Czech and English Dictionaries of Collocations - Masaryk University

5 downloads 137 Views 1MB Size Report
8.7 Macmillan Collocations Dictionary for Learners of English . ... predecessors, i.e. The Oxford Collocations Dictionary (2009) and The Macmillan. Collocations ...
Masaryk University Faculty of Arts

Department of English and American Studies English Language and Literature

Lucie Koumalová

Czech and English Dictionaries of Collocations Master‟s Diploma Thesis

Supervisor: PhDr. Jarmila Fictumová

2011

I declare that I have worked on this thesis independently, using only the primary and secondary sources listed in the bibliography. ……………………………………………..

Author‟s signature

Acknowledgement I would like to thank to my supervisor PhDr. Jarmila Fictumová for the advice she gave me.

“You shall know a word by the company it keeps” (Firth)

Table of Contents INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................... 1 1 THE IMPORTANCE OF CREATING A DICTIONARY OF COLLOCATIONS ..................................................................................................... 3 2 HOW TO JUDGE INDIVIDUAL DICTIONARIES ................................................ 6 3 CHUNKS ....................................................................................................................... 8 3.1 Collocations ............................................................................................................. 9 3.1.1 Distinction of Collocations ............................................................................. 11 3.1.2 Function of Collocations ................................................................................ 15 3.1.3 Special Terms ................................................................................................. 16 3.2 Phrase and Idiom ................................................................................................... 17 3.3 Phraseology ........................................................................................................... 18 3.4 Slovník české frazeologie a idiomatiky ................................................................. 19 3.4.1 Slovník české frazeologie a idiomatiky 1 ....................................................... 24 3.4.2 Slovník české frazeologie a idiomatiky 2 ....................................................... 25 3.4.3 Slovník české frazeologie a idiomatiky 3 ....................................................... 27 3.4.4 Slovník české frazeologie a idiomatiky 4 ....................................................... 27 3.5 Phrasal Verbs ......................................................................................................... 29 3.6 Risks of Translating Collocations.......................................................................... 29 4 HOW TO ARRANGE COLLOCATIONS IN A DICTIONARY .......................... 31 4.1 Which Collocations to Include .............................................................................. 34 5 OTHER PEOPLE’S RESEARCH ABOUT THE IMPORTANCE OF COLLOCATIONS DICTIONARIES..................................................................... 39 6 THE DEVELOPMENT OF COLLOCATIONS OVER TIME ............................. 42 6.1 Collecting Data Then and Now ............................................................................. 44 7 COMPUTATION OF COLLOCATIONS ............................................................... 46 7.1 The COBUILD Project .......................................................................................... 48 8 VARIOUS DICTIONARIES OF COLLOCATIONS ............................................. 50 8.1 Znáte anglická slovesa? ......................................................................................... 50 8.2 Znáte anglická přídavná jména? ............................................................................ 52 8.3 Czech-English Combinatory Dictionary: Noun and Verb ..................................... 54 8.4 The BBI Combinatory Dictionary of English........................................................ 57 8.5 LTP Dictionary of Selected Collocations .............................................................. 60 8.6 Oxford Collocations Dictionary ............................................................................ 64 8.7 Macmillan Collocations Dictionary for Learners of English ................................ 68 CONCLUSION .................................................................................................................. 71 BIBLIOGRAPHY .............................................................................................................. 75 APPENDICES ................................................................................................................... 80

INTRODUCTION Over the years, English has become a worldwide language. Millions of people study English as a foreign language in order to be able to communicate when they travel abroad, in order to do business with other countries or just to be able to watch films in original sound. England was the centre of Christian learning in history and had to create a way of teaching monks and priests to become new effective teachers. As Latin was the official language of learning, there was a need for creating dictionaries. English lexicographers started writing dictionaries as early as 700 AD and became experts in lexicography. (Ilson, 1986) As a result, nowadays, there are a number of good English dictionaries. People who, for various reasons, want to study English are in need of a dictionary. The most efficient way of learning a foreign language, according to linguists, lexicographers and teachers, is learning chunks of language rather than individual words. A term related to the vague word “chunks” is collocations. The latter statement may prop upon Firth‟s statement that “meaning of individual words is established through their collocability with other words and is very much linked to their functional values.” (in Barfield, Gyllstad, 2009: 3) Native speakers and second language adult learners cope with language learning in different ways. Whereas native speakers face collocations from childhood, second language learners must face the challenge of putting the right words together without actually knowing the correct pairs. (Barfield & Gyllstad, 2009) To make the learners‟ life easier there were several attempts to 1

include collocations in monolingual and bilingual dictionaries; and what is more important for this thesis, dictionaries of collocations have been published. In this thesis existing collocations dictionaries are presented and the aim is to describe their development throughout the period of time. My hypothesis is that the latest dictionary should be the best as its authors and editors have had the advantage of learning from the mistakes of their predecessors, i.e. The Oxford Collocations Dictionary (2009) and The Macmillan

Collocations Dictionary (2010) have eliminated all flaws and are the best from the point of user-friendliness, comprehensibility and informativeness.

2

1

THE IMPORTANCE OF CREATING A DICTIONARY OF COLLOCATIONS

The English language is full of collocations and students who want to sound natural when speaking English have to use them. Using wrong collocations does not mean that the speaker will not be understood, but the listener will have to concentrate hard on the speech and this already creates some communication problems. When the speaker chooses to use the correct collocation, their utterance will be better understood and will contain lots of information in a shorter context. (McIntosh, Francis & Poole, 2009) Handl emphasizes the fact that learners of English as a second language are not exposed to the linguistic inputso they need to acquire the knowledge either from textbooks, teachers, or dictionaries. (in Barfield & Gyllstad, 2009) Many general dictionaries, either monolingual or bilingual, offer learners help with understanding a text but as soon as it comes to creating a text, their capacity is not sufficient. Collocations dictionary can provide learners with suitable word combinations they will need for spoken or written communication. (McIntosh et al., 2009) In recent times many researchers have realized that collocations create an important part of the language and therefore must be included in teaching approaches. Thanks to this fact there can be seen some changes in the creation of study materials and textbooks. (Barfield & Gyllstad, 2009) Up to a few decades ago English textbooks presented individual vocabulary as the most essential part of language. Although there were various exercises for practicing it, there was no emphasis on using the words together with their natural partner. Collocations were in many cases overlooked as Coady and Huckin mentioned: “A key element of most language courses, other highly frequent 3

patterns – which is precisely what collocations are – have usually been ignored or at best been seen as marginal to courses.” (in Barfield & Gyllstad, 2009: 103/104) Willis says that “many learners are not consciously aware of collocation, or of the importance of fixed phrases.” (in Barfield & Gyllstad 2009: 14) Linguists think that this should be changed and learners‟ knowledge on existing materials and consequently on collocations themselves must be improved. (Barfield & Gyllstad, 2009) According to Michael Rundell, “identifying suitable collocations and understanding collocation restrictions is one of the most important productive needs of learners.” (in Barfield & Gyllstad, 2009: 11) Rundell claims in

Macmillan Collocations Dictionary for Learners of English (MCD) that collocations are “as important as grammar because they are a central feature of language”; they contribute to better understanding as they create context for what is said. (Rundell & Fox, 2010) Sánchez in her book From Words to Lexical Units draws attention to the fact that many words and sets of words are ambiguous. When a word or a set is put into a sentence, it loses its ambiguity. Thus she argues that context is very important for judging which of the existing meanings we want to use. Actually, she does not agree with the claim that meaning is dependent on context, she says it is a part of it. Dictionary creators are aware of this fact and use new computation technologies which allow them to recognize the wanted meaning easily and faster. Miller includes facts from a study in which it was revealed that “121 nouns in English have 7.8 meanings each on average”. (Sánchez, 2006) 4

It is necessary to raise learners‟ awareness of collocations when they want to learn the language and in order to be able to do so, there must be suitable materials available. (Barfield & Gyllstad, 2009) According to Lewis‟s work on learners and teachers‟ approaches to the study of collocations, these materials have already entered the market. For example McCarthy and O‟Dell, English

Collocations in Use, 2005. (Barfield & Gyllstad, 2009) Let‟s not only talk about improving textbooks but let‟s see how collocations dictionaries can be essential for the educational process. Students need to be able to get hold of a dictionary which will be well-organizedso they can find the information they are searching, which creates the need for dictionaries of collocations. A dictionary approach towards “multiword units”, as Čermák describes collocations, suggests that the big general students‟ dictionaries are not consistent in dealing with collocations. Some dictionaries list them under the chosen lemma and anothers list them separately at the end of the dictionary entry. It results in students not being able to find multiword units easily, in some cases at all. (Čermák, n.d.) Moreover, there are certain boundaries which do not allow lexicographers to include all existing collocations in a printed dictionary, but a dictionary concentrating only on this specific field of collocations will provide much more information than an ordinary contemporary dictionary. (Barfield & Gyllstad, 2009)

5

2

HOW TO JUDGE INDIVIDUAL DICTIONARIES

As there are many kinds of dictionaries of which some are devoted to collocations, it is really hard to find one approach according to which lexicographers should proceed when compiling dictionaries or an approach to judge them. Čermák says that one of the problems of dictionaries is that some approaches struggle to give clear labels to different kinds of multiword units. It would be much easier if all lexicographers used the same definitions, such as: “phrasal verbs are said to be a class of words which behave as single units”, “idioms are said to have an unpredictable meaning”, and “collocations with nouns are simply labeled as compounds.” (Čermák, n.d.) Another problem is seen in including collocations in large general dictionaries. They are not adjusted to provide full information. Some dictionaries state that the noun attention collocates with the verb pay but fail to mention that it also collocates with give; some do not have enough space to provide illustrative sentences. Even the specialized collocations dictionary The

BBI Combinatory Dictionary of English does not make the usage and meaning of collocations clear to students, according to Čermák. (Čermák, n.d.) Authors of dictionaries would like to create such a work which would give exhaustive information on topic needed but it is not possible as there is limited space. (Mugglestone, 2000) Lexicographers must also face the problem with stableness, typicality, potentiality and regularity of collocation occurrence. Basically, lexicographers must decide which multiword units are stable and fixed combinations, which occur in normal – typical – conversation or in special contexts only, and they 6

have to decide which combinations occur in speech regularly. Once they make a decision, the combinations will be set in a dictionary. Čermák (n.d.) suggested that dictionaries should include a more balanced selection of multiword units according to the size and type of a dictionary. “Not everybody who will search a dictionary for certain information will need all information provided there but they will want to find what they are looking for” (Mugglestone, 2000: 10)so there should be some way for the learners to distinguish between dictionaries, although there is not an official framework for them. In that case, learners have to find their own ways to judge a dictionary and need to get the possibility of consulting other, bigger dictionaries in case they do not find the information in the previous one which was small in its content. (Mugglestone, 2000)

7

3

CHUNKS

Recently I have come across a general expression describing difficult multiword units which cause problems to foreign speakers of English and create a great challenge for teachers to distinguish between them and teach them. The word is chunks. A dictionary definition from a Longman Dictionary Online says this: “Chunk is a large part or amount of something.” (http://www.ldoceonline.com/, April, 2011) Also Nadja Nesselhauf uses this word in her research. I find this word descriptive enough for students of English who do not need to understand explicitly what kind of multiword units or word combinations they learn as long as they know the correct usage and their speech sounds natural; but for the purpose of this thesis chunks will be described in more detail. Sánchez (2006) calls any meaningful chunk of words “idiomatic patterning” which occurs wherever a group of words share the same semantic features but when the words are taken out of the group, they lose the meaning. Idiomatic patterning varies from free collocations to pure idioms. (p. 24) Hunston and Francis define a pattern as “a phraseology frequently associated with a word, particularly in terms of prepositions, groups and clauses that follow the word.” (in Sánchez, 2006: 24) When Čermák (n.d.) talked about chunks he used the word collocations. It is also a very general word because there are many kinds of such collocations, words which belong together. Linguists distinguish between phrase, idiom, phrasal verb, preposition verb, and collocation. Although theories on the distinction of collocations from other types of combinations have been developed, it is still quite challenging to find a clear line between them. 8

(Nesselhauf, 2005) In the following part the differences between the mentioned chunks of speech are discussed. 3.1

