Caroline Dear (Skye) make rush baskets (plaited and coiled). Juncus effusus is
the most commonly used species, harvested in August-September. 5.3 Several ...
SCOTTISH EXECUTIVE
Central Research Unit
FLORA CELTICA: SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF SCOTTISH PLANTS
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FLORA CELTICA: SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF SCOTTISH PLANTS
William Milliken and Sam Bridgewater Edinburgh Development Consultants and Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh
This research was funded by the Scottish Executive Agricultural and Biological Research Group Flexible Fund
Scottish Executive Central Research Unit 2001
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The views expressed in this report are those of the researchers and do not necessarily represent those of the Department or Scottish Ministers.
© Crown Copyright 2001 Limited extracts from the text may be produced provided the source is acknowledged. For more extensive reproduction, please write to the Chief Research Officer at the Central Research Unit, Saughton House, Broomhouse Drive, Edinburgh EH11 3XA
FLORA CELTICA: SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF SCOTTISH PLANTS
William Milliken and Sam Bridgewater Edinburgh Development Consultants and Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh
This research was funded by the Scottish Executive Agricultural and Biological Research Group Flexible Fund
Scottish Executive Central Research Unit 2001
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We would like to acknowledge the patience and time of the great many people, organisations and businesses who responded to our enquiries. These are listed in Annex 1 and in the text. We would also like to acknowledge the support and advice provided by the Advisory Group appointed by the Scottish Executive for this study, namely John Ramsay and Gill Clark of Scottish Executive, and Daniel Gotts of Scottish Natural Heritage. This study built upon the research conducted by the Flora Celtica – Scotland 2000 project, to which Greg Kenicer and Veerle van den Eynden (among others) made invaluable contributions. We would like to acknowledge the support received from the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh throughout the duration of the Flora Celtica project and the preparation of this report.
CONTENTS EXECUTIVE SUMMARY .........................................................................................................................................V CURRENT COMMERCIAL USE OF NATIVE PLANTS ...................................................................................................... II POTENTIAL USE AND IMPLICATIONS .......................................................................................................................... II CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW ............................................................................................ 1 BACKGROUND OBJECTIVES METHODS THE REPORT
........................................................................................................................................................ 1 ........................................................................................................................................................ 3 ........................................................................................................................................................ 3 ........................................................................................................................................................ 3
CHAPTER 2 FOOD AND DRINKS......................................................................................................................... 4 FRESH WILD FOODS.................................................................................................................................................... 4 DRINKS AND PRESERVES ........................................................................................................................................... 7 OTHER FOOD PRODUCTS ............................................................................................................................................ 9 THE BERRY INDUSTRY IN NORTHERN EUROPE ....................................................................................................... 10 OPPORTUNITIES IN SCOTLAND ................................................................................................................................ 10 CHAPTER 3 MEDICINAL AND AROMATIC PLANTS.................................................................................. 12 CURRENT STATUS IN SCOTLAND.............................................................................................................................. 12 THE MEDICINAL PLANT TRADE IN EUROPE ............................................................................................................. 14 MEDICINAL AND AROMATIC PLANT TRADE IN THE UK .......................................................................................... 15 RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT IN THE UK ............................................................................................................ 20 OPPORTUNITIES IN SCOTLAND ................................................................................................................................ 21 CHAPTER 4 THE SEAWEED INDUSTRY......................................................................................................... 24 CURRENT STATUS IN SCOTLAND ............................................................................................................................. 24 ANALYSIS AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE INDUSTRY.................................................................................................. 27 OPPORTUNITIES IN SCOTLAND ................................................................................................................................ 29 CHAPTER 5 CRAFTS ............................................................................................................................................. 33 CURRENT STATUS IN SCOTLAND.................................................................................................................. 33 OPPORTUNITIES IN SCOTLAND ................................................................................................................................ 37 CHAPTER 6 ENVIRONMENTAL USES............................................................................................................. 38 CURRENT STATUS IN SCOTLAND ............................................................................................................................. 38 INITIATIVES OUTSIDE SCOTLAND ............................................................................................................................ 44 OPPORTUNITIES IN SCOTLAND ................................................................................................................................ 46 CHAPTER 7 COSMETICS AND TOILETRIES................................................................................................. 47 CURRENT STATUS IN SCOTLAND ............................................................................................................................. 47 OPPORTUNITIES IN SCOTLAND ................................................................................................................................ 48 CHAPTER 8 WOOD AND WOOD PRODUCTS ................................................................................................ 49 THE TIMBER INDUSTRY IN SCOTLAND..................................................................................................................... 49 BUSINESSES USING NATIVE TIMBER ........................................................................................................................ 50 SCOTTISH HARDWOOD TIMBER PROCESSING: CONSTRAINTS ................................................................................. 51 SCOTTISH HARDWOOD TIMBER PROCESSING: OPPORTUNITIES .............................................................................. 52 OTHER WOOD PRODUCTS ......................................................................................................................................... 53 OPPORTUNITIES IN SCOTLAND ................................................................................................................................ 55 CHAPTER 9 SUSTAINABILITY AND ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES........................................................... 57 APPROACHES IN SCOTLAND .................................................................................................................................... 57 MONITORING AND CERTIFICATION .......................................................................................................................... 59
CHAPTER 10
DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATIVE PLANT INDUSTRY.................................................. 61
...................................................................................................................................................... 61 RESEARCH MARKETING ...................................................................................................................................................... 61 CROFTING ...................................................................................................................................................... 62 NEW CROPS AND CROP DIVERSIFICATION ............................................................................................................... 63 NATIONAL PARKS .................................................................................................................................................... 64 FUNDING OPPORTUNITIES ........................................................................................................................................ 65 CHAPTER 11
LEGAL ISSUES, OWNERSHIP AND ACCESS .................................................................... 70
WILDLIFE AND THE LAW.......................................................................................................................................... 70 WILDLIFE AND COUNTRYSIDE ACT ........................................................................................................................ 70 CHAPTER 12
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS.................................................................... 72
PROJECT SUGGESTIONS ............................................................................................................................................ 73 CHAPTER 13
REFERENCES............................................................................................................................. 76
ANNEX 1: INDIVIDUALS AND ORGANISATIONS CONTACTED................................................................ 2 ANNEX 2: PLANT SPECIES CITED IN THIS REPORT.................................................................................... 4 ANNEX 3: ACRONYMS USED IN THIS REPORT.............................................................................................. 6 ANNEX 4: THE SCOTTISH WILD MUSHROOM CODE .................................................................................. 7 ANNEX 5: SOME MEDICINAL PLANTS IN UK TRADE.................................................................................. 8 ANNEX 6: SOME ESSENTIAL OILS PRODUCED FROM SPECIES NATIVE TO SCOTLAND............ 11 ANNEX 7: GUIDELINES FOR COLLECTION OF MEDICINAL AND AROMATIC PLANTS............... 12 ANNEX 8: SUMMARISED FINDINGS OF THE 1995 HIE STUDY................................................................ 14 ANNEX 9: SOME EXAMPLES OF LEADER-FUNDED PROJECTS RELATING TO USE OF NATIVE PLANT SPECIES IN EUROPE............................................................................................................................... 15 ANNEX 10: SCHEDULE 8 PROTECTED PLANTS ........................................................................................ 17 ANNEX 11: GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE OF PLANT RESOURCES ....... 21 LAND PLANTS SEAWEED
...................................................................................................................................................... 21 ...................................................................................................................................................... 22
ANNEX 12: PROCESSING TECHNOLOGIES ................................................................................................ 23 MEDICINAL PLANTS AND ESSENTIAL OILS .............................................................................................................. 23 LIQUID SEAWEED EXTRACT ..................................................................................................................................... 24
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1. This scoping study examines the current commercial use of native Scottish plant resources, the potential for their development, and the implications for biodiversity conservation, environmental management and sustainable development in Scotland.
CURRENT COMMERCIAL USE OF NATIVE PLANTS 2. Scotland’s natural environment is one of its greatest assets, contributing in many ways to Scottish livelihoods. Native plant resources form a valuable part of this asset. The most significant commercial use of these resources is currently the native timber industry (Scots pine and to a lesser extent hardwoods). However, native plants also play roles in a range of other sectors. These include food and drinks (e.g. wild mushrooms and vegetables, heather honey, beverages), medicines, seaweed products (fertilisers, animal feed, soaps), crafts (thatch, dyes, basketry, jewellery), environmental applications (wildflower and native tree seeds, bulbs, foliage, pollution/erosion control) and cosmetics. 3. Most of the businesses operating in these sectors are small or in a few cases mediumsized. They are numerous and widespread, and in many cases source their raw materials or base themselves in areas where other employment options are limited. They can thus play an important role in the provision of individual jobs in the rural economy, including in remoter communities. 4. At present the most significant commercial non-timber uses of wild plants in Scotland are in the food and the environmental sectors. Both of these have seen new developments in recent years, e.g. the establishment of novel drinks based on heather and other wild plants, and the establishment of artificial wetland systems for sewage treatment. Despite the growing importance of the market for medicinal plants, nutraceuticals and cosmetics, there is currently very little harvesting of medicinal plants from the wild in Scotland, and very little use of wild plants for cosmetics and toiletries apart from seaweeds. 5. The seaweed industry in Scotland has virtually collapsed in recent years. Nevertheless seaweed remains one of Scotland’s most abundant plant resources, and has the potential to provide limited employment in coastal areas. It is unlikely ever to recover its past stature, but there is considerable scope for the establishment of small or medium-sized enterprises producing fertilisers and animal feeds, as well as small-scale production of seaweed-based foods, medicines and cosmetic products. 6. There is a significant trade in medicinal plants and plant extracts (e.g. essential oils) in the UK, and demand for these commodities is steadily growing. Most of the companies trading in these products import them from elsewhere in Europe, where labour costs are lower and plant material can be purchased more cheaply. POTENTIAL USE AND IMPLICATIONS 7. Many of the native plant products traded in Europe come from species that are common in Scotland. There is potential for the establishment of new Scottish supplies of some of these products. Identification of the most appropriate species requires further market research. In most cases this could only be made viable by establishment of efficient cultivation systems. 8. Prices for raw materials are generally low and unstable, and mechanisms for adding value (i.e processing or final product development) are likely to be necessary for businesses trading in them. Organic production can provide a price premium for food and medicines, and the market for organic products is growing. However, there is growing competition for this market from abroad. ii
9. In some rural areas wild harvesting of medicinal/aromatic plants may also present a viable option. This could be particularly relevant to crofting communities, where seasonal collection can be dovetailed with other activities. This is only likely to be viable if products can be processed and marketed co-operatively. Conservation and sustainable use 10. There is a growing realisation among conservation organisations in Scotland of the need for building links between sustainable development and protection of biodiversity. Many are keen to see economic benefits derived from their reserves. All, however, stipulate that any such venture must be demonstrably sustainable in order to be acceptable. Elsewhere in the UK projects are now being established to develop or manage wildlife habitats hand-inhand with economic development (e.g. reedbed establishment/thatch production, and bracken control/compost production in England). These could provide useful models for similar developments in Scotland. 11. There is currently no effective mechanism for guaranteeing sustainability of wildharvested Scottish plants, and (with a few exceptions) little data on the levels of harvesting that species can bear. Furthermore, the current wildlife legislation (Wildlife and Countryside Act) is not set up for regulating large-scale commercial exploitation of wild plant populations. If wild harvesting is to grow, these issues will need to be addressed. Marketing 12. The key to development of new plant products, or entry into existing competitive markets, is effective marketing and market research. Numerous projects in this field have failed – often as a result of insufficient understanding of the industry rather than inability to produce the plant product. 13. Certification schemes for sustainably produced products have the potential to add value or influence consumer choice, but only in a market where consumers are both informed and concerned. In some cases the cost and time involved with certification can outweigh any benefits for the producer. There are indications that deliberate branding of products as ‘Scottish’ could be beneficial to native plant product marketing, building on Scotland’s ‘clean green’ image. This is likely to be most relevant at the higher-value end of the market. 14. The new National Parks planned for Scotland offer a valuable opportunity to develop model projects of sustainable harvesting and trial cultivation of native plants. Resulting products might also benefit from local-level (in this case Park-level) branding schemes. Such systems are already in operation overseas. 15. Native Scottish plants may have roles to play in farm diversification and the development of novel crops. Some Scottish research institutes are already working in this field. The decline of livestock farming has focused particular attention on alternative uses for hill land, to which many of Scotland’s native species are adapted. There is growing interest in the potential for novel pharmaceutical products from northern temperate plant species, and a number of research projects around Britain have begun work in this field. 16. One of the markets that may present the most promising opportunities is the food and drinks industry. The growing demand for organic or ‘natural’ products, combined with an appetite for novelty foods and drinks, has opened up opportunities in this sector that are iii
already beginning to be exploited. These include novel flavouring products, beverages and fresh herbs. Natural dyes from native plants (e.g. for the food industry) and cosmetic products may also provide commercial opportunities. 17. Development of the commercial use of native plants in Scotland will require further investigation into markets, appropriate species for development, sustainable harvesting levels, processing and cultivation systems. This should include establishment of practical pilot initiatives with guaranteed limited-period returns for participant farmers, crofters or collectors. Some sectors of the native plant industry may require capital investment before they can compete realistically with overseas suppliers (e.g. wood-drying kilns for the hardwood industry, seaweed-drying equipment for the seaweed industry, distillation and drying equipment for the medicinal/aromatic plant industry, etc.). Development 18. There are useful lessons to be learned from the native plant industries in other European countries, which in most cases are more developed than our own. Some of these countries (e.g. Finland) are actively engaged in research and development in this field and would make appropriate partners for EU-funded initiatives. 19. Funding appropriate to economic development of Scotland’s native plant resources is available from a range of sources both nationally (e.g. via LECs, farm diversification and agricultural development schemes, etc.) and internationally (e.g. the EU-funded LEADER+ and Northern Periphery projects etc.). 20. In some cases the economic returns to be derived from commercial exploitation of native plants may be marginal. However, when combined with other habitat management activities (e.g. shiitake mushroom cultivation combined with thinning of birch woodland), they can help to make these otherwise uneconomic but nonetheless important practices more viable. Uptake of appropriate management and harvesting regimes is essential for the longterm future of the Scottish hardwood industry. 21. The continued uses of native Scottish plants at commercial, semi-commercial or domestic levels are not only valuable in the economic context. They are also significant in promoting peoples’ enjoyment of the countryside, and in some cases improving their lifestyles. Practical use of native plants helps to foster an understanding that biodiversity and environment play a functional and important role in peoples’ lives.
