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Int. J. Human Resources Development and Management, Vol. 8, No. 4, 2008
Continuous professional development via self-directed learning amongst social work professionals Georgy Hadwen* Faculty of Higher and Community Education Edinburgh University 2.13 Patersons Land (PhD Office) Edinburgh, EH8 8AQ, UK and Edinburgh City Council Health and Social Care Edinburgh, UK E-mail:
[email protected] *Corresponding author
Laura Galloway School of Management and Languages Heriot-Watt University Edinburgh, EH14 4AS, UK Fax: 0131 451 3296 E-mail:
[email protected] Abstract: This paper stems from the work done in the emerging area of Continuous Professional Development (CPD) and its impact on Self-Directed Learning (SDL) within the learning organisation. It focuses on a research question raised during research on what Social Workers (SWs) want in terms of information. In a poorly researched profession, the paper attempts to examine how a sample of SW professionals and practitioners based in local government are currently accessing and using information within the context of self-directed learning. Keywords: social work; knowledge sharing; Self-Directed Learning; SDL; Continuous Professional Development; CPD; evidence-based practice; information; multi-agency environments; new technology. Reference to this paper should be made as follows: Hadwen, G. and Galloway, L. (2008) ‘Continuous professional development via self-directed learning amongst social work professionals’, Int. J. Human Resources Development and Management, Vol. 8, No. 4, pp.346–363. Biographical notes: With a background in information science (Bsc (Leeds), Msc (Ed)) and widespread experience in a variety of working environments, Georgy Hadwen has recently undertaken research for a PhD whilst working within local government. She is currently at looking at web-based information technology (web 2.0/3 +), and its relationship with knowledge sharing and CPD in organisations. She wrote a paper on information strategies for entrepreneurs for the commonwealth science council whilst working as an Australian Volunteer Agency Information specialist in Botswana and has also spent time in both Australia and the USA. Copyright © 2008 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd.
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Dr. Laura Galloway is a Lecturer in the School of Management and Languages at Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh. She teaches and supervises Enterprise and Entrepreneurship modules at both the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. Prior to working at Heriot-Watt, She was a Research Assistant at the University of Paisley’s Enterprise Research Centre and as a Research Fellow at the University of Strathclyde, where she co-authored the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor: Scotland for three years. Her research interests include entrepreneurship education, minority entrepreneurship and e-commerce. She has published over 11 papers and co-authored chapters in a variety of publications.
1
Introduction
The purpose of this paper is to examine institutional, dispositional and situational barriers related to participation in Self-Directed Learning (SDL) activities, within the social work profession. The study explores social workers’ experience of take up of information to inform best practice. Many professions have specific requirements to demonstrate Continuous Professional Development (CPD) and by extension SDL (SSSC, 2003). These include social workers. Research was done on factors affecting the uptake of information by field-based social workers. Their mandate, to identify and demonstrate evidence-based practice, can only be met if the support and expectations of the employer (in this case the local authority) and employee are delivered through mechanisms incorporating SDL.
2
Knowledge and learning
Where philosophers such as Hume (1748) defined knowledge in terms of the relation of ideas and matters of fact, others suggest knowledge is either determined empirically, i.e., through experience, or it is determined rationally by virtue of human facilities of understanding and through logic (e.g., Machlup, 1980; Phillips, 2000). Lehrer (2000) summarises that the differing threads of knowledge theory both support and challenge accepted wisdom. The central argument comprises epistemology verses metaphysics, i.e., only the real is knowable versus relativism, i.e., matter exists through a succession of ideas. Lehrer (2000, p.7) suggests that the “theory of how people come to know what they do” comprises the basis of learning theory. Learning necessitates the human capacity to reason and base this on primary or secondary experience: central to knowledge is an understanding of what we accept as real and credible. A match between mind and world sufficient to yield knowledge rests on coherence within a system of things we accept, our acceptance system, which must include an account of how we may succeed in our quest for truth (Lehrer, 2000, p.21). The relevance for SDL must be understood, therefore, within the accepted models of how we learn and what works.
