Creating and Interpreting Visual Storytelling Art in ...

CREATING AND INTERPRETING VISUAL STORYTELLING ART IN EXTENDING THEMATIC APPERCEPTION TESTS AND JUNG’S METHOD OF INTERPRETING DREAMS Arch G. Woodside, Suresh Sood and Karlan M. Muniz ABSTRACT The main thesis here is that the stories that some brands tell to consumers enable consumers to achieve archetypal experiences. Examining the stories consumers tell in natural contexts involving shopping for and using brands informs explanations of associations of archetypes, brands, and consumers. The study advances the use of degrees-offreedom analysis (DFA) and creating visual narrative art (VNA) as useful steps for confirming or disconfirming whether or not the stories consumers tell have themes, events, and outcomes that match with the core storylines told by brands. As a proposal, an extension of

Luxury Fashion and Culture Advances in Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, Volume 7, 15–45 Copyright r 2013 by Emerald Group Publishing Limited All rights of reproduction in any form reserved ISSN: 1871-3173/doi:10.1108/S1871-3173(2013)0000007005

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thematic apperception tests (TATs) is relevant in applying the DFA to brand-consumer storytelling research. The study includes a review of early work on TATs, DFA, archetypal theory, and how brands become icons. The study’s theory, method, and findings provide useful tools for brand managers and researchers on issues that relate to psychology and marketing. Keywords: Archetypes; consumer; luxury brand; degrees-of-freedom analysis (DFA); Hero myth; Jester myth; pattern matching; visual narrative art (VNA)

INTRODUCTION Consumers may tell stories involving buying and using brands, in part, to relive archetypal experiences and to clarify the meaning for themselves about these experiences. Archetypes are collective, mostly unconscious, primal forces according to Jung (2009); these forces are strong motivational stimuli that compel action. The ABCs of desire is the conjoining of archetypes, brands (i.e., alternative objects, services, and ideas), and consumers. The expressions (movies and book titles) Rebel without a Cause, Presentation of Self in Everyday Life (Goffman, 1959), and The Strategy of Desire (Dichter, 1960) illustrate the unconscious primal forces that impact dramatic action in everyday life in ways that many persons may find hard to understand before, during, or after enacting such experiences. The study here presents theory and tools of analysis that may be useful for interpreting the ABCs of desire appearing in the stories consumers tell about their life experiences – stories consumers tell to each other and to themselves in naturally occurring reports rather than as responses to survey questions. The intention of the study is to support the expansion of the ABC domain with theory and an analysis of the archetypes appearing in stories that consumers tell in everyday life. The study offers an analysis and an empirical positivistic method for examining archetypes enacted in stories told by consumers by proposing an extension to the ‘‘thematic apperception test’’ (TAT; McClelland, Clark, Roby, & Atkinson, 1949) in combination with degrees-of-freedom analysis (DFA; Wilson & Wilson, 1988) as a means for decoding stories that include the presence of brands. This data analysis

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method for archetypes appearing in stories, in addition to creating panels of visual narrative art (VNA; Megehee & Woodside, 2010), provide a rigorous method for analyzing meaning in the stories consumers tell – stories involving using brands to enable experiencing archetypal primal forces. The literature on branding supports the usefulness of brand strategists to consciously construct a concept and identity for a brand to achieve uniqueness in the midst of competitive contexts and to facilitate the brand’s identification and connection to specific consumers (Kapferer, 2012; Kotler & Keller, 2012; Park, Jaworski, & MacInnis, 1986). Several scholars offer different dimensions relevant for creating an image in order to support the auditing, planning, and construction of brand messages (Aaker, 1996; Kapferer, 2012; Keller, 1993, 2003; Park et al., 1986). Some scholars discuss brand construction from the viewpoint of strategic narratives that create meaning for consumers (Allen, Fournier, & Miller, 2008; Holt, 2004; Padgett & Allen, 1997), indicating that this field includes more than one theoretical base relevant for understanding brand construction and meaning. Allen et al. (2008) describe the challenge that this poses, ‘‘If a brand is first and foremost a repository of meanings for consumers to use in living their own lives (Fournier, 1998; McCracken, 1986), then today’s challenge is to understand more deeply the multiple sources and dynamic nature of that meaning.’’ The insertion/use of archetypes and myths as platforms to support brand construction is a proposal arising in recent research. Research informs this view in both the academic context, analyzing the relationship between consumers and brands (Holt, 2004; Veen, 1994; Woodside, Sood, & Miller, 2008; Zaltman, 2003), and the marketing context as guidelines for marketing professionals (Mark & Pearson, 2001; Vincent, 2002; Wertime, 2002). Following this introduction, the second section is a brief discussion of archetypes relevant to the daily lives of consumers and the importance of storytelling as a form of understanding-of-self (in the case of consumers), of transmitting (in the case of brands), and etic knowledge (in the case of researchers) of universal themes connecting consumers and brands. This review informs proposals in the third section for the use of the TAT to elicit stories concerning brands and the use of the DFA to analyze the archetypes embeds in the stories. The fourth section illustrates two cases of consumers’ stories that relate to tourism behavior – shopping for luxury brands and places. These stories are from blogs, and their analyses include the DFA and the VNA. The last section concludes with the implications of the proposed tools for the additional research by marketing professionals.

