cross-border regions? - metrolux

Economic Integration of Border Regions and Regional Trans-boundary Governance in North America and Europe: Six Border Regions

Understanding Borders Chapter - Economic Integration of Border Regions and Regional Transboundary Governance in North America and Europe

Forms and Functions of Cross-Border Urban Regions - North American Functional Regions - European Territorial Regions Emmanuel Brunet-Jailly, University of Victoria, BC [email protected]

About the Agency and Structure of Borders Towards a model of border study?    

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1. Introduction: “Understanding Borders” 1.1 A History of Ideas on Borders 1.2 A Model of Borderland Studies 2. Economic Integration of Border Regions and Regional Transboundary Governance in North America and Europe 2.1 Economic restructuring -Cross Border Economic Integration 2.2 Trans-boundary Governance 2.3 Variable Geometry of trans-boundary institutionalization 3. Conclusion

About the Agency and Structure of Borders 1. Introduction  

“Understanding Border” a book-length research project on urban borderlands. This section introduces briefly the overall framework of the project.

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The study of borders has reached the status of a unified scientific subfield, stimulating the development of many competing epistemologies of borders (Knippenberg & Markusse, 1999, Paasi, 1999, in Eskelinen, Liikanen, & Oksa, 1999, Perkmann & Sum, 2002, Newman 2005, Chen 2005, Brunet-Jailly, 2005 and 2006, Konrad and Nicol, 2008).

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I review this discussion and suggest a four-dimensional perspective for a model of study of borders and borderlands that focus on four lenses of analysis (1) the culture of the borderland, (2) the policy activities of multiple levels of government on the borderland, and (3) the influences of market forces on the borderland, (4) Local cross border political clout.

2 - A History of Ideas and Contemporary views on Borders 

Borders are human creations; Scholars have argued that  Natural geographic borders were ideal (Semple, 1911);  Borders were “good” or “bad” depending on their intrinsic merit in fostering or limiting tensions (Holdich, 1916, Lyde, 1915).  Border functions was to provide economic equilibrium (Brigham, 1932) or to strengthen state power (Peattie, 1944). They were “buffer zones” that lessened tensions between states (Johns, 1959)

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Originally borders are central to the national agenda of states – they are established by international agreements. Borders are institutions that emerge from the complex interactions multiple government policies; often back to back – not integrated - they result from the hegemonic stroke of a pen…

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2 - A History of Ideas and Contemporary views on Borders: Four Analytical Lenses 

Culture as defined by language, ethnic group, religion, socio-economic status, nationalist ideology, minority movements and political organization, political activism/violence, stateless nations i.e. not territorially integrated. 

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Cultural communities are either brought together, or enhance the border effect of division.

Local political clout establishes linkages between communities There are, however, many instances of borderland communities that have established linkages when contiguous. Scholars describe policy network and symbolic regimes, in North America (Blatter 1999, Clarkes 2002, Cold-Ravnkilde, Singh, Smith, Alper 2004). 

Local political clout either enhance the border effect or strengthens communication within the borderland

2 - A History of Ideas and Contemporary views on Borders: Four Analytical Lenses 

Economic regions spanning borders Ohmae : homogeneous borderlands are birthbeds of economic regions argument (Ohmae 1990, 1995). Yet, border economists argue that borders increase marginal costs. Borders are like “distances” (Losch 1954, Helliwell 1998, 2002) 

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Beyond the controversy, it is clear that borders are at the juncture of markets, a defining characteristic of borderlands.

Governments set Borders: Beyond international agreements to understand borders we need to understand the complex, intermeshed networks of government policy that interact to produce those international boundaries, establish border policies and functions. National governments are key players, yet, more complex (new modes of government, policy network, multilevel governance) all modify the influence of governments on borders and borderlands: 

Activities of multiple and integrated governments have great influence on borders (Brunet-Jailly, 2000, 2002, 2006, Marks, Hooghe, 2001, Blatter, 2001-3, Church Reid, 1999, Maillat 90).