iv
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW
BACKGROUND 1.1 Scotland is host to a wide range of native plants with economic uses.1 Many of these are abundant in some of the less economically developed regions of the country with limited employment options. Nevertheless few of these species are currently exploited to any significant extent in Scotland, even though a number are successfully harvested elsewhere in Europe and imported into the UK. There is a growing market for natural products in the UK and an increasing awareness of the need for linking sustainable development and protection of biodiversity. It is therefore an appropriate moment to assess the opportunities for the development of under-exploited or novel plant resources in the context of rural development in Scotland, and the revitalization of traditional resource uses on a sustainable basis. “Conservation sometimes seems to be at odds with economic and social development. There is a risk of environmentalists and developers finding themselves locked into mutually critical conflict. With a greater understanding of the need for a balanced and integrated approach, and of the potential for economic opportunities arising from the natural environment, the two interests can be brought into a more productive dialogue. Biodiversity places conservation in the context of sustainable economic and social development, and requires developers to take account of their impact on the environment. Local communities across Scotland are identifying new opportunities for economic development that make use of their local natural resources in ways that can be sustained. Developments in wildlife and green tourism, and opportunities for broadening the economic base of existing commercial ventures to take advantage of existing natural resources are helping to stabilise and develop many rural communities.” (Scottish Biodiversity Group, 1997). “Although the principal objective behind much restoration and expansion of native woodland is conservation, it is important that opportunities are taken to develop sources of income by developing markets for native woodland products. Scots pine has long been recognised as a valuable timber species. The recently published Birch Woodland Management Handbook ... contains good examples of how to manage birch to produce a high-quality product. Other hardwoods, such as oak and ash, can produce very valuable timber on the right sites, but this does require careful management. Products such as charcoal, shiitake mushrooms and birch sap wine can all generate income, although it might require a good deal of work on the part of the owner or manager to unlock the value. There is no doubt that growers are more likely to plant, and look after, native trees if they know that some products can eventually find a market.” (Forestry Commission, 2000). 1.2 A number of studies have addressed the use (commercial or otherwise) of native plant products in Scotland in the last few years. The most recent has been made by the Flora Celtica project, based at the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh. One of Flora Celtica’s main activities was the extensive documentation of past and present plant use and knowledge in 1
In this report the term ‘native’ is used loosely, and includes naturalised species, i.e. plants that are commonly found growing in the wild even though they may have been introduced to Scotland at some point in the past. Fungi are also included.
1
Scotland, much of which has now been made available through a website, a travelling exhibition and a schools outreach project. In addition, various researchers have published academic papers and theses on the subject e.g. Tyler (1994), Waterhouse et al. (1997), Dyke (1998) and MacIntyre (1999). 1.3 Further research has been commissioned by development agencies with the hope of stimulating the development of new enterprises e.g. HIE (1995), Minch Project (1995), Comhairle nan Eilean Siar (1999). However, these have tended to address specific areas of plant use, or specific parts of the country, and to date no overall analysis has been made of the actual and potential use of these resources in Scotland in the commercial context. This analysis will be important both for the future development of the research agenda and eventually for the sustainable economic development of natural resources in the country. 1.4 The UK is commited by the Convention on Biological Diversity (1992) towards developing strategies for sustainable utilisation of biodiversity: Article 6. General Measures for Conservation and Sustainable Use Each Contracting Party shall, in accordance with its particular conditions and capabilities: (a) Develop national strategies, plans or programmes for the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity or adapt for this purpose existing strategies, plans or programmes which shall reflect, inter alia, the measures set out in this Convention relevant to the Contracting Party concerned; and (b) Integrate, as far as possible and as appropriate, the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity into relevant sectoral or cross-sectoral plans, programmes and policies. Article 10. Sustainable Use of Components of Biological Diversity Each Contracting Party shall, as far as possible and as appropriate: (a) Integrate consideration of the conservation and sustainable use of biological resources into national decision-making; (b) Adopt measures relating to the use of biological resources to avoid or minimize adverse impacts on biological diversity; (c) Protect and encourage customary use of biological resources in accordance with traditional cultural practices that are compatible with conservation or sustainable use requirements; (d) Support local populations to develop and implement remedial action in degraded areas where biological diversity has been reduced; and (e) Encourage cooperation between its governmental authorities and its private sector in developing methods for sustainable use of biological resources.
2
OBJECTIVES 1.5 The objective of this scoping study was to evaluate the current status of native plant use in Scotland, explore the potential for future development of the industry, analyse the implications for conservation and sustainable development, and identify future areas for research and development initiatives. More specifically it was to address the following issues: • • • • • • • •
Species currently used, sectors in which they are used and scale of the businesses Current and potential growing/ harvesting/ marketing techniques and strategies Key areas for development of the native plant industry Potential areas and species for economic development Social and environmental implications European/ wider UK trade in native plants and implications/ opportunities for Scotland Sustainability of harvesting Priorities for research
METHODS 1.6 The study was conducted between November 2000 and March 2001. The following methods were employed: • • • •
Detailed analysis of the data on commercial uses of native plant uses collected by the Flora Celtica initiative (Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh) Double-checking and updating of data Extensive literature and Internet review Expert consultation, using open-ended semi-structured interview techniques, with a broad range of relevant individuals and organisations. Most consultation was made by telephone (supported by email where possible), but personal meetings were also held with a number of organisations. Consulted organisations are listed in Annex 1, and the names of the individuals contacted are cited in the text. Consultees included businesses using or producing native plant products (both within and outwith Scotland), researchers and specialists, crofters, farmers and related organisations, conservation organisations, enterprise companies and other potential sources of funding for native plant-related activities.
THE REPORT 1.7 The bulk of this report consists of a series of sectoral analyses (food and drink, medicinal/ aromatic plants, seaweed, crafts, environmental uses, cosmetics/ toiletries, timber and timber products). Each of these chapters outlines the current use of native Scottish plants within the sector, discusses it in the context of plant uses and initiatives elsewhere in the UK and Europe, and analyses the potential roles for development. These analyses are followed by discussions of sustainability and conservation issues, overall development of native plant use in Scotland (including research, marketing, funding and the potential roles of native plants in farm diversification, crofting, National Parks etc.), and the legal issues surrounding exploitation of wild plant resources. The final chapter provides overall conclusions as well as recommendations for follow-up research initiatives.
3
CHAPTER 2
FOOD AND DRINKS
FRESH WILD FOODS
2.1
There is a growing market for fresh wild vegetables, particularly at the top end of the restaurant trade, and as the demand grows the market is becoming less confined to exclusive restaurants. Small businesses (generally the same as those trading in wild mushrooms) are systematically collecting a wide range of species to meet this market demand, often using casual pickers and selling both in the UK and abroad. Caledonian Wildfoods, the largest business trading in Scottish-sourced wild plants and fungi employing 8 permanent staff and over 100 casual (seasonal) pickers,2 has a turnover of over £500,000. Approximately half of this trade is in wild foods. Although the most important commodity is wild mushrooms, they also collect and sell a broad range of plants including wild basil, thyme, marjoram, marsh samphire, blaeberries, cowberries, wild raspberries, sloes, rosehips, hawthorn, rowan, elder, crab apples, hazelnuts, burdock, horseradish, garlic mustard, sweet cicely, pignuts, broom buds, wild garlic, wild strawberries, watercress, wood sorrel,3 bog myrtle, common sorrel, wild chives and nettles. The company is now exporting wild garlic to the USA (0.5 tonnes per week during the season), where it is regarded as a novelty. Another company, Highland Fine Cheeses (Ross & Cromarty), produces cheeses with wild garlic leaves.
2.2
There has been interest in the potential for development of berry growing/ wild harvesting in Scotland (particularly blaeberries, cowberries and cloudberries). This is a sector that has received a great deal of recent attention in Finland, where forest berries are not only widely collected but have also been identified as contributing to the health of the nation. The Millennium Forest for Scotland (MFS) initiative has funded a study (Project Blaeberry) examining the potential contribution of blaeberry cultivation to the rural economy in Scotland (F. Sinclair, pers. comm.). Another project in Caithness and Sutherland (under the Northern Periphery Programme) is examining the potential for cultivating berries on abandoned peat diggings. The Scottish Crop Research Institute is also involved in a collaborative initiative (the Northberry Project – see 2.23) that aims to identify and improve cultivars of cloudberry.4 The wild mushroom industry
2.3
The wild mushroom industry in Scotland has grown rapidly over the last ten years. Four mushroom buyers now operate in Scotland, with an average total annual turnover of £270,550 in Scottish wild mushrooms. The growth of the industry in Scotland is comparatively small scale, and since the fall of the Iron Curtain there has been a substantial drop in prices (due to competition from Eastern Europe). Nevertheless it still has the potential to provide valuable extra income from woodland throughout the life of a timber crop. A total of 20 jobs are directly attributable to the harvest, and approximately 350 pickers benefit from casual earnings. These earnings are comparatively small, averaging £28.70 per week (Dyke, 1999). Nevertheless it is occasionally possible for a picker to gather as much as £1000 worth of wild mushrooms in a single day (D. Peebles, pers. comm.).
2
They have 600 pickers on their database, but many of these are very occasional contributors. This is worth £5 per 100g. 4 This species does grow naturally in Scotland and is occasionally harvested by individuals on an informal basis, but it is generally not abundant and does not fruit reliably here in the wild. 3
4
2.4
The significant mushroom trading companies operating in Scotland are Caledonian Wildfoods (owned by McPherson Atlantic), Strathspey Mushrooms, the Forest Mushroom Company and Wild Tastes. All except Caledonian Wild-foods focus mainly on only a few mushroom species: chanterelle, cep, hedgehog fungus, winter, saffron milkcap, chicken of the woods, St George’s mushroom and wood blewit. For some species the annual amount traded can be several tonnes. The Forest Mushroom Company, for example, sells 4-12 tonnes of chanterelles annually, and during the season as much as one tonne of ceps per day. The mushrooms are sold to British restaurants and hotels, or exported to France, Holland, Germany, USA and Canada.
2.5
Caledonian Wildfoods trades about 100 different species of wild edible mushrooms. Their market is primarily restaurants and hotels in Scotland, London and abroad. Generally the mushrooms are collected by local pickers and sold to two mushroom buying stations at Conon Bridge and Muir of Ord. As a result, collection tends to be focused around these areas. The mushroom picking season begins in the south, moves northwards, and finally retreats south again with the frosts. Outside the season many of the pickers make a living from activities such as tree planting and harvesting of Rhododendron foliage for the cut flower trade. 2.6 On account of the climate, Scottish chanterelles are thought to be of particularly high quality and are much in demand (D. Peebles, pers. comm.). Caledonian Wildfoods now has a contract to supply wild chanterelles and grey chanterelles5 to Sainsbury’s supermarkets, selling them about a tonne of per week during the season. The company does not currently dry wild mushrooms themselves,6 but is planning to establish drying facilities in 2001. These would help with the marketing of cep mushrooms, which are often incomplete due to insect attack but saleable as dried pieces. Sustainability and management 2.7 Some landowners and environmental campaigners are concerned about the possible ecological effects of harvesting wild fungi. Largely, however, harvesting practices are not damaging, although improvements could be made to the education of pickers to reduce trampling. A long-term study is needed to look at the effects of harvesting on the mycelia (underground fungal bodies), non-harvested species, tree hosts and also invertebrate and small mammal populations feeding off wild fungi (Dyke, 1998). Dick Peebles maintains a detailed database of the distribution of edible fungi in Scotland, based on observations accumulated over several years. This represents a valuable information resource for the company, but may also provide a means of monitoring the effect of collection on wildharvested species.
2.8
The industry does have its conflicts, principally between landowners and pickers. These are most pronounced in the areas surrounding the main picking stations, where activity is highest. Some landowners object to pickers accessing their land and taking mushrooms without their consent, and it would benefit the long-term future of the industry if these conflicts could be resolved. Alison Dyke, with support from Millennium Forest for Scotland,
5
Initially they also sold them hedgehog mushrooms and horn-of-plenty mushrooms, but the former is too easily damaged (and therefore less presentable) and the latter is too scarce. 6 Supermarkets tend to impose very strict controls on food processing units, which can be a disincentive to drying.
5
recently facilitated the establishment of the Scottish Wild Mushroom Forum to address this issue. Its aim is to bring together pickers, buyers, landowners and conservationists, to resolve existing conflicts and to formulate a responsible code of practice (Annex 4).7
2.9
Caledonian Wildfoods encourage all their pickers to obtain permission from the landowners, although not all do. They have also been involved in encouraging landowners to value the crop and to manage its collection themselves (some mushrooms are purchased directly from the estates). They are also working with landowners to develop systems of forest management that encourage the growth of wild edible mushrooms (e.g. by planting appropriate species on appropriate soils and by transplanting mycelia).8 This can help to provide an early return from native woodland plantings (D. Peebles, pers. comm.). Shiitake cultivation 2.10 The cultivation of exotic shiitake mushrooms (Lentinula edodes) is a relatively new concept in the UK, although it has been established in the Far East since the 15th century and in the USA since 1972. In the USA the industry is now worth $22 million with production doubling every five years (Shiitake Cultivation - more of an art than a science. Mycologs Information Sheet.). Highland Birchwoods, a charitable company promoting sustainable and appropriate management and use of native woodlands, has invested in the development of technology for growing shiitake mushrooms on oak and birch logs in Scotland.9 This has now been taken up by a number of small Scottish businesses.10 In 1996 Highland Wildwoods, for example, a small company selling native trees in Ross and Cromarty, won support from the local LEADER group to produce shiitake mushrooms in this manner: Highland Wildwoods – an example of shiitake growing in Scotland Logs were bought from local estates at between £20 and £60 per ton (usually between January and March, i.e in the dormant season). Cost of the logs depended upon transport and whether they came pre-cut. They were also bought from local firewood merchants. Oak was best, and produced the highest yields of mushrooms, but birch was easier to source. Beech could also be used, as could alder. Logs were cut into 1-metre lengths (diameter 12-20cm) and inoculated with mushroom spores (one bag to 25 logs). Between 200 and 1500 logs were inoculated each season. Each log yielded approximately 15%11 of its weight in mushrooms between spring and autumn over a 3-4 year period (beginning two years after inoculation). Mushrooms were sold for around £13 per kg to local hotels (3 star plus) and restaurants (K. Thompson, pers. comm.)
