Corporate Culture and Sales Force Management in

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51

Corporate Culture and Sales Force Management in Japan and America"^ by Yao Apasu, Shigeru Ichikawa, and John L. Graham One of the most important problems facing American industry for the rest of the century is Japanese competition—not only in foreign markets and America, but also in the Japanese domestic market. Yet we know almost nothing about Japanese sales management practices. Management and marketing scholars (Aaker 1984; Peters and Waterman 1982; Ouchi 1981; Pascale and Athos 1981) suggest that Japanese companies have stronger corporate cultures than comparable American firms, and this is an important reason for their success in the worldwide marketplace. Aaker (1984, p. 149), in part, defines a crucial aspect of corporate culture as "the shared values of the organizational members." Several researchers (Cole 1979; Hatvany and Pucik 1981; Marsh and Mannari 1977; Whitehall and Takezawa 1968) report that Japanese employees are more committed to their organization's values than are their American counterparts. * The study was in part supported by the International Business Education and Research (IBEAR) Program, School of Business Administration, University of Southern California. Please contact John L. Graham for further information. The comments of the editor and reviewers were most helpful. About tbe Autbors Yao Apasu (Ph.D., School of Business Administration, University of Southern California) is Associate Professor of Marketing at the School of Business, Florida International University in Miami. His research interests include sales management, international marketing, and marketing and the law. Shigeru Ichikawa (Ph.D., Waseda University, Tokyo) is a Professor of Marketing at Chukyo University in Nagoya, Japan. He has previous business experience with Hitachi, Ltd., Tokyo. He has published numerous articles in scholarly journals and has authored a text titled. Dynamic Marketing (Waseda University Press). John L. Graham (Ph.D., School of Business, University of California, Berkeley) is an Associate Professor of Marketing and International Business at the School of Business Administration, the University of Southern California. His articles have appeared in several journals including the Journal of Marketing, the Harvard Business Review, and Marketing Science. He has coauthored a hook with Yoshihiro Sano (a partner at Ernst & Winney), entitled Smart Bargaining, Doing Business With The Japanese (Ballinger, Cambridge, MA). His management experience includes service in the U.S. Navy and marketing research at a Solar Turbines Inc., a division of Caterpillar Tractor Co.

Two research questions are focused upon in our comparison of Japanese and American sales management practices. First, do Japanese sales organizations have a stronger corporate culture, as the management scholars imply? And second, if so, does this stronger culture lead to better individual performance and higher levels of joh satisfaction? Our approach is unique in several respects. It is the first to include dual measures of corporate culture (hereafter, "value congruence"), and one of the first to use the Rokeach Values System. The study combines information from both sales representatives and their managers. Theories of management and hehavior, developed in the United States, are tested in another country. Finally, empirical evidence regarding sales management practices in Japan (our most important trading partner, our toughest competitor, and our toughest market) are presented. Theoretical Foundation Constructs Corporate Culture and Personal Values. As mentioned previously, one way of defining corporate culture is the shared personal values ofthe members ofthe organization (Aaker 1984). A key contribution of this study is measurement of the personal values of the sales representatives and their managers in each country. In spite of the important role that values play in human motivation (Vinson, Scott and Lamont 1977; Gutman 1982), the personal selling literature is almost devoid of efforts to understand the role of values in the motivation, performance, and satisfaction of the sales force (Futrell and Sager 1982 and Apasu 1982 are exceptions). The Rokeach Value System (1973) is a primary building block of value research in the social sciences. Rokeach sees a value as: . . . an enduring belief that a specific mode of conduct or end-state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or end-state of existence (1973, p. 5). Rokeach (1973), Howard (1977), and JournaJ of Personal SeJJing &• Sales Management, Vol. VII (November 1987), pp. 51-62.