3 - Model of Borderland Studies: Four Analytical Lenses

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When Culture straddles the border it integrates the borderland. When Market Forces and Trade Flow straddle the border they integrate the borderland. When Local Political Clout straddles the border it integrates the borderland. When Governments Policies straddle the border they integrate the borderland.

Local Cross Border Culture: Sense of belonging, common language, or ethnic, religious, socioeconomic background, spans the border, and borderland. If Culture straddles the border it integrates the borderland.

The Policy Activities of Multiple Levels of Government: Multilevel governance spans the border to link (type 1) local, regional, provincial, state, and central governments, and (type 2) task specific public and private sector organizations. If Governments Policies straddle the border they integrate the borderland.

Model of borderland studies: Each analytical lens may enhance one another, to - integrate or dis-integrate - the borderland. These are competing forces that -in time and place- vary in intensity along continuums where the relative influence or agency of culture, markets and government compete for structural influence.

Local Cross Border Political Clout: Active local civic and political organizations and individuals initiate and expand: Local level relations, local policy network, local policy communities, symbolic regime. If Local Political Clout straddles the border it integrates the borderland..

Market Forces and Trade Flows:

Flows of good, people and investments span the border and borderland. If Market Forces and Trade Flow straddle the border they integrate the borderland.

Chapter : Economic Integration Of Cross-Border Regions and Regional Trans-boundary Governance in North America and Europe: Six Border Regions Forms and Functions of Cross-Border Urban Regions North American Functional Regions European Territorial Regions

Emmanuel Brunet-Jailly University of Victoria Canada [email protected]

Economic Integration of Border Regions and Regional Transboundary Governance in North America and Europe 

INTRODUCTION:  Does economic integration leads to political integration?  What are the governance forms and functions of large urban regions – and specifically, of cross-border regions?  Finds that the common mismatch of variable geometry between economic spaces, and, political and institutional trans-boundary spaces leads to functional and territorial governance in cross border regions.  Assess trans-boundary governance processes in Six Border Regions: 1. Canadian-American border: Detroit/ Windsor, 2. Niagara, 3. Vancouver/Seattle 4. American Mexican border: San Diego/Tijuana 5. Franco-Belgian: Lille/Courtrai 6. Dutch-German: Enshede/Gronau

Cross-Border Regional Economic Integration and Regional Trans-boundary Governance in North America and Europe 

Global economy gives economic regions a new central role (Ohmae, 1990, 1995a, 1995b, Chen 2005)    

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Economic regions challenge world borders (Ohmae) Economic regions “bend” borders (Chen) Government-like institutions develop across borders spanning economic regions (Ohmae) Decentralization empowers local governments (Chen)

European Union scholarship discusses integration and supranational institution building (Haas, 1952, 1954, Taylor, 1971, Hooghe, 1999, Marks, 1989) Urban political economy suggests cities evolve from a multitude of points of convergence of large economic and social networks and make the wealth of nations (Jacobs, 1962) Yet - Local governmental institutions / functions – do not- overlap with the needs of their regional economies (Sancton, 1995) mismatch of variable geometry between economic spaces, and, political and institutional spaces The six case study findings suggest functional cross border regions in North America, and territorially based and democratically accountable cross border regions in Europe

Economic restructuring -Cross Border Economic Integration 

Since 1970s – Economic Changes and new trade regimes: a. b. c.

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Liberalization increases the influence of market forces Information Revolution modifies relationship between politics and market forces (Castells) “Spaces of Places” versus “Spaces of Flows” (Castells)

New Industries – New Spatial Logics – New labor and functional logics that are reciprocally exclusive and polarize skills Social disparity results from an increasing variable geometry of economic spaces, increasing the social dislocation of metropolitan regions (Castells, Reich). How do government-like institutions adapt to those changes? Central and Federal states devolve and upload powers (EU/NAFTA) Is it the rise of the Network State? (M.Castells)

Economic restructuring -Cross Border Economic Integration

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Is there a primacy of economic spatial reorganization? (Castells/Ohmae) Free trade permeate and precede all other transformations? Kenishi Ohmae talks about “Interlinked Economy”

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Border regions emerge – the new borders are information flows

