Crossing Cultural Boundaries

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Journal of Asia Pacific Counseling 2012, Vol. 2, No.1, 1-17

ⓒ 2012 The Korean Counseling Association

Crossing Cultural Boundaries: Extending the Important Role of Coping in Developing Cross-National Cultural Competencies Puncky P. Heppner

Kenneth T. Wang

Mary J. Heppner

University of Missouri

How an individual copes with the stressors associated with being a sojourner has been given a central role in major acculturation models. Coping in a new cultural context can be described as a series of ups and downs, an ongoing process of trial and error, a seemingly never ending, cyclical, and iterative process. This article extends the discourse on how coping affects cultural adaptation, and ultimately the development of cross-cultural competencies. We use two cases to illustrate and contextualize the coping process within a model of Cross-National Cultural Competence (CNCC: P. Heppner, K. Wang, M. Heppner, & L.-F.Wang, in press). Future areas of coping research are identified to extend the cultural adaptation literature and the development of cross-cultural competencies. Keywords: coping, cross-cultural competence, cross-national cultural competence, cultural adaptation, acculturation, crossing cultural boundaries.

The 1 last three decades have witnessed enormous and

has subsequently connected many people in many different

rapid change across the globe (e.g., Friedman, 2005;

ways from around the globe (Friedman, 2005). For example,

Marsella, 1998; McLuan, 1968). As a result, countries

over 723,000 international students studied in colleges and

around the world have become increasingly interdependent

universities in the United States, which contributed over

economically, environmentally, socially, and culturally;

$21 billion to the U.S. economy (Institute of International

moreover, our changing world has been described as a

Education, 2011).

global village, multicultural, multinational, multiethnic,

For some time researchers have investigated what

multilingual, and highly interdependent (see for example

happens to individuals when they cross national as well as

Friedman, 2005; Marsella, 1998; McLuhan, 1968).

cultural boundaries (see Berry, 1997; Y.-W. Wang, Lin,

Moreover, the many technological, educational, economic,

Pang, & Shen, 2006). Initially the term culture shock was

and social changes has greatly increased cross-national

used to depict the many challenges and stressors that

communication, travel, commerce, and migration, which

sojourners encountered in crossing national and cultural borders (see Church, 1982; Leung & Chou, 2002; Y.W.Wang et al., 2006). Those early conceptualizations were

Puncky P. Heppner, Kenneth T. Wang, and Mary J. Heppner, Department of Educational, School, and Counseling Psychology, College of Education, University of Missouri. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Puncky P. Heppner, Department of Educational, School, and Counseling Psychology, College of Education, University of Missouri, 16 Hill Hall, Columbia, MO 65211. USA. Email: [email protected]

overly simplistic, and primarily based on medical models; over time, however, the process of moving from one culture to another has broadened to include both the physiological and psychological processes, and especially the myriad of emotional, social, cognitive, and behavioral processes (e.g.,

1

HEPPNER, WANG, AND HEPPNER

Chapdelaine & Alexitch, 2004; Y.-W. Wang, et al., 2006).

burn- out, or even what is usually considered shock.”

In short, the evidence now suggests that there is a highly

(p. 307)

complex pattern of both continuity and change in how

In short, the coping process in crossing cultural borders is

sojourners establish themselves in moving across countries

pervasive, and plays a huge role in the psychological

and cultures (Berry, 1997). Most importantly, it is becoming

adjustment of sojourners, as well as their development of

increasingly clear that some individuals cross cultural

cross-cultural competencies.

boundaries much better than others (e.g., Anderson, 1994;

Although coping has been given a central role in major

Berry, 1997; K. T. Wang, et al., 2012). Consequently, there

acculturation models of sojourners' culture adaptation and

has been continued interest in understanding the multiple

psychological adjustment in general (Anderson, 1994;

factors which affect sojourners’ cultural adjustment, and in

Berry, 1997), and many studies have empirically supported

particular the many environmental and individual variables

the importance of cultural adaptation (see for example

needed to successfully cross cultural boundaries (e.g., P.

Berry, 1997; P. Heppner, et al., in press), many questions

Heppner, K. T. Wang, M. Heppner, & L.-F. Wang, in press).

remain about the multi-dimensional role of coping within

In this article, we focus on the important role of coping.

acculturation models. For example, a recent study found

How an individual copes with the stressors associated with

that both dispositional and situation-specific coping

being a sojourner has been given a central role in major

variables differentially predicted longitudinal psychological

acculturation models (see for example Anderson, 1994;

adjustment patterns of Chinese students studying in the

Berry, 1997). Coping in a new cultural context can be

United States (K. T. Wang, et al., 2012).

described as a series of ups and downs to acquire a

The purpose of this article is to extend the

sufficient amount of cultural knowledge and skills to

conceptualization of coping in sojourners’ lives. We first

manage the stresses of being an outsider in a foreign land.

provide two cases to more completely depict the broad

The coping process can often feel like an ongoing process

array of coping activities within acculturation. Second, we

of trial and error, a seemingly never ending, cyclical, and

used these cases to illustrate and contextualize the coping

iterative process. Anderson (1994) aptly depicted the coping

process within a recently developed model of Cross-

process as:

National Cultural Competence (CNCC; P. Heppner, K.

adaptation is a dynamic and interactive process

Wang, M. Heppner, & L.-F. Wang, in press) for sojourners.

where individuals influence and change their

Finally, we suggest future areas of research by identifying

environments and are influenced and changed by

promising coping variables within complex, multi-faceted

them in return (Bowers, 1973). Whether we solve

models (including moderators) to extend the cultural

problems well or badly, it is a fact of life that we must

adaptation literature. In so doing, we extend the discourse

keep coping with problems as they arise... For most

on how coping affects cultural adaptation, and ultimately

people, adaptation is a cursive and cyclical problem-

the development of cross-cultural competencies.