Gutman

52

(1982) suggest that values are central to human evaluative structure and are a powerful explanatory variable of human behavior. Rokeach (1973) distinguishes between terminal and instrumental values. The former refer to desirable ends and the latter to preferred means or modes of behavior. Only the terminal values are considered in the present study as they are viewed to be more salient determinants of behavior (Rokeach 1973). Value Congruence. An organization is composed of people with group objectives that are extensions of the personal values of those in power (Hughes 1978, p. 87). These values do more than influence corporate objectives; they also influence corporate strategies (Hughes 1978, p. 88). Guth and Taguiri (1965) report that the marketing philosophy of a manufacturing firm whose president ranked high on aesthetic values and "security" emphasized "quality products with aesthetic appeal" and "slow to moderate growth." The management team of Acoustic Research, Inc., on the other hand, with salient "theoretical" and "social values," emphasized "scientific truth and integrity" and "truth and honesty in relations with suppliers, dealers, and employees." It may be argued that each salesperson has perceptions of values held by his or her superiors. These values are reflected in the perceived reward and punishment systems. Some modes of behavior or striving for some end-states appear to be encouraged while others are discouraged. The values that managers ascribe to and promote are the organizational values. Value congruence, then, is the degree of similarity between the salesperson's values and the values of management. Performance. Performance is most commonly measured by dollar volume of sales (Cravens and Woodruff 1973), self-ratings (Busch and Bush 1978; Behrman and Perreault 1982, 1984), and managerial evaluations (Weitz 1978; Lamont and Lundstrom 1977; Darmon 1982). Dollar sales volume, however, does not capture the multidimensionality of performance and self-ratings may sometimes only approximate managerial evaluations (Behrman and Perreault 1982). Self-ratings and managerial ratings are used in the study and do reflect evaluations of the salesperson's discharge of activities that define his or her role in the organization. They include product knowledge, report filing, territory coverage, route planning, attainment of sales objectives, expense control (Behrman and Perreault 1982), prospecting for new accounts, servicing customers and maintaining satisfactory business relations with supervisors, colleagues and clients (Lamont and Lundstrom 1977). Ideally, corporate values systems will

Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management

work to motivate the performance of employees (Pascale and Athos 1981). So, to the extent that sales representatives ascribe to such corporate values, their performance will be influenced in a positive way. Hi: Value congruence will be positively related to job performance for both Japanese and American sales representatives. Satisfaction. Walker, Churchill and Ford (1977), and Bagozzi (1978,1980) see satisfaction as the pleasurable emotional state salespeople derive from a positive appraisal of their interactions and experiences on the job. That is, to the extent that their work facilitates attainment of job related values, then salespeople are satisfied. This study advances the proposition that a salesperson's value congruence is positively related to all dimensions of job satisfaction. That is, when a sales representative's values are consistent with those of the organization, the sales representative is: (1) more likely to perceive membership in the organization as conducive to the attainment of personal goals, (2) more likely to be comfortable with the work environment and peers, and (3) more likely to be satisfied with the job in general. All these propositions are in line with cognitive consistency theories (Festinger 1957; Korman 1971). H2: Value congruence will be positively related to job satisfaction for both Japanese and American sales representatives. Propensity to Quit. A salesperson's propensity to quit has often been included as a dependent variable in sales force studies (e.g., Donnelly and Ivancevich 1975; Busch and Bush 1978; Ford, Walker, and Churchill 1983). The salesperson with high value congruence perceives the organization as supporting and rewarding values that are personally important. Such a representative, therefore, has a stronger preference for staying with the organization. Value congruence is hypothesized as being inversely related to propensity to quit. H3: Value congruence will be inversely related to propensity to quit for Japanese and American sales representatives. The Influence of National Culture. Aside from the several studies employing national culture as a determinant of consumer behavior, the concept has received little attention in marketing. The management literature is replete with studies demonstrating the influence of national culture on organizational structures and functions (Adler 1983). Craham (1983, 1985) has considered the influence of culture

November 1987

on marketing negotiations in several countries. However, no empirical studies were discovered wherein sales management issues have been considered in a comparative context. As mentioned in the introduction, it is widely held by management scholars that Japanese firms tend to display stronger, more consistent corporate cultures. Thus, we might expect that, compared to American sales representatives, Japanese representatives' values will be more homogeneous and reflect higher levels of value congruence. Pascale and Athos (1981) explain why: ... Matsushita provides two distinct kinds of training. One is basic skills training, but the second and more fundamental one is training in the Matsushita values. These values are inculcated through a long apprenticeship across one's career. The newly hired are exposed to them continually. As a member of any working group, each person is asked at least once every other month to give a ten-minute talk to his/ her group on the firm's values and its relationship to society. It is said that nothing is so powerful in persuading oneself as having to persuade others. Matsushita has long employed this technique of "selfindoctrination" (p. 74). Nakane (1970) generalizes the Matsushita example and indicates that such organizational commitment and acceptance of values are the norm for Japanese organizations; ... a sense of unity is promoted by means of the members' total emotional participation, which further strengthens group solidarity (p. 23). Given the hypothesized higher level of value congruence in Japanese sales organizations, it would follow that sales representatives would perform better and report higher levels of job satisfaction and lower propensities to quit than their American counterparts. However, it should be noted that several recent studies tend to contradict this line of thinking. Luthans, McCord and Dodd (1985) report Japanese workers to be less committed to their organization than comparable American workers. However, their samples of workers included both blueand white-collar groups, tbe latter including some sales representatives. England (1983) reports longitudinal declines in organizational commitment of both Japanese and American workers during 1960 to 1976. Sethi, Namiki and Swanson (1984) suggest that life-time employment practices (and related organizational commitment) in Japan are declining in tbe face of slowing economic growtb. Near (1984) studied 7000 Japanese and American production workers in 98 companies. She found tbat tbe American workers scored higher in organizational com-