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Castells and Ohmae seem to suggest that economic restructuring would affect the forms and functions of urban regions:

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Competition and market forces would increase intra-metropolitan differences Localities would struggle with intra-metropolitan fragmentation of urban forms and functions Regions would shift policy away from the needs of territorially based communities – i.e. spaces of places – to the interlinked economy of market flows

Model of Eco. Integration and Trans-boundary Institutionalization Economically Integrated

No Political/ Institutional Relations

Ideal Case: No Economic, Political, Or Institutional Relations

Model of Economic Integrationfand/or Tran-Boundary institutionalization

Hypothesis: Economic Linkages Should lead to Trans-boundary Institutions

No Economic Relations

Ideal Case of Economically and Politically Integrated CrossBorder Region

Politically/ Institutionally Integrated

Economic restructuring & Cross Border Economic Integration

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Economic Spaces: In Europe - Are the European Union countries economically integrated? Frankel test: 4.7 In North America- Are North American Free Trade Agreement Countries economically integrated? Frankel test: 2.06

Economic restructuring & Cross Border Economic Integration    

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Lille Euroregion (Lille Courtrais) First Trading Area of France: 6.5% of all exports to the Rest of the World 60% of exports 76% of import to/from EU countries 16% of exports/19% of imports to/from Belgium Enshede Euregio Lower Saxony (Enshede) 55.5% of exports 44.2% of import to/from EU countries 8.7% of exports/7.9% of imports to/from the Netherlands Northern Westphalia (Gronau) 13% of exports /20% of imports to/from Netherlands

European cross border economic regions are not highly interdependent or integrated

Economic restructuring & Cross Border Economic Integration   

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Niagara, Windsor and Detroit, Port Huron/Sarnia Ontario first trading region of Canada (55%) 93% of Ontario exports to US/ 76% of imports (45% to Michigan) Ontario-Michigan integrated /economic region Trade relationship: Rest of Canada versus Rest of the world ratio 3 10% Windsor tax base - Big 3 - 17,000 employees 120 Canadian firms in Detroit region Detroit 20.5 million vehicles/year - Niagara 17.7 million vehicles/year Frankel test 1.2

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Vancouver and Seattle 63% of British Columbia exports to US British Columbia / Washington (only) interdependent Trade relationship: Rest of Canada versus Rest of the world ratio 1.2 Frankel test 3.3

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Cross Border Regions are highly Interdependent or integrated.

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Economic restructuring & Cross Border Economic Integration 

In San Diego (California, USA) – Tijuana (Baja California, Mexico)

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California/Mexico first trading region of USA with about $120 million (2000) Equals 16 % of all U.S. export to the Rest of the World, Overall: 14 % or 18 Billions go to Mexico, i.e. 90% Mexico exports to U.S. Mexico Exports to the U.S. increased by about 70% since 1995

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788 Maquiladoras plants in Tijuana (2000) 170 000 jobs (or 10%) depend on exports to Mexico in San Diego 43% of all export or 9 billion go from San Diego to Tijuana (2000)

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Border crossings: 10 million vehicles per year 3000 trucks daily 36 million people per year

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Cross Border Regions are highly Interdependent or integrated.

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“Model of Economic Integration and/or Trans-Boundary Institutionalization” Economically Integrated

Detroit Niagara San Diego

Ideal Case of Economically and Politically Integrated Cross-Border Region

Vancouver

Lille Enschede Ideal Case of No Economic, or Political and Institutional Relations

Politically/ Institutionally Integrated

Trans-boundary Governance 

Political Spaces: the forms and functions of cities and urban regions

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Since the 1950s – metropolitan governance more complex, urban regions are highly fragmented: Structural reforms attempt to catch up with economic growth suggesting amalgamations of creation of multi-tiered systems of local government economies of scales, planning, economic development, distribution justifies tiered government forms or larger functional authorities Critics argue: Larger units are not more democratic and responsive, and, Functional focus also leads to economies of scales. All a matter of debate …

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Trans-boundary Governance  

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Overall, the technocratic debate over functions of local governments neglects the debate over the issue of “community” Defining Community:  Deutch’s “Gemeinschaft” – Attachment to a place  Tiebout’s Protecting private spaces – Includes and excludes  Malibeau’s (held in this paper) Urban regions emerge out of cultural, historical construct of social interactions and of politically set territorial boundaries Continuum - Do institutional arrangements give priority to?  Democracy, responsiveness and accountability? and/or  Fundamental requirements of efficiency and functional delivery of services? Taxonomy: “Single tier, Lower tier, Upper tier, Special Purpose body.”


