Criminal Justice and Behavior

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Police Work, Burnout, and Pro-Organizational Behavior: A Consideration of Daily Work Experiences Andrea Kohan and Dwight Mazmanian Criminal Justice and Behavior 2003; 30; 559 DOI: 10.1177/0093854803254432 The online version of this article can be found at: http://cjb.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/30/5/559

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10.1177/0093854803254432 CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND BEHAVIOR Kohan, Mazmanian / BURNOUT AND OCB AMONG POLICE

ARTICLE

POLICE WORK, BURNOUT, AND PRO-ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR A Consideration of Daily Work Experiences ANDREA KOHAN DWIGHT MAZMANIAN Lakehead University

This study assessed officers’ perceptions of daily work experiences (operational and organizational) and the nature of their associations with burnout and pro-organizational behavior (organizational citizenship behavior [OCB]). The moderating and mediating effects of dispositional affect and coping style were also considered. Findings showed that (a) appraisals of negative experiences (hassles) depended on frequency of exposure to the different facets of work, whereas positive organizational experiences (uplifts) were perceived as being more uplifting than operational ones; (b) burnout and OCB were more strongly associated with organizational experiences than with operational ones; and (c) only problem- and emotion-focused coping moderated, but did not mediate, associations, suggesting that chronic exposure to stressful events may act independently of disposition and that both coping styles may be beneficial. Keywords: police; job stress; burnout; organizational citizenship behavior

ecent police stress research has underscored the importance of considering officers’ perceptions of their daily work experiences (e.g., Chamberlain & Zika, 1990; Hart, Wearing, & Headey, 1993, 1994, 1995). Two outcome measures potentially important to police

R

AUTHORS’NOTE: Andrea Kohan is now at the Department of Psychology, Algoma University College, Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario, Canada. The work reported here is based on a master’s thesis submitted by the first author to Lakehead University. Portions of these findings were presented at the annual meeting of the Canadian Psychological Association, Halifax, Nova Scotia, 1999. We thank the officers of the Ontario CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND BEHAVIOR, Vol. 30 No. 5, October 2003 559-583 DOI: 10.1177/0093854803254432 © 2003 American Association for Correctional Psychology

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CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND BEHAVIOR

organizations, and to organizations in general, are employee burnout and pro-organizational behavior such as organizational citizenship behavior (OCB). Research (e.g., Burke, 1993a, 1993b, 1994) has shown that officers can experience burnout much the same as other professional groups. However, the relationship between officer burnout and perceptions of daily work experiences has not been well studied. Such perceptions may also be important to OCB, discretionary employee behavior that is not specified in job descriptions or formally rewarded but that can contribute to the success and efficiency of the organization (Organ, 1988). OCB research (e.g., Aquino, 1995; Deluga, 1994, 1995; Folger & Martin, 1986; Konovsky & Pugh, 1994; Moorman, 1991; Niehoff & Moorman, 1993) has shown that global perceptions of the workplace are important predictors. However, neither OCB nor its relationship to daily work experiences has been extensively studied among police samples. In light of these gaps in the literature, this study examined the relationship between officers’ perceptions of their daily experiences and both burnout and OCB.

POLICE STRESS RESEARCH

Recent research in the area of police stress has emphasized the importance of assessing positive and negative daily work experiences (Hart et al., 1993). This emphasis is supported by findings suggesting that (a) chronic exposure to work experiences may be more influential on well-being than sporadic but traumatic incidents (Chamberlain & Zika, 1990; DeLongis, Coyne, Dakof, Folkman, & Lazarus, 1982; Weinberger, Hiner, & Tierney, 1987); (b) positively and negatively appraised work experiences operate independently to influence officer well-being (Cohen & Hoberman, 1983; Hart et al., 1993, 1994, 1995; Headey & Wearing, 1992); and (c) positive aspects of the orgaProvincial Police (Northwest Region) and the Thunder Bay Police Service who participated in this study, as well as Brian O’Connor and John Jamieson for their helpful comments and assistance. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Dwight Mazmanian, Department of Psychology, Lakehead University, 955 Oliver Road, Thunder Bay, Ontario, Canada, P7B 5E1; e-mail: [email protected].


