Journal of Asia Pacific Counseling 2012, Vol. 2, No.1, 1-17
ⓒ 2012 The Korean Counseling Association
Crossing Cultural Boundaries: Extending the Important Role of Coping in Developing Cross-National Cultural Competencies Puncky P. Heppner
Kenneth T. Wang
Mary J. Heppner
University of Missouri
How an individual copes with the stressors associated with being a sojourner has been given a central role in major acculturation models. Coping in a new cultural context can be described as a series of ups and downs, an ongoing process of trial and error, a seemingly never ending, cyclical, and iterative process. This article extends the discourse on how coping affects cultural adaptation, and ultimately the development of cross-cultural competencies. We use two cases to illustrate and contextualize the coping process within a model of Cross-National Cultural Competence (CNCC: P. Heppner, K. Wang, M. Heppner, & L.-F.Wang, in press). Future areas of coping research are identified to extend the cultural adaptation literature and the development of cross-cultural competencies. Keywords: coping, cross-cultural competence, cross-national cultural competence, cultural adaptation, acculturation, crossing cultural boundaries.
The 1 last three decades have witnessed enormous and
has subsequently connected many people in many different
rapid change across the globe (e.g., Friedman, 2005;
ways from around the globe (Friedman, 2005). For example,
Marsella, 1998; McLuan, 1968). As a result, countries
over 723,000 international students studied in colleges and
around the world have become increasingly interdependent
universities in the United States, which contributed over
economically, environmentally, socially, and culturally;
$21 billion to the U.S. economy (Institute of International
moreover, our changing world has been described as a
Education, 2011).
global village, multicultural, multinational, multiethnic,
For some time researchers have investigated what
multilingual, and highly interdependent (see for example
happens to individuals when they cross national as well as
Friedman, 2005; Marsella, 1998; McLuhan, 1968).
cultural boundaries (see Berry, 1997; Y.-W. Wang, Lin,
Moreover, the many technological, educational, economic,
Pang, & Shen, 2006). Initially the term culture shock was
and social changes has greatly increased cross-national
used to depict the many challenges and stressors that
communication, travel, commerce, and migration, which
sojourners encountered in crossing national and cultural borders (see Church, 1982; Leung & Chou, 2002; Y.W.Wang et al., 2006). Those early conceptualizations were
Puncky P. Heppner, Kenneth T. Wang, and Mary J. Heppner, Department of Educational, School, and Counseling Psychology, College of Education, University of Missouri. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Puncky P. Heppner, Department of Educational, School, and Counseling Psychology, College of Education, University of Missouri, 16 Hill Hall, Columbia, MO 65211. USA. Email:
[email protected]
overly simplistic, and primarily based on medical models; over time, however, the process of moving from one culture to another has broadened to include both the physiological and psychological processes, and especially the myriad of emotional, social, cognitive, and behavioral processes (e.g.,
1
HEPPNER, WANG, AND HEPPNER
Chapdelaine & Alexitch, 2004; Y.-W. Wang, et al., 2006).
burn- out, or even what is usually considered shock.”
In short, the evidence now suggests that there is a highly
(p. 307)
complex pattern of both continuity and change in how
In short, the coping process in crossing cultural borders is
sojourners establish themselves in moving across countries
pervasive, and plays a huge role in the psychological
and cultures (Berry, 1997). Most importantly, it is becoming
adjustment of sojourners, as well as their development of
increasingly clear that some individuals cross cultural
cross-cultural competencies.
boundaries much better than others (e.g., Anderson, 1994;
Although coping has been given a central role in major
Berry, 1997; K. T. Wang, et al., 2012). Consequently, there
acculturation models of sojourners' culture adaptation and
has been continued interest in understanding the multiple
psychological adjustment in general (Anderson, 1994;
factors which affect sojourners’ cultural adjustment, and in
Berry, 1997), and many studies have empirically supported
particular the many environmental and individual variables
the importance of cultural adaptation (see for example
needed to successfully cross cultural boundaries (e.g., P.
Berry, 1997; P. Heppner, et al., in press), many questions
Heppner, K. T. Wang, M. Heppner, & L.-F. Wang, in press).
remain about the multi-dimensional role of coping within
In this article, we focus on the important role of coping.
acculturation models. For example, a recent study found
How an individual copes with the stressors associated with
that both dispositional and situation-specific coping
being a sojourner has been given a central role in major
variables differentially predicted longitudinal psychological
acculturation models (see for example Anderson, 1994;
adjustment patterns of Chinese students studying in the
Berry, 1997). Coping in a new cultural context can be
United States (K. T. Wang, et al., 2012).
described as a series of ups and downs to acquire a
The purpose of this article is to extend the
sufficient amount of cultural knowledge and skills to
conceptualization of coping in sojourners’ lives. We first
manage the stresses of being an outsider in a foreign land.
provide two cases to more completely depict the broad
The coping process can often feel like an ongoing process
array of coping activities within acculturation. Second, we
of trial and error, a seemingly never ending, cyclical, and
used these cases to illustrate and contextualize the coping
iterative process. Anderson (1994) aptly depicted the coping
process within a recently developed model of Cross-
process as:
National Cultural Competence (CNCC; P. Heppner, K.
adaptation is a dynamic and interactive process
Wang, M. Heppner, & L.-F. Wang, in press) for sojourners.
where individuals influence and change their
Finally, we suggest future areas of research by identifying
environments and are influenced and changed by
promising coping variables within complex, multi-faceted
them in return (Bowers, 1973). Whether we solve
models (including moderators) to extend the cultural
problems well or badly, it is a fact of life that we must
adaptation literature. In so doing, we extend the discourse
keep coping with problems as they arise... For most
on how coping affects cultural adaptation, and ultimately
people, adaptation is a cursive and cyclical problem-
the development of cross-cultural competencies.