53

mitment and job satisfaction tban Japanese workers. She mitigates ber findings by suggesting tbat Japanese workers "may simply answer evaluative questions of tbis sort in a different way tban do Americans" (p. 10), but adds tbat great care was taken to ensure tbe quality of tbe translation of tbe researcb instrument. So we have conflicting views about tbe relationships of interest. Moreover, we bave little empirical evidence regarding wbite-collar workers in general, and none concerning sales representatives in particular. Tberefore, tbe following bypotbeses will be tested in tbe present study: H4: Value congruence will be greater for Japanese sales representatives than American sales representatives. H5: Job satisfaction will be greater for Japanese sales representatives than American sales representatives. H6: Propensity to quit will be lower for Japanese sales representatives than American sales representatives. Tbe influence of culture on job performance cannot be tested in tbis study because of tbe nature of tbe performance measures. Methods Data Collection Procedures American group. Data collected from a survey conducted in a single division of a large American multinational electronics firm were used in tbe first pbase of tbe study. Tbe firm's products are bigbly tecbnical and are often designed to meet customer specifications. Its salespeople are required to be flexible, and sensitive to customer needs. Tbey are problem solvers and likely to experience conflicting demands from tbeir customers and tbeir firm. A sample of 40% of tbe division sales force was randomly selected for tbe study. All tbe salespeople sell to tbe same type of clients. Of the 260 questionnaires sent, 153 were returned. In addition, tbe 260 representatives' sales managers were requested to evaluate tbe salespeople's performance. Twenty-one of twenty-four managers responded, providing complete information on 146 of tbe representatives. Tbe managers' questionnaire included tbe Rokeacb Value System. Discussions witb tbe firm's senior sales managers were beld prior to tbe administration of tbe questionnaires. Tbey covered tbe organization and its policies, reward system, performance measures and role of salespeople. Tbe instrument was pretested on a similar organization in a different region of tbe

Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management

54

United States and on 10 randomly selected salespeople employed by the firm in the study. The final questionnaire used reflected the comments of the test sample. The questionnaires were sent through the company's mailing system with a cover letter indicating the purpose of the study and who was conducting it. Performance evaluation sheets were sent to managers of the salespeople in the study. The questionnaires were numbered to facilitate matching salespeople to their managers' evaluations. The salespeople were assured of complete anonymity of their responses. They were asked not to sign their names and to send their responses directly to the investigator. Japanese Group. The Japanese sales representatives were surveyed as a second step in the data collection. Somewhat different methods were employed by necessity—generally Japanese business people are much less likely to respond to mail questionnaires. The Japanese firm, like the American firm, is a large multinational manufacturer, selling a diverse line of electronic products. A convenience sample of 175 was drawn consisting of sales representatives from all divisions of the firm who were attending a corporate training program. One of the researchers administered the questionnaire during a scheduled session of the program. In order to participate in the program, the representatives must have had at least three years experience with the firm. All sales representatives in the corporation (approximately 8000) at one time or another enroll in the training program. However, the order of participation is adjusted by age, educational budget, and the business schedules of respective divisions. The sales representatives who completed the questionnaires are not "freshmen," but are considered to be representative of the total sales force. The sales managers of the 175 representatives were mailed the sales manager questionnaire. Ninety-three managers returned the questionnaire, which included an evaluation of the respective representatives. All matching of the questionnaires (i.e., representative to manager) was done by the researchers by number rather than by name to ensure anonymity from the company point of view. Given the differences in data collection, reasonably comparable samples of representatives of the two firms were drawn. The samples are compared on several demographic dimensions in Table 1. The American version of the questionnaire was translated into Japanese by one translator and then translated back into English by another researcher. The two English versions were compared and dis-