Kohan, Mazmanian / BURNOUT AND OCB AMONG POLICE 561

nization may actually serve to enhance well-being (Hart et al., 1993, 1994, 1995). Another issue important to police stress analyses is the differentiation between organizational and operational work experiences. The former are described as resulting from the policies and practices of the police organization, whereas the latter reflect actual policing duties (Hart et al., 1993). A consistent finding has been that officers identify organizational aspects of work as being more bothersome than operational ones (e.g., Band & Manuelle, 1987; Crank & Caldero, 1991; Kroes, Margolis, & Hurrell, 1974). Currently, appreciation is growing for examining these issues relevant to police stress in theory-driven analyses (e.g., Hart et al., 1993). Theoretical accounts of stress have emphasized the importance of considering the roles of appraisals (evaluations of the environment), coping (emotional and behavioral responses directed at change) (e.g., Lazarus, 1990; Lazarus & Folkman, 1984), and disposition (e.g., Headey & Wearing, 1989, 1992). Recent studies of police stress have attempted to incorporate these components. For example, in a series of studies, Hart and colleagues (1993, 1994, 1995) examined officers’ appraisals of daily work experiences, levels of psychological distress and well-being, and the potential mediating effects of coping style and personality. The findings suggested unique roles for these various components of stress, thereby highlighting the need for their inclusion in future assessments of psychological outcomes among officers. Following the lead of Hart and his colleagues, this study considered the assessment of daily work experiences in a similar, theory-driven approach to stress but incorporated burnout as an index of psychological distress/well-being because it is a specific work-related stress outcome measure. BURNOUT

Burnout is an extreme state of depleted resources that can result from chronic exposure to work stress. It has been conceptualized as a type of job stress with three components: emotional exhaustion (depleted energy and fatigue), depersonalization (cynicism toward the organization and its recipients), and diminished personal accomplishment (Maslach & Jackson, 1984; Maslach & Schaufeli, 1993). Associa-


562


tions have been established between these components and indices of diminished individual functioning such as physical malaise, depression, anxiety (Burke, Shearer, & Deszca, 1984a; Kahill, 1988), disruptions in interpersonal relationships (Burke & Deszca, 1986; Burke, Shearer, & Deszca, 1984b), and increased alcohol, drug, and tobacco use (Burke & Deszca, 1986; Cordes & Dougherty, 1993). Other negative correlates include deficits in work performance (Maslach & Jackson, 1985), increased absenteeism (Jackson, Schwab, & Schuler, 1986), turnover (Maslach & Jackson, 1985), intentions to quit (Burke & Deszca, 1986), and diminished organizational commitment (Jackson, Turner, & Brief, 1987). A final consideration was the potential bearing that officers’ perceptions of daily work experiences might have on other important work-related constructs. We specifically address here the relationship between officers’perceptions of daily work experiences and pro-organizational behavior in the form of OCB. ORGANIZATIONAL CITIZENSHIP BEHAVIOR

OCB refers to discretionary employee behavior not captured by formal job descriptions. Neither is such behavior enforceable nor is its omission punishable; it is simply a matter of personal choice (Organ, 1988). It is regarded as being necessary to the successful functioning of organizations (e.g., Aquino, 1995; Folger & Martin, 1986; Moorman, 1991; Organ, 1988). In the view of Kemery, Bedeian, and Zacur (1996), OCB promotes the internal balance and flexibility of an organization, thereby enhancing the probability of long-term success. Such theorizing has recently been supported by empirical evidence (e.g., Podsakoff & MacKenzie, 1997) of relationships between OCB and indexes of organizational efficiency. Operational definitions of OCB include acts of altruism, conscientiousness, sportsmanship, courtesy (e.g., Deluga, 1994; Schnake, Cochran, & Dumler, 1995), and organizational obedience, loyalty, and participation (e.g., Van Dyne, Graham, & Dienesch, 1994). Employees’ attitudes about their jobs (e.g., perceptions of fairness, job satisfaction) have been identified as consistent predictors of OCB (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Paine, & Bachrach, 2000). Several organizational experiences bear on the formation of such attitudes and corre-



late with OCB. These include supervisory concern and feedback (Eskew, 1993), ethical and consistent performance evaluations and promotional processes (Eskew, 1993; Greenberg, 1986), employee control in organizational processes (Greenberg, 1986; Paese, Lind, & Kanfer, 1988), supervisory trust-building gestures (e.g., Deluga, 1994, 1995; Organ, 1988; Niehoff & Moorman, 1993), and supportive relationships between leaders and members (Liden & Graen, 1980). Conceivably, police officers’ perceptions of their work experiences could contribute to the formation of job attitudes and, in turn, bear on their OCB performance.