solving activity. Adaptation to life's challenging situations is… often a ferris wheel or roller-coaster

Case 1: From Mexico to the United States: Straddling Cultures and Developing Competencies

ride, with depression and elation, successes and failures, and overcoming obstacles providing the hills and valleys…. If the obstacles encountered along the way are perceived as small, they are likely to be

Maria Trujillo and her family (natives from Oaxaca,

surmounted uneventfully, swiftly, and perhaps even

Mexico) moved to a small and predominately white (90%)

imperceptibly. If they are perceived as mountainous,

Midwestern town of Teccano, Missouri (population 13,000),

their

neutralizing might demand great effort,

to work in a meat processing plant and make a good home

generating concomitant risks of "culture" fatigue,

for her family. Her family had been struggling financially 2

EXTENDING THE CONCEPTUALIZATION OF COPING

in Mexico for some time; relatives helped her and her

respond to stressors within this context, she also knew

husband get jobs at the same plant in Teccano. Although

adapting to this new “White” world would be much better if

she was a bit anxious, she was hopeful it would be a good

her family could communicate fluently in English. Because

move for her children’s future.

she worked days and her husband worked nights, Maria and

In the past there has been considerable resentment and

her husband enrolled in different English classes at the local

discrimination toward immigrants in Teccano. The plant

community center so they were able to have one of the two

had not been successful in finding a domestic labor force,

parents home with their children most of the time. The

which has resulted in a majority of the workers being

English classes were hard for both Maria and her husband,

immigrants. Maria had experienced cultural transitions

and at different times they both wanted to give up, but both

earlier in her life as her family of origin moved several

were determined to learn English. Over time, they both

times within Mexico in search of a better life. She witnessed

could see the benefits. For example, Maria’s English

the resourcefulness of her mother, and remembered some of

language skills not only helped her manage to buy food

her ways of coping with difficult transition situations.

within their budget, but also helped her understand and

Nonetheless, Maria knew it would likely be a stressful and

interact more effectively with people in the community, and

difficult transition for her family. She worried about the

particularly with school teachers which benefitted her

prejudice against Mexican workers who filled many of the

children. Maria was often tired, but she felt good that she

jobs in the community.

was able to help her children do well in school.

Immigrants who had come to this community in recent

Some of her immigrant friends admired her for learning

years tended to live in ethnic enclaves where they continued

English; however, others chided her for becoming “too

to speak primarily Spanish, cook traditional Mexican foods,

White”, and losing her Mexican identity. It was important

and share news of home with one another. Relationships

that Maria had the respect of the immigrant community, but

and seeking support were more comfortable with others

she also knew that she had to engage in the new American

from her home culture; in addition, Maria was very

culture if she wanted to be successful. She worked hard at

accustomed to coping within Mexican cultural contexts.

being able to understand both the perspectives of her fellow

Although there were many daily problems, Maria felt lucky

immigrants and the predominately White community. Over

to have a close community of immigrants who she could

time she began to understood why there was resistance on

talk with and gain social support. Her fellow immigrants

the part of some in the White community to the Mexican

would share important knowledge about how to be

immigrants.

successful in this new land, such as resources they

community might become, and their worries that the

discovered, ways of dealing with and helping their children

immigrants would take jobs away from White workers.

adjust to this community, including the racial bias and

Because Maria could see the perspective of the broader

discrimination. She felt happiest in those times when they

community, she was able to respond more effectively to the

would all come together and gain strength from each other’s

White people in their cultural context. She also quickly

experiences. She loved to cook and share the traditional

understood that many people in this community had no

foods of home, to hear traditional music of the Marimba or

exposure to people from other cultures, that they were

Mariachi band, and to talk with others about news they had

ignorant of some of the most basic information about

received from their friends and relatives still in Mexico.

Mexico or Mexicans. Maria would laugh about such

These times always gave her support and strength, and a

differences! Most everyone in Mexico knew more about the

feeling of that she could cope with this new American

U.S. than any of her neighbors knew about her homeland!

(White) world.

Maria would always tell her children: “these Americans just

She learned they had fears of what their

Although Maria appreciated the comfort of hearing her

do not understand our culture… you need to understand and

mother language spoken, and the ease with which she could

remember that!” Many myths about the immigrants 3

HEPPNER, WANG, AND HEPPNER

prevailed, such as they were dirty, promiscuous, lazy, and

immigrants watched movies and socialized mostly within

abused drugs. These myths created prejudice, bias, and

their cultural group, and Maria did that too, she also wanted

discrimination in many forms against the immigrants.

to learn more about American culture. Sometimes that

Maria felt bad about this racial discrimination, but was

meant she would ask questions of her American friends to

determined to fight against these myths by helping the

learn more about the White American culture in Teccano,

Americans understand that she wanted the same things they

but also to develop relationships with White people. She

did for their children; yes, there were differences, but also

also prioritized buying a used television, as she knew it

many similarities in everyone's family goals.

could help her learn the language and culture. Other times it

It was not as if Maria never felt stress or pain; actually,

meant taking a risk to get a language partner who was a

her life had many stresses related to living on very little

white mother about her own age, or would regularly attend

money in a country where food and clothes were much

the parent teacher association (PTA) meetings at the school.

more expensive than in Mexico. In addition, she also felt

She even accepted the challenge of representing the

the stress that came from being treated as an outsider, being

Spanish-speaking parents at the PTA to communicate some

treated as if she was stupid because her English was not too

of their concerns to their board.

good, or having her children be thought of as less intelligent

Although it was sometimes difficult and stressful to

because of their brown skin color. She detested that the

represent her community in this way, she felt it was

clerks in the stores would follow her around because they

important to build better working relationships in the

assumed she would steal something. So there were blatant

community. She wanted to be a part of solutions for the

acts of racism and discrimination, but also many more

community and her people, rather than be associated with

subtle acts of bias and discrimination. Many nights she

problems in the community. Maria knew she wanted to

cried. Many times she called her parents in Mexico for

maintain her identity as a Mexican, and she was very proud

support, even though she did not want them to worry, she

of the history of her resilient people; but she also

had to call them sometimes. Their support was very helpful

understood that if she and her family wanted to be

to maintain her strength to actively approach the many

successful, she would need to understand the White culture

problems facing her and her family. These were not easy

and language they were now living in as well, and most

times, but Maria was determined not to let these things stop

importantly, how to cope appropriately within that cultural

her and her family. She told herself that if she tried hard, she

context. She often felt so exhausted that sometimes it was

could cope with these things. And she did! Sometimes her

almost impossible for her to continue her positive outlook.

efforts were not successful, but she would never quit trying.