Collocations

The expression „collocation‟ entered linguistics in the 1930‟s with J. R. Firth and was further elaborated by other linguists: J. Sinclair, M. A. K. Halliday, or F. Čermák, among others. “Collocation” is defined differently by each linguist. (Čermák & Šulc, 2006) English linguists are divided into two groups, according to which approach to collocations they represent. There is a “frequency tradition” and “phraseological tradition”. Basically, in the “frequency tradition” collocations are evaluated and studied from the point of view which is based on computerized corpora and a lot of attention is paid to the frequency of their occurrence. The “phraseological tradition” treats collocation as a word combination which can occur in various degrees of fixedness. This tradition emphasizes different kinds of collocations and takes them out of context. The first studies of the phraseological type were undertaken in the early twentieth century by Bally in Geneva and Palmer in Tokyo. (Barfield & Gyllstad, 2009) Collocations are, according to the frequency based tradition, units which consist of words that frequently occur together. Firth said that collocations can be composed of a different number of words ranging from two up to fifteen. (Barfield & Gyllstad, 2009) Moon understands collocation as a “lexical realization of the situational context.” In other words, if we use a collocation roller skates, we immediately make associations connected to summer sports. (in Sánchez, 2006: 80) Moon 9

makes a point that collocations are “lexical evidence that words do not combine randomly but follow rules, principles, and real-world motivations.” (in Sánchez, 2006: 81) Sinclair reacted to this with his statement that things which occur together in a real world have tendency to be mentioned together in a text. (in Sánchez, 2006: 81) In reaction to Moon and Sinclair Bosque says that these images of reality are not relevant for linguistic purposes and it is not necessary to dwell on them. (in Sánchez, 2006: 81) Cowie defines collocations as two or more lexemes which co-occur in a specific grammatical construction. He also claims that one of the words from the combination has a figurative sense and has lost its usual meaning. (in Barfield, 2009: 6) Čermák (2006) sees collocation as “a combination of lexemes/words especially in multi-word units which are produced by their mutual collocability, thus compatibility.” He raises the question where to draw the line between collocation and a purposeful word combination. If we say that collocations are those combinations that co-occur very frequently, how do we recognize what the limitation for very frequent is? (Čermák & Šulc, 2006)

Oxford Collocations Dictionary defines collocations as follows: “Collocation is the way words combine in a language to produce natural-sounding speech and writing.” (McIntosh et al., 2009) The dictionary gives the following examples for better understanding: strong wind, heavy rain not heavy wind, strong rain. (McIntosh et al., 2009)

10

3.1.1 Distinction of Collocations According to Firth there are different types of collocations such as technical, unique and a-normal collocations, but he did not define them any further. (in Barfield & Gyllstad, 2009) Benson (in Barfield & Gyllstad) who represents the phraseological tradition in contrast to frequency-based tradition distinguished between grammatical and lexical collocations. There is one dominant word (noun, adjective or verb) in grammatical collocation that is combined with a preposition or grammatical structure. Lexical collocations are word combinations that consist of nouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs only and do not have any function words. (2009: 6/7) Further he describes them on examples in the BBI

Combinatory dictionary of English (BBI) and says that grammatical collocations are those with prepositions e.g. admiration for, amazed at, by accident; or those with grammatical constructions: eager to do something, to want to do

something. The examples which he states for lexical collocations are as follows: to override a veto, a dog barks, a herd of cattle. (M. Benson, E. Benson & Ilson, 1993) On the other hand, Handl puts collocations into three categories: lexical, semantic, and syntactic. Lexical collocations can be classified according to the number of words each component collocates with. Some words can be found to collocate with more words but there are some that rarely make other collocations. The syntactic ones are called fixed expressions and they border with idioms. Semantic collocations are further divided into transparent and opaque. In transparent ones the meaning is literal and in opaque ones the meaning is highly idiomatic and cannot be recognized from the individual 11

words. According to statistics, the ratio between the frequency of word patterns and the frequency of individual words tells how strong the collocation is. (in Barfield & Gyllstad, 2009) Now, I would like to get back to Benson and his division as it is essential for this thesis. Benson (Benson et al., 1993) describes eight types of patterns of grammatical collocations: Noun + preposition e.g. blockade against. Noun + to + infinitive – these can be further divided into five subcategories: 1. It was a pleasure (a problem, a struggle) to do it. 2. They had the foresight (instructions, permission, and the right) to do it. 3. They felt a compulsion (an impulse, a need) to do it. 4. They made an attempt (an effort, a promise) to do it. 5. He was a fool (a genius, an idiot) to do it. Some nouns can be used with a verb form in –ing: it‟s a pleasure working here. The BBI does not include nouns which are followed by to in a sense of in order e.g. they sold their house (in order) to cut down on expenses; and do not include nouns that occur in phrases where to can be replaced with a relative clause; neither do they include combinations when an adjective precedes a noun. Noun + that clause e.g. we reached an agreement that she would represent us

in court. The dictionary does not include nouns + that clause if that can be replaced by

which.

12

Preposition + noun combination e.g. by accident, in advance, on somebody‟s

advice. Adjective + preposition e.g. angry at everyone, hungry for news In the dictionary it is stated in brackets that the word hungry cannot stand alone otherwise it would have a different, literal, meaning. Table 1 hungry hungry adj. 1. (cannot stand alone) ~ for (~ for news) (Benson et al., 1993) Predicate adjective + to + infinitive e.g. it was necessary to work, she is ready

to go. The whole structure is presented in the body of the dictionary so the learner, actually, does not need to know the grammar. Table 2 necessary necessary adj. 1. absolutely ~ 2. ~ for; to 3. ~ to + inf. (it is ~ to sleep) (Benson et al., 1993)

Let‟s have a closer look at lexical collocations according to The BBI. These do not normally contain prepositions, infinitives, or clauses but they consist of nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs. Lexical collocations are further divided into fixed and free collocations. Free collocations are those in which words do not repeatedly occur together, the elements are not bound together but make pairs with many other words. E.g. condemn can pair with murder, the

abduction, abortion, abuse of power etc. On the other hand, fixed collocations are such in which a word collocates specifically with their partner e.g. commit 13

murder is a fixed collocation because the verb commit does not pair with many other nouns which bear the meaning of a crime. (Benson et al., 1993) Lexical collocations are still divided into seven subgroups and create following patterns: Verb + noun/pronoun/prepositional phrase. They usually have a verb which denotes creation or activation and so they are called CA collocations. E.g. creation – come to an agreement, make an impression; activation – set an

alarm, fly a kite. There are words which fit both creation and activation categories: establish a principle (creation); apply a principle (activation). These collocations are not predictable and learners must consult a dictionary in order to use them correctly. Verb + noun. In which verb means eradication and/or nullification. They are called EN collocations. E.g. reject an appeal, left a blockade, break a code,

demolish a house, and annul a marriage. Adjective + noun e.g. strong tea, weak tea, a chronic alcoholic, a rough

estimate. Sometimes there are nouns used in the function of an adjective so we get a combination noun + noun. Noun + verb where the verb‟s names an action characteristic for the given noun e.g. alarms go off, bees buzz, bombs explode. Noun1 of noun 2. This collocation speaks about parts of a whole e.g. a colony

of bees, a herd of buffalo, and an article of clothing. Adverb + adjective e.g. deeply absorbed, hopelessly addicted. Verb + adverb e.g. affect deeply, apologize humbly. (Benson et al., 1993) 14

3.1.2 Function of Collocations Pawley and Syder emphasize that a large part of English lexicon consists of complex lexical items. Spoken and written language is made up of phraseological patterns which are important for being fluent in a language. The two authors studied a corpus and found out that the most frequent units there were collocations. They mention human brain when they want to speak in favour of collocations because the brain remembers collocations more easily than individual words. When learners remember collocations, reading a text will be much easier for them and as soon as they learn using them, they will sound more natural and will feel more confident about their language abilities. (in Nesselhauf, 2005) To support Pawley and Syder‟s idea, Čermák (2006) agrees that collocations are important in pedagogy when teachers can use textbooks based on collocations studies to help their students sound more natural. Moreover, he thinks that even translators can benefit from collocations in the same way; if they consult a dictionary in order to find the right natural-sounding collocation, their work will be done in a native-like manner. Of course, lexicographers benefit from collocations because they use them for creating new dictionaries. The last contribution of collocations, according to Čermák, is in literary studies when used collocations can be a measure of individual authors‟ identification. (Čermák & Šulc, 2006) Handl agrees that the main function of collocations is to make meaning disambiguous, to allow native speakers to predict the second partner of an

15

expression when they encounter the first one, and to make communication run smoothly. (in Barfield & Gyllstad, 2009) 3.1.3 Special Terms Čermák, in his book Kolokace, introduces expressions connected to collocations. They

are

compatibility,

collocability,

monocollocability,

and

collocate.

Compatibility means that words said together make sense and sound natural in a language; collocability is an ability to combine with other words, it shows the syntagmatic potential of the word; monocollocability is a special kind of collocability in case of phraseological combinations, which means that collocability here is very reduced; and a collocate is the word which pairs with the first word called a headword in a dictionary. (Čermák & Šulc, 2006) Halliday said that collocations mean that only certain words occur together and it is possible to predict which words do so. He introduced special terms: node, collocate, and span. Node “refers to the item under study”; collocate “refers to the co-occurring item”, and span “refers to the specified environment in which the node and collocate may occur. (in Barfield & Gyllstad, 2009: 4) Sinclair has used these terms to say that most of collocates occur within the span of -+ 4. It means within four words to the left and to the right from the node. (in Barfield & Gyllstad, 2009) Firth distinguished colligation from collocation. According to him, colligation is “co-occurrence of grammatical phenomena within the syntactic level.” (in Sánchez, 2006: 30) According to a web glossary, colligation is a type of collocation, but there, where a lexical item is linked to a grammatical one. E.g. surprising, amazing and astonishing are near synonyms. We can say it is 16

astonishing / surprising / amazing, but we tend to say it is not surprising and not the others. It means that surprising colligates with the negative. (UsingEnglish.com, March 2011) “Pragmatic aspect of colligation resides in what Sinclair calls the mutual relationship, or the tendency not to co-occur but to occur in certain identical surroundings.” (Sánchez, 2006: 30) 3.2

Phrase and Idiom

Phrase, according to Filipec, “is a unique combination of minimum two words, from which either of them does not work in the same way in a combination with a different word, or it occurs only in one expression. As the phrase is fixed it is not possible to enter in any other elements.” (Čermák & Šulc, 2006: 143) A phrase has a meaning as a whole. If the elements of a phrase are compatible, they have a common semantic attribute; they can have either idiomatic or literal meaning. Čermák explains this on Czech examples bledá tvář, mrtvý

brouk, which can have both meanings. On the other hand, when the elements are incompatible, the elements do not have any common attribute, the phrase has only an idiomatic meaning. E.g. dutá hlava, básnické střevo, košilatý vtip. If one element was changed the meaning would not be recognizable e.g. dutá

ruka, básnický žaludek, kalhotový vtip. (Čermák & Šulc, 2006) An idiom is a “frozen expression in which the meaning of the whole does not reflect the meanings of the component parts.” (Benson et al., 1993, intro) Benson gives the following examples: to kill two birds with one stone = to achieve two aims with one action; to be beside oneself = to be in a state of great emotional confusion. By saying these phrases we definitely do neither mean an act of killing any bird, nor the act of standing on the side of ourselves, 17

which is absolutely impossible. Some idioms are very difficult to tell apart from collocations because the meaning is possible to be guessed from the whole phrase and so they enter the collocations dictionaries as well. (Benson et al., 1993) Cowie also divides word combinations into two groups: composites and formulae. In the group of composites collocations with their syntactic function can be found; and in formulae those with a primarily pragmatic function e.g.