PURPOSE

The purpose of this study was threefold. One purpose was to test the stability of the finding that police officers view organizational hassles as more distressing than operational ones and to clarify whether positive perceptions of daily work experiences (uplifts) follow a similar pattern. The second purpose was to determine the nature of relationships between perceptions of work experiences, officer well-being (measured by burnout), and pro-organizational behavior (measured by OCB). The final purpose was to determine the presence of either moderating or mediating effects of disposition and coping.1

HYPOTHESES

Based on the documented relationship between stressors and psychological distress (e.g., Brief, Burke, George, Robinson, & Webster, 1988; Burke, Brief, & George, 1993; Hart et al., 1995; Watson & Pennebaker, 1989), work hassles were expected to be positively correlated with burnout. In accordance with observed associations between work perceptions and OCB (e.g., Organ & Ryan, 1995), work hassles were expected to be negatively correlated with OCB. Work uplifts were expected to show opposite associations. In light of reported links between burnout and indexes of behavior detrimental to the organization (e.g., absenteeism, turnover, intentions to quit) (e.g., Jackson et al., 1986, 1987), burnout was expected to be negatively associated


564


with OCB. That is, officers experiencing burnout were expected to be less likely to invest of themselves in the form of OCB. We expected the predicted relationships involving work perceptions, burnout, and OCB to be acted upon (moderated or mediated) by disposition and coping efforts. Disposition was represented by negative and positive trait affect, two broad dispositional domains reflecting general tendencies toward subjective distress and being upbeat, respectively (Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988). The two types of coping we included were problem- and emotion-focused coping, which refer to coping efforts aimed at solving problems and regulating emotions, respectively (Folkman & Lazarus, 1985). Negative affect (NA) was expected to operate on appraisal-outcome relationships because of its well-documented role in the hassledistress relationship (e.g., Brief et al., 1988; Burke et al., 1993; Hart et al., 1995) and its potential role as an indirect influence on the performance of OCB (e.g., Organ & Ryan, 1995). Positive affect (PA) was expected to operate on appraisal-outcome relationships because there is evidence that it acts similarly to its negative counterpart (e.g., Hart, 1999; Hart et al., 1995). Problem-focused (PF) and emotion-focused (EF) coping were conceptualized as adaptive and maladaptive, respectively (Billings & Moos, 1984; Hart et al., 1995; Headey & Wearing, 1992), and were expected to operate on appraisal-outcome relationships according to these designations.

METHOD PARTICIPANTS

Police officers from the Thunder Bay Police Service (TBPS), the Northwest Region of the Ontario Provincial Police (OPP), and the Thunder Bay detachment of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) were solicited to participate on a voluntary basis. Of the 593 police officers solicited, 199 participated (33.5%). TBPS officers (municipal officers) represented 21.6% of the sample (n = 43) and showed a 20.1% response rate (43 of 215 officers), and OPP officers represented 78.4% (n = 156) and showed a 41.2% response rate (156 of 378 officers). These response rates were significantly different (z =



–5.27, p < .01). None of the RCMP officers participated. Of the 199 participants, 170 were male and 29 were female; the mean age was 36.5 years (SD = 8.5) and the mean number of years worked was 13.07 years (SD = 10.9). Officers had varied levels of experience and performed a variety of duties (124 patrol/investigative, 13 administrative, and 15 supervisory; an additional 40 performed a mixture of these duties; and another 7 fell into the other category). MEASURES

Demographic variables. These included age, sex, marital status, years of service, and type of police work. Police work experiences. The Police Daily Hassles and Uplifts Scales (PDHS and PDUS, respectively) (Hart et al., 1993, 1994) measure appraisals of negative (e.g., “giving bad news,” “being told what to do by others”) and positive (e.g., “helping the public,” “working with people who know what they are doing”) work experiences encountered by police officers on a day-to-day basis. Second-order factor analyses have demonstrated that elements of both dimensions can be grouped into two global domains reflecting operational and organizational work experiences. The PDHS lists 86 work experiences, and respondents were asked to indicate the degree to which each experience bothered them as a result of police work during the past month according to a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from 0, definitely does not apply to me, to 4, strongly applies to me. The PDUS lists 50 work experiences, and respondents were asked to indicate the degree to which each experience made them “feel good” as a result of police work during the past month according to the same scale.2 Burnout. The Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI) (Maslach, Jackson, & Leiter, 1996) assesses the three dimensions of burnout (emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and diminished personal accomplishment) on separate subscales. It has demonstrated adequate internal consistency (e.g., alphas = .90, .79, and .71, respectively) and test-retest reliability (.82, .60, and .80, respectively) for each subscale (Maslach et al., 1996). Respondents were asked to indicate the fre-


