation of simple actual experiences 9 Making connections between different content areas 9 Revisiting and deepening other correlated topics 9 Adapting the research products for the use in classroom 9 Promoting diffusion in schools of research products

Complexity of explanation of simple actual experiences Interpreting even the simplest experiment requires an extended view of a content area and the ability to stress prevalent aspects on which to focus the attention. For example, how do we explain why water stops flowing through a little hole on the wall of a plastic bottle when the bottle is sealed? In this condition, it is necessary to take into account not only the hydrostatic pressure but also the roles of the air inside the bottle, of atmospheric pressure and of the surface tension, and to correlate all these aspects in order to explain the equilibrium condition.

Connections between different content areas The analysis of the concept of pressure has led teachers to reconsider the behaviour of extended systems. To this aim, the concept of tension in a rope or in a spring is compared to that of pressure in fluids. It is interesting to see that in their teaching practice some of the student teachers developed this point, according to the age and interests of their students.

Revisiting and deepening other correlated topics Most of the teachers considered useful the proposed model of liquid in interpreting macroscopic properties and, generally, expressed the need of exploring it in more detail. This led to study the mechanics of a system made of a number of rigid spheres, to develop new experiments and to stress the role of models in guiding inquiry. For example, one of the student teachers asked "Our model explains how the ratio between the force acting on a surface and the area of the surface is the same everywhere on the walls of the container but it does not explain the relationship between the force acting on the piston and the force acting on the walls of the container. In a liquid the

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force acting on the walls can be greater than the force on the piston: the liquid can transmit and amplify forces. How can our system of solid and rigid spheres amplify forces?" In discussing this question, the attention was focussed on the role of walls in determining the direction and the value of the forces, according to the model. Simple examples like the one presented in figure 8 were discussed, to recognize how in a solid system forces can be amplified.

Figure 8. Forces in a solid system

Adapting the research products for the use in classroom Concerning the implementation of the sequence in classroom, we observed that, even if teachers use the same tools, such as our multimedia hypertext and experimental devices, they adapt their intervention both to the class situation and to students’ reactions. Changes were introduced to overcome didactical problems, ensuring the continuity of the sequence with the previously covered program, and to solve practical constraints connected to the availability of materials necessary for the experiments. Nevertheless, in most cases teachers kept coherence with the rationale of the proposal and its innovative aspects, which were explicitly described during the training activity. As an example, an excerpt of a student teacher’s report is shown in Appendix. It is worth to stress that the analysis and discussion of the material prepared by the student teachers for their teaching practice have given a significant chance to consider again the physics content, jointly with the teaching approach.

Diffusion of research products A number of teachers continue to use in school and enrich the sequences they have experimented within the modules for teacher preparation. Another positive feedback is that other teachers in the school where the sequences were experimented showed interest in the sequence and expressed the intention of introducing similar activities in their classrooms. In this way a slow, informal diffusion of research products takes place.

Conclusions and Implications Our experience shows that to favour the diffusion in school of research-based innovative teaching proposals it is essential that teachers: ¾ analyze and discuss research-based materials, ¾ compare them with their usual approach, ¾ based on this work, prepare teaching plans, ¾ implement them in schools, ¾ report the results obtained. The experience has shown the effectiveness of the open source structure (core-clouds) of the TLS to facilitate the reproducibility in a real classroom context. The teachers have changed and adapted the sequence while maintaining a good coherence with our goals and the rationale of our approach as described to them.

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Many observations and quotations indicate that teachers felt personal interest to better and differently understand the topic and that this led to personal engagement to change traditional presentations by introducing the new acquisitions into their teaching. Moreover, analysis and discussion of the materials prepared by the teachers led them to reconsider the science content, jointly with their teaching approach. This reconstruction of the topic in a didactical perspective appeared essential in producing in the teachers a personal motivation to change their teaching. A number of in-service teachers of the involved schools decided to implement in their classrooms activities based on the material developed in our modules, thus starting an informal diffusion in school of research products. We think that a large scale implementation of the proposed model of teacher education could contribute to improve the quality of science learning in secondary school.

References Andersson, B., Bach F., Hagman, M., Olander, C. & Wallin, A. (2005). Discussing a research programme for the improvement of science teaching. In K. Boersma et al (Eds.) Research and the Quality of Science Education (pp. 221-230). Dordrecht NL, Springer. Besson U. (2004) Students' conceptions of fluids. International Journal of Science Education, 26 (14), 1683-1714. Besson U., Borghi L., De Ambrosis A., Mascheretti P. (2007) How to teach friction: Experiments and models. American Journal of Physics, 75, 1106-1113. Besson U., Borghi L., De Ambrosis A., Mascheretti P. (2009) A three-dimensional approach and open source structure for the design and experimentation of teaching learning sequences: the case of friction, International Journal of Science Education, DOI: 10.1080/09500690903023350. Borghi L., De Ambrosis A., Mascheretti P. (2003) Developing relevant teaching strategies during in-service training. Physics Education, 38 (1), 41-46. Borghi L., De Ambrosis A., Mascheretti P. (2007) Microscopic models for bridging electrostatics and currents, Physics Education, 42, 146-155. Eylon B-S. and Bagno E. (2006). Research-design model for professional development of teachers: Designing lessons with physics education research. Physical Review Special Topics-Physics Education Research, 2, 020106, 1-14. Hirn C. &Viennot L. (2000) Transformation of Didactic Intention by Teachers: the case of Geometrical Optics in Grade 8 in France. Int. J. Sci. Ed., 22 (4), 357-384. Leach, J. & Scott, P. (2002). Designing and evaluating science teaching sequences: an approach drawing upon the concept of learning demand and a social constructivist perspective on learning. Studies in Science Education, 38, 115-142. Loverude M.E, Kautz C.H., Heron P.R.L. (2003) Helping students develop an understanding of Archimedes’ principle. I. Research on student understanding. American Journal of Physics 71 (11), 1178-1187. Pessoa de Carvalho A.M. & Gil-Perez D. (1998) Physics Teacher Training: Analysis and Proposals. In A. Tiberghien, E.L. Jossem, and J. Barojas (Eds): Connecting Research in Physics Education with Teacher Education, IUPAP - ICPE Publications: Ohio. http://www.physics.ohio-state.edu/~jossem/ICPE/BOOKS.html. (Chap. D4). Pinto, R. (2005). Introducing Curriculum Innovations in Science: Identifying Teachers’ Transformations and the Design of Related Teacher Education. Science Education, 89, 1-12. Psillos, D., Spyrtou, A. & Kariotoglou, P. (2005). Science teacher education: issues and proposals. In K. Boersma et al (Eds.) Research and the Quality of Science Education (pp. 119-128). Dordrecht, Springer. Tytler R. (2005) School Innovation in Science: change, culture, complexity. In Boersma K. et al (Eds.) Research and the Quality of Science Education, Dordrecht: Springer, pp.89-106.