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Self-directed learning
A useful description is that provided by Hiemstra (1994b):
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G. Hadwen and L. Galloway “several things are known about self-directed learning: (a) individual learners can become empowered to take increasingly more responsibility for various decisions associated with the learning endeavour; (b) self-direction is best viewed as a continuum or characteristic that exists to some degree in every person and learning situation; (c) self-direction does not necessarily mean all learning will take place in isolation from others; (d) self-directed learners appear able to transfer learning, in terms of both knowledge and study skill, from one situation to another; (e) self-directed study can involve various activities and resources, such as self-guided reading, participation in study groups, internships, electronic dialogues, and reflective writing activities; (f) effective roles for teachers in self-directed learning are possible, such as dialogue with learners, securing resources, evaluating outcomes, and promoting critical thinking; (g) some educational institutions are finding ways to support self-directed study through open-learning programs, individualised study options, non-traditional course offerings, and other innovative programs.”
Modern conceptions of SDL emerged due in large part to the work on androgogy by Knowles. Before he coined the term in 1975, Knowles (1950) described how society must shift “from ‘educating people’ to ‘helping them learn’”. He suggested and later demonstrated that “self-directed learning describes a process in which individuals take the initiative, with or without the help of others” (Knowles, 1975, p.6). It is often associated with distance learning strategies whereby learners source and follow patterns of study geographically distant from the institution where they are enrolled. As the emerging ideas of flexible learning patterns have become adopted as mainstream educational options, Knowles (1975, p.15) has provided a five step model which involves: Step 1
Diagnosing learning needs.
Step 2
Formulating learning needs.
Step 3
Identifying human material resources for learning.
Step 4
Choosing and implementing appropriate learning strategies.
Step 5
Evaluating learning outcomes.
Assumptions that Knowles makes about adult learners include that background most often comprises self-concept, experience, readiness to learn, orientation to learning and motivation to learn.
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Corporate culture, self-directed learning and continuous professional development
Various disciplines within education have long promoted SDL as desirable. Research within the fields of adult education (Garrison, 1992), gifted education (Schillereff, 2001), and web-based and distance learning (Scheidet, 2003) has shown the effectiveness of SDL. For example, the Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory (2004, p.8) state “the Northwest region should not view self-directed learning as an ‘add-on,’ but an integral part…and a desired outcome of standards-based accountability systems”.
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The purpose of SDL is thus the process of encouraging autonomy and choice in the blend of learning an individual may adopt in order to follow a course of learning. Although linked in people minds to academic institutions, the recent interest by corporations and the professions in CPD has added weight to revising learning styles and take-up of knowledge. For large organisations encouraging or requiring CPD, SDL is attractive particularly since releasing staff to attend training courses has debatable value either in commercial terms or in workforce development. The need to maximise the company’s profitability or value by harnessing best practice and benchmarking is often contingent on a work force that engages with the company’s core values and is invested in furthering its interests. Jones and Robinson (1997, p.200) suggest that “for most organizations it made sense to view CPD as a component of an overall training and development strategy”. Guglielmino (1989) devised a SDL readiness scale. Through a factor analysis procedure she isolated eight factors in SDL: 1
openness to learning opportunities
2
self-concept as an effective learner
3
initiative and independence in learning
4
informed acceptance of responsibility for one’s own learning
5
love of learning
6
creativity
7
future orientation
8
ability to use basic study skills and problem-solving.
Two related arguments prevail on any discussion about work and learning. Livingstone suggests first, a “knowledge-based economy”, which requires a much higher proportion of highly skilled workers, is widely presumed to be rapidly emerging. Secondly, a growing emphasis on lifelong learning, the “learning society”, is generally seen as indispensable in order to acquire the additional knowledge and skills needed to survive in the global economy (Livingstone, 2005). Livingstone (2005, pp.5–6) goes on to link this knowledge economy with SDL stating “..in most social groups – whether distinguished by gender, age, class, race, able-ism (sic) or nationality – the distribution of the basic amount of time that people were spending on self-directed learning projects was very similar”. Where knowledge is key to sustainability and competitiveness, the benefits of continuous learning are well acknowledged. For the learning organisation, knowledge, and by extension SDL, have been bound up historically with research and development issues, as they impact specifically and particularly on a company’s intellectual capital (Davenport et al., 1998). Indeed, to foster innovation, many progressive organisations promote SDL by providing employees with time to pursue non-core projects in which their ‘ownership’ is encouraged. Examples of such organisations include IBM, Hewlett-Packard, Dell and Google, and it is no coincidence that these are all players in a highly competitive innovation-driven industry (Maloney; in Economist, 2007, pp.79–81).