solving activity. Adaptation to life's challenging situations is… often a ferris wheel or roller-coaster
Case 1: From Mexico to the United States: Straddling Cultures and Developing Competencies
ride, with depression and elation, successes and failures, and overcoming obstacles providing the hills and valleys…. If the obstacles encountered along the way are perceived as small, they are likely to be
Maria Trujillo and her family (natives from Oaxaca,
surmounted uneventfully, swiftly, and perhaps even
Mexico) moved to a small and predominately white (90%)
imperceptibly. If they are perceived as mountainous,
Midwestern town of Teccano, Missouri (population 13,000),
their
neutralizing might demand great effort,
to work in a meat processing plant and make a good home
generating concomitant risks of "culture" fatigue,
for her family. Her family had been struggling financially 2
EXTENDING THE CONCEPTUALIZATION OF COPING
in Mexico for some time; relatives helped her and her
respond to stressors within this context, she also knew
husband get jobs at the same plant in Teccano. Although
adapting to this new “White” world would be much better if
she was a bit anxious, she was hopeful it would be a good
her family could communicate fluently in English. Because
move for her children’s future.
she worked days and her husband worked nights, Maria and
In the past there has been considerable resentment and
her husband enrolled in different English classes at the local
discrimination toward immigrants in Teccano. The plant
community center so they were able to have one of the two
had not been successful in finding a domestic labor force,
parents home with their children most of the time. The
which has resulted in a majority of the workers being
English classes were hard for both Maria and her husband,
immigrants. Maria had experienced cultural transitions
and at different times they both wanted to give up, but both
earlier in her life as her family of origin moved several
were determined to learn English. Over time, they both
times within Mexico in search of a better life. She witnessed
could see the benefits. For example, Maria’s English
the resourcefulness of her mother, and remembered some of
language skills not only helped her manage to buy food
her ways of coping with difficult transition situations.
within their budget, but also helped her understand and
Nonetheless, Maria knew it would likely be a stressful and
interact more effectively with people in the community, and
difficult transition for her family. She worried about the
particularly with school teachers which benefitted her
prejudice against Mexican workers who filled many of the
children. Maria was often tired, but she felt good that she
jobs in the community.
was able to help her children do well in school.
Immigrants who had come to this community in recent
Some of her immigrant friends admired her for learning
years tended to live in ethnic enclaves where they continued
English; however, others chided her for becoming “too
to speak primarily Spanish, cook traditional Mexican foods,
White”, and losing her Mexican identity. It was important
and share news of home with one another. Relationships
that Maria had the respect of the immigrant community, but
and seeking support were more comfortable with others
she also knew that she had to engage in the new American
from her home culture; in addition, Maria was very
culture if she wanted to be successful. She worked hard at
accustomed to coping within Mexican cultural contexts.
being able to understand both the perspectives of her fellow
Although there were many daily problems, Maria felt lucky
immigrants and the predominately White community. Over
to have a close community of immigrants who she could
time she began to understood why there was resistance on
talk with and gain social support. Her fellow immigrants
the part of some in the White community to the Mexican
would share important knowledge about how to be
immigrants.
successful in this new land, such as resources they
community might become, and their worries that the
discovered, ways of dealing with and helping their children
immigrants would take jobs away from White workers.
adjust to this community, including the racial bias and
Because Maria could see the perspective of the broader
discrimination. She felt happiest in those times when they
community, she was able to respond more effectively to the
would all come together and gain strength from each other’s
White people in their cultural context. She also quickly
experiences. She loved to cook and share the traditional
understood that many people in this community had no
foods of home, to hear traditional music of the Marimba or
exposure to people from other cultures, that they were
Mariachi band, and to talk with others about news they had
ignorant of some of the most basic information about
received from their friends and relatives still in Mexico.
Mexico or Mexicans. Maria would laugh about such
These times always gave her support and strength, and a
differences! Most everyone in Mexico knew more about the
feeling of that she could cope with this new American
U.S. than any of her neighbors knew about her homeland!
(White) world.
Maria would always tell her children: “these Americans just
She learned they had fears of what their
Although Maria appreciated the comfort of hearing her
do not understand our culture… you need to understand and
mother language spoken, and the ease with which she could
remember that!” Many myths about the immigrants 3
HEPPNER, WANG, AND HEPPNER
prevailed, such as they were dirty, promiscuous, lazy, and
immigrants watched movies and socialized mostly within
abused drugs. These myths created prejudice, bias, and
their cultural group, and Maria did that too, she also wanted
discrimination in many forms against the immigrants.
to learn more about American culture. Sometimes that
Maria felt bad about this racial discrimination, but was
meant she would ask questions of her American friends to
determined to fight against these myths by helping the
learn more about the White American culture in Teccano,
Americans understand that she wanted the same things they
but also to develop relationships with White people. She
did for their children; yes, there were differences, but also
also prioritized buying a used television, as she knew it
many similarities in everyone's family goals.
could help her learn the language and culture. Other times it
It was not as if Maria never felt stress or pain; actually,
meant taking a risk to get a language partner who was a
her life had many stresses related to living on very little
white mother about her own age, or would regularly attend
money in a country where food and clothes were much
the parent teacher association (PTA) meetings at the school.
more expensive than in Mexico. In addition, she also felt
She even accepted the challenge of representing the
the stress that came from being treated as an outsider, being
Spanish-speaking parents at the PTA to communicate some
treated as if she was stupid because her English was not too
of their concerns to their board.
good, or having her children be thought of as less intelligent
Although it was sometimes difficult and stressful to
because of their brown skin color. She detested that the
represent her community in this way, she felt it was
clerks in the stores would follow her around because they
important to build better working relationships in the
assumed she would steal something. So there were blatant
community. She wanted to be a part of solutions for the
acts of racism and discrimination, but also many more
community and her people, rather than be associated with
subtle acts of bias and discrimination. Many nights she
problems in the community. Maria knew she wanted to
cried. Many times she called her parents in Mexico for
maintain her identity as a Mexican, and she was very proud
support, even though she did not want them to worry, she
of the history of her resilient people; but she also
had to call them sometimes. Their support was very helpful
understood that if she and her family wanted to be
to maintain her strength to actively approach the many
successful, she would need to understand the White culture
problems facing her and her family. These were not easy
and language they were now living in as well, and most
times, but Maria was determined not to let these things stop
importantly, how to cope appropriately within that cultural
her and her family. She told herself that if she tried hard, she
context. She often felt so exhausted that sometimes it was
could cope with these things. And she did! Sometimes her
almost impossible for her to continue her positive outlook.
efforts were not successful, but she would never quit trying.