It helped her to think of her two children, their lives, their

Maria used humor a lot in her interactions with the other

children, the continuing saga of life and how important it

Mexican immigrants, and particularly with her friends. As

was for her to do the best she could to give her children a

her English skills improved she also began use a little

better life, just has her parents had done for her.

humor with the White community; she found humor helped their relationships. She found humor as “a common language”, whether it is with a cashier at the grocery store,

Case 2: From Milwaukee to Nanjing: Worlds Apart

or a person sitting next to her at church. Sometimes it fell flat, but many times it was just what was needed to break the tension of cross-cultural exchanges, and really to

Thomas Olson had been studying Mandarin for three

develop more meaningful relationships.

months during college as he thought it might give him an

She could also certainly understand why others in the

edge for jobs with his Business major. With China

immigrant community wanted to spend all of their non-

becoming such an “economic powerhouse”, he thought

work time with other immigrants. Although most of the

being fluent in Mandarin would be very useful in his future 4

EXTENDING THE CONCEPTUALIZATION OF COPING

employment. He saw an advertisement on a bulletin board

Nanjing, he also began to think about returning to the U.S.

about a yearlong study abroad program in China, and

He wondered if his feelings about China would change. Or

decided he wanted to go. He thought this kind of immersion

was this the real China?

might really help his fluency in speaking Mandarin.

The one redeeming feature so far was that he came with a

Although the poster looked exotic and exciting with

group of 11 American students. They lived in a dormitory

pictures of the Great Wall and the Summer Palace, he also

like the Chinese students, but they were given the privilege

felt some apprehensive about going to China; as he had

of sleeping four, rather than ten, in a dormitory room. He

never attempted such a sojourn before. He had never

looked forward to getting to know these students as they

actually travelled that much in the US, really just a little

seemed interesting to him, and they might also be good

around Wisconsin with his family, and he wondered if he

future contacts in the business world.

would be able to manage living in such a different place and

Some of the other American students began to develop

culture. He talked to his parents, and they agreed that this

friendships with Chinese students, and would go to the

might be a very good investment of money to spend a year

Night Markets, restaurants, or other places that the Chinese

in Nanjing. They thought that because a university in the

students liked to go. A few times he went with some

U.S. sponsored this program there would be other American

Chinese students to a Night Market, but he did not like the

students from other U.S. campuses, and they would be able

crowds, noise and smells (especially what they called stinky

to provide him some support. Thomas hesitated in

tofu); he also did not like most of the foods that the Chinese

submitting his application, and almost missed the deadline;

students encouraged him to try. He felt a little awkward

however, two months later, he was on a plane flying to

saying he did not want to try foods that they seemed so

Shanghai, and then on to Nanjing.

excited about, but the food was pretty bad; he would much

Upon arriving in busy Nanjing, he was immediately

rather have a McDonald's hamburger which he really

struck by the many cultural differences which really

missed!

surprised him. He had not expected that people would be

Thomas found himself staying in his dormitory more and

rude to him in the shops; he had always heard that the

more, talking with two other Americans who shared some

Chinese were such polite people. And he was very surprised

of his views and early disappointments with the exchange

and disappointed when he found that his Mandarin

program. They tended to talk a lot about how odd the

language skills were not sufficient to allow him to buy food

Chinese culture was, and the many ways that it was below

on the street—at least the shop keepers made it seem like

American standards. They all agree that chopsticks were

they could not understand him. By the second day, he began

extremely limited (functionally), and ridiculously archaic;

to think that he had made a dreadful mistake by deciding to

there was no way to shovel the food in your mouth if you

study a whole year in China. Somehow he thought students

were in a hurry to eat. Why would anyone continue to eat

from good universities in the U.S. would be treated with

with chopsticks if you could have an American fork?

more respect by people in China; instead he felt at times

Talking with his American friends who shared his

invisible, and at other times quickly dismissed and ignored.

perspectives made him feel better about himself, and he

He remembered this dreadful feeling once before when his

began to more clearly see that the problem was the Chinese

parents sent him to a summer camp for two weeks. He

people and culture. Over time, he talked less and less with

hated it from the first day and begged to go home. He felt

his Chinese peers, and more with his American friends.

the other kids were odd, the camp programs were boring

Thomas tried to prepare American style food, but he found

and a waste of time, and the rustic surroundings were old-

this to be very challenging for a number of reasons. When

fashioned and ridiculous; why did people want to go to such

he did eat at American restaurants such as Kentucky Fried

a rustic camp in the wilderness anyway? After four days,

Chicken, McDonalds, or Pizza Hut, the food tasted different

he talked his parents into letting him return home. Now in

and odd (squid on pizza!), and he longed to be back home 5

HEPPNER, WANG, AND HEPPNER

where food was prepared “the way it should be prepared,

more of the Chinese culture, and to keep an open mind

and tasted the way it was supposed to taste”.

about his new world; he did not find this advice to be very

The pedagogical style in the classroom was particularly

helpful to him.