Good morning. (in Nesselhauf, 2005) He further develops the theory on combinations which can be divided into four groups: 1. Free combinations – the elements of combination are used in the literal sense, e.g. drink tea and substitution can happen within a semantic field. 2. Restricted collocations – at least one element is used in its literal meaning, the other one has non-literal meaning, e.g. perform a task, and substitution is limited. 3. Figurative idioms – they have figurative meaning but have literal interpretation, e.g. U-turn – to change one‟s behaviour. Substitution is rarely possible. 4. Pure idioms – they have figurative meaning and do not have literal interpretation, e.g. blow the gaff. It is not possible to substitute the elements at all. (in Nesselhauf, 2005) 3.3

Phraseology

attention because phraseologists dealt rather with idiomaticity than with 18

collocations. However, this attitude has been changing with the realization of the importance of collocations. (in Sánchez, 2006) Phraseography belongs to newer areas of linguistics. It is separated from lexicography because it has special needs for its application; however, it still overlaps with traditional lexicography. Phraseology is concerned with the description of phrase and idioms principles. Nowadays we can find many phraseology dictionaries in book or electronic versions. (Čermák in Blatná, Čermák, Filipec, 1995) Phraseology and idiomaticity relies on collocability on different levels and from their components phrases and idioms are created. (Čermák, Hronek & Machač, 2009) Idiomatic and phraseologic expression is a fixed combination of at least two words of any word class which does not have the same meaning when one of the words combines with a different element. Meaning of such a combination is figurative. Čermák (2009) said that a difference between a phrase and an idiom is in their formal and expressive point of view (phrase) and semantic and functional point of view (idiom). (Čermák, Hronek & Machač) 3.4

Slovník české frazeologie a idiomatiky

One of the most famous phraseology dictionaries in Czech is the set by František Čermák, Hronek and Machač Slovník české frazeologie a idiomatiky published by LEDA in four parts. Čermák, Hronek and Machač published Slovník české frazeologie a idiomatiky in 2009. It is the second edition of the previous three dictionaries which was completed with a new fourth part. Before the first edition in 1983, phrases had 19

been recorded only randomly by entries of general dictionaries. Nowadays, the publisher is preparing an electronic version of these dictionaries. (Čermák, Hronek & Machač, 2009) The four parts record today‟s Czech phraseology which appears in spoken rather than written form. The individual dictionaries are mutually connected and they offer information about existing phrases, synonyms, antonyms, nominal, adverbial and grammatical phrases and idioms, and their equivalents in four foreign languages: English, German, French and Russian. Usually the equivalents have the same structure as the Czech phrase, but if the foreign expression is slightly different in the meaning or stylistic feature (slang), it has a gloss which marks it. Equivalents which have a structure different to Czech ones have an exclamation mark. Table 3 stará nádhera stará nádhera – (A)! not what she used to be. (Čermák, Hronek & Machač, 2009) The foreign equivalents serve for a comparison of languages in the lexical field. The four parts of the dictionary are: Přirovnání, Výrazy neslovesné, Výrazy

slovesné and Výrazy větné. The dictionaries contain four basic parts of speech: nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs. They describe phraseological and idiomatic units which do not create fully-fledged sentences. The individual lexical units create collocative patterns and here is a list of those which can be found in the dictionaries separated according to the part in which the patterns occur most frequently: 20

Pattern

Example

Part

S-V

Pravda vítězí

4th part

V-S

číst někomu levity, tlouct špačky

3rd part

A-S

zlatý důl

2nd part

S-A

anděl stážný

2nd part

S-ADV

místo nahoře

2nd part

ADV-S

vzhůru nohama

2nd part

V-A

kápnout božskou

3rd part

A-V

Zmýlená neplatí

4th part

V-ADV

přijít zkrátka

3rd part

ADV-V

bohatě stačit

3rd part

A-ADV

celej nakřivo

4thpart

ADV-A

zbrusu nový

2nd part

S-S

jablko sváru

2nd part

V-V

umět se narodit

3rd part

A-A

neslaný nemastný

2nd part

ADV-ADV

široko daleko

2nd part

(Čermák, Hronek & Machač, 2009)

The entries for the dictionaries were chosen according to the Czech National Corpus. The three re-edited parts contain 16,790 entries and the fourth part contains 10,000 other phrases and 5,000 onomaziologic headwords. The collected material is identical to the content of the first edition, but over 500 new entries there were added. If we should divide the newly added entries 21

according to individual, parts we will get following figures: 58 entries in 1st part, 396 entries in 2nd part, and 121 entries in 3rd part. (Čermák et al., 2009) The headwords are arranged according to alphabet and the entries are arranged according to this order S-A-V-ADV- and the first word, in which S stands for substantive (noun), A for adjective, V for verb and ADV for adverb. If a learner wants to look for a phrase, they should have a look first for the noun. If the phrase does not have a noun, they should then look for an adjective, if there is no adjective, look for a verb and so on. E.g. phrase mít hlad jako vlk should be found under the headword vlk. If the word is used with a morphological change, it should be looked up under its infinitive or neuter form. e.g. je jich jako much can be found under moucha. The dictionaries also include informal expressions like bejk and these are included under this form. (Čermák et al., 2009) All the dictionaries contain a Semantic Index which has different usage in different parts. In the first and second part learners can find a phrase, which they want to express, according to the meaning and in the third and the fourth they contain additional entries which are connected to the body of the dictionary in some way. There are no foreign equivalents in the Semantic Index parts. See individual dictionaries for examples. Čermák (2009) provides an explanation of the entry style and a list of abbreviations for better orientation in the dictionary. I am going to illustrate it on the entry for být pichlavý jako ježek. morphologically changeable component být syntagmatic variant which can be omitted (pichlavý) 22

headword ježek style characteristic (kol; nepřízn – hanl, říd) grammar characteristic

0 ot, neg, imp, 1.sg a pl

context a valency (Člověk v řeči, odpovědích vůči druhému, popř. okolí:) definition být útočný, jízlivý a nepříjemný; opakovaně mít bez dostatečného

důvodu ostré poznámky, nepříjemně a ironicky někoho popichovat. synonym

bodat slovy

other synonyms antonym

rýpat do někoho

milý, hodný, být j. mílius,

other antonyms být . dobrá hodina, mluvit sladce, být kliďas English equivivalent (A) be as prickly as a porcupine / hedgehog/ pincushion German equivalent (N) stachelig w. ein Igel sein French equivalent

(F) etre (piquant) c. un hérisson

Russian equivalent (R) (быть) колючий к. ёж (Čermák et al., 2009) List of abbreviations and symbols: A antonym S synonym Cf wider synonymy, (lat. confer = compare) 0 negative characteristic of a phrase  other information about usage, etymology ▪ section of synonyms, antonyms and other equivalents word which is interchangeable / alternative variant 23

3.4.1 Slovník české frazeologie a idiomatiky 1 The first part called Přirovnání contains phrases which have a simile jako/jak as a common feature. Although they are sometimes subcategories of the main ones mentioned above, mainly V(-A/S) jako S/A, they were given a special space in the first part of the dictionary. E.g. nadávat jako špaček, mít krk jako

holínku, být jako slepý. The way in which to look up a desired phrase in the first dictionary is dual. Learners can either search the main dictionary for a noun or an adjective of the phrase or can have a look in the Semantic Index for the general meaning and will get a list of phrases. Here is an example: I would like to use some expression about being ironic. I will have a look at the Semantic Index, find the word ironic and will get the following Table 4 ironický ironický být pichlavý j. ježek (Čermák, Hronek & Machač, 2009) Then I can continue and find the headword ježek in the body of the dictionary and I will get more information. Table 5 pichlavý jako ježek (pichlavý) j. ježek (kol; nepřízn – hanl, říd) 0 ot, neg, imp, 1.sg a pl

(Člověk v řeči, odpovědích vůči druhému, popř. okolí:) být útočný, jízlivý a nepříjemný; opakovaně mít bez dostatečného důvodu ostré poznámky, nepříjemně a ironicky někoho popichovat.  V pl. řídce ježci. ▪ S bodat slovy, rýpat do někoho A milý, hodný, být j. mílius, být dobrá hodina, mluvit sladce,

24

být kliďas Cf útočný, vrhnout se na někoho j. vosy/sršni, svézt se někomu po zádech, zchladit si na někom žáhu (A) be as prickly as a porcupine / hedgehog/ pincushion (N) stachelig w. ein Igel sein (F) etre (piquant) c. un hérisson (R) (быть) колючий к. ёж (Čermák, Hronek & Machač, 2009, 1st part) 3.4.2 Slovník české frazeologie a idiomatiky 2 The second part is called Výrazy neslovesné. It was created by the Czech department for the Czech language in the 1970‟s. It contains 4,039 entries and 743 units in a grammar supplement. The second part contains nominal phrases (i.e. nouns, adjectives, adverbials, pronouns), phrases with numerals and it also includes grammatical expressions with prepositions and conjunctions e.g.

s ohledem na, co když, jen aby. The most frequent expressions are of the pattern A-S, S-A, S-S, such as

bledá tvář, modrá krev, železná nutnost, pirát silnic, rány a jizvy. Phrases can be looked up according to a noun or an adjective in the body of the dictionary, or according to the meaning given in the Semantic Index. The phrase which I wanted to look up in the Semantic Index was hazard and I found a cross-reference to riziko. Table 6 riziko hazard viz riziko riziko, hazard, risk viz též odvaha hra s ohněm; hazardní hra; odvážná hra; vysoká hra; jáma lvová, krok do neznáma / do tmy; na vlastní nebezpečí; horká půda; sázka do loterie; - pirát silnic

Riziko offered us some more phrases which we can have a closer look at. 25

Table 7 pirát silnic pirát silnic (1. kol, též publ; nepřízn, hanl 2. fam, iron) 0 vok 1. bezohledně, hazardně jezdící motorista, ohrožující jiné účastníky provozu 2.

(s fam. ironií) řidič, motorista vůbec s narážkou na jeho řidičskou dovednost (v kladném n. záporném smyslu) 1. Pokutovat by se měli hlavně notoričtí p-i silnic. 2. Nedávno dostal řidičák, a dnes už je z něho úplný p. silnic.  V 1. význ. část. pl. (A) 1. road-hog 2. king of the road (N) ein Pirat der Landstrasse (F) (chauffard) (R) ЛИхaЧ (Čermák, Hronek & Machač, 2009, 2nd part) In addition, the second dictionary has a grammatical part which consists of prepositions and conjunctions. Table 8 prepositions (S/V) na motivy (S gen) (kniž) vymezení činnosti n. předmětu děje vyčtením okolností, za nichž n.

podle nichž se tato činnost řídí n. tento předmět vzniká, vytváří se; podle Televizní inscenace na m-y románu E. Zoly.

Předl. vyj. vztah prostředkový

(vodítko činnosti).

Table 9 conjunctions A hele! - … (kol; expr) postoj zjišťující nečekanou činnost n. výskyt osoby, věci apod., a to

obv. se škodolibostí n. posměchem, popř. jen údivem; podívejme se!, vida! A hele! Pan šéf se přišel taky podívat, jak vypadá hodina! – A hele! Novákovi si koupili nové auto!

část. emo. – eval.; též samost. v platn. citoslovce.

(Čermák, Hronek & Machač, 2009, 2nd part)

26

3.4.3 Slovník české frazeologie a idiomatiky 3 The third part is called Výrazy slovesné. It contains mainly verbal expressions and has a function of a predicate in a sentence. It has 9,976 verbal entries. It also contains synonyms, antonyms and foreign language equivalents. Learners can look up the words in the dictionary according to a noun, an adjective or a verb. As all the dictionaries are all connected in the third part we can find a phrase udělat tlustou čáru za minulostí which is linked to the second part where a phrase tlustá čára za minulostí was introduced. Table 10 stát na hanbě stát

na hanbě

(kol; nepřízn) 0 pas, imp neg Verb poslat / postavit někoho na hanbu

(Obv. žák ve třídě na nápadném místě za špatné, nevhodné chování:) muset někde stát sám před očima druhých a být tak exemplárně potrestán. ▪ Cf být – potrestán, být postaven na pranýř / do kouta, dostat za vyučenou (A)be in the dunce‟s corner / sin-bin (N) in der Ecke stehen, am Pranger stehen (F) etre au piquet / en penitence (R) CTOЯТϸ B rEy (Čermák, Hronek & Machač, 2009, 3rd part) But if a learner has a look under the headword stát they will find the following phrases:

stát na svých, stát nad někým, stát o něco… but no stát na

hanbě. Stát na hanbě has a different headword. 3.4.4 Slovník české frazeologie a idiomatiky 4 The fourth part called Výrazy větné is the edition which was created as a completely new dictionary in contrast to the previous three parts. This part contains phrases which were collected at the Faculty of Arts of Charles University and a learner can also find phrases known from folklore songs, 27

famous verses, quotations from Švejk or Cimrman and other known quotations. There are also proverbs, which had to be carefully chosen as they had changed over time. The majority of entries was collected from the Czech National Corpus and is of spoken origin (conversations, drama, and film). It describes known idiomatic sentences like Zlom vaz! Dejž to pánbu!, or well known fixed expressions like Kdo nejde s námi, jde proti nám. Náš

zákazník, náš pán. Phrases can be looked up according to their real form in the sentence. Jen

se nedělej! will be looked up under nedělat not under dělat, Drží jako přibitý. under přibitý not přibít. Je tu natřískáno. under natřískáno not natřískat. This part as the first one of this set indicates intonation for which it uses special symbol ~ and in the body of an entry has a closer identification of intonation e.g. kles. ozn, stoup. zjist. etc. Table 11 těžkej chlebíček To je tvrdej / těžkej chlebíček. (kol; nepřizn.) 0 neměnné ~ 1c rov.-kles. ozn. (od k. slova) tvrdej

(Čl. vůči druhému, cizinci znalecky a rezignovaně zvl. o fyzicky náročné práci a způsobu výdělku ap.:) to není lehký způsob výdělku a obživy a vyžaduje to opravdové zaujetí a sílu pro vykonávanou práci. Práce na poli, to je t. ch. i v době mechanizace. ▪ S to je obtížné, To je fuška. (A) It‟s tough going., It‟s a tough job., It‟s no joke. (N) Das ist ein hartes Brot. (F) ! C‟est un travail de chien / de forcat / de Romain., ! Ce n‟est pas une sinécure. (R) ЭТО тЯжёлый хлебушек. (Čermák, Hronek & Machač, 2009, 4th part)