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ARCHETYPES AND THE SELF-FULFILLMENT OF THE CONSUMERS’ NEED TO EXPERIENCE PRIMAL FORCES According to Jung (1959), human beings, at all times and in all places, are under the influence of dominating unconscious thoughts. Jung’s greatest contributions to psychology may include the concepts of the collective unconscious and the archetypes from which they are constituted (Gray, 1996). Jung (1959) proposes that the accumulated experiences of past generations influence who we are today. The collective unconscious is a deposit of memories that humans inherit from their ancestors and which influence their current lives (Jung, 1959). Within this deposit archetypes are stored; symbols, images, and representations capture the essential and universal communalities (Zaltman, 2003). Archetypes are also known as elementary ideas (Campbell, 1988). Indeed, as Gray (1996) states, archetypal imagery finds its external referents in the common themes of myths, dreams, and folklores. According to Gray (1996) (and the study by Campbell, 1988) the same themes and imagery, with minor variations, appear in each individual, culture, and race, over and over. According to Veen(1994), the theory of archetypes must have originated with Plato’s belief in the soul; but archetypes are more than spiritual, they are also instinctive (biological) according to Jung (1959). Furthermore, archetypes are collective as well as individual, objective as well as subjective. To distinguish them quickly, archetypes are broad and essential themes or ideas that are present in the collective unconscious. Myths are products of these ideas (Hall, 1997), generally icons that represent one story in particular (Holt, 2004). Societies do not exist without communication and representation, and therefore socialization must be, in part, the learning of myths, rituals, and other archetypal articulations of a culture (Hall,). Jung describes only some archetypes systematically, considering them as ‘‘fundamentally unobservable’’ (Faber & Mayer, 2009, p. 308). Campbell (1988) encodes these archetypal images more concretely until we were able to arrive at classification models that include 12 or 13 archetypes (Faber & Mayer, 2009). The 12-archetype model that Mark and Pearson (2001) propose divides archetypes in accordance with a two-axis matrix: belonging/people versus independence/self-actualization and stability/control versus risk/mastery. According to Jung (1959), myths and fairy tales are forms of archetypes that receive a specific identification mark (symbol, stamp), while an archetype is essentially unconscious in content which, despite belonging to

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the collective, adapts itself to the individual less intelligibly. Archetypes are stored iconic images and impulses, whereas myths are discourses or vehicles that carry encoded meaning (cf. Zehnder & Calvert, 2004). Studying the use of archetypes in the stories produced for the cinema, Vogler (2007, p. xxvii) states, ‘‘All stories consist of a few common structural elements found universally in myths, fairy tales, dreams, and movies.’’ In Vogler’s (2007) view, stories have healing power, helping human beings deal with difficult emotional situations by giving examples of human behavior, which might inspire for a different strategy of living, responding to human emotions and wishes. In the marketing literature, according to Woodside et al. (2011) the dominant logic foresees the assessment of consumer behavior, questioning beliefs, opinions, attitudes, and intentions, and often depends on unique metrics that go beyond the use of self-report questions and 3 to +3 scales. Consumer expectations regarding products and brands are not always conscious (Shiv, Carmon, & Ariely, 2005; Zaltman, 2003); consumers tell (or experience) stories that are repeated in the collective unconscious and bring meaning to themselves and connect them to the community to which they belong (Hirschman, 2010). Brands are ‘‘modern myths’’ (Holt, 2003), which can contain archetype enactments that combine and satisfy (give pleasure, fulfillment, happiness) the interlocutors that experience such myths. Jung (1959) instructs that repeating archetypes and life situations occur for human beings, and that this endless repetition impresses this essential idea among humans’ unconscious psychic constitution. Therefore, when a situation occurs that corresponds to a specific archetype, this archetype demands a determined response or behavior from the individual (Jung, 1959). An understanding of these primal forces is one of the most powerful elements of a modern storyteller (Vogler, 2007); this perspective applies for roles enacted by brands in their stories told via advertising and brand symbols. Consequently, some marketing experts describe positioning a brand as telling a narrative, a form to connect to people’s memories and associations (Kotler & Keller, 2012, p. 292). Exposure to brands can provoke specific behavior in consumers, without consumer awareness of this brand influence (Brasel& Gips, 2011). In this case, brands talk to consumers’ unconscious selves, expressing a primal force relevant to layers of the unconscious and produce a powerful emotional response for both as well as relevant others (Woodside, Megehee, & Sood, 2012). Thus, archetypes can also serve as central themes for consumer fulfillment without consumer recognition of the roles brands play in such ABC enactments.

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BRAND STORIES AS VEHICLES FOR COMMUNICATING ARCHETYPAL THEMES The psychology literature shows that narratives serve the cognitive organization processes of consumers (Polkinghorne, 1991). Much of the information and many social experiences that the consumer acquires in his life are transmitted in the form of narratives (Adaval & Wyer, 1998). Escalas and Bettman (2000) describe consumers as builders of stories, where the major focus of their stories makes sense when it comes to saying who they are and what they consume. Based on a research in the literature, Woodside et al. (2008) provide propositions useful for supporting the importance of stories in consumer psychology. First, people reason through narration rather than using argumentative tools. Second, information is stored and retrieved from memory in episodes. Third, people seek clarity in their experiences and results automatically by organizing experiences in the form of stories. Fourth, people feel pleasure when reliving or retelling stories in order to experience archetypal myths, albeit unconsciously. Finally, brands and products play important roles in enabling consumers to achieve their results and live the roles that bring them pleasure and happiness. The informants in a study by Fournier (1998) also describe the roles brands play in their relationships with them in the form of stories relating to their daily lives. In general, the brand communication process through brand narratives, rather than the traditional reasons-to-buy lectures, continues to gain attention. Studies both in the field of consumer research and other fields demonstrate that the impact of narratives in altering beliefs and attitudes in individuals (Green & Brock, 2000; Escalas, 2004a; Escalas, 2007); outcomes of this impact includes increases in empathy and in emotional responses from listeners (Adaval & Wyer, 1998; Deighton, Romer, & McQueen,1989; Escalas, Moore, & Britton, 2004). Narratives had a more positive impact on the evaluations of consumers than lecture-formatted messages (Adaval & Wyer, 1998), showing the benefits of services more significantly (Padgett & Allen, 1997; Mattila, 2000) and strengthened the self-connection between consumer and brand (Escalas, 2004b). People mentally construct their biographies in narratives, in a constant process of interpretation and reinterpretation of experiences (Bruner, 2004). In addition to seeing their own identity in terms of a list of attributes, such as height, beauty, and capacity for fulfillment, these attributes associate in memory to key episodes which, when put in order, form a story (Ahuvia, 2005; Belk, 1988). From the viewpoint of brands, brand narratives can

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involve the audience and make audience members experience the concerns and feelings of the characters (Deighton et al., 1989). Therefore, both interlocutors (brand and consumer) use storytelling as primal forces in the collective unconscious in order to compel (and explain) action (Woodside et al., 2011). This outcome implies that the story is the central means for researchers to understand and map the role of archetypes in the connection between consumers and brands. Fig. 1 is a visual summary of the model. Based on an archetypal theme that has consumer appeal (line 1) and makes sense for the brand (line 2), the manager develops a story for the brand (line 3) that essentially transmits the archetype in question (line 4), enabling the consumer to experience that archetype (line 5), thereby strengthening attachment to the brand (line 6). Building a brand strategy based on appealing via a primal force requires first identifying a relevant archetype that prime users of the brand unconsciously (and possibly consciously) desire to experience. Line 1 represents the association of archetypal force and consumer desire.