Everything seemed so different, “so

backward and inferior”.

challenging for Thomas as there seemed to be so little structure: no syllabus, no course objectives, and vague

After a month of struggling with the many hassles of

expectations of what the teachers wanted. The teachers also

life

seemed very serious, unfriendly, and have implicit

physically…gastro-intestinal problems, which was not

expectations that students would know what to study, and

uncommon when he was stressed. He started looking into

punished students verbally and nonverbally if they did not

shortening his stay to one semester, a year felt too long to

perform well. Thomas concluded that the teachers were

bear. He started to fall behind in his Mandarin classes; he

clearly not doing their job very well. He did notice that

could see that he would never be fluent in Mandarin; he

several of his peers, especially those from other Asian

could no longer see himself doing business in China.

countries, would search for relevant information from a

After six weeks, Thomas returned to Milwaukee realizing

variety of other sources, and that somehow they were doing

he failed in reaching his goal.

better in the class.

in

Nanjing,

it

started

affecting

Thomas

He was not doing nearly as well

academically as he had done in the U.S., which was quite

Contextualizing the Coping Processes of Maria and Thomas

frustrating to him; although his academic performance did not totally seem to be his fault, he did feel inadequate about his performance. On several occasions he talked to one of his instructors for help, and although she seemed interested

The purpose of this section is to highlight and

in helping him, it did not seem to be very helpful; she told

contextualize the coping processes of Maria and Thomas to

him students often have trouble learning Mandarin, gave

illustrate a number of coping variables that can often affect

him a website to study, encouraged him to keep studying

both

(although it was not clear to him exactly what he should be

competencies, as well as the psychological and physical

studying), and assured him that it would get better over time.

adjustment of sojourners. To do so, we will discuss the

With each day Thomas felt more and more stressed, and he

coping activities illustrated in the two cases above within

had a growing realization that he had made a huge mistake,

the Cross-National Cultural Competency (CNCC) Model (P.

and now he was “stuck in Nanjing for a year”.

Heppner et al., in press). The CNCC not only attempts to

the

development

of

cross-national

cultural

Although at some level Thomas knew it was not good for

deconstruct and thereby understand the ambiguous

him to think so much about his life back home, he was

construct of cross-national cultural competence, but also

constantly making those comparisons. Relatively speaking,

propose a model that identifies some major factors, most

the beds in China were so hard, he did not like all the harsh

notably coping, that may affect the development of cross-

florescent lights nor the plastic signs that were everywhere,

national cultural competence. More specifically, this model

the plastic dishes, and the coldness of the buildings;

conceptualizes cross-cultural competencies as cross-cultural

everything seemed uncomfortable and so foreign, and he

awareness,

longed to feel the familiarity and comforts of his home in

contextualized within: (a) a sojourner’s personality/attitudes

Milwaukee again. He e-mailed his parents and friends many

and coping, (b) particular immersion experiences, (c)

times a day. He tried to get English-speaking channels on

continuous experiencing, reflection, and dialogue of

the television, but was unsuccessful. He felt “cut-off” from

cognitive, affective, and behavioral processes, all within (d)

home. Occasionally he would hear an English song, which

a larger ecological system reflecting a wide array of cultural

would really bring him back to all he was missing in his

values, norms, and customs of the host culture. Briefly,

homeland. His mother kept encouraging him to experience

cross-cultural awareness consists of awareness of one’s own 6

knowledge,

and

skills,

developed

and

EXTENDING THE CONCEPTUALIZATION OF COPING

cultural worldview and one’s attitudes toward cultural differences and similarities of people from a specific cultural group and country; cross-cultural knowledge pertains to knowledge of different worldviews and sociohistorical contexts for specific cultural groups in a specific country, and the resulting cultural practices in that specific cultural group; cross-cultural skills pertain to one’s ability to interact, communicate, collaborate and work effectively with specific cultural groups within a specific country. Such cultural awareness, knowledge, and skills are developed with an understanding of the ecological systems and subsystems in which one is living as well as for a specific cultural group in a particular country. The two cases above clearly indicate that Maria was much more aware of her own cultural worldview, and put a great deal of effort into acquiring more knowledge about the White cultural context in Teccano, and over time was able to acquire culturally appropriate coping skills to interact with a wide array of people within the White culture. Conversely, Thomas did not seem to be as aware of the implications of his worldview within a Chinese cultural Figure 1. Cross-National Cultural Competency (CNCC) Model

context, and subsequently was not able to acquire the necessary cross-cultural skills in order to effectively cope

more detail below. Most importantly, we encourage

with living in China.

scholars to examine the array of variables we identify below

The CNCC model is illustrated in Figure 1. The three

in future coping research within the acculturation process.

competency areas lay within the triangle, and are affected by three components illustrated by three inner circles: (a) personality/attitudes and coping, (b) various characteristics

Component One: Foundational Personality/Attitudes

of immersion experiences, and (c) one’s experiencing,

and Coping

reflection, and dialogue of the behavioral, affective, and cognitive processes which transforms immersion

Personality/attitudes and coping are central factors that

experiences into competency. All the variables represented

influence one’s cross-national cultural adaptability and

by the three inner circles of the model may directly or

competency. Sojourners are seeking to adapt to a new

indirectly facilitate the development of the tripartite cross-

cultural context. Adapting to one's environment is not a new

national cultural awareness, knowledge, and skills. The

process for sojourners; they have been adapting to various

outer circle illustrates that CNCC is founded on an

environmental contexts since they were born (see Anderson,

ecological framework, which takes into account the

1994). In essence, “all adjustment is a cyclical and recursive

contextual basis surrounding cross-cultural competence.