28

The Semantic Index contains some more phrases supplying more information but does not provide foreign language equivalents: Table 12 je to těžké to je těžké • Je to (těžký) jako bejk / prase. • Sotva s tím člověk hne. • To dá hlavě na prdel. • Má to (svý) kila. • Je to jako kráva. • To byl porod! • To je (ale) práce • S tebou je (ale) práce! • S ním je těžká práce. • Do prdele práce! • Ten / to se pronese! (Čermák, Hronek & Machač, 2009, 4th part) 3.5

Phrasal Verbs

John Sinclair (1988) explained phrasal verbs in the following way: “The cooccurrence of two quite common little words can unexpectedly create a fairly subtle new meaning that cannot be systematically related to either or both of the original words. The supposition of the two words involved, and their syntax, is governed by complex and unpredictable rules.” (p. 151) He shows an example of the word set. It is a word which needs context so it gets a meaning. E.g. set about, set in, and set off. 3.6

Risks of Translating Collocations

When collocations are translated into another language, the lexicographer has to watch for faux amis. As all languages have their own collocations it is sometimes very tempting to use words which have similar origin and general structure as in native language. Learners might think they have the same meaning as in their native language and thus use them in a wrong way. This risk may be emphasised for the purpose of discussing Klégr‟s books Znáte

anglická slovesa? and Znáte anglická přídavná jména? which are based on English equivalents to Czech headwords. (Čermák & Šulc, 2006) 29

Faux amis in collocations evoke the impression that their meaning and grammar are the same in both the source and target language and there is a hypothesis that “if a headword and its collocate in the source language are translated with their normal equivalents in a target language, the new syntagma will have the same meaning as the source collocation.” (Čermák & Šulc, 2006: 172)1 But this does not have to be the caseso the dictionary compilers should pay attention to translation. Table 13 faux amis návod … nevěnovat pozornost (3) ignore komická nehoda … comic(al) accident (Klégr et at., 1994; 2005)

1

„Pokud jsou záhlaví a jeho kolokát ze zdrojového jazyka přeloženy jejich normálními ekvivalenty do cílového jazyka, nové syntagma bude mít stejný význam jako kolokace ze zdrojového jazyka“. (Čermák & Šulc, 2006: 172) Translated by the author of this thesis.

30

4

HOW TO ARRANGE COLLOCATIONS IN A DICTIONARY

The language which is used for definitions in a dictionary is called metalanguage. Blatná stated that it is “language behind language, language which describes language as the object of the description.” (Blatná, Čermák & Filipec, 1995: 73)2 It contains all information in a dictionary from a headword, abbreviations, and brackets to grammatical information and a definition itself. (Blatná et al., 1995) Every publisher has a different way of arranging the metalanguage into a comprehensible dictionary but still there are some rules which should be respected. (Mugglestone, 2000) Headwords are mostly arranged according to the alphabet. Definitions and entries for a given headword can be arranged alphabetically as headwords, but more often lexicographers decide to arrange collocates according to their semantic field. Those within a semantic field are consequently arranged alphabetically again. It generally applies that the higher in hierarchy of a dictionary the word is, the more important it is for the headword and is more frequent. (Blatná et al., 1995) Handl has carried out research in the structure of general dictionaries for advanced learners concerning notes on collocations. (in Barfield & Gyllstad,

2

………„jazyk za jazykem, jazyk popisující jazyk jakožto předmět popisu“. (Blatná, Čermák & Filipec, 1995: 73) Translated by the author of this thesis.

31

2009) She describes what they look like and evaluates whether their arrangement is helpful for learners. The optimal dictionary, according to her, should be of a certain size (she does not mention how many pages), should contain bold fonts and colours for emphasizing and distinguishing information, and the entries should be clear and understandable to all learners.

The Macmillan English Dictionary for Advanced Learners (2002) (MED) is judged by her as “user-friendly” because it uses bold font and examples to make collocations easily accessible. At the end of the entries which have many collocations there is a box called “Words frequently used with” where the collocations are listed. The Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (2005) (LDOCE) has a similar structure but places the collocation box at the beginning of the entry. The Oxford Advanced Learner„s Dictionary (2005) (OALD) mentions collocations in examples or definitions or lists them separately without any strategy. (in Barfield & Gyllstad, 2009) Handl illustrated her statement on the example of the word attention taken from each of the mentioned dictionaries. She noticed some differences between the three of them. “In all three dictionaries the collocations are arranged under the respective lexical units.” (in Barfield & Gyllstad, 2009: 71) But in such an arrangement it is difficult to avoid mentioning the same collocations more times. For example in LDOCE attract attention is mentioned under meanings

interest and notice. The same happened in OALD with attract the attention under listening carefully and interest. MED avoids this double mentioning by listing the collocation in the Phrase section separately. See Figure 1. 32

Handl finishes her comparison with the conclusion that there is not any common guide how to present collocations in general dictionaries. However, she tries to provide “alternative ways of presenting collocations in dictionaries” (in Barfield & Gyllstad, 2009: 73), which I am not going to analyse because it is not the object of this thesis. Although her research included only general dictionariessome of her findings can apply to specialized collocations dictionaries as every publisher tries to keep a similar way of recording data in various dictionaries.

33

Figure 1 Handl‟s research (in Barfield & Gyllstad 2009: 72) 4.1

Which Collocations to Include

When lexicographers decide which collocations they will include in a dictionary, they deal with these collocation types: typical collocations; the most frequent collocations, taken from a corpus; statistically important collocations; and 34

cognitive collocations. Every type has its own dangers. Typical collocations can be actually of very rare occurrence, the most frequent collocations can be less typical of a given headword, those which are interesting for teachers are not frequent enough, statistically important collocations do not have to occur often, and cognitive collocations usually reflect subjective opinions rather than objective occurrence in a corpus. The methods which make this decision easier are connected to corpora and they are word association norms, lexical profiles, or word sketches. (Čermák & Šulc, 2006) Klégr, Hronková and Hron (1991) considered practical use and the ability of words to create collocations and included both specific and more general collocations in their book Znáte anglická slovesa?. On the other hand, they excluded personal nouns, proper nouns, measures and scientific words. (Klégr, Hronková and Hron 1991) The authors of Znáte anglická přídavná jména? tried not to choose the most common adjectives but those which are more specific and make more specific collocations because they supposed that learners were confident about the use of the common adjectives. (Klégr & Hronková, 1994) The collocations that mainly occur in the Czech-English Combinatory

Dictionary: Noun and Verb are regular textual collocations and only a few of them are systemic collocations (idiomatic or terminological). Some of them are supplemented with other syntactic data, e.g. with typical prepositions, object or adverbial complements. (Klégr, Key & Hronková, 2005) The BBI dictionary contains grammatical and lexical combinations. Free collocations are not included in the BBI dictionary. The authors excluded some 35

combinations with words like: build, cause, look, grow, make – those which are predictable or normally used. Lexical collocations which were chosen for this dictionary belong to the categories creation/action and eradication/nullification. (M. Benson, E. Benson & Ilson, 1993) Hill and Lewis (1999) explained which kinds of collocations they did not include in their dictionary. They are common adjectives such as good, bad, big,

small, old, new, because they usually collocate with many nouns so there is not anything special or different. However, these words are included in the dictionary in such a case that they make a very strong collocation e.g.

good/bad luck. Adverbs like really, very, rather, quite were omitted for the same reason. The authors decided not to include the most common words or the most common collocations e.g. a fast car, have dinner, a bit tired because they suppose learners would have some previous knowledge of the language. On the other hand, they have not included technical collocations as they are too specific and would not be useful for the majority of learners. They did not include highly colloquial collocations either, as they supposed learners using them might sound funny because they are not so familiar with the language. The authors included only those collocations which they thought may be known and useful to intermediate students of English. (Hill & Lewis, 1999) The authors of the Oxford Collocations Dictionary (OCDSE), Crowther, Dignen & Lea (2002); McIntosh, Francis, Poole (2009), decided to include a wide range of collocations: weak (see a movie, extremely complicated), medium-strength (see a doctor, highly intelligent), and the strongest 36

collocations (see mason, blindingly obvious). Free collocations were excluded from the list. Crowther (2002) had been thinking about what the learner may want to speak about and tried to include subjects like history, business, science, sport but also some special terms from medicine, law, or politics. The authors asked questions like “Is this a typical use of language?” “Might a student of English want to express this idea?” “Would a student look up this entry to find this expression?” and it helped them to decide on how the search starts. “When framing their ideas, people generally start from a noun. You might think of rain and want to know which adjective best describes rain when a lot falls in a short time. You would be unlikely to start with the adjective heavy and wonder what you could describe with it. Similarly, you might be looking for the verb to use when you do what you need to do in response to a challenge. But you would not choose meet and then choose what to meet (meet a challenge).” (Crowther et al., 2002) Other kinds of collocations are described in the preface to the OCDSE. They are so called word collocations and category collocations. The former are such collocations in which one exact word belongs to the other word e.g. small fortune but not little fortune. The latter are words which can create a pair with any other word from a specified group e.g. nationalities, measurements. The new edition also contains an example of nationalities which can be changed within the same field: Canadian / Mexican / Swiss passport. (Crowther et al., 2002) In addition to the older edition, the newer dictionary contains informal

37

expressions and collocations from Internet communication. (Crowther et al., 2002; McIntosh et al., 2009) The OCDSE also gives an example of collocations which were excluded from the dictionary. For example an idiom like not see the wood for the trees. It does not have anything in common with wood or trees, and is therefore excluded from a collocations dictionary; but drive a hard bargain still keeps the meaning of bargaining so it is included. Even if the expression as a whole can be considered to be idiomatic, it will be included in the dictionary. (Crowther et al., 2002; McIntosh et al., 2009)

38

5

OTHER PEOPLE’S RESEARCH ABOUT THE IMPORTANCE OF COLLOCATIONS DICTIONARIES

It seems that many linguists have done some research on collocations but they did not consider the importance of collocations dictionaries as much as the comprehensibility of collocations in general dictionaries. They were rather concerned about the ways in which students are able to look up information. Thus they studied the dictionaries from the pedagogical point of view rather than the lexicographical. (Barfield & Gyllstad, 2009) Gyllstad agrees that a lot of research on vocabulary acquisition was published, but hardly any on collocations. Actually, he says that there were only five pieces of outstanding research which had been done by Cowie, Lewis, Nesselhauf, Schmitt and Meunier, and Granger. (in Barfield, 2009) Cowie bases his research on a phraseologic approach and relies on corpus studies. Lewis is more oriented towards the way in which collocations are taught at schools, and on contrary, Nesselhauf has done thorough research of verb + noun collocations which occurred in essays of German learners of English. (in Barfield & Gyllstad, 2009) As was already said in the previous chapter, Handl decided to compare how collocations are included in non-specific dictionaries. Her conclusion was not in favour of „normal‟ dictionaries. She thought that the information was not precise enough to enable learners realize which of them was the most important. (Barfield & Gyllstad, 2009) Moreover, she is convinced that students usually prefer to have an extra book for any type of subject so it is probably not wise to rely on a general dictionary for collocations but rather try to enter the data in a collocations dictionary. (in Barfield & Gyllstad 2009) 39

In this part I am going to enlighten Komuro‟s research on the structure of the OCDSE. Komuro talks about the need of collocation dictionaries and definitely approves of them. Her study concerns the ways in which learners of English gain the information from collocations dictionaries. She focuses on The

Oxford Collocations Dictionary for Students of English (2002). (in Barfield & Gyllstad, 2009) What she points out is that “synonymous or semantically related collocates belonging to the same word class are ordered intuitively“ (in Barfield & Gyllstad, 2009: 115) in the dictionary (as the author of the OCDSE actually admits in the Preface to the dictionary) and they do not have definitions or contextual information; so Komuro suggests that the OCDSE is not easy-to-use for learners. (in Barfield & Gyllstad, 2009) A big project of computizing the English language, the COBUILD project revealed that “the most frequent words of English tend to be collocated in delexical senses rather than in a full lexical sense so that they function as elements of structure.” (Barfield & Gyllstad, 2009: 4) Another major insight of the COBUILD project was that only a few lexical items have typical patterns of collocations. (Barfield & Gyllstad, 2009) Sinclair did research on the meaning of a text. He divided the meaning in two ways. The first one is according to the open principle which says that the text was composed from individual lexical items put together. The second way is according to the idiom principle which is complementary to the former principle. The text is composed from already existing combinations of individual lexis which are already available to the writer from previous experience with the

40

language. Sinclair says that the text is thus limited by collocations which individual lexical items carry. (in Barfield & Gyllstad, 2009) Nicolas Groom talks about Nadja Nesselhauf‟s research on collocations and he mentions some of her findings. The most striking is probably the fact that Nesselhauf found out that learners who went to an English speaking country to learn the language did not prove better knowledge and usage of collocations than the learners who stayed to study English in their home country. (in Barfield & Gyllstad, 2009) Groom notes that learners of English as second language tend to overuse collocations in comparison to native speakers. On the other hand, there is a hypothesis which says that some multi-word expressions are underused. Thus more attention should be paid to adjusting the appropriate use of collocations. (in Barfield & Gyllstad, 2009) Nuccorini is interested in the choice of criteria for including headwords into collocations dictionaries and her conclusion is that classification of collocations is such a difficult matter that it causes problems to lexicographers when deciding which headwords and collocates to include. (in Čermák & Šulc, 2006) Taking all this research and conclusions into account we could draw our own conclusion which is not very concrete. There is no precise way in which to make a dictionary of collocations and their evaluation is very subjective.