Story Enactments

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Consumer

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Archetype (Primal Force)

Fig. 1. Archetypes, Brands, and Consumer Enactments: Diamond Core Theory. Key: 1 – Primal (Mostly Nonconscious Genetic Code). 2 – Chosen (Conscious or Nonconsciously by Brand-Drama Director). 3 – Storyline Execution of Brand–Consumer Action Enabling Consumer to Experience Archetypal Outcome. 4 – Story-Brand Gist. 5 – Consumer Real-time or Virtual Enactment of Brand Experience. 6 – Brand–Consumer Attachment.

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Woodside and Chebat (2001) review an example of a brand strategist (Jack Koerner, CEO of Barq’s Root Beer) identifying 15-year-old teenage boys’ desire to rebel (line 1 in Fig.1) against their parents as a primal association with the rebel archetype. Subsequently to this recognition, Koerner created advertising narrative and premium offers (e.g., U.S.S.R. hammer and sickle medals) enabling these teenagers to participate in acts of rebellion (lines 2 and 3 in Fig. 1). The strategy was highly successful among teenage boys (lines 4 and 5 in Fig. 1) and resulted in great acceptance and consumption of Barq’s among teenage boys (line 6 in Fig. 1).

THE THEMATIC APPERCEPTION TEST AS A METHOD FOR EXTRACTING STORIES FROM THE CONSUMER (OR FOR TESTING BRAND STORIES) Considering that the narrative is viewable as a way of investigating personal experience and implicitly personal themes, the TAT is a systematic approach to storytelling that offers insight into the psychological reality of each individual (Cramer, 2004). Created to explore personality (Murray, 1938) and also applied under a motivational perspective (McClelland et al., 1949), the TAT focuses on how individuals interact with their environments; how external forces affect people and how their unique sets of needs, attitudes, and value influence their reaction to the world around them (Groth-Marnat, 2003). The TAT is a projective technique consisting of pictures, whereby the examinee is asked to create a story about what he or she believes is occurring in the situations or events appearing in pictures (Groth-Marnat, 2003). This method creates a situation in which the subject is comfortable and relaxed, so that her imagination can respond freely to the pictures that she views. According to Cramer (2004), in the early development of the TAT, scholars sought to verify whether or not stories that were told contained insights stemming from the unconscious, and they perceived that some of the stories grew out of conscious or unconscious fantasies or objective or subjective personal experiences, proving that it is possible to extract meaningful material from the storyteller. Since the first TAT manual was published in 1943, many methods have been put forward for the scoring and interpretation of the stories produced using this approach. Although the TAT is popular among psychologists, no consensus exists as to a particular scoring system (Teglasi, 2001), and it is

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difficult for any one system to be totally adequate as this depends on the type of information that is under investigation (Groth-Marnat, 2003). In general, the lack of a systematic and established scoring led to criticisms among theoreticians and practitioners in the field of psychology (Cramer, 2004). Nevertheless, a new wave of research originated from the work of McClelland and Atkinson and their studies of achievement motivation (McClelland et al., 1949). A scoring system developed that was empirically based on these studies and was improved upon in a later study (McClelland, Atkinson, Clark, & Lowell, 1953), and the improvements served as a starting point for additional studies and the need for affiliation, need for achievement, and need for power) (Cramer, 2004). A question that always springs to mind when dealing with the application of the TAT is that it is a projective technique in which traditional psychometric approaches are inappropriate or inadequate for evaluating measures such as the TAT, and questions regarding reliability and validity arise from the beginning (Cramer, 2004). Using a dual approach (both implicit and self-attributed motives), McClelland and colleagues confirmed that TAT measures of implicit motives have also been shown to correlate with real-life behavior in ways that are different from the correlations found with self-attributed motives (McClelland, Koestner, & Weinberger, 1989). According to their studies, the implicit motives represent a more primitive motivational system derived from affective experiences. The study here examines the proposal that the TAT is useful for the interpretation of stories in investigating archetypes, brands, and consumer relationships. According to Cramer (2004), a story interpreter requires narrative sensitivity, a belief in implicit meanings and underlying story lines. According to Cramer (2004), from this perspective the TAT story represents a construction of reality, influenced by context and reflecting intentions. The following section examines DFA, which is proposed as a scoring procedure for verifying whether or not a story contains an embedded archetypal image that sheds light on the type of relationship that the consumer has with a specific brand.

DFA AS A METHOD FOR SCORING AND CONFIRMING ARCHETYPE EMBEDS Campbell (1975) suggests DFA in case study research. ‘‘Pattern-matching’’ between the theoretical propositions and observations in a set of data is the

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essence of DFA’’ (Woodside, 2010). DFA compares propositions or ingredients from a separate theory or a ‘‘theory-in-use’’ to check how well the case under analysis matches one or two or more competing theory. As Campbell (1975) states, keeping a record of all theories considered in the puzzle-solving process is important, and this method represents the degrees of freedom from multiple implications and can be useful for the creation of a box score of hits and misses to test which theory is relevant to a specific case. Although used little and mentioned only in passing in the literature (Yin, 1994), this technique has the potential for research in the field of marketing (Woodside, 2010). To see examples of this technique being used in the marketing field, see Wilson and Vlosky (1997) and Wilson and Wilson (1988). Woodside (2010) suggests that other approaches for analyzing case data, such as content analysis, seek to express counts, means, and frequencies of the phenomenon, and that the DFA goes one step further by subjecting the counts and patterns in a qualitative dataset to an a priori set of predictions, as hypothesis, propositions, and conjectures, helping in testing, comparing, and building a theory in accordance with the purpose of the study. Central to the DFA approach is the prediction matrix (Campbell, 1975; Woodside, 2010). Based on the theory, and in order to be confirmed or disconfirmed by the case data, the prediction matrix is organized into a list of statements (objective questions about the case), and the content of each statement predicts that a theory is either confirmed (Y), not confirmed (N), not possible to confirm, or partially confirmed (P). One or several judges may evaluate the data to tally the theory box-score results. Many phenomena in the consumer behavior field are complex, and a case method is useful for uncovering and confirming nuances of organizational and/or individual behavior. In these cases the DFA can be a useful tool because of its flexibility.