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More generally, researchers have only begun to offer specific arguments about adult learning in relation to the changing nature of work (see Livingstone and Sawchuk, 2004). However, there are many studies available that indicate why individuals take up learning (e.g., Boyatzis, 2001). In an empirical study, McHugh and Groves (1998) suggests “overall, the survey data give the picture of a workforce with high intrinsic motivation and a recognition by them, of the importance of quality and skills development to the organisation”. From the organisation perspective, Danziger and Grant (2005, p.9) concludes that “affordable anytime/where education can help … overcome real barriers to training”. The related area of e-learning has, increasingly been concerning itself with the difficulty of transferring talk and chalk based pedagogy, to that presented on web based media. Mayes (2000, p.163) suggests the area is likely to influence a range of learning environments outside the standard learning models: “the main opportunity for online education is, after all, not pedagogy but delivery”. Technology may be directed towards change in the way education and training is organised – where and when learning occurs, how resources can be accessed, how learning can be assessed: “it is not new pedagogies that we need, rather we need new ways of providing existing pedagogy efficiently and flexibly” (Mayes, 2000, p.164).
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E-learning and self-directed mechanisms
In the modern world, learning opportunities are increasingly inclusive of, and dependent upon, new technology. Amongst large organisations there are political and financial advantages to promoting more technology, particularly web-based learning. However, the view, supported by Macpherson et al. (2004) is there seems relatively little in the literature that looks specifically, at the implications of e-learning within organisations. Research on corporate e-learning identified some inherent contradictions: whilst 87% in a study stated a preference for taking digital courses within work hours, only 38% said they “generally preferred e-learning to classroom training” (Strother, 2002, p.3). The inference is thus a clear preference for traditional methodology. E-learning as a concept, can be defined as “the delivery of content via all electronic media, including the internet, intranets, extranets, satellite broadcast, audio/video tape, interactive TV, and CD-ROM” (State of Washington e-learning network, 2001). Evidenced by Wild (2002) and Danziger (2005), such learning facilities may provide an appropriate environment to support SDL that is cost and person effective. Danziger (2005, p.9) concludes “anytime/anywhere” education can help the organisation overcome real barriers to training. E-learning seems to offer significant opportunities to enhance internal education. A shift in corporate culture seems inevitable (Davenport et al., 1998). Organisations need to accommodate the opportunities they expect their workforce to embrace financially and in time ring-fenced for such activities, however. In concluding her research, Wild (2000, p.377) states “despite the challenges involved in creating a successful e-learning environment, it is clear that the benefits of e-learning complement and strengthen other knowledge management activities as recognized by corporations as diverse as Cisco Systems, United Airlines, and Dominos Pizza”.
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Macpherson et al. (2004) also identified some key issues on e-learning within corporations that support positive arguments for uptake. These include “flexibility, cost and breadth of coverage but with certain caveats” (pp.296–297). As Horwath (1999), points out, electronic dissemination now requires not only the ability to read and write, but also the technical competence and network depth to create a learning community in cyberspace. Hiemstra (2006) summarises what he sees as primary motivators in accessing web-based information: self-motivation, self-discipline (the solitary nature of the internet requires dedicated self-discipline for successful acquisition of all its relevant resources), and personal responsibility (personal efficacy, enthusiasm, and even comfort in controlling one’s own learning).