Single tier government: is elected and multi-functional (manages a large number of functions) Ex: A French commune, a municipality

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Lower tier government: is –also- elected and multi-functional, but it also works/cooperates with an upper tier government. Ex: a Municipality, a District in BC

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Upper tier government: is uni- or multi-functional, elected or not, and span over a number of lower tier municipalities encompassing all the constituent lower tier municipalities. Ex: a Regional District in British Columbia, a County (US, Canada)

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Special purpose authority: is (in most cases) a uni-functional special purpose body, which serve the needs of a community, disregarding municipal boundaries. Its non-territorial logic emerges out of the level of satisfaction of the functional community it serves. Accountability is based on service and fee for service. Ex. A Regional District, a Regional Services Commission in Alberta, Police Board.


Forms and Functions - in Six Cross-Border Regions in the European Union and North America

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The EU promotes cross-border relations and institutions The NAFTA does not

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EU local level cross-border relations developed before the 1990s but from then on the European Commission launched the International Region program or INTERREG program. EU goal is to promote cooperation between regions that for centuries were military buffer zones INTERREG is the largest European Community Initiative: Cross-border organizations have to partner to create cross-border government-like institutions, and to fund economic and social initiatives that serve local interests.


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Suggest that - political spaces follow a variable geometry of governance arrangements that evolve from a tradition of multi-functional government to uni-functional governance: Placing primacy on political accountability and responsiveness anchors local governing capacities into local politics of places, Shifting the priority toward service delivery efficiency results in servicing the needs of markets, All localities struggle to establish the appropriate governance framework to service the needs of their communities and their economic region Choice suggest broad normative views that frame and inform the policy capacity and choice of localities


Example one - Lille-Euroregion:

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International initiatives of the Regional Council of Nord Pas-de-Calais (NPC): development of cross-border links with the Wallonia-Region, its Belgian neighbor. That was in 1981. During the 1980s the NPC region also promoted cooperation with Kent County Council in the United Kingdom. The “Euroregion” ratified in 1989. It has an executive body in the form of a council, a president and a permanent secretariat. The presidency rotates every year and is assumed by the Leader or President of one of the member regions. Over the years, this small confederacy of regions did not expand. Local public sector actors cooperate with their cross-border partners but also compete for E.U. funds to implement local initiatives in planning, public transportation, industrial zones, water treatment plants, environmental and economic development initiatives However, recently 14 territorially grounded governments (local government partnerships, department, provinces, regions, states) create a European body .

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Territorially/politically based government like body


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Example two: In Enshede (the Netherlands) – Gronau (Germany): The Euregio Cooperation was initiated in the 1950s between Enshede and Gronau – with three original associations of local governments joined-in a cross-border partnership – the goal was the promotion of socio-cultural programs During the 1970s, Euregio expanded to serve over 100 municipalities, and set up a cross-border parliament with 80 elected representatives from local city councils and districts (Kreis) Today, Euregio has a staff of 30 and implements ambitious socio-cultural and socio-economic policies over 149 municipalities. It channels EU funds Euregio set up an INTERREG steering committee including representatives of the EU, both German and Dutch states and Euregio representatives. It is the oldest, and largest and most successful cross-border government like institutional arrangement in Europe


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Example three: In Niagara - Windsor – Detroit Very few local cross-border partnerships /border region is fragmented All border counties compete with each others to maintain and attract businesses The oldest cooperative venture, the International Joint Commission was established in 1907 to monitor the Great Lake water quality and Environment - Its mandate never expanded In 1955, the Great Lakes Commission emerged out of a partnership Amongst U.S. states. Ontario and Quebec joined in 1999. Its narrow mandate is information sharing and advocacy about the great lakes region The Trade Corridor Partnership was launched in 1998 to address transportation, infrastructures and trade issues. It groups

overlapping networks of local border business organizations and organizes conferences.