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Appendix. Excerpt of a student teacher’s report on one of the lessons she designed and implemented with 15-year-old pupils. WORKING PLAN By means of simple experiments and questions students are guided to observe the behaviour of fluids (liquids and gases) and their characteristics. Liquids and their actions on the container are then studied and, based of the idea of transmission of forces, what happens inside a liquid is considered. At this stage the concept of pressure is not used. ACTIVITY 1 MATERIALS A syringe

QUESTIONS

ACTIVITIES

A) What differences do you A) Students make notice between the behaviour of observations and register a sealed syringe full of water and on their logbook a sealed syringe full of air? B) They are asked to draw B) Make a prediction of what will the direction of the water happen when the syringe is jets opened? C) They make a C) Make a prediction of what will prediction. Then they happen if little holes are drilled carry out the experiment and compare their on the syringe surface. prediction with the results

WHAT SHOULD BE LEARNED Compressibility of gases and practical non compressibility of liquids.

DURATION 2 hours

Transmission of forces in the liquid.

IMPLEMENTATION I prepared in the laboratory syringes of different diameters, glasses with water and I asked the students the questions above reported. Students recognize without difficulties that water is not compressible, while air is compressible: A student (P) noticed that “A syringe full of air behaves like a spring. Air is compressible because it is elastic like a spring, while water behaves like the desk. The desk pressed by a hand does not get crushed: it is not elastic” Another discussion started when the students tried to fill with water a syringe with the piston positioned at half of its length. A student (B) predicted that water could not enter because “there is an air pocket inside”. At this point another student (L) made the following demonstration: after closing the hole of the syringe, he pushed the piston down and then released it: the piston came back to the initial position. L’s conclusion was: “there is air inside the syringe. It was initially compressed and then it expanded causing the motion of the piston”. Then he pushed the piston down with the syringe left open, closed the hole and tried to pull the piston up. He noticed that he had to make a strong force to move the piston. All the students wanted to try and were surprised by the results. B expressed the conviction that even if half of the syringe contains air, it can be partially filled with water. But in this condition it is impossible to push the water out. I invited her to check her prediction by pushing on the piston. P and L described what was happening: ”B’s hand makes force on the piston, this in turn presses the air and air presses water making it flow out”. They shared the idea that force is transmitted by the air. At the end I asked students to write on their logbook what impressed them more in the class-work. P wrote about transmission of forces, D mentioned the compressibility of gases and non compressibility of liquids… others the beauty of being able to squirt water on the roof.

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WHY DO WE NEED TO KNOW THIS? – CONNECTING CHEMISTRY CONCEPTS TO DAILY LIFE EVENTS Ayşe Yalçın Çelik Gazi Univeristy

Ayla Çetin-Dindar Selçuk Üniversitesi

Oktay Bektaş

Erciyes University

Abstract It is a very familiar question to any level science teacher when they are posed “Why do we need to know this?”. Students are usually more relaxed and motivated when they are told that why they are learning concepts or how that concepts are related to their lives. Furthermore, students who are applying learned knowledge in other situations in order to make decisions in daily life events reveal that meaningful understanding. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to identify whether first grade undergraduate chemistry education students can link daily life events with chemistry. The participants were six first grade undergraduate chemistry education students enrolled in the course of Basic Chemistry Laboratory at a university in Ankara. Semi-structured interviews were conducted whether the participants make connections between chemistry concepts and daily life events. Based on the results, it can be said that even though students know the scientific explanation of the questions, they could not relate these scientific facts to the real life applications. It is crucial to link daily life events with what students learn in classroom. Then, it will be more meaningful for students when they recognize that why they need to learn about chemistry or science.

Introduction Teachers in science classrooms at any level often come across with the same question “Why do we need to know this?”. Students are usually more relaxed and motivated when they are told that why they are learning concepts or how that concepts are related to their lives. In fact, one of the important goals in science education is to educate scientific literate individuals in decision making and critical thinking about how science and technology influence society. The other goal is to provide the application of scientific knowledge in explaining daily life events. Students have difficulties in identifying scientific issues, explaining phenomena scientifically, or using scientific evidence because their ideas do not evolve as fast as the instruction is done. The introduction of scientific issues is not always meaningful to students if they do not have sufficient experience with the preexisting knowledge since students already have ideas about how the natural world works. It is reported in studies that students may hold alternative conceptions because of unexpected contradictions between textbooks or instruction and daily life events (Canpolat, Pinarbasi, Bayrakceken, & Geban, 2004; Lin, Chiu, & Liang, 2004; Osborne & Freyberg, 1985). When instruction do not emphasize that the science at school and students’ real life are not different from each other, various alternative conceptions can often hold by students since students may develop two unconnected knowledge systems related to science.

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Studies in chemistry education reveal that students have difficulties in explaining daily life events considering scientific knowledge (Cetin-Dindar, Boz, Aydin, Bektas, & Aydemir, 2008; Özmen, 2003; Pinarbasi & Canpolat, 2003). When students are posed to daily life based questions, it is generally hard for them to explain the reason behind the events even though they give the correct answers to scientific ones (Ben-Zvi & Gai, 1994). For example, when students are asked the explanation of a daily life question like; although carbonated mineral water is good for upset stomach, it is not helpful in excessive drinking. Their incorrect answers can be like: “stomach has acidic environment and works in specific pH. If pH level is not appropriate, carbonated mineral water does not effect to upset stomach”, “some chemicals in carbonated mineral water act as a catalyst in a reaction between foods and stomach juices; therefore, carbonated mineral water is good for upset stomach because the reaction goes faster” or “suffering from upset stomach means there is excess in acid level in stomach, carbonated mineral water is drunk to neutralize this acidity” (Ozmen, 2004). The students’ incorrect answers reveal their misunderstandings in chemistry concepts and the students did not relate their knowledge to a real life issue. Students often memorize scientific issues to get high grades; unfortunately, after a while it is common to realize that they forget the scientific knowledge they have learnt since they could not conceptualize scientific thinking and internalize that scientific knowledge into their daily life events. This may because science curriculums, teachers or science books do not really link scientific knowledge in explaining daily life events. However, when science courses are linked to daily life events, this also increases students’ motivation to learn science (Shen, 1993). Because students are more motivated while investigating how everyday events work. However, there are not many studies in the literature which report how students relate the science at school to daily life events (Ozmen, 2003). Therefore, this study aims to investigate students’ understanding about how they link chemical questions to real life experiences. In this study, real life experiences or daily life events refer to the experiences students have outside the school.