6
Barriers and resistance
Work done by Pinchon (1995) cites work place recognition, promotion prospects and budget enhancements as incentives in SDL activity. Barriers are simply those factors that prevent learning from starting, impede or interrupt learning or result in learning being terminated earlier than it might have been ordinarily (Hicks et al., 2007, p.64). Moreover, Mayes (2002) notes there exists “a group that actively resists the educational process”. As suggested by work by Knowles (1983), Hiemstra (1996) and others, influences on resistance to SDL might include: age, culture, language, web design, gender and motivational factors (especially reward). Additionally, it might be assumed other factors such as time (or lack of it) may also contribute to a propensity to SDL, as might socio/economic status. For example, one might expect higher socioeconomic status to be correlated with high propensity to SDL because there may be greater (relatively) experience of previous learning. Upon career development, however, it could also be argued that the responsibilities associated with seniority would in themselves become barriers to learning motivation (Confessore and Confessore, 1992). For commentators such as Hiemstra (1994a–b) a central argument in the demand for formalised, and increasingly prescriptive systems of continuing professional education (and thus resistance to self-directed learning) is one contingent on the view of professionals themselves currently held by society. Further, in the case of web-based SDL a further influence might be experience and expertise in web technologies, and these, in turn, are likely to be affected by general demographic issues such as age. While no empirical tests are known to the authors, the notion that age may influence information take up has been noted by Jones (1993). In terms of gender Livingstone and Stowe (2007) found that there appears to be some gender variation in job-related informal web-based learning amongst those who work long hours: “Men who spent over 50 hours at their jobs in 2004 tended to devote the most hours to job-related informal learning, averaging around six hours per week by their reckoning, while women with such long hours jobs did roughly half as much.” Therefore, men were more likely to be involved in more voluntary overtime: ‘workaholic’ males may choose to work overtime; most women with families don’t have that choice (Livingstone and Stowe, 2007, p.17). Culture is likely to affect electronic SDL take-up. For instance, geopolitical restrictions on access to information are well documented (BBC News, 2007). Attempting to access sites such as the proscribed Falong Gong would prove fruitless within China using search engines such as Google. Similarly the cultural totalitarianism
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in some countries may deter its web users from challenging information already provided for the population to absorb. For example, recent publicity was given to President Yahya Jammeh in the Gambia who stated that Aids/HIV could be treated with his special healing touch (Reith Lectures, 2007) and it can only be presumed that the electorate neither challenge this nor question incorporating it in any form of health education or learning projects. Language also is likely to have a bearing. Since most published articles are in English there is a self fulfilling bias towards English in publications. Michel’s (1982) work on linguistic and political barriers in the international transfer of information in science and technology suggests that articles in English represent 40% to 80% of the total. This suggests strong cultural bias and a possible sense of exclusion from truly global information (although this is held contentious by Davies, 1983). The influence of time on electronic take-up of SDL is likely to be important. Following Long (1987, p.1989), Draves (2002) contends that the internet enhances learning, as an individual can learn at a peak time of the day, self paced, has access to global information, the ability to track personal progress, and many online learning resources have the capability to test personal learning efforts. Therefore, according to Draves, cognitive learning via the internet is actually better than contact learning principally because individuals can manage their learning as (and when) they please. Kerka (1997) concurs, citing the temporal flexibility of the internet as a benefit to SDL, while Candy (2004) states that some forms of SDL are thus uniquely advantaged by the internet. However, flexibility of access times can in itself comprise a barrier; if one can do something any time, by definition, it never achieves priority status. In terms of SDL supporting CPD specifically, and in the context of busy working environments where there are core functions and priorities, this may comprise a significant barrier to electronic SDL.
7
The current study
The current study aims to investigate issues associated with web-based SDL amongst professionals in social work in Scotland. Social workers were selected as the literature suggested that there exists a dearth of research of best professional practice amongst this group; a view supported by Watson (1997) with specific regard to specialist information services. Based on emerging trends in the literature generally, two broad research questions were generated. These are: 1
Do social workers access information from external web-based sources?
2
What (if any) are the barriers to web-based SDL in the social work profession?
8
Background
Gannon-Leary (2006) reports on the social work environment in the UK in the Framework for Multi-Agency Environments (FAME) report. The report notes that “professionals and practitioners in the Health and Social Services are required to keep up to date with policy and other information. In this process they also need to make
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informed choices about what is important in their working lives and what is of less significance”. Gannon-Leary reveals a workforce, poorly equipped by professional education, relying heavily on personal communication and ‘gut instinct’ to deliver packages of care. Similarly Booth et al. (2003) and Moseley and Tierney (2005) describe the social care workplace as one in which action is valued over reflection. Taking time to search for evidence or read research during working hours creates tensions in a culture that lends itself more to face-to-face communication.