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In Vancouver (Canada) – Seattle (U.S.) In the 1990s the Cascadia region emerges due to interdependence between British Columbia, Washington and Oregon. Cascadia is a complex ideational construct that spans social, economic, political, cultural and environmental issues in that region ( Susan Clarkes talks about a “Symbolic Regime”) Since the late 1980s, varied Governance arrangements are active: Cascadia Project focuses on transportation issues in the region; Pacific Corridor Entreprise Council promotes free trade; Pacific North West Economic Region does advocacy work Focusing on Transportation, Environment, Telecommunication, Forest Products, Tourism, Recycling, Procurement, Agriculture, Trade These organizations are network based public private partnerships, which serve primarily the interests of the private sector and span across both sides of the border.


In San Diego, U.S. – Tijuana, Mexico

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On the U.S. Mexican border, the 1889 International Boundary and Water Commission was originally set up to settle boundary changes and water Issues due to river course changes. Since the 1950s the IBWC’s role is water distribution in the Rio Grande, Colorado and Tijuana river regions. The Border Environmental Cooperation Commission and the North American Development Bank emerged as side agreements to the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). Their policy focus is on environmental infrastructures, wastewater treatment and water pollution. San Diego and Tijuana signed in letter of agreement to work on bi-national planning and coordination The Committee on Bi-national Regional Opportunities and San DiegoDialogue work on regional trade and planning activities – that is again networked based public private partnerships.

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Model of Economic Integration and Trans-Boundary Institutionalization

Detroit Niagara


Economically Integrated Cross Border Regions

San Diego Vancouver

Ideal Case of No Economic, or Political and Institutional Relations

Politically/ Institutionally Integrated Regions

Lille

Enschede

Variable Geometry of trans-boundary institutionalization 

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EU INTERREG did not noticeably enhance cross-border institution building in Lille-Euroregion or Enshede-Euregio but European funds facilitated the emergence of varied local initiatives. EU REGIONS: Both the Lille-Euroregion and the EnshedeEuregio are international regional governments that implement policies to service their communities. The Lille-Euroregion emerged out of political determination The Enshede Euregio is an extraordinary international regional government Both are multi-functional and elected bodies NAFTA REGIONS: The North American cross-border regions are served by functionally limited organizations, focusing on transportation, trade, and water These are unifunction/multifunctional – non elected bodies

Conclusion 1  

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Economic restructuring and emerging cross-border economic regions Economic regions are progressively integrated into larger trade regimes In North America, economic integration fosters uni-functional institutions without clear jurisdictional boundaries that have variable geometric functions such as Main Street Cascadia (Vancouver, Seattle and Portland corridor/Transportation corridor), or the Pacific Northwest Economic Partnership (Eight States-Provinces/Business interests) or the International Joint Commission (Great Lakes/water), or finally the Border Environmental Cooperation Commission (Whole border region/Environment)

Conclusion 2 

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In Europe, cross-border economic regions are not economically integrated. It is, however, difficult to conclude that economic integration affect local and regional forms and functions / transboundary institutionalization. Weaker economic pressures, however, do not explain the existence of territorially based multifunctional organizations that have been in place or over 40 years. Cross-border institutions result from local/regional political will. Local institutional arrangements are part of an institutional complex that includes many different levels of multifunctional local, regional and national governments including the European Union (Gary Marks call this the multi-level governance system).

“Continuum of Trans-Boundary Institutionalization” From Loose and Informal Networks of Actors to Elected Governmental Institutions

Informal Relations / Expert Based Networks


Economically Integrated Cross Border Regions

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Ideal Case of No Economic, or Political and Institutional Relations

Politically/ Institutionally Integrated Regions

Community Based / Territorially Representative Elected Trans-boundary Institutions

- End Thank you for your attention ! Emmanuel Brunet-Jailly University of Victoria British Columbia Canada - [email protected] -