Rationale In order to educate scientifically literate individuals, it is important to educate scientifically literate teachers. Taking chemistry courses should change students’ point of view to their daily life and understand the impact of chemistry on society, in order words; they should look at boiling water, dissolving sugar in water, salt crystals, and fishes in a sea in a different way. For instance, they should know that adding table salt into water increases its boiling point, how acid rains occur and understand that how everything-the air they breathe, the pencil they write, and even their own body-is composed of atoms. Students who are applying learned knowledge in other situations in order to make decisions in daily life events reveal that meaningful understanding and realize the world around them. However, there are limited studies which report the linkage between daily life events and chemistry concepts not only in university level but also in high school level. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to identify whether first grade undergraduate chemistry education students can link daily life events with chemistry concepts.

Research Questions 1. Do first grade undergraduate chemistry education students make connections between daily life events and chemistry concepts? 2.

Do students who have enough knowledge about chemistry concepts link real life experienced questions to chemistry concepts?

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Methods The method part is consists of three sections, participants, interview questions, and data analysis parts.

Participants Semi-structured interviews were carried out with six first grade undergraduate chemistry education students (4 female and 2 male) enrolled in the course of Basic Chemistry Laboratory at a university in Ankara. These students who were volunteered to be interviewed were selected according to their academic achievement (2 lower achiever students, 2 middle achiever students, and 2 higher achiever students). These students theoretically took basic chemistry, basic biology, and basic physics courses while they studied this laboratory session.

Interview Questions Each interview was done individually and volunteer students were chosen. During the interviews, students were posed questions to explain how they relate daily life events considering chemistry concepts. The questions covered solubility, evaporation and vapor pressure concepts in chemistry. The reason of choosing theses subjects are; firstly, students are very familiar to these subjects since middle school level science courses and secondly these subjects are very common in real life experiences; for example, the students can read news about decompression sickness or watch documentaries about fish lives, etc. Additionally, related literature was searched and interview questions were constructed. Students were asked questions like: •

When scuba divers come out to surface suddenly, there is death risk. Can you explain why? (Q1)

•

It is better for fishes to live in cold water than hot water. Can you explain why? (Q2)

•

While water boils at 1000C at the sea level, as altitude increases, let’s say at the Agri Mountain (The highest mountain in the Turkey), water boils at lower temperatures. Can you explain why? (Q3)

Probe Questions When the students had difficulties in answering these questions, they were posed the probe questions like; •

How does pressure affect on the solubility of gases? How could you relate the solubility of gases with the death risk of scuba divers?

•

How does temperature affect on solubility of gases? How could you relate the solubility of gases with the life of fishes in water?

•

How is the boiling point affected by altitude? How can you relate altitude changing in boiling process?

Data Analysis In order to analyze the data, recorded interviews were transcribed and based on these transcriptions coding was made. The coding of each transcription was done individually by each researcher and inconsistencies in coding parts were discussed. After constructing the coding part, in order to analyze daily life based questions categories were arranged. There were three categories, which were correct answers with explanation, correct answer without explanation, and incorrect answers.

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Results Semi-structured interviews were analyzed by each researcher individually. Based on these analyses the categories were formed and participants’ responses were tallied (Table 1). Table 1. Categories related to students’ responses Questions Correct Answers Correct Answers with Explanation without Explanation

Q1

S4

Q2 S4, S5 Q3 S5 Q: Question, S: Student

S2, S6 S6

Incorrect Answers

S1, S2, S3, S5, S6 S1, S3 S1, S2, S3, S4

After Probe Questions Correct Answers to Probe Questions S1, S5, S6

Incorrect Answers to Probe Questions S2, S3

S2, S3, S4

S1, S3 S1

It can be seen in Table 1 that the participants have difficulties in explaining the questions which they are asked about daily life events. The first question was the most challenging for them to explain. They were first posed questions, if they could not give any answer to that question and then the probe questions were asked. Only one participant gave the correct answer to the first question, which was the solubility of gases is affected by pressure although she could not explain why there is death risk for scuba divers when they come out to surface suddenly. The other five participants did not give any reasonable explanations to the question. Then, the probe questions were asked to them how pressure affects on the solubility of gases. Three students answered that pressure affects the solubility of gases and as pressure increases, solubility increases. However, they still could not relate the solubility of gases with the death risk of scuba divers. The other two who answered the question incorrectly could not respond to the probe questions, either. The second question was less challenging for them to explain. Two participants gave the correct answers with correct explanations that the solubility of gases is affected by temperature; as temperature decreases the gases are more soluble and because fishes need oxygen for living, it is better for them to live in cold water because of having more soluble oxygen. The other two participants gave the correct answer that temperature affects solubility; however, they could not explain that how this is related to fishes’ living. The probe questions were asked to the students who gave incorrect answers; however, they could not answer the questions. The third question was challenging for participants, too. Only one participant gave the correct answer with correct explanation. The other one only gave the correct answer that the boiling point is affected by altitude because of the pressure differences; however she could not explain how pressure causes this changing in boiling point. The rest of them responded incorrectly and probe questions were posed. The three of them respond correctly to the question about how the boiling point is affected by altitude; however, they could not explain altitude changing in boiling process correctly. One student who was also asked the probe question could not respond correctly how the boiling point is affected by altitude. Some examples can be given like; one of the participants gave the following explanation for the second question: R (Researcher): It is better for fishes to live in cold water than hot water. Can you explain why? P (Participant): Because there is much oxygen in cold water. R: Why? P: Because gases are more soluble in cold water and fish can pull oxygen from water via gills.