2.11 Shiitake growing is best suited to the wetter climate of the West of Scotland than the East, but marketing in the West is harder and as a result growers are sometimes forced to sell their product at a lower price (£10/kg). The main difficulties faced by these businesses are finding access to sufficient numbers of good-quality logs, and getting the growing conditions (temperature and humidity) right. Many growers use polytunnels, but experimental
7
The role of wild mushrooms and other non-timber forest products has become increasingly widely recognised in recent years. In the Cairngorms Management Strategy, for example, it was stated that “We also envisage that woodland will be managed to provide a wide range of other products such as mushrooms and berries for specialist markets” (Cairngorms Partnership, 1997). 8 See also Dyke (1999). 9 Most of the shiitake mushrooms sold in British supermarkets are grown on sterilised reconstituted sawdust. This is said to yield an inferior product to those grown on hardwood logs (D. Cowan, pers. comm.). 10 The Highland Shiitake Growers group currently has around 20 members. 11 Some estimates are as high as 30%.
6
cultivation in shelter belts is also under way (D. Cowan, Tayside Native Woodlands, pers. comm.). 2 . 1 2 According to Kate Thompson, secretary of the Highland Shiitake Growers Association, in the last 6 years there have been between 20 and 30 people involved in growing shiitake mushrooms in the Highlands, although only 3 on a commercial basis. A commercial grower may have in the region on 2-3000 logs, of which they inoculate 1000 every year. DRINKS AND PRESERVES
2.13 There are many small businesses producing food and drink products from native plants in Scotland, and a few medium-sized ones. One of the largest of these is Moniack Castle Highland Wineries, which manufactures a range of fruit wines and preserves from local wild products. These include birch wine, elderflower wine, sloe liqueur and jelly, rowan jelly, wild cherry jelly, hawthorn jelly, juniper chutney and wild garlic sauce. Juniper – a plant with a future?12 Juniper berries are used to flavour gin, and in the past have also been used to flavour whisky in some parts of Scotland. It is also used as flavouring in traditional Scottish cooking and can be found in commercially produced chutneys. It is traded as a herbal remedy in the European market. Juniper grows wild in Scotland, but all the berries traded in the UK for gin (approx. 200 tonnes/yr) and food production are imported from Italy and Eastern Europe, where they are harvested from the wild. Berries are gathered in the autumn by laying a sheet under the bush and then beating it. In order to investigate the possibility of supplying the UK market with Scottish-grown berries, SAC teamed up with the Highlands and Islands Development Board, United Distillers and Chivas Brothers to establish trial plantations. Cuttings were collected from Deeside and established at Glenlivet. Most of the berries that were grown (four out of five samples) were shown by chemical and organoleptic (taste) analysis to be unsuitable for gin production, and the experiment was not taken further. The growth trials are now managed by the Forestry Commission.
2.14 Birch sap and wild garlic leaves are tapped/picked by the Moniack Castle personnel themselves on the estate. Both the birch wine and the garlic sauce are top sellers. Other plants (elderflower, sloe, rowan, heather) are collected by local pickers on or around the estate. Wild cherry is imported as a concentrate from abroad, and hawthorn and juniper are bought from cultivated sources in England. This is necessary because of limited local resources and increasing production. The company also produces heather wine for the Speyside Heather Centre (Dulnain Bridge). Wines made from meadowsweet and blackberry were recently discontinued due to lack of demand (J. Garden, pers. comm.). The production process for these wines is very labour intensive (12 full time staff, 12 temporary), but it said that this was maintained purposely because tourists prefer to see people at work rather than machines. A major food producer in northeast Scotland, who produce a ‘wild rowan jelly’, buy their rowan concentrate from Holland.
2.15 One of the most successful businesses using native plant products in Scotland is the Heather Ale Company (Strathaven). This was established in 1992 and is now producing Fraoch (brewed with heather flowers and bog myrtle), Grozet (with bog myrtle and
12
This information was taken from a detailed review of juniper in the Borders by the Borders Forest Trust (1997). The paper examines the current populations of juniper in the Borders and the potential for restoration of juniper woodlands.
7
meadowsweet), Ebulum (with elderberries) and Alba (with Scots pine and spruce). It has recently started producing seaweed ale called Kelpie, and is investigating the development of further drinks with other wild species (e.g. bitter vetch)13. Annual consumption of wild raw materials is expanding with the business. In the year 2000 this was estimated as 4,500 litres of pine and spruce shoots (new buds picked in May), 5,800 litres of bog myrtle leaves (top 58cm cropped by hand during July), 30,400 litres of heather tips (top 5-8cm cropped by hand in late August), 2000 litres of meadowsweet (flowering heads) and 2,400lb of elderberries (picked in Lanarkshire). They also collected 2,700 litres of bladder wrack for the Kelpie ale. This represents an increase of over 50% on the 1999 wild harvest. The plants are collected by the company staff, locally where possible,14 with the help of 9 casual pickers. Native plants as flavourings – case study In 1994 Agros Associates, a consultancy firm based in Ross-shire, conducted a study for Highlands and Islands Enterprise on the potential use of indigenous Scottish plants in a range of sectors (HIE, 1995). They initially studied 150 plant species and identified 22 with potential for the cosmetic, beverage and pharmaceutical industry. A summary of their findings is given in Annex 8. They estimated that an income of £2 million could be obtained from these resources, and that a single company could source, use and sell the raw plant materials.15 In 1998 they started their own company, Highland Natural Products. Highland Natural Products are planning to develop several plant products including birch sap for cosmetics and beverages, heather flowers for cosmetics and beverages, bog myrtle essential oil for beverages, insect repellent and as an antioxidant for cosmetics, pine bark for cosmetics, pine needles for essential oils (for use in household products and cosmetics), bitter vetch for beverage flavouring, and various natural dyes (working together with Wageningen University). So far only samples have been produced. HNP has applied for funding from the DTI’s LINK scheme for a research project on the cultivation and processing of bog myrtle in collaboration with Unilever, the Scottish Agricultural College, Leeds University and Cranfield University (Silsoe).
2.16
Maclays also produce a beer with bog myrtle called ‘Honey Weizen’. The leaves are added for the ‘gingery’ flavour they lend the beer, and are picked in June/July and frozen for use throughout the rest of the year. They are bought from the Heather Ale Company, and approximately 20kg are used per 70-barrel brew (L. Prestwell, pers. comm.).
2.17 Country wines are also produced by the Cairn O'Mohr Winery (Errol), including spring oak leaf, elderberry, elderflower and bramble. They consume approximately 8 tons of elderberries per year, 3 tons of elderflowers and 5 tons of young oak leaves, all of which are picked locally using company staff and casual labour. The brambles are mainly cultivated, but some are also wild-picked. In order to facilitate supply of elder the company has recently established plantations using cuttings from high-yielding bushes, and is encouraging others to grow elder on their behalf.16 Balnakeil Wines in Durness is a small business selling small
13
Bitter vetch was traditionally used for flavouring whisky or as the basis for another fermented drink in the Highlands. It was attributed with the ability to allay hunger and quench thirst, and also to combat drunkenness. Its rhizomes are very bitter and have a strong liquorice aftertaste. 14 The company has not experienced difficulty with access to resources. Much is picked from forestry land whose managers do not perceive a conflict of interest with the business. 15 The largest market in Europe for raw plant materials of this nature is Germany. 16 Prendergast & Dennis (1997) conducted a thorough survey of the elder trade in the UK. In 1995 it was estimated that about 15 million litres of elder-based drinks were consumed (a 500% increase over 1991), with a retail value of around £9.5 million. This market was dominated by two companies based in England: Bottle
8
quantities of country wines at local outlets, of which about 50% is made from locally sourced plants. They produce the wines in 5 gallon batches using birch leaf, heather, dandelion, gorse, nettle, rowan, elder and meadowsweet, with a maximum capacity of around 2000 75cl bottles per year. Gillies Fine Foods of Ross-shire also produce elderflower vinegar. OTHER FOOD PRODUCTS Animal fodder
2.18 The most significant wild source of animal fodder is seaweed (see Chapter 4). However, Jane Wilkinson and Andrew Vedmore, as part of their project funded by the Millennium Forest for Scotland, are also studying the potential of willow as a fodder crop. A group of crofters in Skerray have made preliminary investigations into the potential for chipping gorse to make mulch for sale in garden centres and animal feed for local use. The gorse is a problem on the grazings, and it is hoped that such an enterprise would not only help to control its spread but also produce small amounts of casual employment locally. Gorse, which fixes nitrogen from the atmosphere, is used as a fodder plant elsewhere in Europe and has traditionally been employed for this purpose in Scotland (ground with stones)17. The Skerray crofters have contacted SNH as well as Sutherland Enterprise and HIE regarding the project, but so far it has not been developed further (B. MacKenzie, pers. comm.). This would require financial support for a chipping machine (a small one would cost around £12,000). Honey 2.19 Honey is a significant and well-loved everyday household food item, and yet is often overlooked as a plant product. Not all honey consumed in Scotland is of native origin, yet there are significant numbers of honey producers in the country and many of these deliberately harvest honey from the nectar of native plants (primarily heather). Hives are moved to the heather moors in July and removed in September (see Colin Weightman’s article at www.beedata.com/data2/nutshell_heather_honey.html). According to the statistics of the Scottish Beekeepers Association there are in the region of 36,000 bee colonies in Scotland managed by c. 6,000 beekeepers. Each of these colonies can produce between 3060lb of honey per year, depending upon the weather. Most beekeepers in Scotland (probably around 80%) have fewer than 10 bee colonies. Commercial honey producers are considered to be those with over 40 colonies, and there are only ca. 50 large-scale producers in Scotland with more than 100 colonies (L. Webster, SBA, pers. comm.). 2.20 The wholesale price of honey varies between £1.50 and £3.80/lb (Scottish Beekeepers Association statistics, 1997) depending upon the type, with heather honey towards the upper end of the scale. Retail prices are usually 50–100% more than wholesale prices, with premium prices charged in tourist areas. Taking the lowest honey production levels and the lowest wholesale prices, a bee colony can expect to make at least £45 worth of honey per year. Using the upper levels of production and price, a colony could potentially produce as
Green Drinks (Gloucestershire) and Thorncroft (Hampshire). The largest existing plantations (24ha) were at Belvoir (Kent). 17 Thistles have also been used for this purpose, and some farmers in Dumfriesshire feed holly to cattle in the winter. These can be ground down to make them more palatable.
9
much as £180 honey/year. If all the 36,000 colonies were to produce honey this would give an approximate value of the honey industry at between £1 and £6 million/year.18 2.21 One threat to the Scottish industry is the Varroa parasitic mite (Varroa jacobsoni), an introduced parasite on honeybees in the UK. According to the Scottish Beekeepers Association the threat of Varroa is expected to lead to a decrease in colony numbers. The commercial planting of GM crops may also have an adverse impact on the industry. Heather honey crops are also influenced significantly by weather (hours of sunshine) and population levels of the heather beetle Lochmoea suturalis. In some years (1912, 1946, 1954 and 1985) there has been complete failure on the moors. THE BERRY INDUSTRY IN NORTHERN EUROPE 2.22 The harvesting of wild berries in Finland is a significant industry, and in recent years there have been numerous projects aimed at promoting it. The Berry Provinces project, for example, a collaborative project that finished in 1999, aimed to increase the amount of wild berries and mushrooms picked for the market, improve the quality of wild berry and mushroom material, and provide accurate information on wild berries and mushrooms to pickers and buyers19. Another project, funded through the Northern Periphery programme, is currently investigating the potential for development of sparkling drinks from wild berries. 2.23 The Northberry Project in Finland is developing the cultivation of northern Rubus species including cloudberry, a native Scottish plant. The programme includes collection of wild germplasm and selection for berry yield, climatic adaptation, chemical content and ease of clonal propagation. Cultivation will be tested among farmers involved in the project. It is hoped that it will eventually be possible to develop parthenocarpic (seedless) fruits and hermaphroditic clones. This project is part of the Northern Periphery Project, linking sustainable development initiatives in Finland, Scotland, Sweden and Norway [www.hytti.uku.fi/northberry/nbwelcome.html]. 2.24 Research into cloudberry production is also being undertaken in Russia, by the AllRussian Research Institute of Forestry and Forestry Mechanisation (Pushkino). The fruits are traditionally collected from the wild for local jam, but based on the Finnish market it has been calculated that significant incomes could be generated by commercial exploitation of this species on a sustainable basis. However, the berries in these regions are more abundant than they are in most parts of Scotland, yielding an estimated 75kg/ha in pine and fir forests, 40kg/ha in oligotrophic marshes and 10-15kg/ha in birch groves and mesotrophic marshes [www.informnauka.ru/eng/2000/2000-08-25-014_e.htm] OPPORTUNITIES IN SCOTLAND 2.25 The food and drink sector is currently the most successful, profitable and rapidly expanding commercial application of native Scottish plants. The combination of the growing market for exotic (‘novelty’) food and drink, the explosion of the organic movement and mounting public concern over food quality and safety have created real opportunities in this
18
This figure does not take into account into account the additional value of bees as pollinators of agricultural crops. 19 In 1994 the Finnish income from wild berries and mushrooms was estimated at approx. £15 million [www.ascentia.fi/marjamaakunnat/stats.htm].
10
field. These are reflected in the recent successes of businesses marketing wild foods, natural drinks and dietary supplements. In addition, initiatives in Scotland such as The Natural Cooking of Scotland (funded by the Enterprise Companies and the Scottish Tourist Board) have been established specifically to encourage and promote the role of natural produce and quality cooking in the Scottish tourism industry. Summary •
There is considerable scope for further development of food and drink products incorporating native Scottish plants.
•
Harvesting of wild plants and fungi is a growing business and probably offers opportunities. The current trade only accounts for a small proportion of the harvestable commodity.
•
If wild harvesting of foods expands, there will be a need for greater monitoring of its effect on the target species and associated ecosystems, as well as sustainable harvesting levels.