Table 1 A Gomparison of the Samples Japanese Americans Demographic Gharacteristics (N = 175) (N = 146) Age —

—

26% 72% 2% —

21% 38% 14% 27%

Education High School Graduate Some Gollege Gollege Graduate Some Post Graduate Graduate Degree

46% 1% 53% — —

2% 34% 40% 17% 7%

Income Under $20,000 $20,000-$29,000 $30,000-$39,000 $40,000-$49,000 $50,000 and over

9% 41% 39% 9% 2%

2% 40% 42% 10% 6%

9.0 years

8.7 years

Percent with Previous Sales Experience

18%

64%

Number of Representatives Supervised by my Manager (mean)

5.5

7.9

Under 20 20-29 30-39 40-49 50 or older

Tenure with Gompany (mean)

crepancies resolved through discussion with both translators. Measures Used The following measures, detailed in Table 2, were used in the study. Performance. Two performance measures were used. First, each sales representative rated his or her own performance on nine dimensions: product knowledge, territory coverage, route planning, attainment of sales objectives, expense control (Behrman and Perreault 1982), prospecting for new accounts, servicing customers and maintaining satisfactory business relations with colleagues and clients (Lamont and Lundstrom 1977). Second, managerial evaluations of performance on each of the nine dimensions were obtained (Table 2). The evaluations were made by the salesperson's immediate supervisor. Satis/action. Satisfaction was measured using a modified form of the Job Descriptive Index (JDI).

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Table 2 Variables in the Study, A Comparison of Japanese and American Sales Representatives Japan (N = 175) Variable Performance Self-rating Manager rating Satisfaction Pay

United States (N = 146)

Description

Mean (s.d.)

Skewness

Mean (s.d.)

Skewness

PSR

Sales performance, sales rep self rating, 9 items, range = 9 to 81, Cronbach a = .83

49.6* (9.3)

-.45

64.2* (9.3)

-.53

PM'

Sales performance, manager rating, 9 items, range = 9 to 81, Cronbach a = .90

52.1* (10.0)

.09

64.0* (10.9)

-.68

PAY

Satisfaction with pay, 5 items from Job Descriptive Index, JDI, range = 5 to 25, Cronbach a

12.1* (3.0)

.20

17.0* (3.4)

-.94

19.8* (4.3)

-.49

20.5 * (3.2)

-.87

28.1 (5.1)

-.37

Symbol

= .69

Promotion

PRM

Satisfaction with opportunities for promotion, 6 items JDI, range = 6 to 30, Cronbach a = .77

18.3* (3.2)

Work

WORK

Satisfaction with everyday duties, 6 items JDI, range = 6 to 30, Cronbach a = .72

16.8 * (3.3)

Supervision

SUP

Satisfaction with supervision, 8 items JDI, range = 8 to 40, Cronbach a = .81

27.1 (4.7)

Co-workers

PEERS

Satisfaction with fellow workers, 6 items JDI, range = 6 to 30. Cronbach a = .78

19.5 * (3.6)

.15

22.1 * (2.9)

-.22

Customers

CUST

Satisfaction with customers. 6 items, range = 6 to 30, Cronbach a = .76

19.5 * (3.5)

.01

20.4 * (3.4)

-.21

Overall

SAT

Overall satisfaction (PAY + PRM + WORK + SUP + PEERS + CUST) Cronbach a = .67

113.1 * (11.5)

128.0 * (13.4)

-.18

Propensity to Quit

QUIT

Propensity to quit, 4 items, from Propensity to Quit Index (Donnelly and Ivancevich, 1975), range = 4 to 20, Cronbach a = .76

12.1 * (2.7)

.15

10.9 * (2.6)

.42

Value Congruence Perceived

PVC

Perceived value congruence, self report, 8 items, range = 8 to 40, Cronbach a = .65

25.6* (3.9)

-.29

27.6* (3.5)

-.50

TVC

True value congruence, measured by comparing reps values to managers values (average), comparison across 18 values (RVS), range = 0 to 100, higher scores reflect higher value congruence.

78.7* (10.5)

-2.03

74.6* (11.3)

-.55

True (RVS)

-.21

.32

-.45

-.08

* Statistically significant (p < 0.05) difference between Japanese and American groups, ANOVA. • Only 82 sales representatives' performances were rated by Japanese managers.