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The participant took places in the first category which was ‘the correct answer with explanation’ since she answered the question correctly and gave the expected explanation. The other student gave the following explanation for the same question: R: It is better for fishes to live in cold water than hot water. Can you explain why? P: Because there is much air in cold water. R: Why? P: I don’t know. This participant took place in the second category which was ‘the correct answer without explanation’ since the response was partly correct. The student could not give the explanation of why there is much air in cold water. In order to investigate whether the student know the scientific explanation of this daily life question probe questions were posed and the following explanation was given by the same participant: R: How does temperature affect on solubility of gases? P: If temperature increases, solubility of gases decreases. R: How could you relate the solubility of gases with the life of fishes in water? P: I think about aquariums and sea; if they were hot, there would not be many fishes. R: How can you infer this thought? P: … (no answer) The student knew the scientific explanation of the question that solubility of gases decreases if temperature increases. However, he could not relate this knowledge to the life of fishes. For the third category example, another student gave the following explanation for the same question: R: It is better for fishes to live in cold water than hot water. Can you explain why? P: Because some minerals can be lost in hot water. R: Can you relate this fact with oxygen? P: … (no answer) This student took place in the third category which was ‘incorrect answers’ since the answer was unrelated to the question. Although the student gave the incorrect answer, it was investigated that whether the participant knew the correct scientific explanation about the solubility of gases. After posing the probe questions, the following explanation was given by the same student: R: How does temperature affect on solubility of gases? P: The solubility of gases is related to temperature. R: Can you explain how? P: I am not sure. R: Can you relate the solubility of gases with the life of fishes in water? P: I don’t know. Based on this explanation, the participant took place in the category labeled as ‘incorrect answers to probe questions’. Then, it could be inferred that this student not only have difficulties in making connections to real life experiences but she also did not know the scientific explanations of the question.

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Conclusions and Implications In the light of results obtained, it can be concluded that students have difficulties in making connections between scientific knowledge and daily life events. Posing daily life based questions to undergraduate first grade chemistry education students implied that even student know the scientific explanations of chemistry concepts, they could not relate these knowledge to real-life experiences. For example, the first solubility question about decompression sickness was the most challenging for the students since five students out of six gave incorrect answer to this question. Three students out of five gave correct answers to probe questions, which means although students knew the correct answers of the scientific explanations could not make connections between scientific ones and daily life events. This study reveals that most first grade undergraduate chemistry education students cannot make connections to daily life events. Based on the results, it can be said that even though students know the scientific explanation of the questions, they could not relate these scientific facts to the real life applications. When the students are directly asked the scientific explanations, most of them can give the correct explanations; however, when the same subject integrated with daily life event is asked, it is more challenging for them to answer. It is crucial to link daily life events with what students learn in classroom. Then, it will be more meaningful for students when they recognize that why they need to learn about chemistry or science. Therefore, daily life events should be integrated to both teacher education programs and science curriculums. Because chemistry is in everywhere, many kinds of investigations which are familiar to students from everyday life can be conducted in classrooms. These investigations can be done via inquiry learning, hands-on activities, etc.; inquiry skills and conceptual understanding can also be developed as well (Ashbrook, 2006; Banchi & Bell, 2008; Ben-Zvi & Gai, 1994; Gabel, 2003). In order to make the instructions more meaningful, we suggest implying more inquiry-based daily life integrated activities into classrooms and make students see the connections between real life experiences and chemistry or science concepts. These integrated activities can help students constructing the scientific phenomena more meaningfully while exploring how science is integrated to daily life events. Therefore, students can be provided opportunities to realize that how science at school is related to their daily life and how the scientific knowledge is integrated in real life situations. In addition, in terms of teachers, teachers should make the students understand how chemistry affects their lives and understanding the world will enrich their lives; for example, students can understand why some materials are dangerous to the environment or to human life and why others are not. Therefore, teachers’ role should be to help students connecting what they already know with new information encountered in the classroom. Consequently, students can realize that there are applications of science outside the textbook and they can be more motivated to learn science by working with realistic situations.

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References Ashbrook, P. (2006). The matter of melting. Science and Children, 43 (4), 19-20. Banchi, H. & Bell, R. (2008). The many levels of inquiry. Science and Children, 46 (2), 26-29 Ben-Zvi, N. & Gai, R. (1994). Macro- and micro- chemical comprehension of real-world phenomena. Journal of Chemical Education, 71 (9), 730-732. Canpolat, N., Pinarbasi, T., Bayrakceken, S., & Geben, O. (2004). Kimyadaki bazı yanlış kavramalar [Some Common Misconceptions in Chemistry]. GÜ, Gazi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 24 (1), 135-146. Cetin-Dindar, A., Boz, Y., Aydin, S., Bektas, O., & Aydemir, N. (2008, July). How do pre-service chemistry teachers link chemistry to daily life? Paper presented at the meeting of the European Conference on Research in Chemical Education (ECRICE), Istanbul, Turkiye. Gabel, D. (2003). Enhancing the conceptual understanding of science. Educational Horizons, 81 (2), 70-76. Lin, J. W., Chiu, M. H., & Liang, J. C., (2004, April). Exploring mental models and causes of students’ misconceptions in acids and bases. Paper presented at the National Association of Research in Science Teaching (NARST), Vancouver, Canada. Osborne, R., & Freyberg, P. (1985). Learning in science: The implications of children’s science. Auckland, New Zealand: Heinemann Education. Özmen, H. (2003). Kimya öğretmen adaylarının asit ve baz kavramlarıyla ilgili bilgilerini günlük olaylarla ilişkilendirebilme düzeyleri [The relatedness level of pre-service chemistry teachers’ acid and base concepts into daily life events]. Kastamonu Eğitim Dergisi, 11 (2), 317–324. Pinarbasi, T. & Canpolat, N. (2003). Students’ understanding of solution chemistry concepts. Journal of Chemical Education, 80 (11), 1328-1332. Shen, K. (1993). Happy chemical education. Journal of Chemical Education, 70, 816-818.

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THE TURKISH ADAPTATION OF THE SCIENCE MOTIVATION QUESTIONNAIRE Ayla Çetin-Dindar Selçuk University

Ömer Geban

Middle East Technical University

Abstract The purpose of this study was to create a laboratory environment in which students could behave like scientists. This study is an adaptation of the Science Motivation Questionnaire developed by Glynn and Koballa (2006) into Turkish and reports validity and reliability of the study. The sample was 669 university students from two universities in Turkey. The data collected from two universities was analyzed and similar factor structures were found as in the original questionnaire. Based on the principal component analysis six dimensions which were intrinsically motivated science learning, extrinsically motivated science learning, confidence in learning science, relevance of learning science to personal goals, anxiety about science assessment, and self-determination for learning science were found out. The Cronbach’s alpha reliability was found to be 0.880. This questionnaire aims to determine university students’ motivation to learn science. When the positive effect of motivation on learning science and achievement is thought, it is important to determine students’ motivation; therefore, the motivational constructs can be investigated and activities which improve motivation to learn science can be developed. Additionally, possible gender differences on motivation to learn science were analyzed to identify whether there is discrepancy between females and males score on motivation to learn science.