•
Organic cultivation or harvesting of organic wild products has the potential to develop. Apart from medicinal plants, food/drink is probably the only sector in which organic production is likely to deliver a genuine price premium.20
•
There may be opportunities for cultivation of novel Scottish plants for fresh sale in the UK food market (via supermarkets) e.g. sweet cicely, burdock root, wild garlic, wild thyme, wood sorrel, berries etc. In some cases (e.g. herbs) these could be high-value products. This requires market research, as well as development of cultivation techniques.
•
There is scope for further development of novel drinks (alcoholic or non-alcoholic) from native Scottish plants,21 possibly incorporating novel flavourings.
•
There may also be potential for cultivation of native plants (e.g. bitter vetch, bog myrtle) for wider use as flavourings. This is only likely to be viable if a means of adding value can be found, or if there is no existing competition for supply of the raw material from overseas.
•
The herbal teas market has expanded greatly in recent years. This offers a means of adding substantial value to a raw material with little need for expensive machinery. There may be scope for development of herbal teas from wild-collected or cultivated sources incorporating novel plants. Effective marketing would be essential as this is a highly competitive market.
•
The market for wild foods is much more developed in other European countries than it is in Scotland. Valuable lessons could be learned from their experiences.
20 21
This may also extend to sustainable production. Witness the success of the elderflower drinks industry in England, Heather Ale, etc.
11
CHAPTER 3
MEDICINAL AND AROMATIC PLANTS
CURRENT STATUS IN SCOTLAND 3.1 There is a significant trade in medicinal and aromatic plant products in Scotland, and many of the plants traded are native species. Nevertheless almost all of this trade is in imported material, and the production of medicinal and aromatic products from wild or cultivated Scottish plants is at present extremely small-scale. 3.2 Napiers the herbalists (Edinburgh), for example, sell a wide range of native medicinal plant species, of which all the material is imported from England or overseas.22 Likewise one of the largest sellers of herbal medicines in the UK is now the Swiss company Bioforce, whose UK outlet (Bioforce UK) is based in Scotland (Irvine). Many of their products contain species native to Scotland (blaeberry, eyebright, St John’s wort, Ivy, bladder wrack, nettle, horsetail, dandelion, silver birch, yarrow, bearberry, valerian and wild pansy) but again all of these medicines are currently produced in Switzerland from Swiss-grown plants. Although the company is theoretically open to the development of new products from Scottish plants (J. Tan, pers. comm.), their production plant is in Switzerland and transport of raw materials from Scotland (or the establishment of a new processing plant in this country) would almost certainly be prohibitively expensive.23 Homeopathy
3.3
Homeopathic remedies are made from diluted plant, animal and mineral extracts. There are many homeopaths practising in Scotland, and several native Scottish plants are used in homeopathic remedies (e.g. nettle, daisy, sundew, foxglove, horsetail). However, no individual or company in Scotland is known to make commercial homeopathic remedies from local plants. Herbalism
3.4
Herbalism uses plants, plant parts or extracts from plants to treat disorders and illnesses and to enhance the functioning of the body’s systems. Herbs are administered as tinctures (alcohol-water extract), teas, tablets, creams or essential oils. There is no largescale commercial production of herbal remedies in Scotland (see above). Nevertheless a few Scottish herbalists (e.g. Alison Fraser and Karin Brine) produce herbal extracts (tinctures) themselves using local plants. Extracts are made from fresh or dried plant material. 3.5 Butterbur is currently being harvested by one individual in the west of Scotland and sold to a German company for the preparation of a treatment for migraines. Material is collected from the wild but trial cultivation is also being established. Last year about
22
Napiers has a policy of supporting sustainability and tends to focus on cultivated supplies (although they are not aware of the original source of all of their herbs). Most are supplied by Herbal Apothecary and the Organic Herb Trading Company. Native species are used in relatively small quantities (nettles 100-150kg/yr, raspberry leaves 50-200kg, meadowsweet 20-30kg), and are all imported (A. McWhirter, pers. comm.). 23 In addition, the company has made much of its pure ‘Swiss’ image in marketing its products in the past, and regards this as important. There may nevertheless be similar benefits to be derived from developing a pure ‘Scottish’ image.
12
10 tonnes were harvested from 1 hectare, which produced about 1 tonne of dry material. The rhizomes, which take at least 3 years to regrow, are harvested in the winter using a small digger to uproot them and manual labour to pick the rhizomes. Processing involves washing, chopping and drying, first with a cold-air (hay) drier and then a hot-air drier (recently purchased for £800). The dried roots currently sell for 21DM (approx. £6.80) per kg 3.6 The German buyer is apparently keen to obtain as much material as he can lay his hands on, and is willing to pay farmers £300 per hectare to grow the crop (in addition to the money paid for the harvested crop). However this does not compete well with the subsidies currently available for other crops, and it is only viable on marginal land. There is now some concern that the prices will be undercut by supplies from Eastern Europe, which may destroy the small market that currently exists in Scotland. However, the material from Argyll reportedly contains the highest levels of the active principle (petasine) so far recorded by the buyer, and this quality may help to guarantee the market. Herb nurseries
3.7
A few Scottish nurseries grow native medicinal and aromatic herbs for the retail market. These include Barwinnock Herbs of Ayrshire, Brin Herb Nursery of Farr, Scotherbs of Dundee, and Poyntzfield Herb Nursery on the Black Isle. Aromatherapy
3.8
Aromatherapy uses essential oils extracted from aromatic plants to enhance health and beauty. Essential oils are extracted from flowers, herbs, spices, woods and fibres by distillation, expression and solvent extraction. Some plant species used in aromatherapy are native to Scotland e.g. yarrow, wild celery, mugwort, borage, juniper, corn mint, and valerian. However, apart from the experimental work of Highland Natural Products Ltd (Ross-shire), nobody in Scotland currently seems be producing essential oils from native plants. Bach remedies
3.9
Findhorn Flower Essences (Forres) prepare flower essences by the sun-infusion method, using Scottish flowers and water from wells reputed to possess healing properties. All of the plant species they use grow in the Findhorn Gardens or wild in the area. Only minute quantities of flowers are used for these essences, which are reputed to possess beneficial physical and spiritual effects. Native species used in their production include apple, bell heather, broom, daisy, elder, gorse, harebell, hazel, navelwort, lady's mantle, mallow, ragged robin, Scots pine, Scottish primrose, sea pink, sea rocket, silverweed, snowdrop, spotted orchid, stonecrop, thistle, valerian, watercress, wild pansy and willowherb. This is a very minor use, and in terms of native plant consumption it is insignificant. Pharmaceuticals 3.10 Yew clippings (young growth) are collected for the pharmaceutical industry for the production of anti-cancer drugs. Most traded clippings are produced from cultivated hedges rather than wild trees. All of the companies trading in yew clippings are based in England. One of these, Grace Meadows Greenery, stopped trading two years ago because the market was over-supplied. Another, Friendship Estates in Yorkshire, has been buying clippings from collectors in Scotland (7-8 tonnes in 2000) for supply to Rhone Poulenc. The market is very 13
fickle and demand and price vary considerably: in the past it has been as high as 50p/kg (fresh) but in 2000 it was 30p. The market for clippings has been undermined by synthetic production, and also by the cultivated stands of yew that were established in France and Germany 5 years ago when the market boomed, and which are now beginning to produce (J. Cook, Friendship Estates, pers. comm.). THE MEDICINAL PLANT TRADE IN EUROPE 3.11 Figures relating to this trade in Europe (and indeed worldwide) are sparse and in some cases contradictory. This is partly because government and international trade statistics tend not to be categorised in sufficient detail or regularity to allow analysis, and partly because of the reluctance or inability of traders to reveal their sources and volumes. Many traders buy at least some of their plant material from other traders, and are therefore genuinely unaware of their geographical sources. Market prices are also hard to determine, partly because of the cyclical variations resulting from the rapid shifts between over-supply and scarcity. 3.12 The European Union is the leading market in this sector world-wide, importing more than 40% of world trade in essential oils (Verlet & Leclercq, 1998). In 1990 it was estimated that there were over 2000 companies in Europe in the herbal medicines sector, of which 30% were said to have a turnover in excess of £20 million per annum. Approximately 2000 plant species are involved in the medicinal and aromatic plant trade in Europe, of which roughly two thirds are native to Europe. Material is obtained both from plants growing in the wild and from cultivated stock. Collection from the wild still plays a vital role since cultivation has not proved to be profitable for the majority of taxa in trade. This is because many plants are difficult to cultivate, many are required in very small quantities, the quality of some wildharvested material is supposedly superior, and costs of wild collection are generally low. 3.13 It has been estimated that 50-70% of the volume and 70-90% of the species traded in Europe are collected from the wild (Lange, 1998). No less than a quarter of the global import market for medicinal and aromatic plants is attributable to European countries, with an average (1992-1996) of 120,000 tonnes, valued at over US$300 million. Over recent years there has been a steady growth in the market in Europe, in line with the growing trend towards alternative health systems. Cultivation 3.14 Germany, France and Italy have a long history of cultivation, whereas some other European countries (e.g. the Netherlands, Finland and Ireland) only commenced production comparatively recently. Overall, medicinal and aromatic crops account for nearly 70,000 ha, the majority in France (25,000) and Spain (19,000). These are grown on large grain-growing farms, specialised smaller farms, and small farms in underprivileged areas using organic cultivation methods. Germany – centre of the European trade 3.15 There is a much greater acceptance of the efficacy of herbal medicines in Germany than there is in the UK. Germany is the most important market for these products in Europe, acting as a dealer between the eastern and south-eastern European countries and directing the medicinal and aromatic plant material to EU Member States, namely France, Italy, Spain, Austria and the UK. The market is centred around Hamburg. From 1991 to 1994, almost one third of the imported volume was re-exported, usually after processing. A number of species 14
native to Scotland are cultivated in Germany, including coltsfoot, couch grass, dandelion, elder, mugwort, mullein, nettle, ribwort plantain, St John’s wort, thyme, valerian and yarrow. Of these, only thyme, valerian, plantain and elder are grown to any significant extent. The domestic cultivation of medicinal plants is very expensive in comparison with Eastern European countries, and suffered a considerable setback with the fall of the Berlin Wall (Lange and Schippmann, 1997). Threatened species 3.16 Lange (1998) listed the medicinal species in Europe categorised as threatened. These included native Scottish species such as bearberry, Iceland moss, and bogbean. •
•
•
•
Bearberry leaves are traded dry (whole or cut) and contain arbutin. They are mainly used to treat inflammatory disorders of the lower urinary tract. The commercial value of this species is relatively high. There are no figures for the total annual demand, but in 1995 there were over 200 medicinal preparations on sale in the German market containing this species. In some areas it is collected by uprooting the whole plant. It is entirely collected from the wild, but a project to cultivate the plants has been established in the Leridian Pyrenees. Iceland moss is traded as a cough remedy. In 1995 over 100 medicinal preparations containing this species were on sale in Germany. It is entirely collected from the wild. In 1996 Iceland was estimated to export between one and 3 tonnes per year, primarily to Germany, and it is thought that around 2.5 tonnes are collected in the Rodna Mountains in Romania annually. In some European countries there are restrictions on the collection and trade of this species. Sundew is one of three Drosera species marketed primarily for relief of respiratory disorders (the whole plant). In 1995 there were over 100 medicinal preparations on sale in Germany containing these plants. Although there has been experimental cultivation, this is mainly extracted from the wild. This species has a high commercial value: the wholesale price in 1996 was US$23/kg. 2100 kg of D. rotundifolia was collected in Finland in 1994, but only 800kg in 1995. The material is exported to Switzerland. This species can only be imported into Germany with a permit proving sustainable harvest in the source country. Bogbean grows in fragile habitats, marshes and wetlands, which are declining in many parts of Europe. The leaves (which contain bitter principles) are used chiefly to stimulate the appetite and secretion of gastric juice, but also as the basis for an antimigraine preparation. In 1995 there were over 50 medicinal preparations on sale in Germany containing this species. Experiments have been made with cultivation, but supplies are almost entirely from the wild. There are no exact figures on trade volumes.
MEDICINAL AND AROMATIC PLANT TRADE IN THE UK Species in trade 3.17 The UK is one of the world’s top 12 importers of medicinal and aromatic plants, and in 1995 accounted for 9% of the European market in herbal remedies. This market has been analysed in some depth by Dennis (1997). In 1995 approximately 8,200 tonnes of ‘pharmaceutical plants’ were imported into the UK, with a value of over US$22 million. It has been estimated that the UK markets for aromatic and medicinal plants are increasing by about 10% per annum and those for complementary healthcare by 30%. Most of the companies trading in this sector in the UK are small, and many are family businesses. Dennis 15
(1998) amassed some useful information on the status of some of the medicinal plant species traded in the UK at that time, a summary of which (restricted to native or naturalised UK species) is given in Annex 5. Data on some of the most important essential oils derived from plant species native to Scotland are given in Annex 6.24 3.18 It is beyond the scope of this project to conduct a thorough analysis of the UK trade in medicinal and aromatic plants, but the data in the following box, resulting from interviews with some of the leading trading companies, throw some light on the subject:
William Ransom & Son William Ransom & Son is one of the UK’s biggest producers of plant extracts for the pharmaceutical/healthcare markets, cosmetics and the food and drink industry. Their market is split between the UK and overseas (primarily ex-Commonwealth countries). Approximately 90% of the plant materials for their products are imported, the only native species sourced in Britain being elderflower. The total UK harvest of elderflowers is ca. 100 tonnes/year, the price per kg of fresh flowers varying between £1-2. Part of this supply is grown under contract, and part is collected wild from hedgerows. By weight of plant material extracted, the top ten plants traded by Ransoms are dandelion root (of European origin), scammony root (from Mexico), rhubarb root (from China), senega root (from China), elderflowers (from the UK), kola nuts (from West Africa), figs (from Turkey), squill (from India), wild cherry bark (from the USA) and uva-ursi (bearberry) from Europe. In the case of dandelions between 50 and 100 tonnes are imported each year – primarily from Belgium and Holland, at a cost of ca. £2/kg of dried root. Uva-ursi is imported from Spain at around £2.50-3.00/kg (dry leaves). Ransoms are interested in sourcing plants from the UK, but require two elements of the supply chain to be guaranteed: ready availability of plant materials and a competitive price. They have used heather in their products in the past, and investigated UK supplies of this plant. However, they found that foreign sources were both cheaper and more reliable. Another aspect that relates to the sourcing of locally grown plants is the inconsistency and unpredictability of the British climate, making UK cultivation unreliable. According to Ransoms, the weight of uva-ursi trade in the UK is relatively small when compared to European trade – their estimate being between 5 and 10 tonnes/year. The wholesale price of dried uva-ursi leaves is between £2.50 and £3/kg. Adrian Essential Oils All the essential oils used by Adrian Essential Oils (Berkshire) are imported (R. Dyer, pers. comm.), the majority from France. None that they were aware of were derived from native species, although some of the species they use (e.g. chamomile, peppermint, clary sage and rose) are cultivated in Britain. The company has been contacted in recent years by a number of British farmers who have expressed an interest in growing crops for the medicinal market, but they seem to lose interest when informed that they would have to consider supplying not just the plant, but also the finished oil. It would make little economic sense to ship over the raw plant material from Britain to France for distillation.