566


quency with which they experienced each of the 22 statements according to a 7-point scale ranging from 0, never, to 6, every day.3 Organizational citizenship behavior. The OCB Scale (OCBS) (Van Dyne et al., 1994) was used to assess OCB according to a responsible citizenship model (Graham, 1991).4 It contains 34 statements assessing three dimensions (obedience, loyalty, and participation), and respondents were asked to indicate the extent to which the statements applied to them according to a 7-point scale ranging from 1, never true for me, to 7, always true for me.5 Coping. Coping was assessed using the Revised Ways of Coping Checklist (WCCL) (Folkman & Lazarus, 1985). It describes a wide range of cognitive and behavioral coping strategies that have been shown in factor analyses to fall into eight subscales of coping types with alphas ranging from .61 to .79. These coping types have been dichotomized into the following general types of functional coping: problem-focused (e.g., confrontation, problem-solving) and emotionfocused (e.g., distancing, avoidance, accepting responsibility) (Folkman & Lazarus, 1985; Folkman, Lazarus, Dunkel-Schetter, DeLongis, & Gruen, 1986). Respondents were asked to think about a stressful work-related situation and rate the extent to which they used the coping strategies according to a 4-point Likert-type scale where 0 represents not used and 3 represents used a great deal. Positive and negative affect. These were measured by the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) (Watson et al., 1988).6 In this study, as in others (see Organ & Ryan, 1995), it was used as a measure of dispositional affect. Therefore, participants were asked to report the extent to which the adjective was descriptive of them as a person according to a 7-point scale ranging from 1, very little, to 7, very much. Social desirability. A shortened version of the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale (SDS) (Crowne & Marlowe, 1960) was included to assess the degree of this response style.7 We considered social desirability an issue because the study relies on employee selfreported behavior and emotional states.



PROCEDURE

Questionnaires were disseminated to all officers. Participants were asked to seal their completed questionnaires in provided envelopes and place them in a container situated at a location central to each station. These containers were then forwarded by mail.

RESULTS DESCRIPTIVE ANALYSES

Table 1 shows the means, standard deviations, and reliabilities for each scale after the removal of outliers or extreme scores (i.e., more than three standard deviations above or below the mean) as recommended by Tabachnick and Fidell (1996). A relatively low mean social desirability response (6.08 on a scale from 1 to 10) and the relatively small number and magnitude of significant correlations (25% significant; average r = .16) negated the need to adjust for this response style in subsequent analyses. Organizational differences were assessed because participants came from two police agencies. A one-way ANOVA revealed significant differences between the organizations on age, F(1, 197) = 9.63, p < .01; loyalty, F(1, 193) = 8.85, p < .01; and emotional exhaustion, F(1, 192) = 9.93, p < .01. Municipal officers were slightly older (M = 40.02, SD = 7.73) than provincial officers (M = 35.58, SD = 8.47), and they reported more emotional exhaustion (M = 20.74, SD = 9.89) and less loyalty (M = 57.05, SD 9.80) than their provincial counterparts (M = 15.71, SD = 8.94 and M = 62.79, SD = 11.41, respectively). The main effects of organization on both outcome measures held when age differences were controlled, F(1, 192) = 9.81, p < .01; and F(1, 191) = 8.06, p < .01, respectively. Because officers from the two agencies differed on only one independent measure (age), and because age explained neither group differences nor a significant portion of variance on any measure, the data from the two organizations were pooled for all subsequent analyses.


568


TABLE 1: Means, Standard Deviations, and Reliabilities

Scale Operational hassles Organizational hassles Operational uplifts Organizational uplifts Social desirability Positive affect Negative affect Obedience Loyalty Participation Emotional exhaustion Depersonalization Personal accomplishment Problem-focused coping Emotion-focused coping

M

SD

Alpha

2.76 2.63 3.21 3.67 6.08 5.10 1.94 5.38 5.11 4.76 1.90 2.19 4.12 1.46 1.31

0.58 0.66 0.65 0.56 2.03 0.89 0.73 0.73 0.97 0.94 1.11 1.30 0.93 0.36 0.34

.92 .96 .86 .93 .58 .88 .88 .75 .80 .78 .89 .74 .75 .87 .87

NOTE: See Measures section for scale parameters. Alpha = Cronbach’s alpha coefficients.

COMPARATIVE ANALYSES: APPRAISALS OF WORK EXPERIENCES

Paired t tests (see Table 2) revealed a higher mean score for operational hassles than organizational ones, t(167) = 2.52, p < .01, which suggests that officers as a group appraised operational experiences as more bothersome. However, when the comparison was made for subgroups of officers, diverse findings emerged. Patrol officers reported more operational hassles than organizational ones, t(105) = 3.07, p < .01; whereas the reverse was true for supervisors and administrators, t(23) = –2.34, p < .01 and t(24) = –3.46, p < .001, respectively. Mean organizational uplift scores (see Table 3) were higher than operational uplift scores, t(168) = –9.27, p < .001. Table 3 shows that the significant difference in mean scores held when officer subgroups were assessed, which suggests that regardless of the type of work, officers reported more organizational uplifts than operational ones. The differences in appraisals of work hassles between patrolling and supervising/administrating officers could be attributable to other group differences. A one-way ANOVA revealed group differences on age, F(2, 196) = 23.30, p < .001; and years of experience, F(2, 194) = 23.03, p < .001. Supervisors/administrators were significantly older