Introduction Linus Pauling said, “Chemistry is wonderful. I feel sorry for people who don’t know anything about chemistry. They are missing an important source of happiness” (Gaither & Cavasos-Gaither, 2002, pp.118). In fact, making students feeling this way should be the goal of chemistry or science courses since realizing the importance of science courses will increase students’ motivation to learn since motivation has positive effect on achievement (Singh, Granville, & Dika, 2002). According to Pintrich & Schunk (2002), motivation can be defined as “the process whereby goal-directed activity is instigated and sustained” (pp.5). Motivation has effects on initiation or duration of behaviors. The studies on motivation report that the students learning outcomes are positively correlated to their motivation to learn (Zusho, Pintrich, & Coppalo, 2003; Jacobsen, Eggen, & Kauchak, 2002; Pintrich, Marx, & Boyle, 1993). For that reason, curriculum developers and teachers should consider the importance of motivation to learn. Studies in the literature also reported that students are more intrinsically motivated when teachers increase students’ interests and relevance in a motivational designed course (Singh, Granville, & Dika, 2002; Entwistle 1986). Additionally, these studies suggest active learning environments for students and in order to increase students’ motivation, motivational tools to be developed. For assessing students’ motivation to learn science a questionnaire can be used. In order to evaluate students’ motivation to learn science the Science Motivation Questionnaire was developed by Glynn and Koballa (2006). However, there are not many studies on motivation to learn science in our country. The reason of

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this may be is that there is not a reliable and valid questionnaire which measures students’ motivation to learn science. The aim of the study was to adapt the Science Motivation Questionnaire (SMQ) into Turkish. Furthermore, there are some studies which report there are gender differences in motivation in science (Britner & Pajares, 2001; Debacker & Nelson, 2000; Meece & Jones, 1996; Pintrich & Schunk, 2002). Hence, this study also aims to examine whether there are gender differences in motivation to learn science. Research questions of this study were as follows: 1.

Is Science Motivation Questionnaire (SMQ) reliable to use into Turkish culture to assess university students’ motivation to learn science?

2.

Do females and males differ in terms of overall motivation to learn science?

3.

Are females more motivated than males in terms of intrinsically motivated science learning, extrinsically motivated science learning, relevance of learning science to personal goals, responsibility for learning science, confidence in learning science, and anxiety about science assessment?

Rationale Constructing a motivational environment in class is important for meaningful science learning although it is challenging to do so. When the positive effect of motivation on learning science and achievement is thought, it is crucial to determine students’ motivation; therefore, the motivational constructs can be investigated and activities which improve students’ motivation to learn science can be developed. For this reason, assessing students’ motivation to learn science takes an important role and; therefore, the main purpose of the study was to adapt SMQ to the Turkish cultural context and to identify the factorial structure. The SMQ aims to assess university students’ motivation to learn science. Additionally, gender related differences in motivation to learn science were analyzed in order to identify whether there is discrepancy between females and males score on motivation.

Methods The methods section consists of three parts which are instrument, translation, sample, and data analysis.

Instrument The SMQ (see the original questionnaire in the Appendix) consist of 30 items on a 5-point Likert-type scale. The response categories were “never”, “rarely”, “sometimes”, “usually”, and “always”. The components of questionnaire are intrinsically motivated science learning (labeled as intrinsic), extrinsically motivated science learning (extrinsic), relevance of learning science to personal goals (relevance), responsibility (self-determination) for learning science (responsibility), confidence (self-efficacy) in learning science (confidence), and anxiety about science assessment (anxiety). The Cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficient is 0.93, which means that at least 93% of the total score variance is due to true score variance.

Translation The initial translation of the SMQ was done by Filyet Aslı Ersöz into Turkish (Ersoz). In terms of validity, the translation process was again carried out by the researchers. Addition to researchers, two more independent bilingual researchers translated the original questionnaire into Turkish, allowing divergent interpretation of items with ambiguous meaning in the original questionnaire. Every translation was done individually and then the inconsistencies were compared. Afterwards, the translated questionnaire was back translated into English by another two researchers who have no knowledge of the questionnaire in order to check the consistency with the translated questionnaire and the original one. The purpose was to find out whether there is any ambiguity in the items and also

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conceptual and cultural equivalence was aimed. Afterwards, the Turkish version of the questionnaire was reviewed. Additionally for the final stage of the adaptation and in order to check the face and content validity, the translated questionnaire was administered to 10 university students. Based on the feedbacks, the questionnaire was revised and minor changes were made with consensus; and a final version of the translated SMQ was formed. Lastly, the final version of the questionnaire was administered to 669 university students.

Sample The sample of this study was 669 university students from two different universities in Turkey. The study was conducted with 314 female students and 348 male students, seven students did not report their gender. 89.39% of the sample was freshman students, 9.27% was second year university students, and the rest 1.34% of sample was senior students. The questionnaire was administered during their science courses and lasted approximately fifteen minutes.

Data Analysis The data collected from university students analyzed via SPSS 13.0 for Windows. Students’ response were tallied according to their response (for example; never=1 or always=5). The anxiety about science assessment items were reverse coded items; therefore, the items consisting the anxiety about science assessment component were recoded (for example; if a student’s response is 1, it is tallied as a 5.). The maximum score is 150 and the minimum score is 30. The reliability of the SMQ was analyzed by internal consistency which is assessed via Cronbach’s alpha. For educational studies, the suggested alpha value is at least .70 and preferably higher (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2003, pp. 168).