24
A useful analysis of the potential for cultivation of essential oil plants in the UK is also given by Runham (1996).
16
Chesham Chemicals Chesham Chemicals (Middlesex) deal with plant extracts for the cosmetics, food and drink industries, and have been establishing business links with Highland Natural Products, trying to promote some of their products e.g. birch sap (D. Michell, pers., comm.). Mitchell believes that when developing products it is important to think of potential markets on a global scale if you intend to interest the big cosmetic/herbal product producers. Nelsons Nelsons produce mainly homeopathic remedies and some creams, so the quantities of plants they use are very small (A. Crawford, pers. comm.). Of the plants they use, the only native species are hawthorn berries, St John’s wort (Hypericum perforatum, cultivated on the Black Isle), bilberries (blaeberries) and dandelions. Herbal Apothecary Herbal Apothecary is one of the companies involved in the establishment of the Medicinal Plant Sustainability Forum in the UK. They supply herbalists such as Napiers in Edinburgh and import large quantities of a range of native species including valerian root, St John’s wort, hawthorn (berries and flowering tops), elderflowers, yarrow flowers, marsh mallow root, burdock root, bearberry, meadowsweet, cleavers, wild lettuce and small-flowered willowherb. There are some species that they have difficulty getting hold of, including pilewort and bugle, but these are only used in relatively small quantities i.e. 100150kg (dry) per year. They source their herbs overseas because they are cheaper. The only material they have taken from Scotland in recent years was some Arnica montana (a non-native species) grown by Highland Natural Products Ltd (B. Carter, pers. comm.).
Cultivation 3.19 Cultivation of medicinal and aromatic plants in the UK is currently very small (see Svoboda & Deans, 1998b) but there is growing interest in the sector in the context of farm diversification (see Chapter 10). In some areas this is expanding with help from development initiatives. In Norfolk and Suffolk, for example, a co-operative of essential oil growers has been established with support from MAFF, the EU and the Fenland Alternative Crop Technology Group (FACT). The oils, marketed as Norfolk Essential Oils, are grown by eight farmers and distilled in machinery owned by the co-op. At present the oils are produced from cultivated species of which only yarrow is native, but they are also experimenting with wildcollected species. In 2000 they tried making oil from wild-collected elderflower and wild carrot, picked from around the field perimeters. With the elder they were not successful in producing any oil - just floral water. The wild carrot was more successful although the quantity was small. This was produced specifically for one of their customers, who took it all (K. Goodger, pers. comm.). 3.20 Norfolk Essential Oils’ products are marketed with the assistance of an initiative called Novcrop. The objectives of Novcrop (which has financial support from the DTI and FACT) are to develop worldwide sales of products from niche crops using the public Internet, to share technical and marketing information using a private intranet, and to provide a discussion forum for growers interested in developing novel crops. 3.21 The Fenland Alternative Crop Technology group is also funding experimental cultivation of dandelion, thistle and small nettle in East Anglia (Lange, 1998). There are a number of other growers of medicinal and aromatic plants in the UK. Lange noted that four 17
of the well-known companies selling herbal remedies grow small amounts of their own herbs. One nursery was growing a couple of acres of Arnica montana, and one pharmaceutical company was growing 200ha of borage and 400ha of evening primrose. In addition, there are many more growing medicinal and aromatic plants (such as skullcap, valerian, nettles, dandelion, cleavers etc.) on a smaller scale. Two (one in Norfolk and one in Yorkshire) are cultivating snowdrops for the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease. Large financial commitments have been made by a foreign investor to establish a forest of horse chestnut, and many small growers have shown willingness to invest in pioneering cultivation of elder and burdock. Veterinary products 3.22 There is a growing market for herbal remedies and food supplements for animals. At present this is focused primarily on the equine and canine markets. With the expansion of organic farming (including organic milk production) there may be increasing opportunities in the livestock sector. Hilton Herbs in Somerset is one of the principal suppliers in the UK. They use large quantities of native plant species including cleavers (10-12 tonnes/yr dry weight) nettles (10-12 tonnes/yr), meadowsweet (6-7 tonnes/yr @ approx. £3/kg), hawthorn tops (large quantities), eyebright, comfrey, dandelion root, seaweed, rosehips, valerian and skullcap.25 Most of this material is imported from Germany. Their products are not organic, and given the large quantities of raw materials involved this would be likely to make them prohibitively expensive. 3.23 Although the majority of their material is imported from suppliers in Germany, they do buy some UK-sourced material. Some of this is purchased in the form of tinctures.26 The advantage of buying from Germany is that the suppliers are long-established companies with well-developed quality control systems. In the past they have bought herbs (e.g. cleavers) directly from farmers in SW England, but although the quality was good the supplies were usually insufficiently large to make the trade viable. The company is potentially very interested in buying from UK sources, and indeed would source locally by preference if it could,27 but only if the price and quality were right (H. Self, pers. comm.). 3.24 Another company, Friendship Estates in Yorkshire, is trading and growing medicinal plants for the veterinary market as well as for herbal teas. These include nettles for horse medicines. All the herb crops are processed on site in order to add value, without which the business would not be viable. Specifications for the final product (cut to 2-3mm with no dust) are not easy to achieve and require specialist machinery. The markets for many of these products are very fickle, and in the past some of their crops (e.g. St John’s wort, comfrey)28 have been discontinued when they have become economically inviable. If the company had been producing just one species, these market collapses would probably have been disastrous (J. Cook, pers. comm.).
25
Valerian and skullcap command considerably higher prices than the others, but take longer to grow. One of the problems faced by growers is mildew if they are drying naturally, and the cost of equipment/ energy if they are drying artificially. However, if they are able to sell fresh material for tincture manufacture these problems are over-ridden. 27 It is part of their marketing strategy to state that wherever possible materials will be sourced locally. 28 The market for comfrey virtually collapsed after a scare was raised about its allegedly carcinogenic properties. These claims have been hotly debated. 26
18
The green market 3.25 The expanding ‘green’ market for environmentally, socially and health-conscious people extends into the medicinal and aromatic plant sector. Although this is currently limited, there is a growing demand for organic herbs and some traders have moved exclusively into organics. One such company is the Organic Herb Trading Company in Somerset, whose market is primarily the UK but also includes the USA. In spite of the demand for organic products there are considerable difficulties faced by growers in the UK, one of which is the growing competition for the market from overseas suppliers. This is lowering the ‘premium’ on organics and making it harder for farmers to grow organic herbs at competitive prices. Another difficulty is presented by the complexity and bureaucracy of organic certification, which can deter small businesses (M. Brook, pers. comm.). 3.26 One issue of concern in the production of medicinal plants is the level of heavy metals in the soils in some parts of the UK. This can be particularly problematic if the herbs are targeted at the European market in Germany, where restrictions on heavy metal levels are rigorous. The market for herbal teas, however, does not have such stringent regulation and for some producers this can provide a viable alternative market (J. Cook, Friendship Estates, pers. comm.). Conservation and sustainable harvesting 3.27 In spite of the growing recognition of the problems of over-exploitation of medicinal plants in Europe, without knowing where much of the material is coming from it is difficult to develop sustainable harvesting practices and to estimate sustainable yields.29 Instead, the industry is to some degree controlled by import and export restrictions, partly on the basis of the internationally or nationally recognised threat status of the species concerned. 3.28 Ownership and land tenure are important issues in the sustainability of medicinal plant harvesting, as they can significantly influence the efficacy of any controls that are put in place. In a market where many of the workers (collectors) are poor and paid little (e.g. in Eastern Europe), and collecting from wild populations over which they have no dominion, there is a tendency towards the ‘tragedy of the commons’, whereby the lack of asset ownership leads to a diminished stewardship ethic and destructive exploitation. 3.29 The following steps have been outlined by Schippmann (1998) in the development of management plans for medicinal species: • • • • • •
Field research: collection of population data Compilation of data on the biology of the taxon: growth rates, life form, plant community, breeding system etc. Assessment of threat according to experts/ literature (global, regional) Revision of national regulations for the utilisation in source country Extent of wild harvesting versus cultivation Revision of volumes that have been harvested/ traded in the past
29
Some herbalists in Scotland, for example, are reluctant to buy from ‘wild crafted’ sources on account of the lack of evidence for sustainability of the harvest, and turn to organic cultivation instead (Z. Capernaros, pers. comm.).
19
• •
Establishment of a management scheme: annual harvesting quotas, seasonal restrictions, regional restrictions, restrictions to certain plant parts or size classes, cultivation projects Establishment of continuing monitoring and evaluation schemes
UK Medicinal Plant Sustainability Forum 3.30 This forum, which brings representatives of the medicinal plants trade in the UK (growers and importers) together with individuals and organisations concerned with medicinal plant conservation, was launched in 2000. It is led jointly by the UK company Herbal Apothecary and the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), and aims to encourage and promote sustainable and ethical herb production. It is currently working towards the development of certification systems for organic and sustainable/ ethical production.30 Best practice – harvesting techniques 3.31 The term ‘wild crafting’ is becoming increasingly used in the medicinal and aromatic plant trade. This purports to be informed and discriminate wild collecting, or “the conscientious collection of correctly identified herb species ... without depletion of natural plant populations or damage to their habitats.” Guidelines for the commercial collection of plant material from the environment for medicinal purposes, outlined in Annex 7, were published in ICMAP (2000). Licensed collection 3.32 Licensed collection schemes for medicinal plants in National Parks have been established in Hungary, Turkey and France, and may provide valuable pointers towards how similar controls might be put in place in Scotland. Material collected under such schemes benefits both from its organic31 and its sustainably managed nature, making it attractive to the ‘green’ market. Dennis (1997) reported that some UK traders regard the organic herbs from France as being of the highest quality material, and place a premium on their organic nature. 3.33 Problems of unsustainable collection can to some degree be overcome by education of the collectors in sustainable harvesting and management strategies (e.g. harvesting rotations, timing, pruning methods, etc.). In Czechoslovakia, for example, each county has an advisory centre for collectors (Dennis, 1997). The material is sold directly to the centres or to dealers with drying facilities, and a register is kept of volumes traded allowing a rough monitoring of the situation. RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT IN THE UK 3.34 After the boom in research into rainforest medicine there is now growing interest in the potential for development of medicinal products from northern temperate species. There are a number of ongoing or nascent research projects investigating secondary metabolites and cultivation/ production:
30
One of the major difficulties is that the criteria for sustainability are currently poorly defined in this sector. The Forum is seeking examples of medicinal plants whose production has shown to be sustainable, or which could serve as pilot studies. 31 No chemical spraying is allowed in these areas.
20
The Scottish Agricultural College has been involved in research on the cultivation of herbs in Scotland for several years, partly with EU funding. It is currently involved in a project funded by Unilever investigating the potential for cultivation of bog myrtle. The SAC is receptive to new ideas and partnerships and is willing to investigate potentially good ideas (K. Svoboda, pers. comm.). The Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh is developing a research project in collaboration with Strathclyde Institute for Drug Research investigating pharmacologically active secondary metabolites from Scottish bryophytes (mosses and liverworts). The University of Aberdeen is developing a research project investigating the medicinal properties of Scottish seaweeds, using leads from traditional medicine (M. Jaspers, pers. comm.). The Central Science Laboratory (CSL) at York is developing (currently seeking funding for) a programme with the National Park authorities investigating the secondary metabolites of native plants of North Yorkshire moorlands and their potential for adding value to land (M. Askew, pers. comm.). The CSL hosts IENICA, the Interactive European Network for Industrial Crops and their Applications. The National Herb Centre (Oxfordshire) is conducting its own field trials on a range of plants including some native species. These include four species that are likely to be well adapted to the Scottish environment (i.e. alpines, woodland species or species of acid soils), and the Centre is open to collaboration with other groups in the UK (R. Cole, pers. comm.). They also run a semi-commercial still for essential oil distillation and offer a range of services including chemical analysis, field trials and trials for processing, drying and post-harvest storage. The National Botanic Garden of Wales is developing a project investigating the properties of native plants and their potential roles in farm diversification. The Institute of Grasslands and Environmental Research in Wales (IGER), and its allied company MolecularNature Ltd (MNL) have an ongoing research programme investigating the chemistry and pharmacology of native UK plants and their potential for cultivation (R. Nash, pers. comm.). This has included, for example, analysis of the alkaloids in bluebell (Hyacinthoides non-scripta) and investigation into the potential roles of UK plants such as thrift (Armeria maritima), sundews (Drosera spp.) and dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) in the treatment of tuberculosis and leprosy. It is currently working on a project investigating the chemical constituents of bog myrtle. MNL has a 3-year agreement with Unilever to develop new food supplements. The Jodrell Laboratory at the Royal Botanic Gardens Kew is running a project screening British plants for a range of biological activities. The focus is currently on plants used in veterinary treatments (particularly against insect parasites), plants inducing behavioural effects (mood changes) and toxic plants (M. Simmonds, pers. comm.). The University of Westminster is conducting cultivation and processing trials on over 40 species of medicinal plants, most of which are native to the UK. This includes research into the significance of germplasm provenance and growing conditions on the efficacy and quality of the final product. This is an ongoing project but preliminary results are promising (J. Whitehouse, pers. comm.).