9
Methodology
The study examined the information needs of a sample of social workers based in Edinburgh. All of the staff were professionally qualified and had been mandated to demonstrate evidence based practice in their day-to-day activities and decision-making. This would necessarily involve SDL. A questionnaire was created and piloted. The questionnaire was designed to elicit as much qualitative as well as quantitative information as possible, comprising a limited number of specific closed and several open ended broad questions. These ranged from specific detail on sources, to the preferred formats and delivery options of information. Questionnaires were sent with a covering letter to 257 social workers randomly selected from a total group of 2500, and a useable sample of 139 was obtained.
10 Description of data The ratio of males to females in Social Work in Scotland is 1:4.9 (Scottish Executive, 2006). Of the sample of 139, 67% were female and 22% were male, broadly representing this ratio. A further 9% did not provide gender information. In terms of age, statistically social work is an ageing profession: “compared with the Scottish workforce as a whole, the social services workforce has a lower proportion of employees below 35, i.e., a greater proportion of workers in each age cohort over 35” (Scottish Executive, 2006, p.9). In the current sample too few respondents provided age information with which to draw any conclusions, but based on the external information the assumption made is that the majority of respondents were over 35.
11 Results RQ1
Do social workers access information from external web-based sources?
Almost a quarter (23%) of the sample stated they did not access any online information at work, although some then went on to indicate in other questions that they used external sources such as the NHS website of the public library system. The inference here is that most respondents did make use of online sources of information through SDL. Of concern were a further 10% who were simply not aware of any relevant online learning options. 40% of respondents claimed not to need or use SDL activities in their work. Of
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these almost a quarter (22%) were managers. A third (34%) used the council intranet daily and a further 15% (at senior level as only they have access) use the internet everyday. It is worth noting that 84% specifically requested a targeted e-information service. As illustrated by one respondent, “..targeted information services would be very useful ... work time severely limits the ability to use services fully”. RQ2
What (if any) are the barriers to web-based SDL in the social work profession?
11.1 Access issues Pro-active users, i.e., those who regardless of geographical or practical problems were motivated enough to seek out information, were asked to identify issues associated with accessing information electronically at work. More than quarter of this group, ten (26%) stated they simply did not have any access. Overall, of the total sample of 139 55% stated they did not have IT infrastructure let alone adequate ICT access to resources. There was a variety of reasons for this ranging from being networked in remote outposts, those obliged to share a PC with several others, to the issues of being posted at institutions such as prisons (2%) that had no internet access. Forty-six percent of respondents claimed they shared a computer. Sharing computers can cause enormous friction, particularly if, as in many centres, PCs are frequently based in the administrative or a locked office (60% at the time of the survey). Accessing e-mail regularly is problematic and, as most learning has to be reinforced through evidence based practice, surfing the net without specifically framed questions is simply not an option. Open-ended questions provided some further clarification. Comments included: •
no access to client index system (NHS based)
•
desperate need for networked systems…
•
...not on intranet, nor reliable internal mail…
•
need access to e format. No access at unit level
•
…never seems to work properly
•
…I have tried but found access difficult and unhelpful.
11.2 Experience and self confidence Other issues identified as barriers to web-based SDL amongst social workers included lack of faith in the reliability or relevance of information on it. Forty-two percent of the sample identified experience and confidence as issues. Comments included: •
… its rarely up to date
•
…would use more reports if available on the intranet
•
…Not usually relevant to my work
•
…I don’t have time to do this – a lot of rubbish comes on the internet not relevant to my work.
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There was also some indication of ignorance of the medium and its content: as one respondent noted, “don’t know what help it can fully offer me and how to access it, not yet needed and thus not got a password”. Also inferred by the results is a lack of support from the employer of CPD using online SDL. As Macpherson et al. (2004, p.297) reflects on poor take up of web based learning: “it does raise questions about the suitability of e-learning, with its reliance on self-instruction and self motivation, for a broad organizational constituency”.