It helped her to think of her two children, their lives, their
Maria used humor a lot in her interactions with the other
children, the continuing saga of life and how important it
Mexican immigrants, and particularly with her friends. As
was for her to do the best she could to give her children a
her English skills improved she also began use a little
better life, just has her parents had done for her.
humor with the White community; she found humor helped their relationships. She found humor as “a common language”, whether it is with a cashier at the grocery store,
Case 2: From Milwaukee to Nanjing: Worlds Apart
or a person sitting next to her at church. Sometimes it fell flat, but many times it was just what was needed to break the tension of cross-cultural exchanges, and really to
Thomas Olson had been studying Mandarin for three
develop more meaningful relationships.
months during college as he thought it might give him an
She could also certainly understand why others in the
edge for jobs with his Business major. With China
immigrant community wanted to spend all of their non-
becoming such an “economic powerhouse”, he thought
work time with other immigrants. Although most of the
being fluent in Mandarin would be very useful in his future 4
EXTENDING THE CONCEPTUALIZATION OF COPING
employment. He saw an advertisement on a bulletin board
Nanjing, he also began to think about returning to the U.S.
about a yearlong study abroad program in China, and
He wondered if his feelings about China would change. Or
decided he wanted to go. He thought this kind of immersion
was this the real China?
might really help his fluency in speaking Mandarin.
The one redeeming feature so far was that he came with a
Although the poster looked exotic and exciting with
group of 11 American students. They lived in a dormitory
pictures of the Great Wall and the Summer Palace, he also
like the Chinese students, but they were given the privilege
felt some apprehensive about going to China; as he had
of sleeping four, rather than ten, in a dormitory room. He
never attempted such a sojourn before. He had never
looked forward to getting to know these students as they
actually travelled that much in the US, really just a little
seemed interesting to him, and they might also be good
around Wisconsin with his family, and he wondered if he
future contacts in the business world.
would be able to manage living in such a different place and
Some of the other American students began to develop
culture. He talked to his parents, and they agreed that this
friendships with Chinese students, and would go to the
might be a very good investment of money to spend a year
Night Markets, restaurants, or other places that the Chinese
in Nanjing. They thought that because a university in the
students liked to go. A few times he went with some
U.S. sponsored this program there would be other American
Chinese students to a Night Market, but he did not like the
students from other U.S. campuses, and they would be able
crowds, noise and smells (especially what they called stinky
to provide him some support. Thomas hesitated in
tofu); he also did not like most of the foods that the Chinese
submitting his application, and almost missed the deadline;
students encouraged him to try. He felt a little awkward
however, two months later, he was on a plane flying to
saying he did not want to try foods that they seemed so
Shanghai, and then on to Nanjing.
excited about, but the food was pretty bad; he would much
Upon arriving in busy Nanjing, he was immediately
rather have a McDonald's hamburger which he really
struck by the many cultural differences which really
missed!
surprised him. He had not expected that people would be
Thomas found himself staying in his dormitory more and
rude to him in the shops; he had always heard that the
more, talking with two other Americans who shared some
Chinese were such polite people. And he was very surprised
of his views and early disappointments with the exchange
and disappointed when he found that his Mandarin
program. They tended to talk a lot about how odd the
language skills were not sufficient to allow him to buy food
Chinese culture was, and the many ways that it was below
on the street—at least the shop keepers made it seem like
American standards. They all agree that chopsticks were
they could not understand him. By the second day, he began
extremely limited (functionally), and ridiculously archaic;
to think that he had made a dreadful mistake by deciding to
there was no way to shovel the food in your mouth if you
study a whole year in China. Somehow he thought students
were in a hurry to eat. Why would anyone continue to eat
from good universities in the U.S. would be treated with
with chopsticks if you could have an American fork?
more respect by people in China; instead he felt at times
Talking with his American friends who shared his
invisible, and at other times quickly dismissed and ignored.
perspectives made him feel better about himself, and he
He remembered this dreadful feeling once before when his
began to more clearly see that the problem was the Chinese
parents sent him to a summer camp for two weeks. He
people and culture. Over time, he talked less and less with
hated it from the first day and begged to go home. He felt
his Chinese peers, and more with his American friends.
the other kids were odd, the camp programs were boring
Thomas tried to prepare American style food, but he found
and a waste of time, and the rustic surroundings were old-
this to be very challenging for a number of reasons. When
fashioned and ridiculous; why did people want to go to such
he did eat at American restaurants such as Kentucky Fried
a rustic camp in the wilderness anyway? After four days,
Chicken, McDonalds, or Pizza Hut, the food tasted different
he talked his parents into letting him return home. Now in
and odd (squid on pizza!), and he longed to be back home 5
HEPPNER, WANG, AND HEPPNER
where food was prepared “the way it should be prepared,
more of the Chinese culture, and to keep an open mind
and tasted the way it was supposed to taste”.
about his new world; he did not find this advice to be very
The pedagogical style in the classroom was particularly
helpful to him.