VISUAL NARRATIVE ART AS A MEANS OF MAPPING (AND DEEPENING UNDERSTANDING OF) STORIES When dealing with the mapping of metaphors of organizations for the purpose of identifying the meanings that professionals give to their experiences in the working environment, Stein (2003) suggests using art to access thoughts and feelings in order to connect unconscious images and bring them to light. Stein (2003, p. 92) states, ‘‘Certainly narrative science and social science can do this, and increasing access to the inner life is, after

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all, one of the central tasks of therapy.’’ In the field of marketing, some researchers defend the idea that consumers are incapable of reporting all relevant causes for their actions and that some memories, emotions, and other cognitive processes lie in the unconscious (Zaltman, 2003), and that a multiple-methods approach is necessary to explain this amount of information (Woodside, 2004). VNA utilizes one or more types of illustrations (paintings, sculpture, photographs, physical movements, film, or other media beyond verbal reporting) that create a story formed by scenes or episodes in which people, animals, objects, and symbols interact while the narrative unfolds (Megehee & Woodside, 2010). Art as a means for telling a story nonverbally is one of the oldest forms in which human beings tell a story, since the days when the cavemen painted on the walls of caves, and remains one of the most modern forms of communication in the 21st century (Megehee & Spake, 2012). In consumer behavior research, creating and interpreting a VNA helps to make explicit unconscious thinking and emotion-based associations, and helps to clarify the role of a brand in consumers’ stories and their lives. VNA can increase accuracy (and provide multiple insights) of how archetype enactments in consumer stories influence buying/using a brand. The use of VNA in research is based on the theory of dual-processing accounts of reasoning, emotions, judgment, and social recognition (Evans, 2008), where there occurs on the one hand an unconscious, holistic, and associative thought processes that are common to all animals irrespective of intelligence, while on the other there is also a parallel process that is conscious, analytical, based on rules, and solely human, pertaining to intelligence and limited to the capacity of a working memory. As individuals use both types of mental processing, researchers can make use of reports that reflect on the two processes, creating verbal reports of the concepts and results, but also VNAs enhance data interpretation (Megehee & Woodside, 2010). Approaches in the literature and which also deal with pictures to unveil metaphors or meanings embedded in consumption, such as the Zaltman metaphor elicitation technique (ZMET; Christensen & Olson, 2002) and the forced metaphor elicitation technique (FMET; Woodside, 2008), differ from the VNA because the former bring meaning to light, while VNA, in the hands of a competent researcher, can serve to glean and map what is not apparent in the story presented by the consumer (Megehee & Spake, 2012). Organizing the story visually, in addition to an effort to measure the fitting of the story with some pattern or investigated theme, can reinforce

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some very obvious interpretations at first, but also provides new insights. This procedure can support and increase the number of possible interpretations concerning the role of brands and archetypes enactments by consumers during their consumption and life experiences. The work of Megehee and Woodside (2010) is an example of the use of VNA to clarify the balances and imbalances occurring in stories consumers write, in addition to making concrete the impact of the actions and results via mapping the meaning and positioning of the archetypes and brands in narratives.

EXAMPLE 1: THE HERO ARCHETYPE A Hero is someone who gives his or her life for something bigger than self (Campbell, 1988), a classic figure who plays a prominent role in people’s minds. He is someone who seeks out, faces and overcomes obstacles, using skills, discipline, and the resources at his disposal, becoming, even though he may not recognize it himself, a protector of the weak and innocent and inspiring an ideal of equality of opportunity (Mark & Pearson, 2001; Wertime, 2002). The Hero is propelled by universal drivers easy to understand and to desire: to be loved and understood, to succeed, survive, be free, get revenge, right wrongs, or seek self-expression (Vogler, 2007). Vogler (2007, p. 30) states that ‘‘Heroes need some admirable qualities, so that we want to be like them.’’ This essential idea of a Hero has a high level of adventure, beginning when an action is required or something is missing for an individual and deviating from that person’s normal path. The Hero archetype is a structure that, according to Campbell (1988), is observable in puberty and in the different initiation rites cultivated by society, both primitive (training tribal warriors) or modern (like getting into university or finding a good job). Campbell (1988) and Veen (1994) describe the Hero’s journey as consisting of separation (S), initiation (I), and return (R), but includes more specific adventures and characters, such as the initial refusal of the Hero, the presence of a mentor or an older man, the need to make sacrifices and apotheosis, in addition to other ‘‘phases’’ embedded in the universal theme of the Hero. Campbell (1988) restates the basic motive of the Hero’s journey: leaving one condition and finding the source of life to bring you forth into a richer or mature condition. Some sources describe the Hero as the ‘‘Warrior’’ (McAdams, 1993), since this trait of the Hero is the focus of Heroes in some cultures (Mark & Pearson,

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2001). To some substantial extent, we are all Heroes, overcoming challenges in our lives and the resulting process of transformation (Campbell, 1988; Wertime, 2002). The Hero archetype associates with exacting standards, perseverance, and the ability to set (and overcome) boundaries (Mark & Pearson, 2001). In the marketing literature, scholars discuss the behavior of the American man according to a standard of the Hero who holds his own and at the same time shows contempt for the system (Holt & Thompson, 2004). Cooper, Schembri, and Miller (2010) explore the archetypal myth of the Hero, analyzing brand narratives in James Bond movies, concluding that the ideological structure of the movies communicates the archetypical storyline of the heroic character and his journey. Veen (1994) compares the Hero’s journey with the story of a consumer who is going to buy a minivan, metaphorically living the adventures that occur in the Hero’s journey.