process of overcoming obstacles in solving problems and

All these five primary components are critical in

present-environment interactions” (p. 293). Thus, not only

understanding the development of cross-national cultural

are sojourners seeking to adapt to a new cultural

competencies; we will briefly elaborate on the model as we

environment, but they have done so repeatedly in their

now discuss the coping processes of Maria and Thomas in

culture of origin for many years. The CNCC model

7

HEPPNER, WANG, AND HEPPNER

postulates that personality variables as well as one's

less open to new cultural experiences, and quickly began to

dispositional coping style will likely affect one's cultural

isolate himself, which prevented him from acquiring

adaptability,

important knowledge about the Chinese cultural context

and

the

acquisition

of

cross-cultural

competencies in a new culture.

that could have been very useful to enhance his coping in

Research has indicated that certain personality characteristics

seem

to

facilitate

(or

inhibit)

that environment. Moreover, his ethnocentrism led him to

the

devalue the Chinese people and culture that he encountered.

development of cross-cultural competencies. Individual

Thomas also did not evidence much problem-solving

characteristics reported in the literature that seem to be

confidence, and did not put forth much effort to learn about

advantageous for a person to develop cultural competencies,

Chinese culture. In short, most of the personality

include: open-mindedness (Costa & McCrae, 1992),

characteristics and dispositional coping styles evidence by

curiosity, adventurousness, willingness to engage (Ross,

Maria and Thomas would seem to have contributed to

2008), ethnocultural empathy (e.g., Van der Zee & Van

varying levels of cultural adaptation, and merit examination

Oudenhoven, 2000; Y.-W. Wang, et al., 2003), universal-

in future research.

diverse orientation (Miville, et al., 1999), multicultural

We also own hypothesize that it may also be informative

personality (Van der Zee & Van Oudenhoven, 2000),

to examine relations between dispositional coping [such as

perspective taking (Abbe, et al., 2007), dispositional coping

one's problem-solving confidence based on innumerable

styles such as problem-solving confidence (K. T. Wang, et

daily experiences, such as measured by the Problem

al., 2012), tolerance for ambiguity and emotional stability

Solving Inventory (PSI); see review by Heppner, Witty, &

(Furnham & Ribchester, 1995; Van der Zee & Van

Dixon, 2004] and indices of cross-cultural adaptation (e.g.,

Oudenhoven, 2000), and humor and humility (L.-F. Wang

psychological adjustment and cross cultural competencies)

& P. Heppner, 2009). Conversely, we hypothesize that there

with both short- and long-term sojourners such as study

are also characteristics, such as racism, ethnocentrism, and

abroad students and immigrants. In short, much more

arrogance that can hinder the development of cultural

research is needed to examine the main effects of

competencies.

dispositional coping on an array of variables related to

Maria possessed several of the positive personality

cultural adaptability.

characteristics, such as having a stronger desire to engage

The coping literature also suggests that there may be

with people from the host culture, demonstrating an

more complex relations among personality and coping

openness for perspective taking, and using humor to cope

variables, such as mediation and moderation effects in

with challenging situations. Moreover, Maria not only

predicting psychological adjustment (see for example

demonstrated a tolerance for new cultural perspectives, but

Connor-Smith, 2007). We suspect that there may be

actually put a significant amount of effort into learning

complex moderating relations between dispositional coping

more about the White culture, and to respond effectively

variables (e.g., PSI) and personality variables (e.g.,

with in that cultural context. In addition, she was confident

ethnocultural empathy and multicultural personality; Van

that she would be able to acquire the necessary cultural

de Zee & Van Oudenhoven, 2000) in predicting cross-

knowledge and skills if she persisted. She also clearly

cultural adaptability (e.g., psychological adjustment and

believed that effort was important in her coping (higher

cross-cultural competencies). For example, those with a

effort attributions have been associated with effective

more positive problem-solving appraisal and higher levels

problem solving; see Baumgardner, Heppner, & Arkin,

of ethnocultural empathy, or a stronger multicultural

1986). In particular, Maria persisted (despite feeling

personality, might have some advantages in successfully

exhausted at times) in learning English and immersed

adapting to cross-cultural situations. Conversely, if a

herself within the host community, which increased her

person with high levels of maladaptive perfectionism (e.g.,

knowledge of the White culture. In contrast, Thomas was

Nilsson, Butler, Shouse & Joshi, 2008; Wei, et al., 2007), 8

EXTENDING THE CONCEPTUALIZATION OF COPING

or high levels of neuroticism (McCrae & John, 1992), and

Perhaps such analyses would identify critical or turning

also a negative problem-solving appraisal (PSI: Heppner,

events within the situation-specific coping activities, and

et al., 2004), this person may be predisposed to have more

their differential impact on various outcomes over time in

challenges adapting in a new cultural context. In short, we

such cases.

conjecture that people who have been both effective problem solvers in their homeland, and have personality

Component Two: Characteristics and critical elements

characteristics that facilitate cultural adaptation, and all

of immersion experiences

other variables being equal, will most likely be effective problem solvers in a new cultural environment, and will

Immersing oneself in another culture has been seen as

also be more successful in cross-cultural adaptation as

one of the most powerful mechanisms in developing cross-

well as in developing cross-cultural competencies.

cultural competencies (see Heppner, 2006; Norsworthy,

Moreover, the CNCC model also postulates that the

Leung, P. Heppner, & L.-F. Wang, 2009; L.-F.Wang & P.

effectiveness of a person’s coping with specific situations

Heppner, 2009). Figure 1 lists a number of immersion

over time will also affect the development of cross-cultural

variables that can affect cultural adaptation. Researchers

competence and ultimately cross-cultural adaptability;

have found that a person’s international experience was a

including psychological adjustment (see Heppner, Wei,

predictor of their cultural intelligence, both in terms of the

Neville, & Kanagui-Munoz, in press). Some research

number of countries visited (Crowne, 2008; Shannon &

suggests that the frequency of utilizing particular coping

Begley, 2008; Tarique & Takeuchi, 2008) and the length of

strategies, and the subsequent perceived helpfulness of

stay (Tay, Westman, & Chia, 2008; Tarique & Takeuchi,

those coping strategies, varies across different stressors (P.