Everything seemed so different, “so
backward and inferior”.
challenging for Thomas as there seemed to be so little structure: no syllabus, no course objectives, and vague
After a month of struggling with the many hassles of
expectations of what the teachers wanted. The teachers also
life
seemed very serious, unfriendly, and have implicit
physically…gastro-intestinal problems, which was not
expectations that students would know what to study, and
uncommon when he was stressed. He started looking into
punished students verbally and nonverbally if they did not
shortening his stay to one semester, a year felt too long to
perform well. Thomas concluded that the teachers were
bear. He started to fall behind in his Mandarin classes; he
clearly not doing their job very well. He did notice that
could see that he would never be fluent in Mandarin; he
several of his peers, especially those from other Asian
could no longer see himself doing business in China.
countries, would search for relevant information from a
After six weeks, Thomas returned to Milwaukee realizing
variety of other sources, and that somehow they were doing
he failed in reaching his goal.
better in the class.
in
Nanjing,
it
started
affecting
Thomas
He was not doing nearly as well
academically as he had done in the U.S., which was quite
Contextualizing the Coping Processes of Maria and Thomas
frustrating to him; although his academic performance did not totally seem to be his fault, he did feel inadequate about his performance. On several occasions he talked to one of his instructors for help, and although she seemed interested
The purpose of this section is to highlight and
in helping him, it did not seem to be very helpful; she told
contextualize the coping processes of Maria and Thomas to
him students often have trouble learning Mandarin, gave
illustrate a number of coping variables that can often affect
him a website to study, encouraged him to keep studying
both
(although it was not clear to him exactly what he should be
competencies, as well as the psychological and physical
studying), and assured him that it would get better over time.
adjustment of sojourners. To do so, we will discuss the
With each day Thomas felt more and more stressed, and he
coping activities illustrated in the two cases above within
had a growing realization that he had made a huge mistake,
the Cross-National Cultural Competency (CNCC) Model (P.
and now he was “stuck in Nanjing for a year”.
Heppner et al., in press). The CNCC not only attempts to
the
development
of
cross-national
cultural
Although at some level Thomas knew it was not good for
deconstruct and thereby understand the ambiguous
him to think so much about his life back home, he was
construct of cross-national cultural competence, but also
constantly making those comparisons. Relatively speaking,
propose a model that identifies some major factors, most
the beds in China were so hard, he did not like all the harsh
notably coping, that may affect the development of cross-
florescent lights nor the plastic signs that were everywhere,
national cultural competence. More specifically, this model
the plastic dishes, and the coldness of the buildings;
conceptualizes cross-cultural competencies as cross-cultural
everything seemed uncomfortable and so foreign, and he
awareness,
longed to feel the familiarity and comforts of his home in
contextualized within: (a) a sojourner’s personality/attitudes
Milwaukee again. He e-mailed his parents and friends many
and coping, (b) particular immersion experiences, (c)
times a day. He tried to get English-speaking channels on
continuous experiencing, reflection, and dialogue of
the television, but was unsuccessful. He felt “cut-off” from
cognitive, affective, and behavioral processes, all within (d)
home. Occasionally he would hear an English song, which
a larger ecological system reflecting a wide array of cultural
would really bring him back to all he was missing in his
values, norms, and customs of the host culture. Briefly,
homeland. His mother kept encouraging him to experience
cross-cultural awareness consists of awareness of one’s own 6
knowledge,
and
skills,
developed
and
EXTENDING THE CONCEPTUALIZATION OF COPING
cultural worldview and one’s attitudes toward cultural differences and similarities of people from a specific cultural group and country; cross-cultural knowledge pertains to knowledge of different worldviews and sociohistorical contexts for specific cultural groups in a specific country, and the resulting cultural practices in that specific cultural group; cross-cultural skills pertain to one’s ability to interact, communicate, collaborate and work effectively with specific cultural groups within a specific country. Such cultural awareness, knowledge, and skills are developed with an understanding of the ecological systems and subsystems in which one is living as well as for a specific cultural group in a particular country. The two cases above clearly indicate that Maria was much more aware of her own cultural worldview, and put a great deal of effort into acquiring more knowledge about the White cultural context in Teccano, and over time was able to acquire culturally appropriate coping skills to interact with a wide array of people within the White culture. Conversely, Thomas did not seem to be as aware of the implications of his worldview within a Chinese cultural Figure 1. Cross-National Cultural Competency (CNCC) Model
context, and subsequently was not able to acquire the necessary cross-cultural skills in order to effectively cope
more detail below. Most importantly, we encourage
with living in China.
scholars to examine the array of variables we identify below
The CNCC model is illustrated in Figure 1. The three
in future coping research within the acculturation process.
competency areas lay within the triangle, and are affected by three components illustrated by three inner circles: (a) personality/attitudes and coping, (b) various characteristics
Component One: Foundational Personality/Attitudes
of immersion experiences, and (c) one’s experiencing,
and Coping
reflection, and dialogue of the behavioral, affective, and cognitive processes which transforms immersion
Personality/attitudes and coping are central factors that
experiences into competency. All the variables represented
influence one’s cross-national cultural adaptability and
by the three inner circles of the model may directly or
competency. Sojourners are seeking to adapt to a new
indirectly facilitate the development of the tripartite cross-
cultural context. Adapting to one's environment is not a new
national cultural awareness, knowledge, and skills. The
process for sojourners; they have been adapting to various
outer circle illustrates that CNCC is founded on an
environmental contexts since they were born (see Anderson,
ecological framework, which takes into account the
1994). In essence, “all adjustment is a cyclical and recursive
contextual basis surrounding cross-cultural competence.
process of overcoming obstacles in solving problems and
All these five primary components are critical in
present-environment interactions” (p. 293). Thus, not only
understanding the development of cross-national cultural
are sojourners seeking to adapt to a new cultural
competencies; we will briefly elaborate on the model as we
environment, but they have done so repeatedly in their
now discuss the coping processes of Maria and Thomas in
culture of origin for many years. The CNCC model
7
HEPPNER, WANG, AND HEPPNER
postulates that personality variables as well as one's
less open to new cultural experiences, and quickly began to
dispositional coping style will likely affect one's cultural
isolate himself, which prevented him from acquiring
adaptability,
important knowledge about the Chinese cultural context
and
the
acquisition
of
cross-cultural
competencies in a new culture.