Enacting the Hero Archetype Appendix 1 is a story in which it is possible to visualize the components of the Hero archetype. This text represents the emic interpretation and contains an entire blog story. Appendix 2 is a prediction matrix of the Hero archetype, developed using the literature on the archetype (Campbell, 1988; Fields, 1991; Mark & Pearson, 2001; Wertime, 2002). In the story, Hafiz describes Kiera as a heroine, listing challenges, adverse situations, and qualities, even her sense of ethics. The deserved reward of this protagonist is an object that carries the Gucci brand. He sets himself up as Kiera’s mentor in this search for the ‘‘possible bag.’’ The archetype of the Hero, capable of dealing with situations and seeking something just and fair is externalized. Here the Gucci brand acts as a reward and a useful tool that is suitable for the heroine. When the Hero’s ‘‘Archetypal Story Pattern Instrument (ASPI),’’ proposed and described in Appendix 2, is applied to analyze the consumer’s story, the result is that all 16 theoretical propositions match with the observed features in the story. The DFA approach and the prediction matrix can confirm or disconfirm the theory based on case data. This perfect level of matching occurred independently for two judges trained in psychology but who were unfamiliar with the relevant literature on storytelling. In order to allow comparison, if we apply the story about Kiera and the Gucci brand to the Jester’s ASPI (appearing in Appendix 4, and which is used in the next example in this paper), for the two judges only 4 and 6

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Fig. 2. Visual Narrative Art of the Hero Archetype Based on the Hafiz Text on Kiera and the Gucci Brands. (1) Hafiz Describes Kiera as a Heroine Because She is Not Rich, Works Two Jobs, Supports Her Family (Brothers in College), and Still Manages to Keep up Pretty MTV-Reality-Show Look. (2) Kiera Desires a Real Gucci Bag; Her Calvin Klein Bag Was Stolen a Few Months Ago and She Had to Work Hard to Make Back the Money for the Bag. With Financial Limitations, Kiera Can Only Afford a Fake Gucci Bag, But the Word ‘‘Fake’’ Is Not in Her Vocabulary. (3) Hafiz States That She Deserves a Classic, Luxury, and ‘‘Very Gucci’’ Bag, as Victoria Beckham Might Say. Instead of a Streetwear Bag, He Recommends a Bag That Is Cheap as per Gucci Standards But With a Real Gucci Signature.

matches occurred among the 16 theoretical propositions developed to identify the Hero archetypal theme. The DFA may represent, therefore, a flexible and objective approach for examining the consumer’s discourse in search of patterns that confirm (or disconfirm) a specific archetypal theme. Fig. 2 portrays, through the creation of VNA, the story portraying the Hero archetype in a relationship between the consumer and the Gucci brand. VNA is the creation of nonverbal stories of what consumers report verbally. The VNA method builds on Jung’s (1959) paintings of his own dreams to enable him to interpret his implicit thoughts and feelings explicitly. Megehee and Woodside (2010) develop applications of VNA that relate to tourism and consumer research. Here the VNA of the consumer’s story reflects the balances and imbalances that occur in the typical Hero’s story. On the one hand there

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is the dream, the untouchable ethical pattern, the endless energy, and the cool and fashionable posture of the protagonist; on the other hand there are the ubiquitous obstacles, represented by doubling of work in daily life, the way third parties are dependent on the heroine in question, and the events and ‘‘villains’’ that lurk in the background to do her harm. According to Vogler (2007), the Hero archetype represents the ego’s search for identity and wholeness, and in this process the Hero faces internal guardians, monsters, and helpers. Every heroine makes a sacrifice, and for this reason the Hero deserves the best, a reward, and/or redemption. The impossible dream comes true because the Hero deserves the desirable outcome in the dream, is dedicated, and overcomes difficulties. The brand in question is at the same time both a reward and also seems to suit the heroine, being part of her ‘‘utility belt,’’ part of the equipment of someone with her skills and mannerisms of the Hero. In the story and the VNA, adventures Campbell mentions (Veen, 1994) occur, such as separation (the stolen bag) and initiation (learning to look after the family), in addition to the setting, with the presence of the mentor (the narrator) and the need to act to collect the reward.The brand represents reaching a new level that the protagonist deserves, like the basic motive Campbell (1988) describes. The characteristics of ethical integrity, protecting the weak and perseverance to overcome limits, as Mark and Pearson (2001) describe, are also evident. With the VNA, the story is summarized and mapped – enabling a holistic view of the ingredients that link the story to relevant archetypes.

EXAMPLE 2: THE JESTER ARCHETYPE Bearing a humorous message, the idea of the Jester denotes a person’s ability to have and give others a fun time. ‘‘Virtually everyone is hungry for fun,’’ Mark and Pearson (2001, p. 196) claim. The figure of the fool, trickster, entertainer, or Jester has been recorded since biblical times around the world (Otto, 2001). The Jester archetype calls us to come out and play, enjoy life, and interact (Mark & Pearson, 2001). This archetype also transmits the idea of nonconformity to the rules (Otto, 2001) and the surprise element that overcomes obstacles and lives for the moment (Wertime, 2002). According to Vogler (2007), the tricksters are the natural enemies of the status quo, appearing when people are taking themselves too

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seriously. The trickster part of their personalities may pop up to bring back the needed perspective. In its own way, the Jester challenges the system and represents or transmits a transformation. The figure of the trickster appears in the writings of Jung (1959) with the following description: A curious combination of typical trickster motifs can be found in the alchemical figure of Mercurious; for instance, his fondness for sly jokes and malicious pranks, his powers as a shape-shifter, his dual nature, half animal, half divine, his exposure to all kinds of tortures and his approximation to the figure of savior. (Wertime, 2002, p. 255)

Otto (2001, p. 268) quotes Paul Birch, designated in the 1990s to be the ‘‘Jester’’ for British Airways, ‘‘People always focus on the humor element that’s inherent in the concept of the Jester, no matter how many times you explain that the main role of the Jester is to challenge.’’ Jung (1959) states that the trickster manages to achieve through his stupidity what others fail to accomplish with their better efforts. According to Mark and Pearson (2001), the Jester archetype helps us really live life in the present and allows us to be impulsive and spontaneous. Otto (2001) claims that Jesters are creative, innovative, flexible, and challenging, qualities in the core of their being, and humor is often simply the wrapping they use to dress it up and make it acceptable. In Fools are Everywhere, Otto (2001, p. xxi) claims, ‘‘Jokes were often attributed to famous Jesters simply to lend them street credibility or market appeal, rather like asking everybody’s favorite footballer to advertise instant coffee: if he drinks it, it must be good.’’ Jesters gain credibility through their ability to create a more fun and pleasant world. Mark and Pearson (2001) claim that the Jester in everyone loves humor. Indeed, this archetype associates closely, at least tactically, to a good part of the brand communication that favors humor and relaxation.