2008). In addition, more frequent interactions with locals

Heppner, et al., 2012). For example, research with

during cross-national immersions were also found to predict

Mainland Chinese college students indicates that indeed

higher cultural intelligence (Crawford-Mathis, 2010;

some

as

Crowne, 2007). Stepping out of one’s comfort zone and

acceptance, reframing, and striving (but not family

being an active agent during cross-cultural encounters, such

support), were associated with better psychological and

as attending events of culturally diverse groups, holding

career adjustment (He, 2011). As reflected in the case of

conversations and developing friendships with individuals

Maria, it is also very likely that as a person acquires

of other nationalities can facilitate very powerful learning

culture-specific knowledge in a new culture, with repeated

experiences.

situation-specific

coping

activities,

such

trials that person may also become more effective in

Maria’s immersion experience was much more positive

coping, and in essence be able to code-switch more

due to many of these factors, such as having experienced

quickly across different cultural contexts.

previous transitions within Mexico (including watching her

Much more research is also needed to examine the

mother as a role model), a strong ethnic social support

sequential impact of situation-specific coping over time on

network from other immigrants, and more positive

the cultural adaptability and development of cross-cultural

interactions with the White people in the community

competencies in sojourners.

For example, it would be

(mainstream support: see Yong, Jung, Lee, & Felix-Mora,

helpful to examine perhaps through qualitative studies, the

2012). In contrast, although Thomas studied Chinese while

step-by-step consequences of situations like: (a) Thomas’s

he was in the U.S., he was less mentally prepared to

initial avoidant social behavior on both his social

encounter the acculturative challenges.

connectedness with Chinese friends as well as on his

previous immersion experiences, Thomas was less aware of

decision to return to the United States, and (b) Maria’s

the implications of being immersed in Chinese culture for

repeated attempts to develop interpersonal relationships

the first time; moreover, he did not plan very much for a

with white Americans within the small-town community.

year-long immersion, and especially for studying in a very 9

By not having

HEPPNER, WANG, AND HEPPNER

different cultural context. Thus, he did not anticipate the

cross-cultural adaptation (see Berry, 1997). For example,

differences in food, social norms, teaching pedagogy, and

other research suggests that ethnic support is associated

the challenges that those differences posed for him. In

with lower stress (e.g., Ward & Kennedy, 1993), and

addition, due to their roles and circumstances, Maria’s

connections with members of the host culture are regarded

ability to leave was much more restrictive than Thomas.

as helpful if the relationships match one's expectations (see

Maria also engaged in more proactive coping (such as

Berry & Kostovcik, 1990). A recent study also found that

realizing the importance of learning the English language,

high ethnic social connectedness moderates (or weakens)

knowing how important it was to acquire knowledge of the

the association between perceived racial discrimination and

White culture in Teccano, knowing how important it could

stress, but that mainstream social connectedness (although

be to reduce cultural barriers with people in the White

not a moderator) was associated with less perceived general

community, etc.). Conversely, Thomas often showed an

stress and less perceived racial discrimination (Wei, K. T.

avoidant coping approach, and in essence isolated himself,

Wang, P. Heppner, & Du, 2012).

and thus greatly reduced his opportunities to obtain

Clearly the role of social support seems very important as

knowledge of the Chinese cultural context as well as

sojourners cross cultural boundaries; nonetheless, many

mainstream support and connectedness with Chinese people

important questions remain around the role of social support.

(see Yoon, et al., 2012). A combination of these, and other

For example, it may be helpful to know more specifically

factors likely contributed to how much, and in what way

what is the utility or function of social support variables

Maria and Thomas chose to cope with the challenges that

from both one's own ethnic group as well as from the host

they encountered.

culture. In essence do these two sources of social support

We want to highlight the important role of social support

provide different, but equally important functions of social

in developing cross-national cultural competencies. Social

support? Do they differentially impact the psychological

support is one of the most effective means by which people

adjustment as well as the development of cross-cultural

can cope with and adjust to difficult and stressful events

competencies? For example, does informational and

(Taylor, 2007). Social support consists of a wide array of

instrumental social support from the host culture, versus

actions such as receiving and seeking emotional support,

one's

tangible assistance, and informational resources (e.g.,

knowledge and skills related to the host culture as suggested

Cohen & Wills, 1985; Thoits, 1995). Sojourners often

in Maria’s case? Does emotional support from members of

experience a loss of social support as they leave their

the host culture, as opposed to from one ethnic group within

homelands, even though more recently the internet has

the host culture, result in a greater sense of belonging to the

bridged some of those losses. Nonetheless, sojourners are

mainstream society, and thus promotes psychological well-

often in positions where they are developing new social

being? In essence, additional research is needed to examine

support systems in their new homeland both with people

the comparative advantage of different types or sources of

from their homeland (ethnic support) who now reside in the

social support on both psychological adjustment as well as

same new homeland, or with people from the mainstream

the development of cross-cultural competencies.

ethnic

group,

promote

greater

cross-cultural

culture (mainstream support) in their new homeland. Some

The CNCC model also suggests that there may be other

acculturation scholars have similarly focus on social

social variables that may impact a sojourner’s cultural

connectedness (i.e., a subjective sense of interpersonal

adaptability,

closeness and togetherness with one's social environment:

environments (including the level of perceived racial

Lee & Robbins, 1995, 1998), specifically to their ethnic

discrimination), the number of people from one's ethnic

community and the mainstream society (see Yoon & Lee,

group in the host culture, and the quality of the

2010). Some research suggests that having both ethnic

interpersonal relationship with the primary host (e.g.,

support and mainstream support is the best predictor of

faculty advisor) in the new cultural context. Relatedly, the 10

such

as

supportive/hostile

immersion

EXTENDING THE CONCEPTUALIZATION OF COPING

sojourner’s role in the new environment (e.g., high or low

Processing cross-cultural experiences (e.g., reflecting,

status, extent of role related social interactions, length of

journaling, dialoguing) and consulting with cultural insiders

the immersion), as well as attributes of the sojourner (e.g.