12 Discussion The current study has demonstrated that amongst social workers there are serious issues with regard to accessing information for CPD-related SDL. Harrison et al. (2004) conducted a study of the information needs of social workers in a multidisciplinary team based in an acute NHS Trust. Findings suggested that the practitioners were information poor in terms of access to information sources and yet information to assist their role was required on a wide range of subjects. Work by Gorman (1995) infers there prevails a heavy reliance by health professionals on human sources of information. He suggests this has implications for the nature of information needs, including the narrative structure of their knowledge and the need for more than information alone when solving, e.g., clinical, problems. With regard to the current study (or do you mean Gorman’s here?). Although not exhaustive the results reveal that access, competence and time allowed to access information were the main reasons for information apathy. Even amongst those more motivated to source information, the time issue, either explicitly or through inference, was critical. It was not evident from the necessarily limited results whether age, gender or rank correlated with self-directed learning. The current study corroborates Gannon-Leary (2006) by identifying a lack of consistency in ICT skills. This has implications for those involved in IT literacy, information retrieval skills or critical and evaluative skills in respect of retrievals from the internet. As Gannon-Leary points out, specific technology within the workplace setting may not incorporate CPD needs. Both surveys suggest that social care staff may not be given protected or specific, ring fenced, self-directed ‘training’ time. However, common sense dictates that access to and training with the new technology with time allocated to browse it, is essential for effective use of web-based SDL. The current research did not consider staffing levels. Staff shortages, now widespread in many local authorities, may legitimise an understandably beleaguered feeling that searching out evidence or reading research is not “real work” (Gannon-Leary, 2006, p.9). Staff shortages in some UK local authorities were reported during the FAME fieldwork and Social Services had some particular staffing problems. In Gannon-Leary’s study for example, 20% to 50% of staff positions on some teams were currently not filled by employees; they were either not filled at all or filled by agency staff (including some management positions). Staff faced with these chronic and acute team-based shortages simply cannot find time to access information and the temporary agency staff filling in often feel a lack of integration and commitment in (and to) that learning culture (Gannon-Leary, 2006, p.1).
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The present trend towards e-learning and self directed activities adds weight to the argument that ICT infrastructure and organisational commitment are critical to encouraging take up of self directed learning. The literature suggests that there is also a culture within the profession that places commendable emphasis on interpersonal skills and the central unequivocal face-to-face relationship with the client. Further research could facilitate knowledge about whether in the context of many employment practices in addition to social work, new technology facilitates information take up and self directed learning and thus evidence based practice and the extent to which other professions experience similar barriers and resistance to technology-based SDL for CPD.
13 Managing human resources, instruments and implications for human resources development The result aimed for in this research, was to engage the staff in “the problem” (Knowles, 1991). Some implications for workforce planning may to some extent be drawn from this and similar research. One key finding from this study was the need to establish the role of the organisational management structure in establishing self directed learning. Within the context of managing human resources within local government, the Scottish Social Services Council (SSSC, 2004) code of conduct specifically lays out for every social work professional, recommendations, for example to: “Undertake relevant training to maintain and improve your knowledge and skills and contributing to the learning and development of others” (p.6). The codes of practice for employers are equally explicit: “To meet their responsibilities in relation to regulating the social service workforce, social service employers must: •
Make sure people are suitable to enter the workforce and understand their roles and responsibilities.
•
Contributing to the provision of social care and social work education and training, including effective workplace assessment and practice learning.” (SSSC, 2004)
Recent initiatives in children’s services have now recognised the role of self directed learning in continuous professional development practices (City of Edinburgh Council, 2007b). And the assumption will be through self-directed learning mechanisms. In summary the key message is to “…Provide training and development opportunities to enable social service workers to strengthen and develop their skills and knowledge” (City of Edinburgh Council, 2007a). Children and families have since 2007 a stated recognition of this requirement and this is clearly laid out in their CPD guiding framework in Figure 1. Furthermore in a specific statement of intent since 2007 Human resources managers have articulated and implemented specific initiatives.
CPD via self-directed learning amongst social work professionals Figure 1
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Guiding framework CPD City of Edinburgh Council Children and Families Department (see online version for colours)
Guiding Framework
13.1 Operational practices •
All staff are entitled to appropriate systems of performance management, which will be at the heart of professional development.
•
Every manager at every level has the responsibility for supporting the CPD of the staff they supervise.
•
Staff will be supported in their development and career progression through induction, structured pathways or other routes.