Enacting the Jester Archetype Appendix 3 is a story in which the components of the Jester archetype are observable. This text represents the emic interpretation and contains an entire blog story. Appendix 4 shows a prediction matrix of the Jester archetype, developed using literature on the archetype (Mark & Pearson, 2001; Otto, 2001; Wertime, 2002).

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An Analysis of the Consumer’s Jester Storyline The story makes use of images with subtitles in an attempt to convey not only the facts but also what she was feeling, that is, fun. The story reflects enjoyment with normal life and surprise at having her first breakfast in Tokyo in a cafe´ with Western features. The story is told with humor and the protagonist is playful with her partner, the cafe´ staff, and the reader. In order to use the DFA as the approach to test the consistency of the story as an example of the Jester archetype, the Jester’s Archetypal Story Pattern Instrument (Appendix 4) was applied to the Gucci Cafe’s story, resulting in a 100% match with the 16 theoretical propositions stated, proving the fit of the consumer’s story for the two judges. On the other hand, when examining the Gucci Cafe’s story using the statements from the Hero’s Archetypal Story Pattern Instrument (Appendix 2) only 3 and 5 of 16 fit the Hero’s thematic for the two judges, demonstrating the use of DFA technique to analyze patterns of stories according to archetype’s requirements. Through VNA Fig. 3 portrays the Jester archetype in the relationship between the consumer and the Gucci Cafe´. The story that is mapped and organized into photographs by the VNA clearly shows the atmosphere of surprise and humor throughout the story, from the moment that the protagonist ‘‘stumbles on’’ the Gucci Cafe´ in the heart of Tokyo (described in part 1 of the VNA), unveiling an exotic oasis that is both familiar and unknown, as it is set in a new context. The second part of the VNA uses many images of the consumer herself to represent the playful environment surrounding her during that breakfast in this place that she finds so special. By chance the consumer is taken on a journey of smiles, shapes, and fun. Food, drink, and people are elements of this fun universe. The protagonist is entertained by the environment and the surprises revealed by the brand/Jester, and the consumer herself takes on the role of the Jester, who entertains both her traveling companion and the readers of her story. According to Vogler (2007) the trickster/ Jester has the psychological function of comic relief in a regularly tense and conflicting context. The brand is a tool for this state of mind. The central skill of the Jester, that of being able to give others a great time (Mark & Pearson, 2001), is observable in this story and associates to the environment that the brand creates; the story is internalized (and later externalized) by the consumer. The ability to transform people (others and herself) and to innovate and transform a simple breakfast into something significant, and all of this using humor, are strong characteristics that sum

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Fig. 3. Visual Narrative Art of the Jester Archetype Based on a Visit to the Gucci Cafe´ in Tokyo. (1) The Consumer Arrives in Tokyo and Goes to the Ginza Shopping District. There, While Looking at a Guide of Places to Have Breakfast, She Stumbles on the Gucci Cafe´ and Makes a Quip about It. (2) The Consumer Pictures Her Experience at the Gucci Cafe´ as a Moment in a Playful Environment Whose Ingredients Are the Emptiness, the Menu with the Brand Name Embossed on It, the Decorated Capuccino, and the Cute Waiter. Enjoying the Place, She Makes Jokes About Each Detail, Even When Her Partner Makes Plans With the Map and Ends up Recommending the Gucci Cafe´.

up the mission and performance of the Jester, in accordance with the works of researchers of this archetypal image (Otto, 2001).

CONCLUSIONS Archetypal themes are bridges that connect consumers and brands, not only from the viewpoint of brands that use the ‘‘mask’’ of myth, but also from consumer’s unconscious perspectives. Through brand stories and daily interaction with them, the consumer can enact and enjoy archetypal themes. According to Jung (1959), archetypal ideas or themes are part of the unconscious system that works in the present to compensate for or correct the extravagances of the conscious mind. The conscious mind

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desires clarity and to work with a handful of content at a time, while archetypes help a human being not to forget his roots and seek a synthesis of his self (Jung, 1959). The consumer, the human being, seeks to experience archetypal themes (e.g., the Hero, the lover, the sage, the outlaw) on a daily basis in mundane situations such as taking the children to school and talking to them about the weather or at a happy hour following an exhausting and productive workday. Veen (1994, p. 334) describes the Hero – indeed he refers to the adoption of myths in general – with the following perspective, ‘‘So who is this masked man, the Hero? The Hero is someone who dreams, acts on those dreams, rationalizes his action, and shares the means to his fulfillment. He is heroic for helping others uncover their selves.’’ With this predefined script with the experience of archetypes, brands need to position themselves correctly. Consumers can experiment with these powerful myths as long as the brand, in its interaction and communication, is positioned as the ingredient or tool for this purpose. Sood (2010) shows that luxury fashion brands related to travel achieve this effect. There is no lack of examples of the use of archetypes by marketing and advertising organizations (Solomon, 2013), and there is growing academic interest in the theme (Holt & Thompson, 2004; Randazzo, 2006; Veen, 1994; Woodside et al., 2008). The illustrations of both of the two stories appearing in this study provide insights into how brands enable consumers to achieve archetypal primal forces. Both stories involve the same brand: the first story involves a Gucci bag and the second is about a Gucci Cafe´ in Tokyo. But the archetypes that arise in the stories are different. The Gucci bag serves as a reward for the heroine, while the Gucci Cafe´ is a playful place that provides a fun environment. Like the studies on perception, consumers can experience different archetypes through the same brand, depending on the individual characteristics (life story) or the circumstances of the environment or context. When talking about the pattern observed in literature and classic stories, Vogler (2007) sees the archetypes as delivering dynamic functions, and describes them ‘‘not as rigid character roles but as functions performed (y) to achieve certain effects in a story.’’ A character – in the marketing context, a brand or the consumer himself – can manifest the qualities and perform more than one archetype, during his life story. In the same way that brands have to construct an adequate and differentiated perception/image, the most suitable choice of archetype should occur with this in mind. Shankar, Elliott, and Goulding (2001), for instance, question whether or not a market segment can accommodate more