can greatly facilitate an integration of new cultural

language proficiency, previous cultural immersions) all

information into one’s own life schema and worldview.

may affect the level and type of social support a sojourner

This cultural learning process requires active and

experiences. In short, the CNCC model postulates that the

continuous observations, reflections of one’s thoughts,

level and type of social support that a sojourner

emotions, and behaviors, and how these aspects interact in

experiences will clearly impact how a sojourner copes

the immersion process. For example, through this kind of

with a wide array of difficult and stressful situations

reflection, a person may become aware that his/her

confronting the sojourner, which in turn will affect the

tendency to avoid social interactions in the immersion

many dimensions of cultural adaptability. Thus, we

environment is due to experiencing the loss of knowledge

encourage future researchers to examine both the

on how to interpret social norms and interact with others in

independent contributions of personality, social support,

this new setting. The lack of relevant knowledge (cognitive)

and coping, as well as their interactions to fully understand

can lead to feelings of inadequacy and anxiety (strong

their combined contributions to cross-cultural adaptation

affective reactions), and result in social avoidance

and

(behavioral patterns). By understanding these internal

the

development

of

cross-national

cultural

competencies.

interactions, a sojourner is in a more informed position to

The CCMC model also postulates that personality

identify ways to cope, such as consulting cultural insiders

variables, environmental variables, and coping variables

about social norms or attending immersion activities along

all combine to predict outcomes such as psychological

with someone from the host culture. Without this level of

adjustment, vocational adjustment, cultural adaptability,

reflection and dialogue on one’s cross-cultural experiences,

and cross cultural competence. Such a model suggests

the immersion experience may have limited effect on one’s

greater complexity in the coping process. We strongly

cross-cultural competency development.

encourage future researchers to examine the combined

Maria demonstrated more reflection during her cultural

main effect and interactive contributions of person (e.g.,

immersion. She learned both the perspectives of other

personality variables), environmental (e.g., social support

immigrants and white people in the community. She also

from different sources), and coping variables in the same

utilized her American friends to learn more about the

study of cross-cultural adaptability and cross-cultural

cultural context, which we would hypothesize, allowed her

competence. We would also suggest that researchers

to cope more effectively in the new cultural context. In

examine variables predicting the development of cross-

contrast, Thomas was more American-centric and used the

cultural competence not only for immigrants but also for

American ways as a standard to devalue the things that he

college

international

was not used to in China (e.g., weird food, odd people, hard

educational cultural immersions (e.g., with varying

beds). He did not try to understand the different cultural

durations, such as two weeks or one year).

context, and different cultural norms. And without having

students

participating

within

the relevant cultural knowledge, he erroneously blamed and Component Three: Continuous learning through

rejected the Chinese people and culture. We conjecture that

Experiencing-Reflection-Dialogue

such rejection would contribute to social isolation and a relatively poor adjustment in a new culture. In short, taking

An immersion experience in itself is not enough to

the time to continuously learn about oneself, the new

develop cross-cultural competencies. P. Heppner et al., (in

cultural context, and acquiring new culturally sensitive

press) stressed the importance of Experiencing-Reflection-

skills would seem to greatly affect the cultural adaptability

Dialogue as an essential part of the cultural learning process.

trajectory of sojourners. 11

HEPPNER, WANG, AND HEPPNER

Component Four: Tripartite cross-national cultural

biases from people in the host culture toward her and her

awareness, knowledge, and skills

fellow immigrants. She also accepted the reality of her incomplete knowledge of the White culture in Teccano, but

The three categories of the cross-national cultural

took action to enhance your knowledge by attending

competency proposed by P. Heppner et al. (in press) is

English classes, watching TV, and consulting friends. In

based on the Awareness, Knowledge, and Skills (AKS)

contrast, Thomas did not exhibit much effort to understand

framework

the Chinese culture.

developed

to

address

multiculturalism

Conversely, he devalued it by

competencies related to the inequities, discrimination,

comparing it to the American culture. Thomas also seemed

oppression, and privilege within the U.S. society

to be unaware that by devaluing the Chinese culture, and

(Arrendondo et al., 1996). It is important to note that they

blaming the teachers for his poor academic performance

are highly intertwined with each other. In other words,

(which seemed to allow Thomas to feel better about

one’s level of cross-national cultural awareness may lead to

himself), he was in a way, also minimizing his

acquiring knowledge that then transforms into culturally

responsibility for his behavior (and most likely would

appropriate behaviors.

reduce his belief that his effort was an important factor in how he coped within the new cultural context; see

Cross-National Cultural Awareness

Baumgardner, et al., 1986). We conjecture that an increased

Cross-cultural awareness is associated with being

awareness of one’s personal characteristics, cognitive and

constantly aware of oneself in a new cultural context, and

affective reactions, coping styles and activities, would often

how this awareness impacts the cross-national encounters.

lead to the development of cross-cultural knowledge and

Such a continual focus often requires constant vigilance

skills.

across almost all of one's daily interactions and can be tiring, which has been described as a loss of “an effortless sense of

Cross-National Cultural Knowledge

belonging” when one is immersed in another culture

Cross-national cultural knowledge is culture-specific, and

(Rakhsha, 2002). Thus, it is important to be aware of and

not only specific to countries (e.g., Malaysia, Thailand), but

accept one’s limitations of lacking relevant cultural

also to cultural subgroups within a particular country (e.g.,

knowledge in cross-national interactions.

different ethnic groups in Indonesia). The development of cultural knowledge is related to one’s breadth and depth of

The awareness includes several different aspects, such as (a) awareness of one’s own attitudes, beliefs, personality

first-hand

dynamics, and cultural values; (b) awareness of one’s self

understanding of how subsystems in those cultures impact

within the different cultural context, such as being an

behavior.