OPPORTUNITIES IN SCOTLAND Cultivation 3.35 Although there is potential for the increased cultivation of medicinal plants in Scotland, there are various challenges that need to be met. These are presented largely by the instability of the market, and the consequent inability of traders to guarantee demand and prices from one year to another. In many cases the products will be competing with wildcollected herbs from countries with lower labour costs, and much will depend on the productivity that is achievable. Another challenge is presented by the relative novelty of the 21
field, and the consequent lack of agronomic technology. One of the benefits of medicinal plant cultivation for farmers is the fact that they can be grown on set aside land. This has promoted considerable interest in a range of alternative crops. 3.36 The Scottish Agricultural College has been experimenting with a broad range of herbs for cultivation, production and utilisation in Scotland since 1984. According to their research, plants showing greatest potential for field-scale cultivation are those usually harvested for their foliage or flowering tops. These tend to maintain vigorous growth throughout the season, and more than one harvest can normally be taken between the summer and autumn (Svoboda & Deans, 1988). Katerina Svoboda (pers. comm.) has highlighted the following genera as having potential for cultivation in Scotland: Achillea, Agrimonia, Alchemilla, Althea, Arctium, Arctostaphylos, Calluna, Centaurea, Cetraria, Chondrus, Convallaria, Crataegus, Drosera, Echium, Epilobium, Equisetum, Eupatorium, Euphrasia, Festuca, Filipendula, Fumaria, Galium, Gentiana, Geranium, Geum, Hordeum, Hyoscyamus, Hypericum, Iris, Juniperus, Lamium, Mentha, Myrica, Myrrhis, Origanum, Pimpinella, Plantago, Potentilla, Rumex, Salix, Sambucus, Sanguisorba, Scrophularia, Senecio, Solidago, Stachys, Symphytum, Tanacetum, Taraxacum, Thymus, Tilia, Trifolium, Tussilago, Urtica, Vaccinium, Valeriana, Viola and Viscum. Summary •
There are very few growers or collectors of medicinal or aromatic plants in Scotland, and none operating on a significant scale.
•
There is a substantial expanding market for medicinal and aromatic plants in the UK, including many native Scottish species. However, most companies currently source their products overseas (probably around 90%), primarily because domestic supplies are generally more expensive and less reliable.
•
Many UK companies trading medicinal and aromatic plants would nevertheless happily buy from UK sources (in some cases by preference) if the price and quality were competitive.
•
There is a growing demand for organic herbal remedies, which do command a premium in the marketplace. Some farmers in the UK are turning to organic herb growing as a means of diversification. However, the market is competitive and fickle and the premium is not as great as it was.
•
There is growing interest in northern temperate plants as sources of pharmaceuticals and other bioactive compounds, and several research institutions in Britain are investigating the properties of secondary metabolites in the native British flora. This could lead to the identification of new species with potential for cultivation or wild harvesting.
•
Some native Scottish plants command a reasonable price in the international medicinal plants market and are in high demand. It may be possible to grow them competitively with development of the necessary agronomic knowledge and technology.
•
Generally speaking, adding value to the raw material (i.e. processing) is essential if a business producing medicinal/ aromatic plants is to be successful. However, in some cases there is a premium on fresh material for the production of tinctures.
•
Given the large and unpredictable fluctuations in market prices of medicinal herbs, it is important for businesses to work with several species.
22
•
The competitive nature of the industry makes effective market research and marketing strategies vital. Several businesses have developed high-quality products and then failed because they had not identified a market.
•
Little information is currently available on the levels of harvesting that wild plant populations can bear.
•
It is unlikely that Scottish wild-harvested medicinal and aromatic plants will be able to compete with imported wild-harvested products (e.g. from Eastern Europe) in the European market. This is primarily because of the disparity in labour costs. Nevertheless there may be scope for development of successful cottage industries and co-operatives in this field catering for high-value niche markets.
•
Wild-harvested medicinal plants could potentially be certified as organic. This might be achieved through certification of a few large areas, rather than a large number of small areas (which would be expensive and time-consuming).
•
No significant market currently exists for ‘sustainably harvested’ medicinal plants in the UK. Although this market may develop, it is unlikely that such products will command a significant premium.
23
CHAPTER 4
THE SEAWEED INDUSTRY
CURRENT STATUS IN SCOTLAND Overview 4.1 Although the seaweed industry caters to a range of markets it is sufficiently significant to be addressed in a chapter of its own. This industry in Scotland is far smaller than it was in the heyday of potash and (subsequently) iodine production,32 and has recently suffered severe setbacks, but nevertheless seaweed remains one of Scotland’s most significant wild plant resources. At present Scotland is a relatively minor producer of seaweed in comparison with other European countries, capturing only around 2% of the market. 4.2 Almost all commercial seaweed harvesting efforts in Scotland are concentrated on the Phaeophytes (brown seaweeds), including Laminaria, Ascophyllum and Fucus spp. Harvesting is traditionally done by hand, with serrated sickles or scythes from the rocks at low tide. Laminaria hyperborea is taken as cast weed during the winter storm season; the stipes (‘tangles’) are dried by hanging them over frames or purpose-built walls. Products Alginates 4.3 Brown seaweeds contain alginates (salts of alginic acid) which are used for many applications. These range from food products (additives E400–E405) to industrial uses such as welding and wound dressings. Paper and textiles producers are the greatest users of alginates, and many new biotechnology applications are being developed. Alginates are manufactured in Scotland (Girvan) by ISP Alginates, formerly called Nutrasweet Kelco (and, prior to that, Alginate Industries). Alginates were originally produced from Scottish supplies of Ascophyllum nodosum (knotted wrack) and stormcast Laminaria hyperborea (tangle or kelp). 4.4 Much of the seaweed supply for the industry came historically from the Outer Hebrides and the Orkneys, where these species are abundant. In recent years, due to the lack of effective drying plants on these islands,33 the Ascophyllum weed was shipped wet to the Girvan factory. This was not only inefficient and expensive but also allowed bacterial decomposition in transit (R. Searle, pers. comm.). Within the last few years the company has cut back significantly on their seaweed demand, and has switched from Scottish supplies to cheaper sources overseas (e.g. Ireland, Iceland, Tasmania). It still buys small quantities of air-dried Laminaria from collectors in the Hebrides (Tiree and South Uist), but only in the order of a few hundred tonnes per year.34 This is only a fraction of what was sold before, and the loss of this market has been a significant blow for some crofters for whom seaweed collecting was more than a casual occupation.
32
An historical overview of the Scottish seaweed industry is given by Kenicer et al. (2000). Over the last thirty years all the drying and processing plants in Scotland have closed apart from Keose on Lewis (see Fertilisers). 34 The going rate for dried Laminaria is around £200 per tonne at the beach. 33
24
Fertilisers 4.5 Seaweed has long been used as a fertiliser in Scotland, and continues to be employed on a casual basis by crofters and gardeners. A number of companies in Scotland manufacture seaweed fertilisers, but in most cases the raw materials are sourced outside Scotland (principally Ireland, Canada and Norway). One of the exceptions is the recently established Orkney Seaweed Company, which is beginning to market a range of products based on liquid extraction from freshly harvested tangle. The company is based on Westray, and was established following an ÉCLAIR (EU)-funded project in the 1990s investigating seaweed extract technology. Their liquid feeds are aimed at the organic market, and include commercial grower formulations, sports turf products, leisure gardening products and speciality products. At present the plant is in the process of being finished, product development is in its final stages, and production levels are small (50 tonnes of seaweed were processed in 2000). The Laminaria is harvested with specially designed grabs that cut rather than tear in order to minimise habitat disturbance. It is planned that harvesting will be undertaken as a secondary activity by local lobster creel fishermen (C. Johnston, pers. comm.). 4.6 Tavay Organics is a small concern that has been operating from the old seaweed drying plant at Keose on Lewis, buying knotted wrack from local collectors. Some of their dried weed has been sold to fertiliser manufacturers on the mainland (Glenside Organics), but this is no longer the case. Tavay have also produced their own fertiliser products (liquid manure, root dip) and animal feed in the past, but this is on hold. At the time of writing Tavay Organics was not in active operation and Glenside Organics was sourcing all of its seaweed from Ireland. In the spring of 2000 Western Isles Enterprise funded engineering trials at the plant in an effort to determine its future potential. The company is in the process of putting together a business development plan to submit for funding, the intention being to reactivate the plant for fertiliser production.35 4.7 Another seaweed fertiliser business, Böde Ayre Products, is currently starting up in Shetland. This is based on a farm that will shortly become organic, and it is intended that the organic Ascophyllum meal that it produces will be used in situ as well as sold locally. If funding applications are successful (an application has been submitted to the ABDS farm diversification scheme), a drying machine will be built by a local engineer and milling equipment will be bought from the mainland. The total cost of this equipment is estimated at £34,000. The company is also investigating the technology for production of seaweed extracts. 4.8 Certain calcareous red seaweeds can be used on the land as a substitute for lime, and are commercially marketed under the name of maerl for this purpose. Deep-water genera such as Lithothamnion and Phymatolithon, which grow hard calcium-rich ‘skeletons’ and are thrown up on beaches after storms, are the most important sources. Maerl can be seen on beaches in a few places in Scotland including Dunvegan on Skye, but is harvested from the sea bottom either as ‘live’ maerl or maerl gravel. Maerl fertiliser is commercially available in garden centres and is thought to give a better performance than standard lime, although
35
In October 2000 the Flora Celtica project at the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh was approached by a company based in Germany seeking between 500 and 2,500 tons of dried Ascophyllum and Laminaria per year (95% Ascophyllum). The company was put in touch with Tavay Organics, who sent samples and quoted a price for the job.
25
marginally more expensive. It is also exploited for use in filtration of drinking water, and as an additive to livestock fodder. France is currently the biggest producer, taking over 500,000 tonnes in 1985, mainly from the beds in the seas around Brittany. In Scotland there is some concern over the conservation of the beds where these species grow. Only one harvesting contract (for 5000 tonnes from around the coast of Orkney) has been implemented in recent times. Extraction of a further 20,000m3 from Orkney waters (Wyre Sound) over a five year period was given a favourable Government View (with conditions) in July 1996 (DTI, 2000), but this has gone little further than the exploratory stage. Food, cosmetics and medicinal products 4.9 A range of seaweeds has traditionally featured in the Scottish diet (particularly in coastal regions), providing a valuable source of nutrients. Some of these (e.g. dulse and carrageen) are still collected by individuals and eaten on a small scale, or in a few cases sold to local shops. A nutritional analysis of these species has been conducted by the Irish Seaweed Industry Organisation and is available on the Irish seaweed website at http://seaweed.ucg.ie/isio/ISIO_BIM/page1.htm. The seaweed products available in health food shops and supermarkets in Scotland tend to be expensive (£3-4 for 50g dry weight), and in spite of the fact that they are usually species common to Scottish shores, they are generally imported from France. Caledonian Wildfoods (Coatbridge) sold fresh edible seaweeds including dulse and sea lettuce to restaurants at one point, but discontinued the supply. This was partly because their clients found the seaweed to be poor value for money, partly because the customers sometimes found it unappetising and partly because of the complications of its transport. 4.10 A small number of cottage industries are nonetheless using local seaweed in the production of medicines and cosmetics. The recently established Orkney Tang company, for example, is marketing a range of health products from locally collected seaweed. These include red seaweed gel for respiratory problems in animals (particularly horses), green seaweed extract for animal feed as a supplement for growth and minerals, red seaweed extract as a general tonic for humans, and red and brown (Laminaria) seaweed capsules. They are in the process of developing a seaweed beautifying cream (from red seaweeds) and a seaweed skin rub for sports people (information from company website). Diana Drummond Cosmetics (Argyll) and a number of other small businesses are also incorporating seaweeds into their soaps and cosmetic products (see Cosmetics).36 4.11 Atlantic Resource Development, a company based in South Uist, is currently engaged in small-scale production of Laminaria cervical dilators. These are now widely used in gynaecological operations, as they have the advantage of dilating the cervix without causing mechanical damage. At present the company sells dried peeled kelp stems37 to a Swedish manufacturer which polishes and sterilises them to produce the final article. The dried stems sell for approximately £3000 per tonne (D. McPhee, pers. comm.).
36
Many native UK seaweed species are used widely in the cosmetics industry, both in the UK and overseas. The principal species are Ascophyllum nodosum (knotted wrack) and Fucus vesiculosus (bladder wrack). Codium tomentosum, Corallina spp., Enteromorpha spp., Fucus serratus (serrated wrack), Hypnea musciformis, Himanthalia elongata, Laminaria digitata, L. saccharina, Lithothamnion calcareum, Palmaria palmata (dulse), Pelvetia canaliculata (channelled wrack), Porphyra umbilicalis (sloke), Ulva lactuca (sea lettuce) and Undaria pinnatifida are also employed to varying extents. 37 The stems are hung vertically to dry.