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than one brand that projects the same archetypal idea. Drawing a very broad comparison with consumer perception, the stories portrayed in the present study show that the same brand can represent different archetypes and situations in the (unconscious) eyes of the consumer. The Gucci brand in the first example makes way for the emergence of the heroine in the case of the consumer in question, but could also give rise to the lover in other consumers or the sage (i.e., wise man or woman archetypes, in a more indepth approach, can be mapped to verify the best way to facilitate and adapt the relationship between consumers and brands). The present study offers a useful method for analyzing the theme of archetypes in stories told by consumers about (or including) brands, using DFA that results in a prediction matrix. Applying the prediction matrix verifies or disconfirms the pattern, based on the theory, to confirm or not the presence of an archetype in a story. This study might prove useful to researchers who aim to further their studies of consumer–brand relationships and to practitioners who might find in this tool a powerful support for developing and auditing the effects of their actions in terms of brand construction. Use of the TAT – originally created to evaluate human personality needs by stimulating the analysis of stories produced by consumers – can also facilitate the evaluation of archetypes. Indeed, professionals who use archetypes for brand planning emphasize that it is easy to understand the brand’s own personality when the archetype map is used as a yardstick (Solomon, 2013). As Veen (1994) suggests, the study here follows a branch of humanistic inquiry in order to provide insights into consumer behavior (Holbrook, 1987; Stern, 1989) and as a way to identify templates that govern the relationship between consumers and brands (Fournier, 1998). Fournier (2009) admits that the study of the consumer–brand relationship also requires research into how these relationships come about, but she concludes that their essential purpose is to provide meaning for consumers when engaging in brands. The present study deals with the question of ‘‘why,’’ using the psychology of archetypes and proposes the use of DFA and VNA as a means for verifying the presence of archetypal forces.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The third author thanks the CAPES (a Brazilian foundation) for the granted scholarship, which allowed him to participate in this research.

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APPENDIX 1: TEXT FROM BLOG: HAFIZ RECOMMENDING KEIRA GUCCI KIERA GUCCI (Posted on 21 October 2008) This is not super-rich Keira Knightley. This is my friend, super-girl Keira, who has two jobs, sport apparel marketing executive by day and holiday resort telemarketer at night. Keira is currently skipping her mid afternoon snack to buy a Gucci bag. She is not really sure what type of bag she wants but she told me that the bag must be very affordable (most important!), unisex, practical for work and play and something really y well y very Gucci. Maybe for some, buying Gucci is nothing. But for this girl, it is everything. She is a sole breadwinner after her father passed away 3 years ago. Believe me; she works so hard day and night to support her family (especially her two younger brothers who are still in college!). I give her credit for looking like a rich classy spoiled girl on an MTV reality show even after very long working hours. It’s quite a challenging task to find a Gucci bag that fits her requirement. The main criteria are that Gucci must be affordable. Frankly, looking at Keira’s financial situation, she can only get a fake Gucci. But, this is Keira. She sets her own standard and principles like ‘‘I am not rich but fake is not in my vocabulary’’. Unisex bags are so easy to find. The rule is a girl can always carry a man bag if she knows the limit. Baggy jeans with a man bag are ok if you want to be Ellen DeGeneres. But if you want to be Portia de Rossi, you must carry your man bag with a splash of feminine wear. Travelling from office to office in her day job requires her to have something very easy to carry. I will not recommend her any tote because just three months ago, a thief snatched her Calvin Klein patent leather tote. What an inconsiderate thief, she must sell about 5 holiday packages to buy that bag! She does not have enough funds to buy Gucci every season so ‘‘her Gucci’’ must be very classic, luxurious, and very Gucci (think Victoria Beckham). The one that she can carry now and that is still relevant in 2012. I definitely discourage her from buying black nylon logo applique´ messenger bag for USD 1, 695.00. It looks too ‘‘street wear’’ and she is not a gothic cult follower.

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Instead I will ask her to buy Gucci black nylon messenger bag. It’s a man bag but at the same time very ok for a lady, at only around USD 450.00; it is cheap for Gucci standards and it is within Keira’s reach. The leather trimmed woven nylon with signature web stripe down the front and rubberized GG logo with front patch pocket proved this is a real Gucci signature. Hopefully Keira can buy this bag ASAP. This is too good to be true. Keira, once you have enough funds, place your order at www. bluefly.com

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APPENDIX 2: HERO ARCHETYPE FOR KEIRA GUCCI – THE ARCHETYPAL STORY PATTERN INSTRUMENT Please circle N ¼ No; ? ¼ Not sure; Y ¼ Yes for each item below. 1. Protagonist experiences a call to adventure? N ? Y If yes, describe call: Hafiz recognises the call to help friend Keira buy affordable Gucci 2. Is a mentor present? N ? Y Evidence: Hafiz is mentoring Keira in the type of bag she requires. 3. Does protagonist demonstrate great skills? N ? Y Evidence: Hafiz understands very much the variety of handbags available. 4. Iconic representation? N ? Y Evidence: The opening story indicates, ‘‘This is not super-rich Keira Knightley. This is my friend [friend]; super-girl Keira.’’ 5. Any sign of superhuman skills? N ? Y Evidence: Keira is actually working on two jobs. Hafiz uses his skills to find a relevant but affordable bag. 6. The story contains a journey to overcome obstacles? N ? Y Evidence: ‘‘Keira travels from office to office in her day job.’’ She needs two jobs to support her family. 7. A companion on the journey? N ? Y Evidence: Hafiz and Keira are companions on the journey to select a handbag. 8. Do triumphs over evil exist? N ? Y Evidence: ‘‘Frankly, looking at Keira financial situation, she can only get a fake Gucci. But, this is Keira. She set her own standard and principle like ‘I am not rich but fake is not in my vocabulary.’’’