Kohan, Mazmanian / BURNOUT AND OCB AMONG POLICE 569 TABLE 2: A Comparison of Operational and Organizational Hassles

Mean Score (SD) Sample Entire sample N = 168 Patrol officers n = 106 Supervisors n = 24 Administrators n = 25

Operational Hassles 2.75 (0.60) 2.90 (0.60) 2.22 (0.51) 1.90 (0.58)

Organizational Hassles

df

2.64 (0.66) 2.74 (0.69) 2.49 (0.48) 2.397 (0.69)

167 105 23 24

t Value 2.52** 3.07** –2.34** –3.46***

**p < .01. ***p < .001.

TABLE 3: A Comparison of Operational and Organizational Uplifts

Mean Score (SD) Sample Entire sample N = 169 Patrol officers n = 104 Supervisors n = 49 Administrators n = 24

Operational Uplifts 3.19 (0.66) 3.38 (0.60) 2.96 (0.69) 2.47 (0.76)

Organizational Uplifts 3.67 (0.56) 3.60 (0.51) 3.78 (0.58) 3.71 (0.57)

df 168 103 48 23

t Value –9.27*** –5.24*** –7.42*** –6.96***

***p < .001.

(M = 42.86, SD = 6.78) and had more years of work experience (M = 20.33l, SD = 6.59) than patrol officers (M = 33.84, SD = 8.06 and M = 9.43, SD = 8.27, respectively). Regression analyses in which age and years of experience were entered as predictors for organizational and operational hassles showed that neither variable explained a significant portion of the variance in either work hassle (organizational hassles R2 = .004, age pr = .03, years of experience pr = –.06; operational hassles R2 = .022, age pr = –.14, years of experience pr = .06). BIVARIATE ANALYSES

Table 4 shows the zero-order Pearson product-moment correlations between variables.8 Work hassles were associated with emotional exhaustion and depersonalization but not personal accomplishment. Correlations involving organizational hassles were greater than those involving operational hassles (emotional exhaustion r = .42 compared to r = .29, t[168] = 2.08, p < .05; depersonalization r = .45 compared to


570


TABLE 4: Pearson Correlations

2 1. Hassles (org) 2. Hassles (op) 3. Uplifts (org) 4. Uplifts (op) 5. EE 6. DEP 7. PAC 8. Obedience 9. Loyalty 10. Participation 11. PF coping 12. EF coping 13. PA

3

.60*** .04 –.05

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

.13 .42*** .45*** –.11 –.11 –.31*** –.11 .16 .09 –.13 .34*** .33*** .29*** .34*** –.02 –.13 –.17 –.20** .12 .11 .01 .31*** .40*** –.17 –.10 .32*** .31*** .30*** .40*** .13 .20** .52*** –.15 –.18 .03 .21** .07 .09 –.03 .14 .19** .28*** .03 .43*** –.33*** –.26*** –.42*** –.24*** –.07 –.00 –.40*** .37*** –.14 –.18** –.39*** –.26*** .12 .08 –.17 .32*** .37*** .43*** .43*** .28*** .21** .41*** –.17 .37*** .37*** .09 .03 .37*** –.24*** .64*** .13 .18** .48*** –.27*** .28*** .24*** .43*** –.17 .75*** .19** .21** .21** .23** –.20**

NOTE: (org) = organizational; (op) = operational; EE = emotional exhaustion; DEP = depersonalization; PAC = personal accomplishment; PA = positive affect; NA = negative affect; PF coping = problem-focused coping; EF coping = emotion-focused coping. **p < .01. ***p < .001.


r = .34, t[169] = 1.81, p < .05). Alternatively, organizational and operational uplifts were positively associated with personal accomplishment, and correlations between this outcome variable and the two uplift types did not differ significantly. Organizational and operational hassles were inversely correlated with loyalty and participation, respectively, whereas organizational uplifts were positively correlated with all OCB dimensions. As expected, burnout and OCB were related in all dimensions of each measure. MODERATED AND MEDIATED RELATIONSHIPS