41

6

THE DEVELOPMENT OF COLLOCATIONS OVER TIME

Robert Cawdrey was the first lexicographer who placed English words in a dictionary in alphabetical order and provided them with explanatory definitions in the same language. He compiled a work called A Table Alphabetical of

English Wordes in 1604. (Ilson, 1986) Following various editions of dictionaries from the first work of Cawdrey to Johnson‟s dictionary, lexicographers identified essential elements which should be

in

every

dictionary.

They

are:

headwords

in

alphabetical

order,

pronunciation, etymology, definitions of each word arranged in chronological or logical order, illustrative sentences called “quotations”, and a note on convenience e.g. archaic, slang. (Ilson, 1986) “The only dictionary that has all these features is the Oxford English Dictionary (OED)” said Ilson. He also claims that the OED is “the greatest dictionary of modern times, and the most influential.” (Ilson, 1986: 18) Ilson mentions the fact that every historical period has brought some new terms into language. He gives an example of the 1950‟s when words like do-it-

yourself, angry young man, aerospace, hovercraft, hardware, software, or Eurovision entered the language. They entered not only the language but also the dictionaries. He tries to say that as history goes, dictionaries develop and some words need to be excluded from or included in dictionaries; so there is a need for re-editing or writing the supplements to dictionaries. (Ilson, 1986) Theodora Bynon says that we need several centuries to be able to recognize some linguistic change and be able to study it. However, lexical change is visible sooner. Ilson has done research on such change and he found 42

ninety more words listed under O in the supplement for OED from 1982 in comparison to its previous edition. (Ilson, 1986) Ilson makes a point on graphological side of dictionaries in time of compiling the first OED in terms of writing capital letters at the beginning of every headword which was a tradition in the time Murray wrote his dictionary. As time went and computers developed the new OED edition was planned to be typed in a computer, edited and sent to the print. It was finished in 1985 and since that we have had new updated edition of OED in paperback as well as in electronic version. (Ilson, 1986) Dictionaries have been created for centuries but until now there was not such a permanent job like a lexicographer. Nowadays there are around 300 lexicographers in the United States according to Edward Gates. Some of them work as editors in publishing houses or freelance publishers, some produce glossaries for specific fields, and some study or teach about dictionaries. (in Ilson, 1986) New lexicographers are trained by experienced lexicographers and also there are lexicographers‟ courses running. A good lexicographer needs to recognize new words and phrases and must be good at detecting changes in their meaning and use. Lexicographers must be good at writing as they have to create clear and accurate definitions, and they must have general knowledge as well as thorough knowledge of the field they make definitions for. (in Ilson, 1986) Barfield foretold new kinds of dictionaries being developed, in which the headwords would be arranged according to themes. He also saw the importance of computers entering linguistic when he said that there should be 43

electronic dictionaries. “As they will be created for use in a computer they will be much more interactive than the paper dictionaries.” (Barfield, 2009: 6/7) And he was right as we will see in chapter 8. 6.1

Collecting Data Then and Now

Boswell described how Johnson put together his dictionary in the following way: “The words, partly taken from other dictionaries, and partly supplied by himself, having first been written down with spaces left between them he delivered in writing their etymologies, definitions, and various significations. The authorities were copied from the books themselves, in which he had marked the passages with a black-lead pencil...” (in Sinclair, 1988: 62) Kipfer describes the techniques of dictionary making in 1984: “most users believe that the lexicographer simply sits down and „writes‟ a dictionary. This is far from true! The dictionary editors conduct a reading program, excerpting quotations from ...written...and...spoken sources. These citations...may be stored in computer...The editors take all the slips for the word and divide them into the different senses, then use them to write the actual definitions... A dictionary is a record of actual use.” (in Sinclair, 1988: 62) Nowadays a complex programme had to be designed in order to get the comprehensible data from the computer-based corpora. (Sinclair, 1988) They create concordance lines, word sketches and many more. The fact that a concordance line in a corpus has a keyword (which is called Key Word in Context - KWIC) in the middle and the rest of the text is on the left or the right is called the span. So lexicographers are given some guidance on which other words, collocates, go with the keyword and they, according to Cobuild policy 44

about dictionary styles, could establish collocations only on the basis of corpus evidence. (Sinclair, 1988: 70) The definition of collocates in COBUILD terminology was “lexical items occurring within five words either way of the headword with a greater frequency than the law of averages would lead you to expect”. (Sinclair, 1988: 70) At the time of the COBUILD project they already recognized the importance of collocations being included in dictionaries. (Sinclair, 1988) Although lexicographers have all data available in corpora, they still have to pay attention to including different variants of spelling (in –ise, -ize), etc.; to dealing with abbreviations like Member of Parliament and MP; and above all to grammatical variants such as singular and plural, different tenses of the same verb, or comparative forms of adjectives. (Sinclair, 1988) As Ramesh Krishnamurthy says, the procedures which had to be undertaken in order to create the corpus for modern technology in dictionary compiling can be evaluated as demanding as the old method of traditional lexicography. (in Sinclair, 1988)

45

7

COMPUTATION OF COLLOCATIONS

The creation of the first dictionaries was quite demanding as the lexicographers had to collect, keep and sort all data manually. Nowadays lexicographers have the advantage of information technology when they can work with computerized data in corpora. The data are authentic and real so lexicographers can use them for extracting illustrative sentences for their headwords. Moreover, the work on compiling dictionaries is “much faster, complex, more exact and thorough, and the material is much richer … and more reliable.” (Blatná et al., 1995: 52)3 New products which could be developed with the help of computer corpora are electronic dictionaries and can be found either on CD-ROMs or on the Internet. (Blatná et al., 1995) Collins COBUILD published English Collocations on CD ROM. It provides access to 140,000 collocations and 2,600,000 examples which were extracted from the Bank of English. (http://www.elearnaid.com/colcobencolo.html, March 2011) Another publisher which provided collocations in electronic form is Oxford University Press. They included a CD-ROM with collocations to their 2nd edition of the OCDSE paperback dictionary, 2009.

3

……… „(je rychlejší, komplexnější, exaktnější a důslednější), danou jinou kvalitou materiálového zdroje je bohatší, odstíněnější, spolehlivější a věrnější. (Blatná et al., 1995: 52) Translated by the author of this thesis.

46

Handl compared the way of entering collocations into a dictionary and her research resulted in findings that in comparison to a printed dictionary, where collocates are arranged alphabetically and are supplied with cross-references, the electronic dictionary can use the method of collocation webs which allows learners to visualize the strength of the collocation with the help of lines and arrows. Learners can define their own priorities. As it is in an electronic form, it allows learners to see sample sentences or definitions by a simple double click on the unknown item. (in Barfield & Gyllstad, 2009) See Figure 2

Figure 2 Collocation web (in Barfield & Gyllstad 2009: 79)

Another advantage of using computers in dictionary making was that of creating a corpus. A corpus is an extensive collection of texts in electronic form 47

which is stored on a computer or the Internet and is available to linguists for further changes and work. There are two types of corpus. The first type is represented by various types of written and spoken language and is called National Corpus. The second one contains terms of special fields and is called according to its needs e.g. a specialized corpus, a technical corpus, a dialect corpus. (Blatná et al., 1995) 7.1

The COBUILD Project

The COBUILD Project was undertaken by a research team in the English Department of the University of Birmingham and was led by Professor John Sinclair. Work started in 1980 but was originally based on research which started at the University in 1961. The aim was to collect a large bank of contemporary English and put it into machine-readable form. (Sinclair, 1988) The members of the team received the collected information, studied the words, sorted them, and worked with them in the computer. The incurred database was called the Main Corpus. When Birmingham University joined with Collins publishers both sides agreed on using the corpus for creating several publications. Thus this corpus was instrumental for the publication of the Collins

Cobuild English Language Dictionary and many others later. The corpus was used for creating small booklets containing information on specific fields of vocabulary which function as supplements to general dictionaries. (Sinclair, 1988) The team of the project wanted the corpus to be satisfactory for international users so when collecting data they followed certain aspects for choosing the source material: written and spoken modes; choosing from 48

broadly general language; current language, preferably recent, not older than 1960; naturally occurring texts, not drama; prose, including fiction and excluding prose; adult language, over 16 years; „standard‟ English, no regional dialects; predominantly British English, with some American and other varieties. (Sinclair, 1988) The list of texts had to be carefully chosen. Therefore the authors asked schools and libraries for written texts to make the list of the most read books of fiction and non-fiction; and for spoken texts they approached, among others, BBC radio station, the British Council or a local radio at the University of Sussex and gathered recordings of interviews, reports and discussions. In order to process the text into a computer, the recordings had to be keyboarded to the computer. In some convenient cases the Kurzweil Data Entry Machine (KDEM) could be used. KDEM is a machine that can read scanned characters and can transfer them into computer codes which then are readable on the screen. (Renouf in Sinclair, 1988) In 1982 the Main Corpus was completed and contained 7.3 million words. The aim of building large corpora remained and another corpus was created. It is known as the “Reserve Corpus” and at the time of writing the report on the project in 1988 it had 13 million words. (Sinclair, 1988) The whole corpus was named the Bank of English. At the time of writing, new words were added to the corpus every monthso it reached over 450 million words in 2005. (www.corpora4learning.net/resources/corpora.html#BE, 27th March 2011) The COBUILD project was the first to work using such a large body of evidence stored in computerized form. (Krishnamurthy in Sinclair, 1988) 49

8

VARIOUS DICTIONARIES OF COLLOCATIONS

A summary of information which can be found in the front matter of chosen collocations dictionaries follows in this chapter. It is usually an introduction by authors or editors. Moreover, I will provide examples which illustrate how learners can search in the dictionaries. 8.1

Znáte anglická slovesa?

Znáte anglická slovesa? was published in 1991 and based on work of Rodale:

The Word Finder; H. Dzierzanowska, C. D. Kozlowska: Selected English Collocations; M. Benson, E. Benson, R. Ilson: The BBI Combinatory Dictionary of English. A Guide to Word Combinations; and Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English. There are about 900 headwords of which each contains approximately from thirty to forty entries. It is a bilingual Czech-English dictionary of frequently used noun combinations. The headwords in this dictionary are nouns which are organized in alphabetical order. They are provided with list of verbs which collocate with them. Each entry is first listed in Czech and then translated into English. Table 14 Znáte anglická slovesa? NEHODA accident: /vs/mít have, meet with; odvrátit avert; předstírat fake;

utrpět suffer, be involved in; vést k (3) lead to, result in;

dojet bez (2) arrive

without; stát se obětí (2) be the victim of; vyváznout bez (2) escape without; /sv/ přihodí se (komu) happens, occurs (to sb) (srov. havárie, katastrofa, úraz) (Klégr, Hronková & Hron, 1991) The Czech headword is always in capital letters and a bold type, the following English equivalent is in the same type as the rest of the entry, is 50

before a colon and is a part of the headword. Entry starts with Czech word in italics, English equivalent is given in normal type. New entry is after a semicolon. If the Czech word has more English equivalents, they will be divided by a comma. The symbol /vs/ means the pattern of verb and noun, the symbol /sv/ means the pattern noun and verb. The symbol  introduces transitive and intransitive verbs. Verbs are given in the infinitive form so the brackets contain additional information of a case. The slash / signalizes an alternative expression, and the link srov. draws the attention to other entries with similar meaning as the headword. If the English headword has a regional variant different from British English, the label (US) will be given. The authors decided to include in the dictionary some syntactic information, typical prepositions, adverbs, and nouns which typically collocate with chosen nouns and also provided some idioms and phrases. Due to the fact that more English equivalents are listed with Czech entries, this dictionary can serve as a dictionary of synonyms too. In addition, the Index of English nouns at the back of the book provides the Czech equivalent so the dictionary can be useful to foreign learners of Czech language. Originally, the authors intended to create this dictionary for a wide range of users, but, in the end, they realized that they would need much more space to include all necessary explanations for the beginnersso the information was omitted and dictionary users are supposed to have some previous knowledge of the English language. For these reasons, as Klégr et al. (1991) say in the Introduction, it was not possible to include neither illustrative sentences nor 51

information about articles and learners are encouraged to search the grammatical information somewhere else. 8.2

Znáte anglická přídavná jména?