26
ANALYSIS AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE INDUSTRY Overseas suppliers and markets 4.12 In-depth analyses of the international use of seaweeds and seaweed products are given by Comhairle nan Eilean Siar (1999) and Guiry & Blunden (1991).38 Most (around 80%) of the world's 7 million tons of annual seaweed production (wet weight) is cultured on farms, a practice that is well developed in China, Japan, Korea and the Philippines. The majority of this market (approximately 70%) is for domestic food use. 4.13 In the European context Ireland, Norway and France have sizeable industries based on seaweed collection. In Norway and France (the two largest producers) automated harvesters such as dredges, grabs (for maerl) and bulldozers/ raking machines are used. Italy also has a considerable industry in Gracilaria (for agar production), harvesting around 25,000 tonnes wet weight each year using boats fitted with nets and conveyor belts. 4.14 In Norway the main harvest is of Laminaria and Ascophyllum for alginate production and (secondarily) fertilisers. France also harvests Laminaria for alginates, but has a more diverse seaweed industry than other European countries and a better-developed market. This includes food products,39 cosmetics, cattle feed and leaf fertilisers. 4.15 In Ireland there has been substantial government investment in the industry in recent years, through the Irish Seaweed Industry Organisation and support for research at the Martin Ryan Marine Science Institute [http://seaweed.ucg.ie/].40 The industry employs 500 people in harvesting and processing and contributes over IR£5 million (turnover) to the Irish economy annually; 85% in export sales. The most important species harvested is Ascophyllum nodosum, most of which is dried and exported to Scotland (to ISP Alginates). The rest is used in the production of soil conditioners and liquid seaweed extracts. Several companies are also selling seaweed products to the health and snack food market, as well as body care and cosmetic products. Other applications Biogas and cultivation 4.16 The brown seaweeds can be used to yield biogas for fuel. Although there are currently no plans to cultivate kelp for biogas in Scotland, an experimental farm was set up at the University of Liverpool's Port Erin marine laboratory on the Isle of Man in the 1980s. This farm grew Alaria esculenta and Laminaria saccharina on long vertical lines hanging in the water. The emphasis of the remit shifted after a time towards attempting cultivation for food (these are both edible species), but the farm is no longer in operation. 4.17 Large brown algae such as the kelps can be readily converted to methanol or ethanol and then to a 'gasoline' equivalent by a process of digestion. The work being carried out on this is experimental at present and is generally conducted in America and the Far East with
38
This includes detailed explanations of the techniques used to harvest seaweeds elsewhere in Europe. ‘Seaweed salads’ of red and green seaweeds from Brittany are available in health food shops and some supermarkets in Scotland. 40 This has included an establishment of an Algal Biomass Database charting the stocks of seaweed around the Irish coast. 39
27
the giant kelps (Macrocystis). Large floating farms for kelp species have been envisaged, with production of synthetic natural gas occurring on the shore. Potential methane yields from plants vary with species. The Laminarias (L. digitata, L. hyperborea and L . saccharina) are amongst those that produce the greatest yields. The residual sludge produced by the alginic acid extraction process is also thought to be valuable for this purpose and has the added benefit of being a waste product. However there are many problems associated with extraction of methane from these sources and a lot of refinement is needed before the processes become economically viable. 4.18 Culture of marine algae has come to a point where genetic manipulation of seaweed strains is possible. Much of the work on this still experimental as the life cycle has only been sufficiently understood in the past fifty years. Robust clones of Chondrus crispus and both Gigartinia and Gracilaria species have been produced, but remain as experimental strains. Oriental seaweeds such as Laminaria japonica and various Porphyra species have been selected and are currently in cultivation. Phytoremediation 4.19 Seaweeds can be used for 'integrated' farming in salmon culture, with the effluent from the fish providing nutrients for the seaweed which can then be used as a secondary product from the farm. This also has the benefit of buffering the salmon from over-polluting themselves with waste. Research in Florida and at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (California) has shown that nutrient enrichment with effluent may increase growth of seaweeds by as much as 600% so a significant amount of the waste is being sequestered by the plants. 4.20 In recent decades work has been conducted throughout the world on phytoremediation of human sewage, i.e. removing the nutrients that may cause problems for surrounding ecosystems (by eutrophication). In both Spain and Tanzania a series of tanks growing a variety of species have been used, with an Ulva species appearing to be the best at removing excess nutrients (converting them to useable biomass). It was thought that the faecal bacteria found in sewage were not removed by the system, but otherwise results were encouraging. Small, simple sewage treatment plants (a series of ponds growing seaweeds, over which the effluent is passed) have been envisaged for rural areas. Animal feed 4.21 Seaweed-based animal feeds are not currently produced from Scottish seaweeds but there is a significant industry in these products both in the UK and overseas. Ascophyllumbased seaweed meal fed to highland cattle, for example, is said to give excellent results. Likewise the addition of seaweed meal to the diet of farmed mink is used to condition the fur, and a company trading in America produces a meal specifically for dogs. Seaweed meals are also sometimes used to feed fish and shrimps in aquaculture. Thalassotherapy 4.22 Thalassotherapy (literally sea therapy) is an increasingly popular alternative health and beauty treatment that involves the use of seaweed pastes and gels. This is most developed in France, but has recently been taken up in Ireland (Kilcullen’s Seaweed Baths in Co. Sligo and Fameainn Cairn in Co. Mayo).
28
Safety and environmental concerns 4.23 Seaweeds are very effective absorbers of marine pollutants, and concerns over environmental pollution have considerable implications for the commercial harvesting of Scottish wild plants for food, fodder and medicinal purposes, as well as for mulches and fertilisers. There is some concern about the contamination of seaweeds on the West coast of Scotland (at least in the southern part of the country) with radioactive isotopes from the Sellafield power station. For example, several seaweed species act as bioaccumulators of heavy metals, and Fucus vesiculosus (bladder wrack) growing off Islay has been found to be contaminated with Technetium 99. Although this species is not generally eaten, it is used in the production of slimming treatments outside Scotland, and is still widely used on a noncommercial basis as a fertiliser in the country. The heavy metals accumulated by the seaweed can thus be passed into foodstuffs; particularly species such as spinach that have a tendency to accumulate these metals (MAFF & SEPA, 1997). 4.24 Aquaculture of marine algae is thought to have a significant effect on the ecosystems surrounding the farms, primarily because of the increased detritus, cover and surface area41 that the seaweeds provide when cultured en masse. In addition, the seaweeds are cultured in areas of the water column where they could not usually grow. The fact that many of the seaweed farms are in sheltered fjords and inlets also means that currents to remove the excess nutrients are weak, exacerbating the problem. In addition, some of the artefacts of plantation schemes (such as anchors for the growing nets) are slow to degrade and may remain in the cultivation areas for many years. Sustainable harvesting 4.25 The seaweed species that has undergone the most in-depth harvesting evaluations in the British Isles is Ascophylum nodosum. Tyler (1994) examined the effects of Ascophyllum harvesting in the Outer Hebrides. This limited study found almost complete recovery of the species and its associated ecosystem within five to six years. However, if Ascophyllum is cropped to approximately 20cm it should be harvestable again after 3 years. Carrageen (Chondrus) can recover from severe harvesting (close cropping) after 18 months, although this is affected by the timing of the harvest. Management guidelines for Ascophyllum and Chondrus harvesting are given by the ERT report (Minch Project, 1995). OPPORTUNITIES IN SCOTLAND Recent reviews 4.26 Because of its historical and potential significance, the Scottish seaweed industry has been the subject of several studies over the last few years: Orkney 4.27 Johnston (1985)42 published a paper on the seaweed potential of Orkney waters. The study concluded that there was a significant but underexploited resource, and recommended the following:
41 42
For parasites, diseases and competitive epiphytes and animals living on and among the plants. Professor Cliff Johnston is now the Director of the Orkney Seaweed Company.
29
•
Development of a harvesting strategy within the context of a broader inshore resource management plan (addressing, for example, seaweed/lobster interdependence).
•
An appraisal of the market for all products from the resource.
•
Processing and marketing requirements of an island-based industry (including site processing of wet seaweed, development of a broad range of products, and integrated marketing of a total marine ‘package’.
The Western Isles 4.28 In 1994 Environment & Resource Technology Ltd undertook an evaluation of the littoral seaweed resource and its management in the Western Isles for the Minch Project. The study reached the following conclusions: •
The estimated total standing crop of Ascophyllum for the Western Isles was 107,552 tonnes, with a maximum annual harvest43 of 37,000 tonnes (wet).
•
Harvesting of Ascophyllum should follow sustainability guidelines, but there was insufficient ecological information available to evaluate its impact on non-target species and to develop comprehensive management plans.
•
Porphyra and carrageen (Chondrus and Mastocarpus), although widely distributed, were insufficiently abundant to merit anything but very small-scale harvesting.
•
At the time (when Kelco were still shipping wet Ascophyllum weed from the islands), around 50-60 people gained some revenue from seaweed, and 20-25 individuals were employed on a regular basis in the industry, bringing in a total income of around £270-450,000.
•
At the time, the most significant market was for alginate production. However an appropriate strategy would incorporate diversification into other markets for seaweed products (i.e. low-volume high-value products such as cosmetics and health/novelty foods), as well as re-examination of ways to add value to the seaweed supplied to the alginate industry.
4.29 The most recent study in the Western Isles was undertaken by IMES (UK) in 1998-99 (Comhairle nan Eilean Siar, 1999). This followed the decision of Nutrasweet Kelco to cease purchasing Ascophyllum weed, and thus addresses a situation similar to that which exists today. The main findings of the report can be summarised as follows:
43
•
The strengths of the Western Isles in the context of the seaweed included: a substantial Ascophyllum resource, a long involvement with harvesting of the resource, strong local will to develop the industry, support from HIE and WIE, and the ‘clean green’ image associated with the Western Isles environment.
•
The weaknesses included: the limited diversity of the resource (one viable species), lack of mechanisation and processing facilities, weak management/marketing skills, relative difficulty and cost of transport, and longterm dependency on a single company.
Based on a minimum three-year regeneration period.
30
•
The opportunities included: introduction of state-of-the-art technology and development of non-alginate markets.
•
The threats included: falling demand from European alginate producers, competition in the alginate industry from China, damage to the seaweed resource (pollution or disease) and further vertical integration of seaweed suppliers and users.44
•
The market for Ascophyllum is largely confined to Europe. Seventy percent of the world’s seaweed consumption is for food, for which Ascophyllum is unsuitable.
•
There is no market for wet seaweed.
•
The largest market for Western Isles seaweed remains Nutrasweet Kelco (now ISP Alginates). The only way that this market could be reactivated is by bringing the cost of dried seaweed from the Western Isles below that of competing sources. This would require mechanised harvesting and local value-addition (e.g. by hotwashing seaweed to remove polyphenols).
•
Other Ascophyllum uses would not support significant harvesting/drying activity by themselves, although they could constitute useful add-on markets. These include the fertiliser, animal feed and cosmetics industries.
•
Of these, the fertiliser industry offers greatest potential, largely focusing on the organic sector. Given that the largest seaweed fertiliser manufacturer in the UK is bound to a Norwegian supplier (see above), it may be more viable to manufacture and market a branded product range on the Western Isles rather than sell dried meal to manufacturers. This, however, would require substantial investment, and would account for only limited volumes of seaweed.
•
The role of seaweed in animal feed has been in decline in Europe, and although some growth is anticipated, this would require a major marketing investment.
•
The cosmetics industry uses small volumes but commands high prices. Most cosmetics are concentrated in France, where local supplies are more than adequate.
•
Development of edible seaweeds in the Western Isles is only likely to be viable at the ‘cottage industry’ level, and overall economic value would not be great. The ‘clean green’ image of the Western Isles would be beneficial in marketing seaweed food products.
Conclusions 4.30 Although the results of the studies presented above are reasonably consistent, a few of the conclusions are questionable. Principal among these is the premise in the IMES report that the largest market for Western Isles seaweed remains Nutrasweet Kelco (ISP Alginates). Richard Searle (ISP Alginates) maintains that it is highly unlikely that they will ever buy again from the Western Isles on anything like the scale they were buying in the past, and that it would be inappropriate to attempt to rejuvenate the industry with this end in mind. Although they might potentially purchase dried seaweed from a new plant were it to be
44
Maxicrop International, for example, the leading manufacturer of seaweed fertiliser in the UK, was recently bought by the company that owns Froytang, a Norwegian seaweed harvester, and is now exclusively bound to it as a supplier.
31
established, any future large-scale development should be directed towards other products (e.g. animal feeds, fertilisers and medical products). 4.31 The burgeoning business of organic food production provides a growing market for seaweed-based fertilisers and feeds. Likewise there is a significant demand for seaweedbased products in the health industry (e.g. cervical dilators, slimming products and calcium alginate dressings). These products have a greater requirement for high-quality seaweed supplies, which are not currently available from the Chinese suppliers that are now winning much of the international seaweed market. However there are already many companies catering to these markets in Europe. It is unlikely that a new seaweed drying facility in the Western Isles, which would require substantial capital investment, would be able to compete successfully simply as a supplier of seaweed meal to such businesses. It is therefore necessary to consider the opportunities for local value-addition. Maximum value-addition would involve taking the raw material through to the final product, for which in-depth market research and effective marketing strategies would be absolutely essential. 4.32 The seaweed industry is highly competitive, and with emerging overseas supplies it is becoming increasingly so. As discussed above, the potential market for Scottish seaweeds is shifting from low-quality high-quantity (basic raw material) production to higher-quality products. This requires that seaweed is dried relatively soon after removal from the sea, to minimise bacterial decomposition. The distance which seaweed can be transported to the drying plant is governed partly by economic realities but also by logistical factors. The broken geography and limited transportation systems of Scotland’s West Coast and islands are a negative factor in the industry’s ability to compete for the large-scale seaweed market (e.g. with Ireland). There is also a growing necessity for installation of systems of quality assessment and batch traceability (L. MacKenzie, WIE, pers. comm.). 4.33 Analyses of the seaweed industry in Scotland have tended to focus on the potential for large-scale industrial development. Given the scale of the resource and the need for employment and income-generating opportunities in this part of Scotland, it is understandable that this has been the case. However, there are a number of successful small businesses in Scotland using seaweed resources (e.g. Diana Drummond Cosmetics), as well as emerging new businesses (e.g. the Orkney Seaweed Company), and the potential of such enterprises to generate small-scale employment and income in the context of a rural/ crofting economy should not be overlooked. Such businesses are well placed to cater to the low-volume highvalue end of the market such as seaweed-based cosmetic and beauty products, alternative health products, and health foods.
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CHAPTER 5
CRAFTS
CURRENT STATUS IN SCOTLAND Basketry
5.1
Scottish basket making is a thriving craft in Scotland, and a number of individuals are making a living from it. Scottish basket makers can be divided in two groups: those making traditional baskets and those experimenting with new materials and designs. Amongst traditional basket makers the dominant plant material used in Scotland is willow. There is no commercial willow growing in Scotland at present, although some people grow their own, and much of the material used comes from Somerset. Three native Scottish willow species are used: Salix purpurea (which produces fine, flexible, long shoots in various colours of purple, blue, green and red), Salix viminalis (a fast, stout growing species, used for structures, hurdles and rough work, but not for basketry) and Salix alba (thick shoots). Several varieties exist within each species. The willow shoots are cut every year in the winter. Alasdair Davidson (Arran), Graham Glanville (Wigtownshire) and Trevor Leat (Castle Douglas) are examples of basketmakers making traditional willow baskets. Willow is also used for making fences, garden items, sculptures, hurdles, etc.