Results The SMQ items were subjected to principal component analysis (PCA) the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin value was 0.913, expressing the suitability of data for factor analysis, exceed the recommended value of 0.6 (Field, 2000). Additionally, Barlett’s Test of Sphericity reach statistical significance supporting the factorability of the correlation matrix ( χ 2 =7593.427, df = 435, 0.000). The PCA revealed six components exceeding eigen-values 1, which were 8.621, 3.253, 1.893, 1.263, 1.172, and 1.067, respectively. Considering the meaning the of items the components were labeled as intrinsically motivated science learning (6 items), anxiety about science assessment (4 items), confidence in science learning (6 items), relevance for learning science to personal goal (5 items), extrinsically motivated science learning (6 items), and responsibility for learning science (3 items), respectfully (for factor loadings for each component see Table 1). The reliability coefficient for the full questionnaire estimated by Cronbach’s alpha was 0.880, indicating high internal consistency and the Spearman-Brown reliability coefficient was found to be 0.895. The each component’s Cronbach’s alpha reliability was 0.809, 0.717, 0.776, 0.816, 0.492, and 0.399, respectively (Table 2). The six factors explained a total of 57.563% of the variance, with component intrinsic contributing 28.735%, component anxiety contributing 10.844%, component confidence contributing 6.309%, component relevance contributing 4.211%, component extrinsic contributing 3.908%, and component responsibility contributing 3.556% (Table 2).

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Table 1. Factor loadings for each component. Items Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 (Intrinsic) (Anxiety) (Confidence) Item 1 .675 Item 22 .632 Item 16 .623 Item 2 .497 Item 5 .482 Item 23 .405 Item 4 .871 Item 6 .865 Item 18 .315 .549 Item 13 .545 Item 28 -.784 Item 29 -.712 Item 24 -.664 Item 21 -.628 Item 26 -.428 Item 19 .394 -.428 Item 17 Item 10 Item 11 Item 27 Item 25 .329 Item 3 Item 12 Item 7 Item 30 Item 14 .383 Item 15 Item 20 Item 8 .363 Item 9 .331

Factor 4 Factor 5 Factor 6 (Relevance) (Extrinsic) (Responsibility)

.344 -.473

.876 .829 .746 .691 .359 .761 .752 .673 .491 -.471 .400 .701 -.490 -.471

Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis. Rotation Method: Oblimin with Kaiser Normalization. Note. Only loadings above .3 are displayed.

Table 2. Factor analysis scores for each component. Eigen Values Components

Total variance explained Cronbach’s alpha

Intrinsic Anxiety Confidence Relevance Extrinsic Responsibility

8.621 3.253 1.893 1.263 1.172 1.067

Variance explained 28.735% 10.844% 6.309% 4.211% 3.908% 3.556% 57.563%

0.88

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Reliability (Cronbach’s alpha) 0.809 0.717 0.776 0.816 0.492 0.399


In order to detect possible gender differences on motivation to learn science independent t test and multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) were applied. An independent-samples t-test was conducted to compare the total motivation scores for males and females. There was no statistically significant difference in total and males motivation scores for females ( M = 102.51, SD = 14.78 ), [ M = 101.85, SD = 15.45; t (481) = .478, p = .633 ]. The six dimensions were determined in the science motivation questionnaire; in order to analyze whether there were gender differences in these dimensions multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was conducted. Because these six dimensions theoretically and practically were correlated to each other (intrinsic, anxiety, confidence, relevance, extrinsic, and responsibility), MANOVA analysis was conducted via SPSS 13.0 for Windows. In terms of assumptions, MANOVA assumes that the correlation and variances among the dependent variables is the same across cells of the design and Box’s test of equality of covariance matrices was not significant ( p < .628 ); therefore, the assumption was not violated. On the other hand, the Levene’s test examines only variance for individual dependent variables, which were all not significant for six dependent variables (intrinsically motivated science learning ( p < .465) , anxiety about science assessment ( p < .733) , confidence in science learning scores ( p < .828) , relevance for learning science to personal goal ( p < .120) , extrinsically motivated science learning ( p < .189) , and responsibility for learning science ( p < .143) ). It was seen that there was no statistically significant violation for each variable, suggesting reliability of F tests. Based on the results, there was statistically significant main effect for gender

(Wilks ' λ = .897, F( 6, 483) = 9.062, p < .000, partialη 2 = .103) . Because the Wilks' lambda is the most common statistics, which is also recommended statistics by Tabachnick and Fidell (2001) was used to interpret for each effect. Although statistically significant difference was found between female and male university students in terms of their overall motivation to learn science, the effect size of this difference was weak as indicated by partial eta-squared = .103. In order to reduce the chance of a Type 1 error, a Bonferroni adjustment was applied, which is dividing alpha level .05 by the number of analysis. In this study, because of having six dependent variables, .05 was divided by six and an adjusted alpha level was .0083 (for mean scores for each dependent variable see Table 3). Univariate between-subjects tests showed that anxiety about science assessment was significantly and weakly related to gender favoring male participants ( F (1,481) = 26.79, p = .000 , partial eta-squared = .053) and extrinsically motivated science learning favoring female participants ( F (1,481) = 12.30, p = .000 , partial eta-squared = .025), but not to relevance for learning science to personal goal (p 2.6; p < .01; all ds > 1.2). Teachers’ behavioural control and their intention to implement competence-oriented teaching, however, increased continuously (Figure 5) In comparison to the development of the attitudes concerning the implementation of a competence-oriented teaching these two components of the prediction model could be developed earlier during working in learning communities.

Testing the third hypothesis by comparing students’ answers in the three questionnaires concerning the perception of competence-oriented teaching and the criteria of good teaching, the following results emerge. Analyzing the mean differences for students’ perception of the presence of the four domains of competences during biology teaching there are only few significant increases between the start- and the first follow-up questionnaire. But at the end of the project, in the second follow-up, the increases for all competence domains were significant. The students have perceived a change towards output- and competence-oriented teaching (Figure 6). Moreover, there were substantial and significant increases in the follow-up questionnaires for the different criteria of good teaching evaluated by the students, too (Figure 7). Students, whose teachers working in the bik-project, perceived more and more student oriented teaching, inquiry learning methods in the course of the project. The rate of individual performance feedback increase and the presence of non-distinctive goals decrease.