that could have been very useful to enhance his coping in
Research has indicated that certain personality characteristics
seem
to
facilitate
(or
inhibit)
that environment. Moreover, his ethnocentrism led him to
the
devalue the Chinese people and culture that he encountered.
development of cross-cultural competencies. Individual
Thomas also did not evidence much problem-solving
characteristics reported in the literature that seem to be
confidence, and did not put forth much effort to learn about
advantageous for a person to develop cultural competencies,
Chinese culture. In short, most of the personality
include: open-mindedness (Costa & McCrae, 1992),
characteristics and dispositional coping styles evidence by
curiosity, adventurousness, willingness to engage (Ross,
Maria and Thomas would seem to have contributed to
2008), ethnocultural empathy (e.g., Van der Zee & Van
varying levels of cultural adaptation, and merit examination
Oudenhoven, 2000; Y.-W. Wang, et al., 2003), universal-
in future research.
diverse orientation (Miville, et al., 1999), multicultural
We also own hypothesize that it may also be informative
personality (Van der Zee & Van Oudenhoven, 2000),
to examine relations between dispositional coping [such as
perspective taking (Abbe, et al., 2007), dispositional coping
one's problem-solving confidence based on innumerable
styles such as problem-solving confidence (K. T. Wang, et
daily experiences, such as measured by the Problem
al., 2012), tolerance for ambiguity and emotional stability
Solving Inventory (PSI); see review by Heppner, Witty, &
(Furnham & Ribchester, 1995; Van der Zee & Van
Dixon, 2004] and indices of cross-cultural adaptation (e.g.,
Oudenhoven, 2000), and humor and humility (L.-F. Wang
psychological adjustment and cross cultural competencies)
& P. Heppner, 2009). Conversely, we hypothesize that there
with both short- and long-term sojourners such as study
are also characteristics, such as racism, ethnocentrism, and
abroad students and immigrants. In short, much more
arrogance that can hinder the development of cultural
research is needed to examine the main effects of
competencies.
dispositional coping on an array of variables related to
Maria possessed several of the positive personality
cultural adaptability.
characteristics, such as having a stronger desire to engage
The coping literature also suggests that there may be
with people from the host culture, demonstrating an
more complex relations among personality and coping
openness for perspective taking, and using humor to cope
variables, such as mediation and moderation effects in
with challenging situations. Moreover, Maria not only
predicting psychological adjustment (see for example
demonstrated a tolerance for new cultural perspectives, but
Connor-Smith, 2007). We suspect that there may be
actually put a significant amount of effort into learning
complex moderating relations between dispositional coping
more about the White culture, and to respond effectively
variables (e.g., PSI) and personality variables (e.g.,
with in that cultural context. In addition, she was confident
ethnocultural empathy and multicultural personality; Van
that she would be able to acquire the necessary cultural
de Zee & Van Oudenhoven, 2000) in predicting cross-
knowledge and skills if she persisted. She also clearly
cultural adaptability (e.g., psychological adjustment and
believed that effort was important in her coping (higher
cross-cultural competencies). For example, those with a
effort attributions have been associated with effective
more positive problem-solving appraisal and higher levels
problem solving; see Baumgardner, Heppner, & Arkin,
of ethnocultural empathy, or a stronger multicultural
1986). In particular, Maria persisted (despite feeling
personality, might have some advantages in successfully
exhausted at times) in learning English and immersed
adapting to cross-cultural situations. Conversely, if a
herself within the host community, which increased her
person with high levels of maladaptive perfectionism (e.g.,
knowledge of the White culture. In contrast, Thomas was
Nilsson, Butler, Shouse & Joshi, 2008; Wei, et al., 2007), 8
EXTENDING THE CONCEPTUALIZATION OF COPING
or high levels of neuroticism (McCrae & John, 1992), and
Perhaps such analyses would identify critical or turning
also a negative problem-solving appraisal (PSI: Heppner,
events within the situation-specific coping activities, and
et al., 2004), this person may be predisposed to have more
their differential impact on various outcomes over time in
challenges adapting in a new cultural context. In short, we
such cases.
conjecture that people who have been both effective problem solvers in their homeland, and have personality
Component Two: Characteristics and critical elements
characteristics that facilitate cultural adaptation, and all
of immersion experiences
other variables being equal, will most likely be effective problem solvers in a new cultural environment, and will
Immersing oneself in another culture has been seen as
also be more successful in cross-cultural adaptation as
one of the most powerful mechanisms in developing cross-
well as in developing cross-cultural competencies.
cultural competencies (see Heppner, 2006; Norsworthy,
Moreover, the CNCC model also postulates that the
Leung, P. Heppner, & L.-F. Wang, 2009; L.-F.Wang & P.
effectiveness of a person’s coping with specific situations
Heppner, 2009). Figure 1 lists a number of immersion
over time will also affect the development of cross-cultural
variables that can affect cultural adaptation. Researchers
competence and ultimately cross-cultural adaptability;
have found that a person’s international experience was a
including psychological adjustment (see Heppner, Wei,
predictor of their cultural intelligence, both in terms of the
Neville, & Kanagui-Munoz, in press). Some research
number of countries visited (Crowne, 2008; Shannon &
suggests that the frequency of utilizing particular coping
Begley, 2008; Tarique & Takeuchi, 2008) and the length of
strategies, and the subsequent perceived helpfulness of
stay (Tay, Westman, & Chia, 2008; Tarique & Takeuchi,
those coping strategies, varies across different stressors (P.