Five-point items anchored with strongly agree/ strongly disagree were used to provide a scaling approach consistent with other parts of the questionnaire. The JDI, a self-report measure of satisfaction with work, pay, promotion opportunities, supervision, and co-workers, has been used extensively in the literature (Busch and Bush 1978; Altimus and Tersine 1973). Smith et al. (1969, p. 7 and Chapter 3) report high convergent and discriminant validity for the JDI with a Spearman-Brown split-half estimate of internal consistency over .80. The validity and reliahility of the instrument in a selling context has also been supported by Futrell (1979). Items were also included to measure the salesperson's satisfaction with his customers. This is to make up for

deficiencies in the JDI with respect to the unique position of the boundary-role person (Busch and Bush 1978; Churchill et al. 1974). Based on the recommendation of our Japanese co-author, the scales were shortened somewhat for the Japanese sample. Propensity to Quit. The salesperson's inclination to leave his or her job was measured by a modified propensity-to-quit index (Donnelly and Ivancevich 1975). The instrument, which has been used in a selling environment by Busch and Bush (1978,1981), directly measures salesperson's preference for their organization, and the standing of the company relative to others in the industry. Analysis of the internal consistency of the propensity-to-quit scale re-

36

Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management

suited in the deletion of one item from the scale (i.e., "this company is getting to me"). Values. A modified form of Rokeach's Value Scale (RVS) (1973) was used to measure each participant's values. The items in the instrument are included in Tahle 4. Reynolds and Jolly (1980) argue against using a "rating" format for the RVS. On the basis of a test-retest methodology, they found the "rating" format less reliahle than either the traditional ranking approach or a paired-comparison format. However, the "anchored" rating method used in this study differs somewhat from that analyzed hy Reynolds and Jolly, and from that described hy Munson and Mclntyre (1979). A scale of one hundred points for each item is used instead of the 7-point Likert format. The format has proven to be reliable in a test-retest context (Apasu and Graham 1987). It should also be noted that ratings on each item were standardized across subjects by dividing each rating by the sum of all eighteen ratings. Finally, each rating was multiplied by 100 to aid in the interpretations. Value Congruence. Value congruence was measured in two ways. First, participants were asked to evaluate the consonance between their personal values and those that are perceived to be encouraged by the organization. PVC includes eight Likert-type items such as "Overall, values that are important to the company are important to me," and "Working for this company gives me the opportunity to strive for values in which I really believe." This is a selfreport measure of perceptions of value congruence. The second measure. TVC, consists of a comparison ofeach representative's score on the 18 items on the terminal values section of the Rokeach Values System to the average score for each item from the sales managers' questionnaires. Implied in this measure is the assumption that the values of the organization are defined by the mean RVS scores for the sales managers participating. Mathematically, the scores on TVC were calculated by using the formula: 18

TVC = - 1

I ISRi

-I- 100

where TVC = individual's true value congruence score; SR = individual sales representative's rating on each of the 18 terminal values in the RVS; AMR = average managerial rating (calculated for the Japanese and American groups separately) on each of the 18 terminal values in the RVS.

Thus, higher scores reflect greater value congruence. Results Reliahility of the Measures The reliabilities of the various scales reported in Table 2 are adequate—Chronbach a > .70 (Nunnally 1978). Churchill and Peter (1984), after reviewing reliabilities across 108 studies, comment that reliabilities below .60 are "relatively low." Rokeach Values System No hypotheses were stated suggesting differences in values hetween the groups. Instead, an exploratory approach is taken in this analysis. The Rokeach Values System (RVS) scores are reported for each of the four groups included in the study in Table 3. There are two main findings. (1) The differences between the Japanese and American values are substantial. Analysis of variance indicates that the differences in values between the Japanese and American sales representatives are statistically significant in 12 of 18 cases—far more than one might expect to find by chance. (2) However, while substantial differences do exist, the Japanese sales representatives and the American sales representatives appear to share highest values for "happiness" and "family security." Hypotheses Tests Pearson correlation coefficients were calculated to test the first three hypothesized relationships among variables. These are reported in Table 4. Hypothesis 1 is weakly supported by the data and analysis. As indicated in Table 4, value congruence was found to be positively correlated with performance for the American group in two ways—PVC with PSR and TVC with PM (p < 0.05). A borderline statistically significant relationship was also discovered for the Japanese group between perceived value congruence (PVC) and performance (PM), r = .178, p = .057. However, the other five correlation coefficients do not support the hypothesized relationship between value congruence and performance. Hypothesis 2 is partially supported by the data. Perceived value congruence (PVC) is strongly related (p < 0.05) to all dimensions of job satisfaction for both the Japanese and American samples. True value congruence (TVC) was also found to be positively related (p < 0.05) to satisfaction with work (WORK), co-workers (PEERS) and overall satisfaction (SAT) for the Japanese group. Hypothesis 3 is also supported by the data in Tahle