Znáte anglická přídavná jména? Česko-anglický slovník spojení podstatných jmen s přídavnými jmény was published in 1994 and is connected to the guide Znáte anglická slovesa?. The dictionary contains 1,400 headwords and each of them has approximately twenty to thirty entries. English adjectives have several English equivalents and they are all stated there so this dictionary functions as well as its predecessor like a dictionary of synonyms. The dictionary is called Znáte anglická přídavná jména?, but the dictionary is based on a noun list. The authors explain this fact on the translation experience as the translation usually starts developing just from the noun. They also admit that the title is not accurate. Exactly said the dictionary deals with attributes and appositional adjuncts but this expression would not be as clear to every reader as the adjective is. They admit that the choice of adjectives in the dictionary was subjective as not all collocations could be included. (Klégr & Hronková, 1994) It is again a Czech-English dictionary of collocations. The headwords are nouns and they have list of adjectives which collocate with them. According to the Klégr & Hronková (1994), the elaborative work was the same as the work on the previous dictionary. The base of the dictionary body, the nouns, was taken from the early dictionary and some more words were added which were taken from the pocket dictionary by K. Hais. 52

Table 15 Znáte anglická přídavná jména? nehoda accident: automobilová (motor)car, (US) automobile, (kdy řidič ujede) hit-and-run; dopravní traffic; důlní mining; hloupá stupid; hromadná mass, (na

dálnici) pile-up*; jezdecká riding; komická comic(al); letecká plane; n. při lovu hunting; malá small; menší slight, minor; námořní a. at sea; nepříjemná unpleasant;

nešťastná

unfortunate,

unlucky;

neuvěřitelná

incredible,

unbelievable; nezaviněná unavoidable, a. through nobody‟s fault; n. odvrácená

se štěstím

near;

ošklivá bad, nasty; otřesná shocking, shattering;

politováníhodná regrettable; pracovní úraz) industrial; silniční road; smrtelná fatal; strašná alul, dreadful, frightful, ghastly, horrible, terrible; tragická tragic;

vážná serious; velká big; zbytečná unnecessary; železniční railway, train, (US) railroad (srov. havárie, katastrofa, neštěstí, porucha, úraz) (Klégr & Hronková, 1994) The Czech headword is always in a bold type but in the same font as the rest of the entry, the following English equivalent is before a colon and is a part of the headword. An entry starts with a Czech word in italics, its English equivalent is given in normal type. Each new entry is after a semi-colon. If the Czech word has more English equivalents, they are divided by a comma. Nouns from the headword are not usually given in the text of the entry but when the pattern of ADJ – N should be changed into N – ADJ like in accident at sea the abbreviation of the noun will be given in the right position like a. at sea. The asterix symbol * means that the English collocate has a different form than the Czech one and the headword is not part of the collocation. Plural is indicated by the first letter and plural –s e.g. words = w-s. Czech nouns which are singular in the headword but plural in the collocation have the abbreviation

(pl) and vice-versa plural in headword has the abbreviation (sg) if it collocates in its singular form. 53

The slash / signals an alternative expression, and the link srov. draws attention to other entries with similar meaning as the headword. If the English headword has a regional variant different from British English, the label (US) is given. The Index of English nouns at the back of the book provides the Czech equivalentso the dictionary can be useful to foreign learners of Czech language. As in the first dictionary Znáte anglická slovesa?, in Znáte anglická přídavná

jména? there was not enough room to make any notes on usage of articles or to include illustrative sentences. Both dictionaries are written in one-column format, which means that the entry stretches on the whole line of the page. The dictionary was compiled in two waves. Firstly the Czech version was prepared with help of several publications about Czech language like Příruční

slovník jazyka českého, Praha (1935-1957), Slovník spisovného jazyka českého, Praha (1960-1971); and the second wave was translated by a native speaker into English and was enriched by data from already existing sources like J. I. Rodale: The Word Finder; H. Dzierzanowska, C. D. Kozlowska: Selected English

Collocations; M. Benson, E. Benson, R. Ilson: The BBI Combinatory Dictionary of English. A Guide to Word Combinations; and Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English; and other monolingual dictionaries. (Klégr & Hronková, 1994) 8.3

Czech-English Combinatory Dictionary: Noun and Verb

Czech-English Combinatory Dictionary: noun and verb was published in 2005 and belongs to the work of the Czech linguist Aleš Klégr. It is based on a dictionary called Znáte anglická slovesa? published in 1991 with a minimum of 54

computer help. As the first book was very popular among learners, authors decided to publish it again with updated content. A big help this time was the fact that collocation awareness spread and collocations were included in many dictionaries. Moreover, new projects on computerized corpora evolved. The structure of the dictionary follows the features of the old edition. It understands collocation as “a lexical syntagma, composed of two lexical words, in which the noun functions as subject or verb complement”. (Klégr, Key & Hronková, 2005) The aim of the dictionary to provide learners with help in their creative usage of the language has not changed. It is hoped to serve as a guide for translators, learners of English as well as for learners of Czech as the Czech entries are translated into English. There is an Index of English equivalents at the back of the bookso the dictionary can function in both directions. This dictionary can also serve as a dictionary of synonyms because where possible the Czech words are provided with more English equivalents. Same as the first edition this one relies on learners‟ previous knowledge in the way they sometimes need to consult other dictionary in order to choose the correct word and use it with correct grammar. Table 16 Czech-English Combinatory Dictionary: noun and verb nehoda accident: VO dávat vinu za (komu) blame (on); inscenovat stage;

mít have, meet with, be involved in; odvrátit avert, head off; ohlásit report; předstírat fake; přežít survive; přispět k (3) contribute to; rekonstruovat reconstruct; řešit handle, deal with; utrpět suffer, be involved in; vést k (3) lead to, result in; vidět see, witness; vyhnout se (3) avoid; vyšetřovat 55

investigate; vyvolat trigger; zabránit (3) prevent; způsobit cause;  dojet

bez (2) arrive without; potopit se při(6) sink in; stát se obětí (2) be victim of; vyváznout bez (2) escape without; SV postihne (dvě auta) involves (two cars) ; přihodí se (komu) happens, occurs, takes place (to sb) ( havárie,

katastrofa, úraz) (Klégr et al., 2005) The basic concept of entries has changed in the sense that it is now easier to search collocations. The Czech headword is written in bold type followed by an English equivalent. The Czech collocates are in bold italics and their English counterparts in normal font. Individual collocates are divided by a semi-colon. Brackets contain additional information of the noun case and slash provides an alternative collocate. The VO introduces section of verbs in the verb – object pattern, where the verb is transitive, the symbol  lists transitive and intransitive verbs and SV introduces noun – verb pattern, where the verb is transitive and intransitive and the noun is a subject. The symbols VO, SV and  are listed at the bottom of every page of the dictionary body so the learner does not have to search for them at the beginning. The cross-reference  lists other verbs which collocate with the headword. Generally speaking, what has changed from the previous edition are some graphic symbols, the used fonts and mainly the format of the page was transformed from one-column to two columns. The content was extended by 15,000 collocations so it contains 1,500 headwords and 90,000 entries. The newly added Czech words were based on a frequency list for the Czech language, compiled by the Institute for the Czech National Corpus in the Faculty of Arts, Charles University, Prague on the basis of a Czech Corpus (Syn2000) of 56

100 million words from the 1990‟s and the English collocations were selected with the help of an Internet source http://www.cs.ualberta.ca/~lindek/demos/collocation.htm which is based on San Jose Mercury corpus. Another sources used were the British electronic newspaper corpus The Times, 1995; The Word Finder, Rodale Books, 1967; H. Dzierzanowska, Kozlowska, Selected English Collocations, 1982; Benson, The

BBI Combinatory Dictionary of English, 1986; Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, 1987; English Collocations on CD-ROM, Collins COBUILD, 1995; LTP Dictionary of Selected Collocations, 1997; Oxford

Collocations Dictionary for Students of English, 2002; and the electronic Webster‟s Unabridged Dictionary, 1997. The main criterion for including collocations was their frequency, although the typicality of the combination was taken into consideration too. Czech headwords are arranged in alphabetical order but their English entries are arranged according to the frequency of occurrence. When the Czech word has more English equivalents they were previously tended to be included under one headword but in the new edition of the dictionary they have two separate headwords. E.g.

zmatek – chaos, confusion in the first edition and chaos – chaos; zmatek – confusion in the new edition. 8.4

The BBI Combinatory Dictionary of English

The BBI Combinatory Dictionary of English (BBI) was published in 1993. This dictionary has a “vital importance” to learners of English, according to the 57

editors (M. Benson, E. Benson & Ilson, 1993) because it really aims to help learners avoid making mistakes when they are trying to translate collocations in the same way they function in their language. The entries in this dictionary are organized alphabetically. Table 17 BBI accident n. [„unexpected, unpleasant event„] [„catastrophe„] 1. to have, meet with an ~ (they had an ~ during their trip) 2. to prevent ~s 3. an awful, bad, dreadful, frightful, horrible, nasty, serious, shocking; fatal; near; unavoidable; unfortunate ~ 4. an automobile (AE), motorcar (BE); hit-and-run; hunting; industrial; railroad (AE), railway (BE), train ~ 5. an ~ occurs, takes place (a bad ~ took place) 6. in an ~ (he was in a hunting ~) [‟chance‟] [‟luck‟] 7. pure, sheer ~ 8. an ~ that + clause (it was pure ~ that we met) 9. by ~ (we discovered it by ~; it was by pure ~ that we found the money) (Benson et al., 1993) Collocations in the BBI are arranged as follows. The grammatical collocations are always listed under the dominant word from the combination. When learners want to find a lexical collocation, they should follow the advice given by the authors in A Practical Guide which is a part of the dictionary. “If there is a noun in the collocation, look under the noun; if there are two nouns, look under the second; if there is no noun, look under the adjective; if there is no noun or adjective, look under verb.” (Benson et al., 1993) Every page of the BBI dictionary is divided into two columns in which the headwords are arranged alphabetically and entries are arranged in such a way that lexical collocations precede grammatical collocations. Headword is printed in bold and very small font. After a gap a part of speech is given in italics, in square brackets with single quotation marks learner may find a definition of the 58

word which is referring to the collocates which follow. There are sometimes more meanings of a word and giving the definition in brackets is a way how the

BBI deals with it. The collocates for the headword are listed in strings according to meaning from which the synonyms are separated by a comma and the new ones by a semi-colon. Table 18 BBI – regional variety accident n. 4. an automobile (AE), motorcar (BE); hit-and-run; hunting; industrial; railroad (AE), railway (BE), train ~ 5. an ~ occurs, takes place (a bad ~ took place)

The symbol ~ is given in substitution of the headword. Round brackets include a simple explanation of a collocation stated, or a short phrase with an illustrative phrase. A slash / is used for giving alternative collocate. A USAGE NOTE is a part of an entry. After a colon it provides additional information relevant for the collocation. The BBI contains information about differences between American English and British English. American variety is characterised by an abbreviation AE and British by BE (see Table 18). In headword, too, there are two ways of spelling given in one line. Homographs are listed as separate entries according to the alphabetical order of their part of speech (adjective, adverb, noun, and verb), e.g., abandon I. n. precedes abandon II. v. The BBI normally does not include pronunciation but inserts it in the case when it is necessary to distinguish a homograph use n. [ju:s] / use v. [ju:z]. There is a long list of abbreviations given to explain learners the information they might find in the body of the dictionary.