2008). In addition, more frequent interactions with locals
Heppner, et al., 2012). For example, research with
during cross-national immersions were also found to predict
Mainland Chinese college students indicates that indeed
higher cultural intelligence (Crawford-Mathis, 2010;
some
as
Crowne, 2007). Stepping out of one’s comfort zone and
acceptance, reframing, and striving (but not family
being an active agent during cross-cultural encounters, such
support), were associated with better psychological and
as attending events of culturally diverse groups, holding
career adjustment (He, 2011). As reflected in the case of
conversations and developing friendships with individuals
Maria, it is also very likely that as a person acquires
of other nationalities can facilitate very powerful learning
culture-specific knowledge in a new culture, with repeated
experiences.
situation-specific
coping
activities,
such
trials that person may also become more effective in
Maria’s immersion experience was much more positive
coping, and in essence be able to code-switch more
due to many of these factors, such as having experienced
quickly across different cultural contexts.
previous transitions within Mexico (including watching her
Much more research is also needed to examine the
mother as a role model), a strong ethnic social support
sequential impact of situation-specific coping over time on
network from other immigrants, and more positive
the cultural adaptability and development of cross-cultural
interactions with the White people in the community
competencies in sojourners.
For example, it would be
(mainstream support: see Yong, Jung, Lee, & Felix-Mora,
helpful to examine perhaps through qualitative studies, the
2012). In contrast, although Thomas studied Chinese while
step-by-step consequences of situations like: (a) Thomas’s
he was in the U.S., he was less mentally prepared to
initial avoidant social behavior on both his social
encounter the acculturative challenges.
connectedness with Chinese friends as well as on his
previous immersion experiences, Thomas was less aware of
decision to return to the United States, and (b) Maria’s
the implications of being immersed in Chinese culture for
repeated attempts to develop interpersonal relationships
the first time; moreover, he did not plan very much for a
with white Americans within the small-town community.
year-long immersion, and especially for studying in a very 9
By not having
HEPPNER, WANG, AND HEPPNER
different cultural context. Thus, he did not anticipate the
cross-cultural adaptation (see Berry, 1997). For example,
differences in food, social norms, teaching pedagogy, and
other research suggests that ethnic support is associated
the challenges that those differences posed for him. In
with lower stress (e.g., Ward & Kennedy, 1993), and
addition, due to their roles and circumstances, Maria’s
connections with members of the host culture are regarded
ability to leave was much more restrictive than Thomas.
as helpful if the relationships match one's expectations (see
Maria also engaged in more proactive coping (such as
Berry & Kostovcik, 1990). A recent study also found that
realizing the importance of learning the English language,
high ethnic social connectedness moderates (or weakens)
knowing how important it was to acquire knowledge of the
the association between perceived racial discrimination and
White culture in Teccano, knowing how important it could
stress, but that mainstream social connectedness (although
be to reduce cultural barriers with people in the White
not a moderator) was associated with less perceived general
community, etc.). Conversely, Thomas often showed an
stress and less perceived racial discrimination (Wei, K. T.
avoidant coping approach, and in essence isolated himself,
Wang, P. Heppner, & Du, 2012).
and thus greatly reduced his opportunities to obtain
Clearly the role of social support seems very important as
knowledge of the Chinese cultural context as well as
sojourners cross cultural boundaries; nonetheless, many
mainstream support and connectedness with Chinese people
important questions remain around the role of social support.
(see Yoon, et al., 2012). A combination of these, and other
For example, it may be helpful to know more specifically
factors likely contributed to how much, and in what way
what is the utility or function of social support variables
Maria and Thomas chose to cope with the challenges that
from both one's own ethnic group as well as from the host
they encountered.
culture. In essence do these two sources of social support
We want to highlight the important role of social support
provide different, but equally important functions of social
in developing cross-national cultural competencies. Social
support? Do they differentially impact the psychological
support is one of the most effective means by which people
adjustment as well as the development of cross-cultural
can cope with and adjust to difficult and stressful events
competencies? For example, does informational and
(Taylor, 2007). Social support consists of a wide array of
instrumental social support from the host culture, versus
actions such as receiving and seeking emotional support,
one's
tangible assistance, and informational resources (e.g.,
knowledge and skills related to the host culture as suggested
Cohen & Wills, 1985; Thoits, 1995). Sojourners often
in Maria’s case? Does emotional support from members of
experience a loss of social support as they leave their
the host culture, as opposed to from one ethnic group within
homelands, even though more recently the internet has
the host culture, result in a greater sense of belonging to the
bridged some of those losses. Nonetheless, sojourners are
mainstream society, and thus promotes psychological well-
often in positions where they are developing new social
being? In essence, additional research is needed to examine
support systems in their new homeland both with people
the comparative advantage of different types or sources of
from their homeland (ethnic support) who now reside in the
social support on both psychological adjustment as well as
same new homeland, or with people from the mainstream
the development of cross-cultural competencies.
ethnic
group,
promote
greater
cross-cultural
culture (mainstream support) in their new homeland. Some
The CNCC model also suggests that there may be other
acculturation scholars have similarly focus on social
social variables that may impact a sojourner’s cultural
connectedness (i.e., a subjective sense of interpersonal
adaptability,
closeness and togetherness with one's social environment:
environments (including the level of perceived racial
Lee & Robbins, 1995, 1998), specifically to their ethnic
discrimination), the number of people from one's ethnic
community and the mainstream society (see Yoon & Lee,
group in the host culture, and the quality of the
2010). Some research suggests that having both ethnic
interpersonal relationship with the primary host (e.g.,
support and mainstream support is the best predictor of
faculty advisor) in the new cultural context. Relatedly, the 10
such
as
supportive/hostile
immersion
EXTENDING THE CONCEPTUALIZATION OF COPING
sojourner’s role in the new environment (e.g., high or low
Processing cross-cultural experiences (e.g., reflecting,
status, extent of role related social interactions, length of
journaling, dialoguing) and consulting with cultural insiders
the immersion), as well as attributes of the sojourner (e.g.