Conclusions and Implications The present research used the theory of planned behaviour to identify important components, how teachers’ attitudes, subjective norm and their perceived behavioural control affect the intention and the behaviour of teachers concerning implementing competence-oriented teaching. Furthermore, it was analyzed in which way this behaviour and students’ competences are related. The results of the study confirmed the suggested prediction model and revealed that a change in teachers’ attitudes concerning the implementation of competence-oriented teaching developed more slowly than a change in teachers’ behavioural control and their intention to implement the new

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approach of teaching. It seems that it is more difficult to change attitudes. Rising teachers’ perceived behavioural control by working in learning communities appears to be the better “lever” to initiate changes in teachers’ behaviour. The results of the mediation analysis support this interpretation. A positive attitude towards competence oriented teaching alone does not turn to an increased intention to implement bik. Only if teacher can develop a certain amount of perceived behavioural control the probability of successful implementation of competence oriented teaching in the classrooms increases. Looking at the development of students’ views of activities in biology classroom we showed that in the course of three years of the project bik there were only small increases of the competence-oriented classroom activities. These results were disappointing but not surprising. The participating teachers who had to develop tasks and units on a competence-oriented base were confronted with a completely new approach and they had to start from scratch. Hence, the development of these tasks did at least need one year. As a consequence, students were not able to recognize any changes of the teaching in the first year. But there were some positive side effects. Working together in a learning community seems to influence teachers’ classroom activities in general. Their students perceived even after the first year of the project significant positive changes of the quality of student centred teaching and other criteria of good teaching. Apparently, working in learning communities and giving the teachers the opportunity to cooperate with other motivated colleagues seems to be a fruitful approach to develop teacher professionalism.

References Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behaviour. Organizational Behaviour & Human Decision Processes. 50, 179–211. Ajzen, I. & Madden, T.J. (1986). Prediction of goal directed behaviour: attitudes, intentions, and perceived behavioural control. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 22, 453-474. Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1173-1182. Brown (1997). Transforming schools into communities of thinking and learning serious matters. American Psychologists. 52, 399-413.

Gräsel, C. & Parchmann, I. (2004). Implementationsforschung – oder: der steinige Weg, Unterricht zu verändern [Implementation research – or: the rocky path to change instruction practice]. Unterrichtswissenschaft, 32 (3), 196-214. Helmke, A. (2003). Unterrichtsqualität. Erfassen, Bewerten, Verbessern [Instructional quality – measuring, evaluating, improving]. Seelze, Germany: Kallmeyer. Jones, M.G. & Carter, G. (2007). Science Teacher Attitudes and Beliefs. In S.K. Abell & N.G. Lederman (Editors), Handbook of research on science education (pp. 1067-1103). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. KMK (2004). Bildungsstandards im Fach Biologie für den Mittleren Schulabschluss (Beschluss der Kultusministerkonferenz vom 16.12.2004). English: Educational Standards for the subject biology http://www.kmk.org/schul/Bildungsstandards/Biologie_MSA_16-12-04.pdf

Ostermeier, C. (2004). Kooperative Qualitätsentwicklung in Schulnetzwerken. Eine empirische Studie am Beispiel des BLK-Modellversuchsprogramms "Steigerung der Effizienz des mathematisch-naturwissenschaftlichen Unterrichts" (SINUS). Münster: Waxmann. Sobel, M. E. (1982). Asymptotic intervals for indirect effects in structural equations models. In S. Leinhart (Ed.), Sociological methodology (pp.290-312). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Supovitz J. A. & Turner, H.M. (2000). The effects of professional development on science teaching practices and classroom culture. Journal of Research in Science teaching, 37(9), 963-980. Vescio, V., Ross, D., & Adams, A. (2008). A review of research on the impact of professional learning communities on teaching practice and student learning. Teaching and Teacher Education, 24, 80-91.

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PART 2 TEACHER PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

GROWTH IN TEACHER SELF-EFFICACY THROUGH PARTICIPATION IN A HIGH-TECH INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN COMMUNITY Colleen Megowan-Romanowicz Arizona State University, Polytechnic

Sibel Uysal

Florida State University

Muhsin Menekse & David Birchfield Arizona State University

Abstract The Situated Multimedia Arts Learning Laboratory (SMALLab) is a semi-immersive mixed reality learning environment that affords face-to-face interaction by co-located participants within a 3-dimensional space informed by visual and sonic media that respond to participants’ movements and gestures within the space. Over the past year, SMALLab has been field-tested in high school science classes in a large public high school in the southwestern United States. A team of high school science teachers and university researchers have met weekly in a professional learning community to design learning scenarios and a framework for student participation. This paper describes changes in teachers’ self-efficacy as they become encultured in a cutting edge instructional technology design community.

What is SMALLab? SMALLab is an environment developed by a collaborative team of media researchers from education, psychology, interactive media, computer science, and the arts. It is an extensible platform for semi-immersive, mixedreality learning. Semi-immersive means that the mediated space of SMALLab is physically open on all sides to the larger environment. Participants can freely enter and exit the space without the need for wearing specialized display or sensing devices. Participants seated or standing around SMALLab can see and hear the dynamic media, and can directly communicate with peers within the active space. Mixed-reality means that this system integrates physical objects, 3D physical gestures, and digitally mediated components. Extensible means that researchers, teachers, and students can create new learning scenarios in SMALLab using custom designed authoring tools and programming interfaces. This paper deals with the design of a SMALLab scenario developed by high school chemistry teachers to help student construct a robust conceptual model of neutralization reaction. SMALLab supports situated and embodied learning by empowering the physical body to function as an expressive interface (Birchfield, Ciufo et al. 2006). Within SMALLab, students use a set of “glowballs” and peripheral devices to interact in real time with each other and with dynamic visual, textual, physical and sonic media through full body 3D movements and gestures.

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Physically, SMALLab, is a 15’W x 15’W x 12’H freestanding, interactive space. This cube of space is surrounded by a ceiling-mounted six-element camera array for object tracking, a top-mounted video projector providing real time visual feedback, four audio speakers for surround sound feedback, and an array of tracked physical objects (glowballs). A networked computing cluster with custom software drives the interactive system.

Theoretical Perspective Technology in Science Education Digitally mediated learning environments hold great promise in that they provide educators with the necessary tools to situate learning experiences in real world social, cultural and material contexts (Gee, 2007). In addition to fostering active learning, student driven technology in the classroom affords two key elements necessary to stimulate intrinsic motivation: arousal and control (Middleton, 1992). But for all its great promise and increased availability in K-12 classrooms, the impact of technology on learning is still disappointingly small. Major stumbling blocks to effective educational technology implementation are lack of teacher preparation and support. (Sandholtz, 2001) Without the necessary training and opportunities for teachers to network with colleagues about how to implement classroom technologies, the potential of many powerful technology-based learning tools remains unrealized.

Self Efficacy According to Bandura, showing effort and persisting in the face of obstacles is dependent on one’s belief about his or her own ability to perform a given task successfully. Bandura labeled this construct self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997). Self-efficacy is not a broad construct like self-esteem; rather, it deals specifically with behavior in the context of a particular task. Studying self-efficacy is important because a teacher with high instructional technology self-efficacy is likely to persist when faced with challenging implementation problems and is thus more likely to succeed. We created the rubric using Bandura’s self-efficacy theory to measure teachers’ self-efficacy (see Table 1).