experiences

with

other

cultures,

and

outsider, stereotypes, and power/privilege statuses; (c)

P. Heppner et al. (in press) raised six core aspects of

awareness of one’s incomplete knowledge base of the other

cross-cultural knowledge competencies: (a) knowledge of

culture and its impact; (d) awareness of challenges and

one’s own cultural context; (b) knowledge of the other's

limitations associated with cross-cultural communication; (e)

cultural context; (c) knowledge related to the social

awareness of one’s style of coping (under high and low

structure, sociopolitical and economic history, impact of

stress) and emotional management in the host environment;

social change in the culture; (d) knowledge for effective

and (f) awareness of the impact of who one is (e.g., physical

communication on a variety of levels (e.g., being

appearance, role, age, gender, LGBT, religion) and how that

empathetic, understanding verbal and non-verbal messages,

may impact cross-cultural relationships.

accommodating for different communication styles); (e)

Maria demonstrated stronger cross-cultural awareness.

knowledge about the legal and ethical codes in the other

She was able to see the perspectives from both cultural

cultural context; and (f) professional knowledge bases

groups. She was aware of being an outsider and the likely

related to theoretical models, research, and practice in the 12

EXTENDING THE CONCEPTUALIZATION OF COPING

other’s culture.

to identify and utilize relevant resources within and beyond

Maria consistently delivered to acquire knowledge about

the new cultural environment.

the White U.S. culture in Teccano. Her perspective taking

Maria demonstrated the skills to interact both with people

and involvement with other Americans facilitated some

from her culture and the host culture, and to cope with the

cross-national friendships. These American friends served

cross-national

as cultural informants to reduce the perceived ambiguity for

appropriate ways. Maria moved beyond her comfort zone

her in this new environment. In other words, the learning

and immersed herself by volunteering for the PTA. Maria

environment is important in developing cross-cultural

was

competencies. In addition, developing cultural knowledge

communication skills by learning English over an extended

needs a wide array of ethnic and mainstream support, and is

time period. Effective communication with those of a

a life-long process that requires consistent and concerted

different mother language is a critical aspect in developing

effort.

strong cross-cultural relationships. It is critical to not only

also

acculturative

diligent

in

challenges

building

her

in

culturally

cross-cultural

In contrast, Thomas felt defeated by realizing that he

have the ability to speak in another language, but also to

lacked sufficient knowledge about the Chinese culture. In

know how to decode the interpersonal nuances in social

addition, his detachment coping style (e.g., staying in his

interactions. Code-switching, being able to decode

dormitory), primarily talking with other American friends

situations within the new cultural context, and respond in

reinforced his negative views of China, and prohibited him

culturally appropriate ways are important skills in cross-

from acquiring additional cultural knowledge. An important

cultural situations. This was a skill Maria used to maintain

note to make around the interaction between awareness and

her Mexican identity and also immerse herself in the

knowledge relates to imposing values and standards of one

American culture. Conversely, Thomas was unable to

culture to another culture. Without adequate knowledge of

accept and adjust to the Chinese classroom culture that had

the Chinese culture, and the intersecting subsystems that

less explicit structure and expectations. He maintained his

affect behavior in that particular cultural context, Thomas

original ways of thinking, and evaluated the differences

made negative and false judgments about the differences he

quite negatively, which not only lead to continuous

experienced.

challenges, but eventually giving up.

Thus, we hypothesize that having cross-

national cultural awareness of differences and the cultural

Finally, acquiring cross-national cultural knowledge and

context is critical in building one’s knowledge base in

awareness is essential, but may not always translate into

cross-national settings.

skills. For example, a person may be physically or emotionally exhausted or defeated and therefore, does not

Cross-National Cultural Skills

take the time to adequately process the experiences. Thus,

Cross-national cultural skills refer to one’s ability to cope,

this suggests that the Experiencing-Reflection-Dialogue is a

navigate, and interact with others in a different cultural

critical process in transforming awareness and knowledge

context. One’s cross-cultural skills are built upon one’s

into useful skills, which Maria demonstrated but not

cross-cultural awareness and knowledge. P. Heppner et al.

Thomas.

(in press) also highlighted six core aspects of cross-cultural skills: (a) skills to effectively identify relevant cultural

Component Five: Understanding of the ecological

contexts (decode) and respond appropriately; (b) skills to

framework

cope with significant cultural differences; (c) skills to develop quality relationships with others from a different

Cross-national cultural competencies should be based on

culture; (d) skills to work effectively with others from a

a clear understanding of Bronfenbrenner’s (1977, 1979)

different culture; (e) skills to cope with problems and stress

ecological framework.

associated with crossing national boundaries; and (f) skills

(2008) proposed that the development of cross-cultural 13

Heppner, Leong, and Gerstein

HEPPNER, WANG, AND HEPPNER

competency “should begin with a multicultural mindset

Heppner, 2008; P. Heppner, et al., in press; Utsey, Adams,

(Leong & Hartung, 2000) that included a deep

& Bolden, 2000; Wong, Wong, & Scott, 2006). In essence,

understanding of the contextual basis of human behavior

coping constructs based on the predominately White U.S.

that require a cross-cultural and comparative perspective” (p.

cultural groups do not tell the whole story about coping for

247-248). They stressed the importance of having

all cultural groups in the U.S., as well as other cultural

knowledge about Bronfenbrenner’s five subsystems (i.e.,

groups around the world. Greater attention to the cultural

microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and

context of the sojourner as well as the host culture will

chronosystem) of one’s culture as well as the immersion

reveal additional coping complexities that are currently not

culture, and to apply this framework to accommodate for

well understood in the development of cross-national

differences in international activities. For example, being

cultural competencies.

aware of the cross-national difference in the subsystems will minimize false generalization and inappropriate transferring

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