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Table 3 Rokeach Value Systems, Japanese and American Sales Managers and Sales Representatives Compared using Analysis of Variance :Mean

Ratings (s.d.) United States

Japan

Reps Managers Reps Managers (N = 146) Terminal Values (N = 93) (N = 175) (N = :21) 6.8 * (1.8) 5.6 (1.5) 6.3* (2.1) Comfortable life 6.5 (1.8) 5.4 (1.7) 5.1 (1.5) 5.2 (1.0) 5.0 (2.0) Exciting life 6.4 5.3 6.5 (2.0) * (1.5) (1.2) 6.2* (1.8) Accomplishment 6.2 * (1.5) 5.9 * (2.0) 4.6* (1.2) 5.0* (1.8) Peace 4.1 (1.7) 4.8 (1.3) 3.9 (1.5) 4.2 (1.7) Beauty 5.5 * (1.5) 5.3 (1.3) 5.5 (1.4) 4.4* (1.7) Equality 7.4 * (1.6) 7.3 * (1.3) 5.7* (1.2) 7.0* (1.7) Family Security 5.5 (1.4) 6.6 (1.4) 6.3 (1.4) 6.1 (1.7) Freedom 6.5 (1.3) 6.8 (1.4) 7.0 (1.2) 6.9 (1.5) Happiness 4.3 * (1.5) 4.9 * (1.3) 5.5* (1.4) 5.6* (1.7) Inner harmony 5.5 (1.9) 5.4 (1.6) 5.4 (1.6) 4.9 (1.4) Love 5.2 (1.0) 5.3 * (1.7) 4.8* (1.7) 5.2 (1.9) National Security 5.8 * (1.4) 5.6 (1.1) 5.5 (1.5) 5.0* (1.8) Pleasure 3.1 * (1.8) 5.5* (1.4) 5.2* (2.6) 3.6 * (1.9) Salvation 4.8 * (1.5) 5.6 (1.5) 5.2 (1.2) 6.4* (1.4) Self respect 5.3 (0.7) 5.2 (1.4) 5.0 * (1.6) 4.6* (1.7) Social recognition 6.4 * (1.2) 6.2 (0.9) 6.3 (1.3) 5.6* (1.5) Friendship 5.9 (1.8) 5.6 (1.3) 6.1 (0.8) 6.2 (1.4) Wisdom -100 -100 -100 -100 Total * Statistically significant differences (p < 0.05) between Japanese and American groups (i.e., managers compared to managers and representatives compared to representatives). Table 4 Relationships Among Variables, Pearson Correlation Coefficients (Japanese in lower half of matrix and Americans in upper half of matrix) PSR

PEERS CUST

SAT

.301* -.116 -.050 .090 — .145* .257* -.033

.026 .021 .199* .188* -.105 -.092

.037 .127

— .027 .106 .235* .180* .149* .201* -.054 .080 .027 .060 -.108 .170 .351*

.470* .698* .636* .718* .517* .497* —

PM"

PAY

PRM

WQRK

SUP

QUIT

PVC

TVC

(Americans) Performance Self-rating (PSR) Manager rating" (PM) Satisfaction Pay (PAY) Promotion (PRM) Work (WORK) Supervision (SUP) Co-workers (PEERS) Customers (CUST) Overall (SAT)

—

.257* .051 -.015 .315* .013 -.085 .263* .144*

Propensity to Quit (QUIT) -.039 Value Congruence Perceived (PVC) True (TVC)

.113 -.029

-.020 .178 .092

.343* —

.096 .294*

.184* .266* .191* .099 .582*

—

.174* .457* .233*

.225* .153* .285* .590*

—

.078 .250* .299* .228

.229* .105 .632*

—

.057 .000 .505* .172* .173*

.212* .546*

.493*

-.299* -.254* -.365* -.211* -.333* .156* .023

.431* .064

.321* .184*

.255* .122

.455* .233*

(Japanese) *p