59

Apart from lexical and grammatical collocations, this dictionary provides some idioms and phrasal verbs. The meaning of an idiom is always explained in brackets. The Introduction has lots of grammar notes about e.g. dummy subject, relative clauses, or transitivity. In the entry the transitivity is mentioned in brackets in a way that is understandable even for those who have never studied any linguistics and are not familiar with the term of transitivity. The dictionary mentions the information about an object in brackets: (must have an object), (may have an object). (Benson et al., 1993) 8.5

LTP Dictionary of Selected Collocations Hill and Lewis were inspired by Christian Douglas Kozlowska and Halina

Dzierzanowska to publish the LTP Dictionary of Selected Collocations (LTP). They paid credit to Kozlowska and Dzierzanowska for realizing the importance of collocations in learning foreign languages. These two women were pioneers in writing collocations dictionaries in the Western part of Europe, as Hill and Lewis (1999) said, and they compiled two works: “Selected English

Collocations” in 1982 and “English Adverbial Collocations” in 1991. The former was based on nouns and the latter on verb-adverb and adjective-adverb combinations. The aim of their work was to produce reference material which would be practical for learners and translators. (Hill & Lewis, 1999) Hill and Lewis (1999), as they claim, adopted different a approach to dictionary creation than any others. They did not want to create it to help

60

learners to find the meaning of words they do not know, but to help them to use the words they already know. The LTP Dictionary of Selected Collocations is aimed at both intermediate and advanced learners. It is not a dictionary composed of single words but of collocations. It contains 3,200 nouns and verbs and 50,000 collocations. The dictionary does not provide any grammar information because the authors expect some previous knowledge from learners and there are also reasons concerning the limited capacity of the book. The LTP dictionary is divided into two parts: first part gives nouns as headwords and learners can use it to find the verb and adjective which collocate with the noun. The second part gives verbs and adjectives as headwords and learners can use it to look up for adverbs and adverbial expressions which are in combination with the verbs and adjectives. In the introduction Hill and Lewis (1999) provide some recommendation how to find collocations which learners need. First it is necessary to find a headword according to the part of speech and then scan the words listed under the wanted heading. Learners should concentrate on those words they think might be those which they need and ignore those which are unknown to them or on the contrary known to them. The LTP dictionary is according to the authors very helpful for those who have already known the collocation but would like to make sure that they remember it correctly. (Hill & Lewis, 1999)

61

Table 19 LTP ACCIDENT V: avert, avoid, be involved in, cause, have, meet with, precipitate, prevent, suffer, witness ~ A: bad, car, dreadful, fatal, happy, horrible, industrial, nasty, road, serious, slight, terrible, tragic, unfortunate ~ P: cause of, victim of ~, spate of, toll of accidents (Hill & Lewis, 1999) The entry in the LTP dictionary consists of a headword written in capital and bold letters, the collocations are listed on new lines in a given order of V, V, A, P. That means verb before the noun, verbs after the noun, adjectives and phrases with a noun. The symbol ~ is used at a place of a headword. The slash indicates an alternative collocate, and three dots … show an unfinished phrase. Round brackets () indicate prefixes showing when the headword collocates with both positive and negative words. If the headword collocates only with one of the equivalent, then it is printed without brackets. The authors had to deal with the problems of making the dictionary coherent. Some words in English have more meanings so they were given two separate entries in the dictionary with an explanation of the meaning in brackets. They had to deal with plurality of some words and collocations. In most common cases words are stated in plural. When it is not a common case, the plural collocation appears at the end of the entry. E.g. congratulations,

circumstances, talks. The second part of the Introduction provides learners with a guide to adverbials. It stands in for a grammar book.

62

The position of adverbs in the body of the dictionary is illustrated on a short phrase. The verb is given in its position and adverbs are written either before or after it. E.g. suggest. Table 20 adverbs position SUGGEST

suggest diffidently, hesitantly, in good faith, obliquely, politely, repeatedly, wearily seriously, strongly, tentatively suggest sth/that...

The second part of the book does not replace the headword with a dash ~ but copies it in the correct position in a phrase. At the end of the dictionary, the authors decided to list adverbs which are used at the beginning of a sentence in order to link the text together. They also emphasize the importance of learning words in collocations rather than individually. There are some headwords which collocate with many more adverbs which were not possible to be entered in the dictionary so there is a note stating this fact. E.g. act Table 21 LTP note ACT Verbs which describe an action – for example act, smile, walk – can be used with many different adverbs of manner which tell you how the person did the action. You can „walk‟ thoughtfully, carefully, distractedly. These collocations are correct, but are not strong enough or frequent enough to be listed here. To help you with questions you may have, for example, writing an essay, we include only the most useful collocations.

63

Further in the dictionary with a similar verb will be a NOTE saying the same in a shorter way: Table 22 LTP shorter note ANSWER

Answer is similar to other verbs which describe how we speak, for example, add, and speak. They also describe an actionso they collocate with many different adverbs of manner. 8.6

Oxford Collocations Dictionary

The second edition of the Oxford Collocations Dictionary for Students of English (OCDSE) was published by Oxford University Press in 2009. McIntosh et al (2009) explain how students can benefit from having such a dictionary like the

Oxford Collocations Dictionary. They illustrate this need on an example when a student writing an essay on the environment has all the vocabulary necessary but words which can link them together and can create a coherent text are missing. The main source for compiling the first edition of this dictionary was the British National Corpus which has 100 million words, and the Internet as a resource. The authors decided to include only British not American English in the first edition of the dictionary as they thought it to be more efficient for learners. On the contrary, the second edition of the OCDSE, updated by Colin McIntosh, was compiled with the use of a computer database which consists of almost two billion words of English texts – the Oxford English Corpus and already provides information on regional variants. McIntosh cooperated with his colleagues and also teachers and students who gave him feedback on the previous edition of the dictionary as well as on sample material from the new 64

edition. It contains around 9,000 headwords, 250,000 word combinations and 75,000 examples. (Crowther et al., 2002; McIntosh et al., 2009) Register is mentioned when words make an informal or on the contrary a formal collocation. Another frequently used label in this dictionary is figurative. As collocations can have both a literal and a figurative meaning, the authors decided to draw learner‟s attention to it. E.g. way collocates with lose and is followed by examples: She lost her way in the fog and This project seems to

have lost its way (figurative). When the collocation has an idiomatic meaning, there is a gloss provided explaining it. E.g. drive a bargain has a gloss = force

sb to agree to the arrangement that is best for you. The dictionary contains special pages which help learners with orientation in the dictionary. There are exercises about finding the right collocations to a given word. In addition to this, there are five more pages at the end of the dictionary which contain the key to these exercises so everybody can check if they understand how to work with the dictionary. The following types of combinations can be found in the dictionary together with the information about under which entry learners should lookso the introduction gives learners a guide how to work with the dictionary: Under noun entries: Adjective + noun / quantifier + noun / verb + noun / noun + verb / noun + noun / preposition + noun / noun + preposition. Under verb entries: Adverb + verb / verb + verb / verb + preposition. Under adjective entries: Verb + adjective / adverb + adjective / adjective + preposition. (McIntosh et al., 2009)

65

Table 23 OCDSE accident noun 1 unexpected event that causes damage/injury ADJ. bad, dreadful (esp. BrE), horrible, horrific (esp. BrE), major, nasty, serious, terrible, tragic, unfortunate | deadly (AmE), fatal ◊ a fatal road ~ | minor, slight, small | bizarre, freak ◊ Their boat sank in a freak ~. | hit-and-run | industrial, nuclear | auto (AmE), automobile (AmE), bike, car, highway (AmE), motor (BrE), motorbike (BrE), motorcycle, motorvehicle, road, traffic ◊ The woman was involved in a road traffic ~. (BrE) | aircraft, airplane (AmE), plane (esp. AmE) | boating, climbing, hunting, riding, skiing VERB + ACCIDENT be involved in, have, meet with (BrE), suffer ◊ She

met with an ~ while skiing in Colorado. | cause | avoid, prevent | survive | recover from ACCIDENT + VERB happen, occur, take place ACCIDENT + NOUN black spot (BrE) | victim | prevention | investigation, report | rate, statistics PREP. in an/the ~ PHRASES an ~ involving ◊ He was badly hurt in an ~ involving two cars and

a van. | an ~ waiting to happen (= a situation which is likely to become dangerous) | the scene of the ~ ◊ The ambulance took only six minutes to

reach the scene of the ~. 2 sth not planned in advance ADJ. mere, pure, sheer ◊ By pure ~ he had come across the very man who

could solve the mystery. | happy | historical PREP. by ~ ◊ We met by ~ at the airport. PHRASES an ~ of birth (esp. BrE) | an ~ of history ◊ It's just an ~ of

history that the city became part of the Soviet Union. | be on ~ that... ◊ It is no ~ that men fill most of the top jobs. | by ~ or design ◊ It happened, whether by ~ or design, that Steve and I were the last two people to leave. (McIntosh, 2009) 66

The headword in the OCDSE is written in a bigger bold type than the rest of the text. It is followed by a word class in italics. The entries are grouped according to their meaning and a pattern. For example the noun accident first lists adjectives that collocate with the headword, next section is the verb which is followed by the headword, then the verb which is preceded by the headword, and the noun which goes after the headword. Collocations are organized alphabetically as in any above mentioned dictionary. Each headword has collocates listed according to the part of speech which are listed also in alphabetical order. Within the entry, the collocative words are grouped according to similar meaning or other logical sense. The patterns are always stated in blue colour so the dictionary is clearly and easily comprehensible. Illustrative phrases or sentences typed in italics are introduced by a ◊ symbol. A slash / gives alternatives and the blue line | separates groups of collocates with different meanings. Some entries for a particular headword contain illustrative sentences so learners can see and understand how the collocations are used in context. There is also information about the national variety, whether the word is used in British or American English or both. The labels which are used are: AmE, BrE,

esp. AmE, esp. BrE. Some words are associated with one or another variety just because it is a national institution or speciality. In this case the UK or US labels are used. As some words have more meanings in English there are definitions provided next to the entry in order to distinguish them from one another. In no other cases a definition is given. 67

Some groups of words, like days of the week or months share the same collocations. For this reason there are 25 usage notes in the OCDSE which are placed below the headword of the overall word e.g. day, month. Then at the particular entry there is only a cross-reference to the usage note. On page xii there is a complete list of these usage notes and collocations arranged according to common features so the learner has a quick overview about the frequent topics. In the introduction McIntosh (2009) mentions that a common sense and intuition were used when compiling the dictionary. As well as the first edition the second one contains special pages of exercises which should prepare learners for orientation in the dictionary. 8.7

Macmillan Collocations Dictionary for Learners of English

The Macmillan Collocations Dictionary for Learners of English (MCD) is the latest published collocations dictionary from 2010. It was edited by Michael Rundell and has been compiled with the help of collocation-finding software and a 2-billion word corpus of modern English. In the introduction Rundell (2010) highlights the importance of a corpus which makes data accessible more easily. He stresses the importance of collocations for learners to sound more natural when they speak English and is promoting the dictionary; moreover, his co-worker Sam McCarter promotes the

MCD use in IELTS exams.

68

Table 24 MCD accident N an event or crash that causes damage, injury, or death • adj+N serious bad, fatal, horrific, major, nasty, serious, terrible, tragic, unfortunate We are working to reduce fatal and serious accidents in

Gloucestershire.  not very serious minor, non-fatal There were scores of minor accidents

as vehicles skidded on black ice in the morning rush hour.  that could be prevented avoidable, foreseeable, preventable Up to a

third of all reported medical cases are due to avoidable accidents.  unusual and unexpected freak He was killed in a freak accident involving

a tractor.  in the home or workplace domestic, industrial, workplace, workrelated According to the report, the construction industry suffers from almost

5,000 work-related accidents each year. • n+N automobile, car, cycling, factory, mining, motorcycle, rail, road, road traffic, skiing He had a bad car accident a couple of years ago. • v+N have an accident be involved in, have, meet with, suffer, sustain Having suffered an unfortunate accident some years ago, Ivan was

unable to continue in his career as a chef.  cause an accident cause, lead to, result in The accident was caused

by the driver swerving to avoid a sheep lying dead on the road.  prevent or try to prevent an accident avert, avoid, eliminate, minimize, prevent, reduce The aim of the plan is to reduce congestion on

local roads and minimize accidents. • N+v happen, occur More than half of the accidents occur because

ladders are not securely placed and fixed. (Rundell et al., 2010) Macmillan has a tradition of using red colour for distinguishing different features of entries. The headword is written in red, it is followed by an abbreviation for a word class in black colour. A definition of the headword is 69

given and if there are more meanings, they are given under numbers. In the

MCD, entries for each head are gathered in sets, according to their meaningso learners can find the right collocation without actually needing any other general dictionary. Every set has its definition and a list of collocations. For example argument has such sets of meaning as „a strong argument‟ compelling,

persuasive, powerful, or „sensible and well-argued‟ coherent, rational, and wellreasoned. The red bullet symbol • introduces a pattern in which the entries collocate with the headword. E.g. adj+N lists adjectives which collocate with the noun the headword. The entries are arranged according to the alphabet of their word class: adjectives, adverbs, nouns and verbs. Within the pattern they are put together according to the meaning and here are again listed alphabetically. The symbol  introduces a new meaning for the pattern. Collocates are highlighted by a bold font and the example sentences are written in italics. There are grey and red coloured boxes used for usage notes when there is a need of closer specification of the collocation. (Rundell, 2010)

70

CONCLUSION First information from the dictionaries was compared to see how differently the authors approached the compilation of the dictionaries. Then the body of the dictionaries was judged and compared, their graphical and informative structures and my opinion on the dictionaries was expressed. A short list of headwords taken from the presented collocations dictionaries was compiled, on the

bases of which the similarities and/or differences which occurred were

compared. All dictionaries try to inform their learners about the content of the dictionary, the level for which it is aimed, grammatical information which is not included in the body of the dictionary, abbreviations and symbols used, and how to use the dictionary and look up an expression. The BBI, OCDSE and MCD dictionaries provide a visual guide of the entries, whereas

Anglická

slovesa,

Anglická

přídavná

jména,

the

Noun-verb

Combinatory Dictionary and the LTP dictionary provide a word-guide to the dictionary. Lists of abbreviations and symbols are of different lengths. The majority of dictionaries usually mention them in the front matter, but the OCDSE lists them inside the cover, and the MCD does not provide them at all.