Hierarchical regression analyses were used to test potential moderating and mediating effects.9 Contrary to expectations, dispositional variables neither moderated nor mediated bivariate associations. The two coping variables showed no mediating effects but moderated six relationships involving work hassles, burnout, and OCB. The bivariate relationships and moderating effects are depicted in Table 5 and are described below. Work hassles and burnout. The main effects of organizational hassles on depersonalization, R2 = .203, F(2, 161) = 20.46, p < .001, were moderated by PF coping, R2 change = .030, p = .01; and the main effects of organizational hassles on emotional exhaustion, R2 = .175, F(2, 157) = 16.65, p < .001, were moderated by EF coping, R2 change = .032, p = .01. Greater coping effort of both types buffered the experience of burnout in the face of increasing organizational hassles. Work hassles and OCB. The main effects of organizational hassles on loyalty were moderated by PF coping (R2 = .137, F[2, 160] = 12.67, p < .001; R2 change = .049, p = .002) and EF coping (R2 = .167, F[2, 157] = 15.76, p < .001; R2 change = .091, p < .001). The main effects of operational hassles on participation were moderated by PF coping (R2 = .155, F[2, 162] = 14.81, p < .001; R2 change = .029, p = .017) and EF coping (R2 = .129, F[2, 159] = 11.78, p < .001; R2 change = .060, p < .001). For both types of coping, greater effort buffered declining loyalty in the face of increasing organizational hassles but contributed to declining participation as operational hassles increased.


572


TABLE 5: Moderated Relationships

Bivariate Relationship Org hassles & DEP Org hassles & EE Org hassles & loyalty Org hassles & loyalty Oper hassles & participation Oper hassles & participation

Moderator Variable

Bivariate Correlation Coefficient

Moderator Partial Correlation

Mediator Partial Correlation

PF coping EF coping PF coping EF coping

.45 .42 –.31 –.31

–.20* –.20* .34** .33***

.43 .41 –.34 –.34

PF coping

–.20

–.19*

–.27

EF coping

–.20

–.26***

–.25

NOTE: oper = operational; org = organizational; DEP = depersonalization; EE = emotional exhaustion; PF coping = problem-focused coping; EF coping = emotion-focused coping. *p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.

SUPPLEMENTARY SUBGROUP ANALYSES

Appraisal and outcome variables were assessed for officers at different points in their career. Previous research has suggested that career level may be associated with differences in work appraisals and distress levels among officers (e.g., Burke, 1989a, 1989b; Cooper, 1982; Patterson, 1992; Violanti, 1983), and it is possible that new workers and those interested in advancement might engage in more OCB than other officers as a means of getting ahead. Comparisons were made among the following three groups of officers: patrol officers with up to 5 years of experience (group 1; n = 56), patrol officers with more than 5 years of experience (group 2; n = 66), and supervisors (group 3; n = 43, Myears of experience = 20.33, SD = 6.59). We also examined associations between appraisals and outcome variables showing differences. Table 6 shows significant differences between groups, including group effects after controlling for demographic differences. Differences occurred predominantly between patrol officers as a group and supervisors and were not attributable to years of experience. The noteworthy differences were that supervisors reported more participation than did patrol officers and that supervisors and less experienced officers reported more loyalty than did more experienced patrol officers. Correlational analyses showed that whereas OCB was


Variable Hassles (op)

Uplifts (op)

Loyalty

Participation

PA

Group

n

M

SD

1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3

48 62 40 53 65 39 55 64 43 53 64 41 56 61 43

118.50a 119.40a 95.13b 56.42a 53.02a 41.56b 63.35a 57.66b 65.05a 52.49a 54.13a 64.09b 53.84a 49.15b 51.49

24 21.00 19.14 8.62 8.33 11 10.21 12.04 10.99 10.15 12.09 11.36 7.61 9.18 7.11

df

F (ANOVA)

df

F (ANCOVA)

2,147

18.07**

2,144

14.77**

2,154

31.53**

2,151

13.79**

2,159

6.71**

2,156

8.19**

2,155

13.99**

2,152

7.34**

2,157

4.88**

2,154

4.71**

NOTE: (op) = operational; PA = positive affect; F (ANCOVA) = group effect controlling for age, sex, and years of experience. Means with different subscripts differ significantly at p < .01 by the least square difference (LSD) test. Within PA, only the Ms for Groups 1 and 2 differed significantly. **p < .01.

573


TABLE 6: Subgroup Differences

574


unrelated to supervisors’ appraisals, it was related to the organizational appraisals of both groups of patrol officers. Collectively, these extra analyses did not point to career level as being an important consideration when examining appraisals and psychological distress among officers. However, they did suggest that OCB and its relationship to work appraisals, particularly organizational ones, may vary depending on career stage. Further exploration of subgroup differences would be beneficial, especially with larger samples of officer subgroups.