5.2
Another material used for basketry is hazel. This is mainly used for large objects and hurdles. On Orkney and Shetland several basket makers (Laurence Copland, Jackie Miller, and Jimmy Work) still make the traditional straw kishies or cubbies and other baskets from oat straw45. Orkney chairs are also made there from oat straw. Jimmy Work occasionally uses marram grass for basketry, cutting it in late summer. Kay Anderson (Angus) and Caroline Dear (Skye) make rush baskets (plaited and coiled). Juncus effusus is the most commonly used species, harvested in August-September. 5.3 Several experimental basket makers now use 'hedgerow' materials including ash, rowan, honeysuckle, crab apple, birch, dogwood, elm, bog myrtle, larch, lime, sycamore, brambles, raspberry, etc. These materials are usually combined with willow and often have a decorative function by creating different colours. Hedgerow material must be cut in winter; otherwise it oxidises black. Anna King (Edinburgh) makes fine coiled baskets using pine needles and bog myrtle. Some people are experimenting with birch bark, a material traditionally used in Scandinavia. The bark is peeled in spring and the outer bark is removed. The remaining inner bark has a leathery texture and a golden brown colour. Other unusual materials used include iris leaves (coiled baskets), birch and spruce roots (woven fresh, split), docken (traditionally used for kishies), sea-pink (used fresh for coiled baskets) and grasses (dried and soaked, used for plaiting, rope and coiled baskets).
45
This is not a native species. The best oat varieties for chair and basket-making are the traditional long-stalked cultivars. These have almost disappeared in Britain (although they have survived in Orkney), having been replaced by modern short-stalked varieties.
33
Willow supplies46 The demand for willow baskets and hurdles in Scotland is growing each year, the majority of raw willow supplies used by Scottish basket makers being imported from Somerset (over 90%), and the majority of baskets sold (more than 80%) imported from countries such as Taiwan and E. Europe where the labour costs are low. There are maybe 7-8 full-time basket makers in Scotland, and a further 10-15 who are serious part-timers. Four of these also make hurdles. There are over 100 members in the Scottish Basket Makers Association. Willow is sold in bolts (bundles), a typical bolt costing between £24 and £30 (including VAT). A full time basket maker can get through maybe 40 bolts a year, equivalent to c. £1000 worth of willow. One acre of willow (with the plants spaced in rows 2-3 feet apart, with 1.5 feet between the cuttings) takes around 3 years to establish properly, and then can be cropped every year. Each year, one acre can produce ca. 330 bolts of common osier (not a native), 130 bolts of purple willow or 200 bolts of Salix triandra. One problem identified in the study is that very few Scottish basket makers can produce high quality cheap baskets at speed. Most tend to be involved in a range of activities related to basketry, including teaching and art. One area of willow use that is becoming increasingly lucrative is specialist willow garden structures and hurdles, and many basket makers are diversifying into this. Basket making courses are also very popular with tourists who like to ‘do something traditional in a West Coast setting’. This is an indirect economic factor that should be considered. There is scope for increased willow planting in Scotland, but it has to be of good quality, grown in large quantities, and cheap. However, a more in-depth study of basket imports and production potential in Scotland is needed to ascertain the viability of any business considering growing willow commercially.
5.4
There are a number of ongoing or recently completed projects focusing on the role of willow in basketry and associated crafts in Scotland. Jane Wilkinson and Andrew Vedmore are currently undertaking a project, funded by the Millennium Forest for Scotland, looking at the potential for propagation of willow for basketry, hurdle weaving and chair building. They are mapping willow beds with satellite technology (GIS), identifying appropriate management techniques and assessing the value of willow in riparian woodland situations especially grazed riverside pastures. Another project funded by MFS is Keith Wintrup’s willow propagation project in the Borders, which includes establishment of a willow nursery and a living willow collection at Wooplaw Community Wood for use in basket making and woodland craft courses, and for woodland restoration and enhancement projects. MFS is also funding a project in Fife establishing an organically run willow bed incorporating a range of species including smaller basket-making hybrids and fast-growing willow suitable for craftwork such as furniture-making. Dyeing 5.5 The most recent analysis of the native plant dyeing industry in Scotland was carried out by MacIntyre (1999) in association with the Flora Celtica initiative. Although at times in the past the use of native plants in dyeing has been economically significant in Scotland (primarily in the Harris Tweed industry),47 this is no longer the case. Nevertheless, there are a number of dyers around the country producing native-dyed yarns and garments on a smallscale commercial basis, sometimes trading under company names such as Shilasdair (Skye) 46 47
Information provided by Jane Wilkinson. The most important and well-known dye plants used in this industry are the crotal (Parmelia) lichens.
34
and Backaboot (Shetland). These dyers use a wide range of native plants including traditional lichen dyes and recently developed fungal dyes, sometimes in combination with non-native species such as madder and woad. Most Scottish dyers use native plants for less than 50% of their dyeing requirements.
5.6
MacIntyre interviewed 20 individuals who dyed on a commercial basis (or had done so in the past), but to many of these it was little more than a hobby or semi-professional activity. Several stated that they did not obtain an adequate return from the effort invested in the production of the items that they sold, and that to price them realistically would make them excessively costly. 5.7 A great range of species can be and is used in dyeing. Many of the individuals interviewed by MacIntyre expressed concern over the effects on plant populations, and maintained that in general they tried to use weedy or very common species such as ragwort, nettles, broad-leaved dock and heather. Thatching 5.8 There are a few professional thatchers still operating in Scotland. These include John Warner Brandon (Skye), Jeremy Cox (Castle Douglas), Duncan Matheson (Kyle of Lochalsh), Brian Wilson (Wildland Services, Ullapool) and Adam Cooper (Laurencekirk). Most commercial thatching is done with the common reed (Phragmites australis), which is traditionally secured with hazel staples and hazel/broom spars. Reed is mainly supplied by the Tayreed Company, although some thatchers use local supplies. 5.9 The Tayreed Company has been harvesting reeds from the Tay for about 27 years, the market being almost exclusively for thatchers. Each year, between December and April, Tayreed harvests 400 acres of the 2000 available hectares growing on the Tay. Some of these areas are Crown property or privately owned, and royalties are paid to the landowners. Tayreed is the biggest reed producer in Britain and employs 4 full-time staff, with a further 2 temporary staff employed during the harvesting season. It operates a large mechanised Seiga cutter (maximum output of 2,000 bundles in a day), which is the only one of its type in Britain. The area harvested equates to 100,000 bundles which is approximately 15% of the total reed market in Britain (1 million bundles are sold in Britain each year, worth between £3-4 million). Competition comes mainly from Turkey and Hungary (where labour is cheaper), although there is also some reed harvested in Norfolk.48 Little of the harvested reed is sold in Scotland, the majority going to England and Wales. The market is apparently fairly stable, and Tayreed has no plans to expand as the area of harvestable reeds on the Tay is limited (expansion would also require a large investment in machinery). The business also collects seed, which is sent to England, propagated and then sold to companies constructing artificial reedbeds for water treatment. 5.10 Wetlands are important wildlife habitats, particularly for birds, and are subject to close scrutiny by conservation organisations. In-depth studies have therefore been made of the relationship between reedbed management and biodiversity conservation (e.g. Hawkes &
48
There is currently some concern in the UK reed market over nitrate pollution in rivers and wetlands (from agricultural runoff). This can result in thinner, weaker reeds, which are less suitable for thatch (I. Davies, Highland Birchwoods, pers. comm.).
35
José, 1995).49 For thatching purposes a short rotation of one to two years (‘single or double swale’) is the most effective management technique, whereas for wildlife encouragement longer rotations are generally (but not exclusively desirable). In practice it is a case of finding compromises between the two.50
5.11 Although there is some specialist thatching with other materials in Scotland (e.g. heather, bracken, marram grass, rushes, broom, moorland turf) this tends to be mainly for visitor centres or local museums, film sets, grant-aided renovations etc. Most heather in Scotland is unsuitable for thatching, having been burned or grazed too short to be of use, and this can present problems for thatchers. Wildland Services, for example, a company based in Ullapool specialising in traditional building techniques, has found it necessary to buy in heather from Yorkshire to thatch houses in the Outer Hebrides. The scarcity of suitable supplies is aggravated by the fact that some of the areas where good heather does grow are protected for environmental reasons, and are therefore inaccessible.51 The need to scour the country raises the cost of transporting the heather to the thatching site, and hence its price. Nevertheless the demand for heather thatch has doubled over the last 2-3 years. Although there may be scope for deliberate management of areas of heather moorland for thatching heather (i.e. removal from the burning regime and exclusion of sheep and deer), the scattered nature of thatching jobs would mean that long-distance transportation of the raw material would still be necessary (B. Wilson, pers. comm.). Jewellery 5.12 The only business of significant size making jewellery products from native plants is Heather Gems (Pitlochry), which uses dyed compressed heather stems set in resin to produce a broad range of jewellery products.52 The heather (Calluna vulgaris) is collected in the Perthshire hills. This company made heather and beech floor tiles after the Second World War, but stopped because it was not economically viable. There are a few other small businesses producing ‘jewellery’ with native Scottish plants on a very small scale, e.g. Ocean Gems (Orkney) who use dried tangle (Laminaria) stems to make necklaces.
49
This is an excellent in-depth study covering the whole of the UK, and provides a model for similar detailed analyses of the relationship between habitat/resource management and biodiversity. 50 English Nature are currently developing a pilot scheme in Somerset planting reed and sedge (saw sedge) beds on a worked-out peat extraction site to provide a valuable wetland habitat for wildlife and a commercial source of thatching materials. 51 The company has also found difficulty identifying supplies of marram grass, partly due to concerns over damage to dunes and resulting erosion. However, careful harvesting of marram grass with scythes actually promotes growth and strengthens the root system (B. Wilson, pers. comm.). 52 Heathergems’ turnover is approximately £400,000/year, of which 20% comes from export sales – primarily to the USA, Canada and Australia (S. Buyers, pers. comm.).
36
OPPORTUNITIES IN SCOTLAND •
There is a public re-awakening of interest in crafts involving native plants such as basketry and dyeing.
•
The majority of the consumption of native plant materials for crafts in Scotland is for domestic use or small businesses (cottage industries). This is not significant in economic terms but involves reasonably large numbers of people (particularly in rural areas).
•
It is unlikely that any of these businesses will expand to become significant industries. This is partly because they are labour-intensive and extremely hard to run economically when competing with lower labour costs overseas. However, there remains a specialist market for ‘traditional’ products of particular interest to tourists.
•
There may be economic opportunities in providing native plant materials to service the domestic (hobby) market, e.g. with basketry, dried dye plants, etc. Some of these products may also have appeal to the tourist trade.
•
There may also be scope for the development of native plants for dye products on an industrial scale (i.e. cultivation or management of wild resources).53 Several species (e.g. yellow iris) have played this role in Scotland in the past (in the Harris Tweed industry) but have not yet been cultivated for this purpose.
53
This is an area that has been highlighted in the context of farm diversification and novel non-food crops in Europe (IENICA, 1999). Part of the demand for natural dyes has been created by increasing concerns about artificial chemical additives in the food industry.
37
CHAPTER 6
ENVIRONMENTAL USES
CURRENT STATUS IN SCOTLAND 6.1 Native plants are exploited for a range of environmental roles in Scotland. Some of these provide indirect benefits to the economy, e.g. by shaping the landscape that plays such a fundamental role in the Scottish tourist industry. Another widespread and economically important indirect use is the management of heather moorland for grouse. However, there are a number of more direct commercial means by which native plants are deliberately used to manipulate the environment. Native tree production 6.2 With the increase in Scottish grant-aided plantings of native species in recent years, and the increased importance placed on using local-provenance seed in new plantings, there has been a growing demand for native tree seedlings. Several tree nurseries in Scotland now specialise in sales of known provenance native trees; according to a survey of native tree nurseries conducted by Reforesting Scotland (Reforesting Scotland, 1999), there are currently over 30 such businesses in Scotland. There is considerable variation in size: 4 of the 30 surveyed had an output of greater than 100,000 trees (seedlings), 12 of between 10,000 and 100,000 and 11 of between 1,000 and 10,000. The remainder had an output of fewer than 1,000 seedlings. 6.3 The provision of wild-collected seed to tree nurseries provides modest employment opportunities in Scotland. Seed collecting is a seasonal activity with the majority of seed collected between September and March, although Scots pine seed can be taken as late as May. At the bigger tree nurseries producing over 1 million trees/year, as much as £100,000 may be spent annually on seeds. These are gathered primarily by self-employed seed collectors, although the nurseries’ own staff are also involved in seed collecting on a seasonal basis. According to Alba Trees, one of the biggest tree nurseries in Scotland,54 grant-aid has been important in fuelling new planting,55 but there have been periods in which the grant system has stalled with applications being unduly delayed. This has had repercussions for tree nurseries and seed collectors. A few years ago it was apparently hard to find enough local-provenance seed for planting, but now in certain regions in Scotland supply exceeds demand. 6.4 A self-employed seasonal seed collector based in Perthshire estimated that there are about 6 ‘serious’ seasonal seed collectors in Scotland who derive a significant part of their income from the business, with a further 20 who work for perhaps 1-2 months/year - often sub-contracted (J. Gardner, pers. comm.). She emphasised that it is an unstable means of making a living as seed quantities and demand vary from year to year. Certain conservation organisations (e.g. RSPB) use volunteers to collect seed for their own plantings, undermining the market for professional collectors. There is also very little price elasticity for seed. In years when there is good crop everybody wants to collect, driving prices down, whilst in poor years prices do not increase significantly, making seed collecting unprofitable. 54
Alba Trees produces 6.5 million trees/year of which 80% are native to Scotland and 60% are from seed collected in Scotland. 55 In the last year 0.5 million Scots pines and 400,000 broadleaves were planted in Southern Scotland, and 900,000 Scots pines and 115,000 broadleaves in Northern Scotland.
38
Seed Prices (Autumn 2000), paid by Maelor Nurseries to collectors Field Maple
£8/kg
Rowan
£1.20/kg
Sycamore
£4.25/kg
Guelder rose
£1.80/kg
Alder
£9.50/kg (cones)
Silver birch
£100/kg
Hazel
£6/kg
Sessile oak
£4/kg
Hawthorn
£2.25/kg
Dogrose (hips)
Ash
£4/kg
Blackthorn
£1.50/kg £2.25/kg (fruit)
6.5 The Forestry Commission collects approximately 75% of all seed gathered in Scotland, the rest coming from the private sector. All Forestry Commission seed is contractcollected, and on average each year they will buy 2 tonnes of acorns, 50kg of Scots pine, 40kg of birch, 500kg of rowan and 200kg of ash. Several other species are collected but these are relatively insignificant. In terms of people employed, John Morgan (Forestry Commission) estimated that it would take 10 people 3 months to collect the pine, 3 people 1 month to collect the birch, one person 2-3 weeks to collect the rowan and 2 people 1 month to collect the ash. He estimates that although a small number of people (