can greatly facilitate an integration of new cultural
language proficiency, previous cultural immersions) all
information into one’s own life schema and worldview.
may affect the level and type of social support a sojourner
This cultural learning process requires active and
experiences. In short, the CNCC model postulates that the
continuous observations, reflections of one’s thoughts,
level and type of social support that a sojourner
emotions, and behaviors, and how these aspects interact in
experiences will clearly impact how a sojourner copes
the immersion process. For example, through this kind of
with a wide array of difficult and stressful situations
reflection, a person may become aware that his/her
confronting the sojourner, which in turn will affect the
tendency to avoid social interactions in the immersion
many dimensions of cultural adaptability. Thus, we
environment is due to experiencing the loss of knowledge
encourage future researchers to examine both the
on how to interpret social norms and interact with others in
independent contributions of personality, social support,
this new setting. The lack of relevant knowledge (cognitive)
and coping, as well as their interactions to fully understand
can lead to feelings of inadequacy and anxiety (strong
their combined contributions to cross-cultural adaptation
affective reactions), and result in social avoidance
and
(behavioral patterns). By understanding these internal
the
development
of
cross-national
cultural
competencies.
interactions, a sojourner is in a more informed position to
The CCMC model also postulates that personality
identify ways to cope, such as consulting cultural insiders
variables, environmental variables, and coping variables
about social norms or attending immersion activities along
all combine to predict outcomes such as psychological
with someone from the host culture. Without this level of
adjustment, vocational adjustment, cultural adaptability,
reflection and dialogue on one’s cross-cultural experiences,
and cross cultural competence. Such a model suggests
the immersion experience may have limited effect on one’s
greater complexity in the coping process. We strongly
cross-cultural competency development.
encourage future researchers to examine the combined
Maria demonstrated more reflection during her cultural
main effect and interactive contributions of person (e.g.,
immersion. She learned both the perspectives of other
personality variables), environmental (e.g., social support
immigrants and white people in the community. She also
from different sources), and coping variables in the same
utilized her American friends to learn more about the
study of cross-cultural adaptability and cross-cultural
cultural context, which we would hypothesize, allowed her
competence. We would also suggest that researchers
to cope more effectively in the new cultural context. In
examine variables predicting the development of cross-
contrast, Thomas was more American-centric and used the
cultural competence not only for immigrants but also for
American ways as a standard to devalue the things that he
college
international
was not used to in China (e.g., weird food, odd people, hard
educational cultural immersions (e.g., with varying
beds). He did not try to understand the different cultural
durations, such as two weeks or one year).
context, and different cultural norms. And without having
students
participating
within
the relevant cultural knowledge, he erroneously blamed and Component Three: Continuous learning through
rejected the Chinese people and culture. We conjecture that
Experiencing-Reflection-Dialogue
such rejection would contribute to social isolation and a relatively poor adjustment in a new culture. In short, taking
An immersion experience in itself is not enough to
the time to continuously learn about oneself, the new
develop cross-cultural competencies. P. Heppner et al., (in
cultural context, and acquiring new culturally sensitive
press) stressed the importance of Experiencing-Reflection-
skills would seem to greatly affect the cultural adaptability
Dialogue as an essential part of the cultural learning process.
trajectory of sojourners. 11
HEPPNER, WANG, AND HEPPNER
Component Four: Tripartite cross-national cultural
biases from people in the host culture toward her and her
awareness, knowledge, and skills
fellow immigrants. She also accepted the reality of her incomplete knowledge of the White culture in Teccano, but
The three categories of the cross-national cultural
took action to enhance your knowledge by attending
competency proposed by P. Heppner et al. (in press) is
English classes, watching TV, and consulting friends. In
based on the Awareness, Knowledge, and Skills (AKS)
contrast, Thomas did not exhibit much effort to understand
framework
the Chinese culture.
developed
to
address
multiculturalism
Conversely, he devalued it by
competencies related to the inequities, discrimination,
comparing it to the American culture. Thomas also seemed
oppression, and privilege within the U.S. society
to be unaware that by devaluing the Chinese culture, and
(Arrendondo et al., 1996). It is important to note that they
blaming the teachers for his poor academic performance
are highly intertwined with each other. In other words,
(which seemed to allow Thomas to feel better about
one’s level of cross-national cultural awareness may lead to
himself), he was in a way, also minimizing his
acquiring knowledge that then transforms into culturally
responsibility for his behavior (and most likely would
appropriate behaviors.
reduce his belief that his effort was an important factor in how he coped within the new cultural context; see
Cross-National Cultural Awareness
Baumgardner, et al., 1986). We conjecture that an increased
Cross-cultural awareness is associated with being
awareness of one’s personal characteristics, cognitive and
constantly aware of oneself in a new cultural context, and
affective reactions, coping styles and activities, would often
how this awareness impacts the cross-national encounters.
lead to the development of cross-cultural knowledge and
Such a continual focus often requires constant vigilance
skills.
across almost all of one's daily interactions and can be tiring, which has been described as a loss of “an effortless sense of
Cross-National Cultural Knowledge
belonging” when one is immersed in another culture
Cross-national cultural knowledge is culture-specific, and
(Rakhsha, 2002). Thus, it is important to be aware of and
not only specific to countries (e.g., Malaysia, Thailand), but
accept one’s limitations of lacking relevant cultural
also to cultural subgroups within a particular country (e.g.,
knowledge in cross-national interactions.
different ethnic groups in Indonesia). The development of cultural knowledge is related to one’s breadth and depth of
The awareness includes several different aspects, such as (a) awareness of one’s own attitudes, beliefs, personality
first-hand
dynamics, and cultural values; (b) awareness of one’s self
understanding of how subsystems in those cultures impact
within the different cultural context, such as being an
behavior.