DISCUSSION

This study addressed three questions: (a) Do police officers view organizational aspects of their work more negatively than operational aspects, as previous research has suggested, and do positive work appraisals follow a similar pattern? (b) What is the relationship of officers’perceptions of their work experiences to burnout and pro-organizational behavior (OCB)? and (c) Are these relationships operated on (mediated or moderated) by dispositional affect and coping efforts? The data addressing the first question showed that police officers appraised operational hassles more negatively than organizational ones, thereby differentiating the officers in this study from those in previous studies where the reverse was true (e.g., Band & Manuelle, 1987; Brown & Campbell, 1990; Hart et al., 1995). However, subgroup analyses revealed that officers’ appraisals of work hassles depended on the type of work routinely performed. Patrol officers, involved in daily patrol and investigation, identified operational aspects as being more bothersome, whereas supervisors and administrators, whose duties primarily involve implementing policy, viewed organizational aspects more negatively. Uplifting organizational experiences were appraised as being more uplifting than operational ones, regardless of the type of work officers performed, suggesting a greater relative importance of organizational experiences to officers’ positive evaluations of their jobs. The difference in hassle-type appraisals between patrol and supervising officers could not be attributed to other differences between the two groups (i.e., age and years of experience). However, the manner in



which appraisals were assessed may have interfered with accurate reporting. The PDHS asks respondents to indicate the degree to which each hassle “applied to them in the last month as a result of doing police work.” One interpretation of the instructions might have led officers to report the extent to which an item was bothersome, whereas another might have led them to report that the item did not apply to them simply because they did not regularly perform that aspect of work. Thus, the PDHS seems to confound appraisals of work with performance frequency. A simple rewording of the instructions might allow the assessment of appraisals separate from performance frequency. The data pertaining to the question of relationships between variables supported the expectation that work hassles would be positively related to burnout. Officers who reported more work hassles described themselves as feeling more emotionally exhausted and subject to feelings of depersonalization. More important, in accordance with evidence of the more distressing nature of organizational elements of policing (e.g., Hart et al., 1994, 1995), organizational hassles had a stronger relationship with distress measures than operational ones. Interestingly, officers who reported more of both types of work uplifts described themselves as having greater feelings of personal accomplishment, but they reported neither a diminished sense of emotional exhaustion nor depersonalization. This different pattern of associations involving hassles and uplifts with burnout dimensions supports hypotheses of the independence of stressor-distress associations from uplift–well-being relationships (e.g., Diener & Emmons, 1985; Hart et al., 1995; McCrae & Costa, 1986). The relationship between work experiences and OCB appears to be more complex. Overall, main and subgroup analyses showed that OCB was more often associated with organizational experiences than operational ones, which coincides with previous findings of associations between perceptions of organizational procedures and OCB (e.g., Aquino, 1995; Folger & Martin, 1986; Moorman, 1991). The inverse relationship between OCB and burnout lends further credence to the contention that burnout can have a detrimental effect on organizational well-being. That is, burned-out employees may not only be more inclined to leave a job and to take more time off, but their contributions at work may be minimal when they do show up.


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The third question addressed the importance of the individual characteristics (dispositional affect and coping) to perception-outcome relationships. Research has shown that associations between perceptions and psychological outcome are mediated by disposition (Brief et al., 1988; Burke et al., 1993; Hart et al., 1995; Moyle, 1995; Watson & Pennebaker, 1989) or moderated by it (Elliott, Chartrand, & Harkins, 1994; Lazarus, 1990). The lack of effects for dispositional variables in this study contradicts both positions. However, the data were consistent with Hart et al.’s (1995) finding that work hassles and uplifts made significant contributions to psychological distress and well-being, respectively, independent of dispositional influences. The data also suggest that chronic exposure to particular work environments may be associated with psychological states and behavior beyond one’s tendency to be upbeat or negatively predisposed, which coincides with the arguments for an organizational basis of burnout (e.g., Maslach & Leiter, 1997) and the primary importance of situational factors to OCB (Organ, 1994). Future police stress analyses might clarify the importance of disposition by using alternative measures of disposition (e.g., NEO-PI-R; Costa & McCrae, 1992). Both coping styles buffered burnout in the face of increasing work hassles. These findings are consistent with the view that both coping styles can be beneficial depending on the context (Bolger, 1990; Folkman & Lazarus, 1988; Folkman et al., 1986) rather than the view that strategies are either adaptive or maladaptive (e.g., Diener & Emmons, 1985; Hart et al., 1995; Headey & Wearing, 1992; McCrae & Costa, 1986). Also noteworthy was the finding that burnout in relation to organizational hassles, and not operational hassles, was buffered by both coping styles. An inherent drawback of policing may be that, despite coping efforts, burnout is associated with mandatory operational duties. However, this and other studies have shown stronger links between distress and organizational hassles compared to operational ones (e.g., Band & Manuelle, 1987; Crank & Caldero, 1991; Hart et al., 1995). Coping efforts may be an effective way to help officers deal with a significant portion of their work-related distress.