•
Leadership qualities and skills will be nurtured and developed.
•
Professional Development will be identified from the Children and Families Service Plan and linked to development planning.
•
CPD will be planned in response to national priorities and initiatives, and to the needs of our staff and service users.
•
CPD will be planned and delivered to reflect integrated service delivery, including the range of partners within and beyond the council.
•
To maintain high quality service delivery CPD will be organised to support core functions.
•
The impact of CPD on the work of the individual, team, service and department will be evaluated to ensure effective service delivery (City of Edinburgh Council, 2007b).
Within the wider context of self directed learning practices these guidelines give an organisational mandate and framework for social work professionals in seeking out and sharing knowledge.
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Learning centred environments attempt to help students or in this case working professionals make connections between their previous knowledge and their current tasks. Effective instruction begins with what learners bring to the setting; this includes cultural practices and beliefs as well as knowledge of academic contact (Brandsford, 2000). This aspiration to become a learning organisation is central to both formal and informal approaches to self-directed learning: “The Children and Families Department aspires to grow as a dynamic learning organisation. A learning organisation engages in the process of enhancing capacity through creativity and innovation, developing collective as well as individual learning, and recognises that staff are its most valuable asset. Through a culture of Continuing Professional Development (CPD), the Department will promote and support the development of a highly skilled, competent and confident workforce” (City of Edinburgh Council, 2007a).
This indicates the central role of knowledge sharing and the relationship of social work practice, self-directed learning and service delivery (Figure 2). Figure 2
Process and flow (see online version for colours)
Source: Hadwen (2004)
14 Conclusions Zhang and Gutierrez (2007) comment that little has been done to understand IT acceptance in the social sector, where non-governmental, non-profit organisations provide social and human services to “improve the conditions of disadvantaged people in society” (WordNet 3.0, 2005). Such organisations drive their operations and services on
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an overwhelming commitment to serve disadvantaged people, to protect their clients’ integrity and privacy, and to improve the scarce conditions within which current services are provided (Gutierrez and Friedman, 2005). Eisenhardt (1989) comments on the value of specific case studies in looking at SDL and the pragmatic view of what works. The role of ICT in self-directed learning is demonstrated within organisations such as Edinburgh Council in the use and the expectation of that use via intranet and other technologies. Three key practical implications emerge from the findings of the present study, which might be of interest to managers and professionals involved in the design and implementation of human resources, in planning professional best practice. •
The results infer a need for organisations to ensure that employees understand their requirements to comply with CPD through self-directed learning. Explicitly the mechanisms that they are involved and consulted about in the design, and the administration of CPD initiatives in both ICT training resources and ring fenced time be provided to ensure social workers develop self-directed learning competency through skills acquisition, and subsequently, deliver high value services.
•
Self-directed learning correlates well to the Personal development reviews adopted in many workplaces as well as their mandatory organisational commitment to CPD Interventions that enhance employee knowledge self-sufficiency through selection, training, or work redesign may contribute to the successful delivery of public sector corporate and departmental goals.
The results of the present study suggest a lack of professional group identification in terms of knowledge sharing. This study suggests a need for coherent and cohesive approaches to work based practices environment. Organisational human resource initiatives that enhance high involvement and collaborative work environments in the workplace are likely to improve social work and other professional employees’ acceptance of requirements for CPD, as well as an understanding commitment to their organisational and role. Finally, the results of the present study should be interpreted keeping in view the following methodological constraints. There is a possibility that the findings of this study may be partly affected by common method variance. The study used one single questionnaire to measure all constructs. Although valid and reliable measures were employed and items were placed in the survey questionnaire in order to reduce the possibility of common method biases (Crampton and Wagner, 1994), the strength of relationships between different constructs may still be distorted. Therefore, future research using multiple sources of data (e.g., feedback from supervisors and peers in addition to self-reporting) may be required to further substantiate the findings of this study. The current study involved only one organisation, one discipline. Therefore, it may not be possible to generalise any conclusions or interpretations drawn from its findings to other public sector environments providing care, unless replicated in future studies. Maybe the final word should go to the social worker respondent who wrote “I do not have access to any [resources or help], ….but anything would be nice.”
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