experiences
with
other
cultures,
and
outsider, stereotypes, and power/privilege statuses; (c)
P. Heppner et al. (in press) raised six core aspects of
awareness of one’s incomplete knowledge base of the other
cross-cultural knowledge competencies: (a) knowledge of
culture and its impact; (d) awareness of challenges and
one’s own cultural context; (b) knowledge of the other's
limitations associated with cross-cultural communication; (e)
cultural context; (c) knowledge related to the social
awareness of one’s style of coping (under high and low
structure, sociopolitical and economic history, impact of
stress) and emotional management in the host environment;
social change in the culture; (d) knowledge for effective
and (f) awareness of the impact of who one is (e.g., physical
communication on a variety of levels (e.g., being
appearance, role, age, gender, LGBT, religion) and how that
empathetic, understanding verbal and non-verbal messages,
may impact cross-cultural relationships.
accommodating for different communication styles); (e)
Maria demonstrated stronger cross-cultural awareness.
knowledge about the legal and ethical codes in the other
She was able to see the perspectives from both cultural
cultural context; and (f) professional knowledge bases
groups. She was aware of being an outsider and the likely
related to theoretical models, research, and practice in the 12
EXTENDING THE CONCEPTUALIZATION OF COPING
other’s culture.
to identify and utilize relevant resources within and beyond
Maria consistently delivered to acquire knowledge about
the new cultural environment.
the White U.S. culture in Teccano. Her perspective taking
Maria demonstrated the skills to interact both with people
and involvement with other Americans facilitated some
from her culture and the host culture, and to cope with the
cross-national friendships. These American friends served
cross-national
as cultural informants to reduce the perceived ambiguity for
appropriate ways. Maria moved beyond her comfort zone
her in this new environment. In other words, the learning
and immersed herself by volunteering for the PTA. Maria
environment is important in developing cross-cultural
was
competencies. In addition, developing cultural knowledge
communication skills by learning English over an extended
needs a wide array of ethnic and mainstream support, and is
time period. Effective communication with those of a
a life-long process that requires consistent and concerted
different mother language is a critical aspect in developing
effort.
strong cross-cultural relationships. It is critical to not only
also
acculturative
diligent
in
challenges
building
her
in
culturally
cross-cultural
In contrast, Thomas felt defeated by realizing that he
have the ability to speak in another language, but also to
lacked sufficient knowledge about the Chinese culture. In
know how to decode the interpersonal nuances in social
addition, his detachment coping style (e.g., staying in his
interactions. Code-switching, being able to decode
dormitory), primarily talking with other American friends
situations within the new cultural context, and respond in
reinforced his negative views of China, and prohibited him
culturally appropriate ways are important skills in cross-
from acquiring additional cultural knowledge. An important
cultural situations. This was a skill Maria used to maintain
note to make around the interaction between awareness and
her Mexican identity and also immerse herself in the
knowledge relates to imposing values and standards of one
American culture. Conversely, Thomas was unable to
culture to another culture. Without adequate knowledge of
accept and adjust to the Chinese classroom culture that had
the Chinese culture, and the intersecting subsystems that
less explicit structure and expectations. He maintained his
affect behavior in that particular cultural context, Thomas
original ways of thinking, and evaluated the differences
made negative and false judgments about the differences he
quite negatively, which not only lead to continuous
experienced.
challenges, but eventually giving up.
Thus, we hypothesize that having cross-
national cultural awareness of differences and the cultural
Finally, acquiring cross-national cultural knowledge and
context is critical in building one’s knowledge base in
awareness is essential, but may not always translate into
cross-national settings.
skills. For example, a person may be physically or emotionally exhausted or defeated and therefore, does not
Cross-National Cultural Skills
take the time to adequately process the experiences. Thus,
Cross-national cultural skills refer to one’s ability to cope,
this suggests that the Experiencing-Reflection-Dialogue is a
navigate, and interact with others in a different cultural
critical process in transforming awareness and knowledge
context. One’s cross-cultural skills are built upon one’s
into useful skills, which Maria demonstrated but not
cross-cultural awareness and knowledge. P. Heppner et al.
Thomas.
(in press) also highlighted six core aspects of cross-cultural skills: (a) skills to effectively identify relevant cultural
Component Five: Understanding of the ecological
contexts (decode) and respond appropriately; (b) skills to
framework
cope with significant cultural differences; (c) skills to develop quality relationships with others from a different
Cross-national cultural competencies should be based on
culture; (d) skills to work effectively with others from a
a clear understanding of Bronfenbrenner’s (1977, 1979)
different culture; (e) skills to cope with problems and stress
ecological framework.
associated with crossing national boundaries; and (f) skills
(2008) proposed that the development of cross-cultural 13
Heppner, Leong, and Gerstein
HEPPNER, WANG, AND HEPPNER
competency “should begin with a multicultural mindset
Heppner, 2008; P. Heppner, et al., in press; Utsey, Adams,
(Leong & Hartung, 2000) that included a deep
& Bolden, 2000; Wong, Wong, & Scott, 2006). In essence,
understanding of the contextual basis of human behavior
coping constructs based on the predominately White U.S.
that require a cross-cultural and comparative perspective” (p.
cultural groups do not tell the whole story about coping for
247-248). They stressed the importance of having
all cultural groups in the U.S., as well as other cultural
knowledge about Bronfenbrenner’s five subsystems (i.e.,
groups around the world. Greater attention to the cultural
microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and
context of the sojourner as well as the host culture will
chronosystem) of one’s culture as well as the immersion
reveal additional coping complexities that are currently not
culture, and to apply this framework to accommodate for
well understood in the development of cross-national
differences in international activities. For example, being
cultural competencies.
aware of the cross-national difference in the subsystems will minimize false generalization and inappropriate transferring
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