Professional Learning Communities Professional learning communities (PLCs) benefit teachers, because they enable them to remain current in information, concepts, and research; provide them opportunities to share ideas with one another; and help them develop relationships with college faculty and master teachers. Research has shown that the conversations teachers have with one another around their practice can lead to creative transformations in the classroom, improving understanding and practice (Cranton, 1996; Borko, 2004). In this research we examine changes in teachers’ selfefficacy as they design SMALLab learning scenarios during weekly PLC meetings with colleagues and university faculty.

Research Question Throughout this study, self-efficacy with respect to technology integration was a key factor affecting the evolution of the SMALLab scenario that PLC participants developed. Data were examined to answer the following research question: How does being a part of the instructional design process impact teacher self-efficacy with respect to digital learning technology?

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Table 1 Teacher’s self-efficacy in digital technology environment rubric Categories 1 2 3


4

Mastery Experience

No technology experience

Little or negative technology experience

Vicarious Experience

No science content knowledge,

Little science content knowledge,

no DT experience

minimal digital or other technology experience

Verbal or Social Persuasion

No connection with and no influence from faculty and other teachers related to DT

Little connection with other teachers regarding DT.

Has opinion about DT and discusses DT experiences verbally or socially with other teachers

Contributes to the development of DT. Is positive and realistic about classroom technology use

Physiological and Affective

No emotion or negative affect when confronted with DT activities

Interested but hesitant to participate

Tries to use DT but gives up when difficulties arise

Enjoys DT activity, exhibits confidence in teaching with DT

Basic experience using computer, video-camera or digital technology (DT) Can explain specific science concepts, has observed various DT

Enough DT experience to design own lessons

Has observed good classroom DT experiences and can discuss how they would use such activities in their teaching

Research Design and Method We report here on a case study that was part of a year-long program of research around deploying and field testing SMALLab in regular high school science and language arts classes. In this case, the science PLC was composed of four veteran high school science teachers, a university professor, a post-doctoral researcher and two graduate students. Our study focuses particularly on two teachers in this group who were central to the development of the chemistry scenario. Erin has taught science for almost 20 years, and teaches honors and regular chemistry. She is the acknowledged Chemistry Expert in this PLC. George has taught middle and high school science for 9 years, but has only taught Chemistry for three years. He is trained in Modeling Instruction (Hestenes, 1996), an inquiry approach to teaching physics and chemistry that employs technology for data collection and analysis.

Data Sources There are three sources of data for this study: 1) the researcher’s observations and videotapes of weekly PLC meetings, 2) the researchers’ assessment of teachers’ self-efficacy, and 3) Reform Teaching Observation Protocol (RTOP) (Sawada, Piburn et al. 2002) results from classroom observations of teachers both before and during the SMALLab implementation. For this study, we use Erickson’s (1986) interpretive research methods, which stress the meaning of phenomena and the actions of the individual actors involved. Where most quantitative approaches focus on behavior, interpretive research focuses on meaningful actions of the participants. An action is an observable

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behavior, plus the meaning attached to it by the actor. In this interpretive research we can examine the way teachers’ self esteem regarding digital technology and their beliefs about technology in science education affect their practice. The RTOP is a quantitative instrument developed to measure lesson design and implementation, propositional and procedural knowledge, communicative interactions and relationships with students. Data from video recordings and researchers’ observation were coded using a rubric derived from Bandura’s self-efficacy theory. There are four types of experiences that affect self efficacy: enactive mastery experience, vicarious experience, verbal or social persuasion, and physiological and affective reaction. All PLC meetings were reviewed but four meetings— January, April, and two meetings in May (one before the implementation and one after) were analyzed in detail using this rubric to assess changes in teachers’ self efficacy as they became more familiar and comfortable with SMALLab technology and its implications for teaching and learning science.

Findings and Analysis George’s self efficacy was most affected by “vicarious experiences”. Vicarious experiences as we have defined them in our rubric, involve indirect (primarily as a result of observation) experiences of the utilization of digital technology as a content area instructional medium. Prior to the beginning of the development cycle for the chemistry scenario, George was a peripheral participant in development of a SMALLab earth science scenario but did not actively contribute to the design process. When called upon to become involved in design decisions for the chemistry scenario he was initially hesitant. He listened to discussions and offered occasional comments, but deferred to Erin as the chemistry expert. When initial programming was complete, he eagerly engaged in running the computer console that controlled SMALLab and in play-testing the scenario inside the SMALLab environment. As the design period drew to a close he was observed to think aloud about how he might coordinate his students’ learning within the space, and to attempt to understand the computer interface that ran the scenario. His affective score dipped slightly during the design phase in April as he struggled to visualize how the scenario would translate into a learning experience for his students, but once programming was complete, he had an “aha moment” apparently achieving clarity about how the scenario would play out with his students during instruction. This positive affect persisted throughout the 3-day deployment of the scenario in his chemistry classes (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Self-efficacy changes in George

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Most of Erin’s self-efficacy changes occurred early on, concomitant with her decision to engage with the design process. In January, the design team spent most of its time working on an earth science scenario and she did not appear interested in the technology or the content. In late March, when conversations turned to a chemistry scenario, Erin’s interest was piqued, and her expertise in the content area was needed to advance the design process. By mid-April the team was relying on her to insure the conceptual coherence of the chemistry content underlying the scenario design. However, as the design process drew to a close and implementation drew near, Erin became distressed because she realized that she had use this SMALLab scenario in her classroom, and she had not spent time reflecting about how the learning might unfold with her students. She had no idea how to approach the task of teaching. After PLC participants rehearsed a lesson in student mode, she relaxed, and ultimately had no difficulty with the classroom implementation. Afterward, however, she had lingering concerns about her competence with the technology (see Figure 2)

Figure 2. Self-efficacy changes for Erin Pre and post RTOP scores for both George and Erin revealed significant gains, particularly in the categories of lesson design and implementation, and procedural knowledge. These gains are not surprising in light of the unique affordances of SMALLab as a student-centered, interactive, digitally mediated learning environment. George, although already a practitioner of inquiry methods in his classroom, made good gains in the area of studentteacher relationships as well, perhaps as a result of his pre-existing expertise in discourse management.

Conclusions In conjunction with their SMALLab curriculum design team experience, both George and Erin demonstrated significant improvements in their teaching practice as measured by the RTOP (George: p