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9. Does the story contain the suffering of a great loss? N ? Y Evidence: ‘‘Maybe for some, buying Gucci is nothing. But for this girl, it is everything. She is a sole breadwinner after her father passed away 3 years ago.’’ 10. At journey end value brought back to the community? N ? Y Evidence: ‘‘Believe me, she works so hard day and night to support her family (especially her two younger brothers are still in college!). I give her credit for looking like a rich classy spoiled girl on MTV reality show even after very long working hours.’’ 11. Is completion of story signalled by a happy ending? N ? Y Evidence: ‘‘Hope Keira can buy this bag ASAP. This is too good to be true.’’ 12. Does protagonist achieve marriage or wealth? N ? Y Evidence: ‘‘yat only around USD450.00; it is cheap for Gucci standard and it is within Keira reach.’’ 13. Are sacrifices associated with the story? N ? Y Evidence: ‘‘yjust last three month ago, a theft snatch her Calvin Klein patent leather tote. What an inconsiderate thief, she must sell about 5 holiday packages to buy that bag!’’ 14. Does the protagonist achieve self-discovery? N ? Y Evidence: Hafiz finds a solution to satisfy Keira requirements. 15. Any areas where the Hero is not successful? N ? Y Evidence: ‘‘yjust last three month ago, a theft snatched her Calvin Klein patent leather tote. What an inconsiderate thiefy’’ 16. Any sign of pleomorphism? N ? Y Evidence: Discussion includes a non-recommendation to buy black nylon logo applique´ messenger bag from Gucci with final recommendation on a Gucci black nylon messenger bag.

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APPENDIX 3: EMIC INTERPRETATION OF VISITING GUCCI CAFE´ IN TOKYO TOKYO! DAY 1: GUCCI CAFE April 19, 2009 Here’s the irony. The first meal I had in Tokyo is not Japanese. In fact, I stumbled into the Gucci Cafe´ at Ginza. This is the first of its kind in the world in Gucci’s signature building in the luxe shopping district. Thanks to Superfuture, I found the place in no time. Yes, I’m the navigator and planner – Bubster just went with the flow. This is my ultimate luxe dining experience y (well, in a foreign country I’m saying). I thought the food was overly pricey but the experience was worth it. I might return for dessert and coffee y but not for breakfast! Here’s a sneak peek of my Gucci dining adventure: Welcome to Gucci cafe´! An overview of the cafe. Yeah, it’s pretty empty on a Sunday morning. Even the menu is blessed with the Gucci monogram. My breakfast: Barlotti Beans & Calamari Salad. Very yummy, surprisingly. Yummy!!! As you can tell from my beaming face. I love it when my cappuccino looks pretty. My cute Japanese waiter. He’s so shy because I wanted to take his photo! You should see the rest of the sales people in Gucci. The men are tall and gorgeous like models! Bubster just rolled his eyes. The man plans our route – yeah right. LOL. There are a lot of Gucci’s around. Make sure you go to 4-4-10 Ginza, Chuo-ku, and Tokyo. This is a must-see, must-eat destination in Tokyo. Yes, accept the irony. (Source: http://www.fash-eccentric.com/2009/04/tokyo-day-1-gucci-cafe/)

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APPENDIX 4: JESTER ARCHETYPE FOR GUCCI CAFE – THE ARCHETYPAL STORY PATTERN INSTRUMENT Jester (JE) Archetypal Story Pattern Instrument Blog: Fash-E! Title of Blog Entry: Tokyo! Day 1: Gucci Cafe Please circle N ¼ No; ? ¼ Not sure; Y ¼ Yes for each item below. 1. Does the story project enjoyment with normal life? N ? Y Evidence: The protagonist is happy and has fun at the Gucci cafe´. 2. Does the protagonist try to make others laugh? N ? Y Evidence: The protagonist continually smiles at breakfast and when having her picture taken with the waiter staff. 3. Is the story narration humorous? N ? Y Evidence: The narration is humorous at times exemplified by a smiley face as well as comments ‘‘pretty’’ and ‘‘yummy.’’ 4. Does time wasting relate to any aspect of the story? N ? Y Evidence: The restaurant is empty on Sunday morning yet Xwen and partner seems to take considerable time to eat breakfast. 5. Is the protagonist male? N ? Y Evidence: The protagonist appears to act as a court Jester. 6. Is the story written about a specific moment in time? N ? Y Evidence: The story covers day 1 in Tokyo. 7. Are the protagonist’s emotions unclear from reading the story? N ? Y Evidence: The protagonist emotions are very clear when considering the activities over breakfast. 8. Does the protagonist exhibit laziness? N ? Y Evidence: The protagonist partner, ‘‘Bubster,’’ works at a less frantic pace than protagonist.

Creating and Interpreting Visual Storytelling Art

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9. Is perseverance an important aspect of the story? N ? Y Evidence: Getting to the Gucci cafe´ on the first day is a major achievement. 10. Does the story make the reader feel happy? N ? Y Evidence: The story does make the reader happy along with the photographs. 11. Protagonist does not empathize with others? N ? Y Evidence: Protagonist is playful with her partner and cafe´ staff. 12. Protagonist is playful? N ? Y Evidence: Throughout the story on the cafe´ the protagonist demonstrates playfulness. 13. Does the story focus on making the mundane fun? N ? Y Evidence: Taking a simple coffee cup with heart shape foam attempts to make activities fun. 14. Do the protagonist’s clowning around make others comfortable? N ? Y Evidence: The waiter staff is happy enough when challenged by protagonist 15. Any areas where the Jester uses humour to better oneself? N ? Y Evidence: Especially when food and coffee are being served. 16. Any sign of using fun to allow protagonist to escape daily life? N ? Y Evidence: In spite of the story being a travel story, the protagonist is smiling and using humour throughout.