LIMITATIONS

The correlational and cross-sectional nature of the study prevented assertions of causality and directionality. In addition, the reliance on self-report may have resulted in less-than-accurate portrayals and created the problem of common-method variance. Although difficult to orchestrate, research using more objective measures (e.g., peer and supervisor evaluations, personnel records, and third-party observation) and random samples is required. Furthermore, a variety of factors implicated in the burnout process and OCB performance were not considered in this study, and only one psychological distress/wellbeing measure (burnout) was included. Inclusion of diverse factors and outcome measures in future integrated approaches would provide a more detailed account of the way in which police officers’ work experiences are related to their psychological states. Finally, the results of this study are limited by the significant difference in response rates between the two police services. The possible reasons for this difference are worthy of study. PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS

Several messages of practical importance emerge from the findings. The stronger relationships between organizational hassles and outcome measures along with the significant main effects of appraisals suggest that regardless of disposition, officers’ identification of organizational hassles may reflect more than just grumblings of dissatisfaction; they may represent antecedents of burnout and diminished pro-organizational behavior, both of which can detract from workplace efficiency. Alternately, positive organizational experiences may have desirable organizational correlates such as fulfilled, obedient, and loyal employees who are willing to participate in organizational betterment. Understanding the importance of officers’ perceptions of their organizational experiences might direct managers to make organizational changes through discussion with officers, attend to the symptoms of officer burnout, and seek remedy through both organizational and external therapeutic solutions.


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The suggestions that officers may engage in both coping styles and that both styles may act as buffers, particularly for organizational aspects of work, offer additional direction to managers and perhaps to clinicians affiliated with police settings as well. These professionals might encourage officers to develop personally relevant coping strategies as a means of dealing with bothersome aspects of their jobs or they might educate officers about the importance of alleviating psychological distress rather than masking it. Because the organization benefits when workers experience less burnout, the promotion of individual coping efforts might work in the organization’s favor as well. Overall, this study points to the merit of examining officers’ perceptions of their working environments in future stress-related research involving police officers. It also signals managers who are interested in promoting organizational efficiency to focus, as Stearns and Moore (1993) and Maslach and Leiter (1997) suggested, on the role of job-related components rather than on just the potential individual strengths or weaknesses of the officers themselves.

NOTES 1. Evidence supports both approaches in stress analyses (e.g., Costa & McCrae, 1990; Elliott, Chartrand, & Harkins, 1994; Hart, Wearing, & Headey, 1995; Moyle, 1995). In a mediational approach, one variable is viewed as causing the occurrence of another, whereas in a moderational approach, variables are described as interacting with one another to affect outcome. See Baron and Kenny (1986) for a more detailed discussion of mediation and moderation. 2. Preliminary analyses (e.g., Hart, Wearing, & Headey, 1993, 1994, 1995) have supported the scales’ construct validity and reported internal consistency alpha coefficients between .77 and .93 for the hassles dimension and between .52 and .92 for the uplifts dimension. 3. The standard procedure is to record frequency responses only, given that frequency measures have been found to correlate with intensity measures (Maslach, Jackson, & Leiter, 1996). 4. This definition likens an employee engaging in organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) to a responsible citizen who obeys the laws of orderly society, is loyal to its interests and values, and actively participates in its perpetuation. It is represented by a three-dimensional framework encompassing obedience (acknowledging and obeying organizational rules), loyalty (identifying with and defending the organization), and participation (actively concerned with organizational affairs, keeping informed, discussing informed opinions, and generally acting in the best interests of the whole). 5. Preliminary analyses (Van Dyne, Graham, & Dienesch, 1994) suggested adequate to high internal consistency for the scale (.95) and subscales (.76 to .88), good temporal stability over a 4-week period for the scale (.92) and subscales (.80 to .88), and evidence of construct validity. Approximately half of the items are reverse-coded to avoid response bias.


Kohan, Mazmanian / BURNOUT AND OCB AMONG POLICE 579 6. The scales display high internal consistency, good test-retest reliability over a 2-month period, low intercorrelations (–.12 to –.23), and significant correlations with theoretically relevant variables (Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988). 7. The shortened version (Strahan & Gerbasi, 1972) is a 10-item true-false scale that describes culturally approved behaviors with a low probability of occurrence. It has demonstrated high internal consistency (alpha = .87) and correlates well with the standard 33-item original scale (r = .96; Fischer & Fick, 1993). 8. A significance level of .01 was used to minimize potential Type I errors that might result from the large number of correlations tested. Significant differences between correlations were determined by a dependent correlation difference test (Cohen & Cohen, 1983). 9. The degree of moderation was determined by examining the strength of the original relationship at different levels of the moderator variable, which were represented by the mean (average) and one standard deviation below (low) and above (high) the mean. These were plotted for minimum and maximum levels of the predictor variable (Cohen & Cohen, 1983; O’Connor, 1998).

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