Anglická slovesa, Anglická přídavná jména, and the Noun-verb Combinatory Dictionary provide lists of English nounsso the dictionaries can be useful for English speakers as well as Czech ones. The LTP dictionary provides a list of sentence adverbs used at the beginning of a sentence e.g. anyway, clearly,

primarily. The OCDSE provides learners with a key to the study guide, which is 71

in the middle of the dictionary, and thus makes the dictionary exceptional from the others. The study pages are organized in such a way that they first provide an overview of the usage of an entry and then in sections divided into topics like natural disasters, criminal justice, education, driving, etc., offer practical exercises which should help the learners to acquire the related collocations. Neither the BBI nor the MCD do have similar inserted pages. The front matters are written in the language of the author or editor, or depending on the publisher. So the BBI, LTP, OCDSE, MCD dictionaries are written in English and Anglická slovesa and Anglická přídavná jména have an introduction in Czech. A rarity among the selected dictionaries is Klégr‟s Czech-

English Combinatory dictionary: noun and verb, where the author decided to use Czech and English in the mirror way: Czech in the left column and English in the right one. The older the dictionary, the more grammatical information we get from the front matter. The most informative front and back matter is in the BBI as its first edition from 1986 makes it the oldest of the studied dictionaries. If we have a look at the body of the dictionaries and the entries themselves we can evaluate the contribution of individual dictionaries according to included seven criteria: word class, definitions, regional variants, way of replacing the headword, introducing new entry, collocation patterns, and providing illustrative sentences. Word class of a headword is given only in the BBI, OCDSE and MCD; for the rest of the dictionaries it is not necessary to state the word class because they are dictionaries specializing in nouns as headwords (Znáte anglická slovesa, 72

Znáte anglická přídavná jména, and the Combinatory Dictionary: noun and verb), or the dictionary is divided into two sections according to the word class of the headwords (LTP). A definition of the headword is given only in the BBI, OCDSE and MCD. The

BBI and OCDSE provide more possible meanings and include entries for all of them. A regional English variant is mentioned in three Czech-English dictionaries edited by Klégr only if there is a well-known American variation of the preferably British collocate. On the contrary, the OCDSE mentions both American and British variants of English, but the authors of the LTP and

Macmillan dictionaries decided to devote their dictionaries only to British English. All dictionaries, except the Czech-English ones and the MCD, use a special way of replacing the headword in the entryso they avoid repeating it. The BBI,

LTP and OCDSE use a swung dash, the Czech-English dictionaries rely on the learners‟ knowledge of the word order in a sentenceso they only use an abbreviation at the place where the position of the headword is not clear, and the Macmillan publisher decided to repeat the headword in full text. For separating a new set of entries, the Czech-English dictionaries use a semi-colon, the BBI uses numbers, the LTP only a word class on a new line, the

OCDSE a blue line, and the MCD uses red bullets and arrows. Patterns according to which the entries are organized tend to be different for all the dictionaries. The main difference is given by the specification of the dictionary. From the title of the Czech dictionaries we can already recognize the 73

patterns: Znáte anglická přídavná jména contain only Adj + N and N + N patterns; Znáte anglická slovesa and Combinatory Dictionary: noun and verb have V + N, and N + V patterns. The BBI and OCDSE dictionaries provide the whole range of patterns: Adj + N, N + N, V + N, N + V, Prepostions and Phrases and thus become the most informative ones. The latest dictionary

MCD, sadly, contains only four basic patterns: Adj + N, N + N, V + N, N + V. Illustrative sentences are provided only by the latest dictionaries: the

OCDSE and MCD. Nevertheless, the BBI has a tendency to use short illustrative phrases to show the usage of the collocation. One would say that the latest dictionary should provide the most exhaustive informationso the learners can easily orientate in it. But it is not the case of the

MCD. This dictionary contains a short introduction in which the authors promote ILTC exams rather than the dictionary and at first sight it does not provide as many collocations as the Oxford Collocations Dictionary. When we compare a sample entry for the headword accident, we can see that the OCDSE provides 77 collocations whereas the MCD only 47 collocations. Although the Macmillan Collocations Dictionary introduces every entry with a field for subentries, it is not as transparent as the Oxford Collocations

Dictionary. Moreover, the OCDSE dictionary contains a CD-ROM with all collocations from the paper dictionary in an electronic version. My conclusion thus is that the Oxford University Press took advantage of the previous collocations dictionaries for its own benefit and compiled a dictionary which is of substantial help for students of English. 74

BIBLIOGRAPHY Primary sources: Benson, M., Benson, E., Ilson, R. (Eds.). (1993). The BBI Combinatory

Dictionary of English: A Guide to Word Combinations. Amsterdam, Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company. Benson, M., Benson, E., Ilson, R. (Eds.). (1997). The BBI Dictionary of English

Word Combinations. Amsterdam, Philadelphia. John Benjamins Publishing Company. Crowther, J., Dignen, S., Lea, D. (2002). Oxford Collocations Dictionary for

students of English. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Čermák F, Hronek, J., Machač, J. (2009). Slovník české frazeologie a idiomatiky. Praha, CZ. LEDA. Hill, J., Lewis, M. (Eds.). (1999). The LTP Dictionary of Selected Collocations. London, England: LTP Language. Klégr, A., Hronková, N., Hron, Z. (1991). Znáte anglická slovesa? Česko-

anglický slovník nejužívanějších spojení podstatných jmen se slovesy. (2nd ed.) Praha, CZ. Státní pedagogické nakladatelství Praha. Klégr, A., Hronková, N. (1994). Znáte anglická přídavná jména? Česko-anglický

slovník podstatných jmen s přídavnými jmény. Praha, CZ. Nakladatelství LEDA. Klégr, A., Key, P., Hronková, N. (2005). Česko-anglický slovník spojení:

podstatné jméno a sloveso. Praha, CZ. Nakladatelství Karolinum.

75

McIntosh, C., Francis, B., Poole, R. (Eds.). (2009). Oxford Collocations

Dictionary for students of English. (2nd ed.). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Rundell, M., Fox, G. (Eds.). (2010). Macmillan Collocations Dictionary for

Learners of English. Oxford, UK. Macmillan Publishers Limited.

Secondary sources: Barfield, A., & Gyllstad, H. (Eds.). (2009). Researching Collocations in Another

Language: Multiple Interpretations. Palgrave Macmillan. Blatná, R., Čermák F., Filipec J. (1995). Manuál lexikografie. Jinočany, CZ: Nakladatelství a vydavatelství H&H. Čermák, F., Šulc, M. (Eds.). (2006). Kolokace. Praha, CZ. NLN. Ilson, R. (Ed.). (1986). Lexicography: An emerging international profession. London, UK: Manchester University Press in association with the Fulbright Commission. Mugglestone, L. (Ed.). (2000). Lexicography and the OED: Pioneers in the

Untrodden Forest. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Nesselhauf, N. (2005). Collocations in a Learner Corpus. Amsterdam, Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company. Sinclair, J.M. (Ed.). (1988). Looking Up. An account of the COBUILD Project in

lexical computing. London, UK. Collins ELT. Sánchez, A. M. (2006). From Words to Lexical Units: A Corpus-Driven Account

of Collocation and Idiomatic Patterning in English and English – Spanish. Frankfurt, GE: Peter Lang Europaisher Verlag der Wissenschaften. 76

Electronic sources: Čermák, František. Combination, Collocation and Multi-Word Units. Retrieved from Český národní korpus, http://ucnk.ff.cuni.cz/stahni.php#cermak Corpora4learning.net. (24, June, 2005). English Corpora. Retrieved from http://www.corpora4learning.net/resources/corpora.html#BE. eLearnAid.com. The Dictionary Store. Collins COBUILD English Collocations on

CD-ROM. Retrieved from http://www.elearnaid.com/colcobencolo.html. UsingEnglish

.com.

Term:

Colligation.

(March,

2011).

http://www.usingenglish.com/glossary/colligation.html.

77

Retrieved

from

Shrnutí Tato diplomová práce se zabývá vývojem slovníků kolokací. Zahrnuje anglické slovníky kolokací od jejich vzniku až po současnost a zároveň se zabývá skutečností, jak se s kolokacemi zacházelo před vznikem prvních slovníků kolokací. V této práci jsou nejdříve popisovány teoretické znalosti o pojmech frazeologie, idiomatika, kolokace a korpus, poté se práce zabývá existujícími výzkumy v oblasti kolokací a slovníků kolokací prováděných jinými lingvisty, a nakonec jsou na příkladech ilustrovány konkrétní změny. Z každého porovnávaného slovníku bylo náhodně vybráno jedno podstatné jméno, do tabulky byly zapsány všechny údaje, jak jsou uvedeny v jednotlivých slovnících, a za pomoci barevného rozlišení byla zvýrazněna kritéria, podle kterých bylo možné slovníky srovnat. Konkrétně se jedná o záznam slovního druhu, definice slova v záhlaví, regionální varianty, způsob jakým se nahrazuje slovo ze záhlaví, aby se nemuselo opakovat v samotném hesle, oddíly týkající se spojení slovních druhů, a způsob zaznamenávání konce a začátku nového setu výrazů. Z přehledné tabulky bylo možné vyčíst, jak jsou jednotlivé slovníky organizovány. Závěrem práce je zjištění, že předpoklad, že nejnovější slovník by měl být nejobsáhlejší, nejpřehlednější a měl by studentovi zajistit co nejvíce informací, je mylný. Podle subjektivního hodnocení se slovník Macmillan Collocations

Dictionary vydaný roku 2010 nevyrovná obsáhlejšímu slovníku Oxford Collocations Dictionary.

78

Resumé The master thesis is about development of dictionaries of collocations. It deals with English collocations dictionaries from their origin till now and along with that it deals with the fact how the collocations were treated before the occurrence of the first dictionaries of collocations. First, theoretical knowledge about terms phraseology, idiomacy, collocation and corpus is described. Next, existing research on collocations done by other linguists is dealt with, and finally, concrete changes are illustrated on examples. One noun from each compared dictionary has been picked randomly, the data have been entered in a table and the criteria according to which it is possible to compare the dictionaries have been marked with highlighting colours. To be specific here is the list of criteria: word class, definition of a headword, regional variant, way of replacing a headword in an entry so it does not have to be repeated, patterns of collocations, and the way of marking the end and the beginning of a new set of meaning. The arrangement of individual dictionaries can be seen clearly from this table. The result of the work is such that the hypothesis that the latest dictionary should be the most extensive, the most comprehensible, and should provide learners with the most information, was wrong. According to subjective evaluation the Macmillan Collocations Dictionary published in 2010 cannot be equal to more extensive Oxford Collocations Dictionary.

79

APPENDICES P I Criteria

P II Patterns

80

List of Tables Table 1 hungry ................................................................................................................... 13 Table 2 necessary .............................................................................................................. 13 Table 3 stará nádhera....................................................................................................... 20 Table 4 ironický.................................................................................................................. 24 Table 5 pichlavý jako ježek .............................................................................................. 24 Table 6 riziko ...................................................................................................................... 25 Table 7 pirát silnic ............................................................................................................. 26 Table 8 prepositions .......................................................................................................... 26 Table 9 conjunctions ......................................................................................................... 26 Table 10 stát na hanbě ..................................................................................................... 27 Table 11 těžkej chlebíček ................................................................................................. 28 Table 12 je to těžké .......................................................................................................... 29 Table 13 faux amis ............................................................................................................ 30 Table 14 Znáte anglická slovesa? ................................................................................... 50 Table 15 Znáte anglická přídavná jména? ..................................................................... 53 Table 16 Czech-English Combinatory Dictionary: noun and verb .............................. 55 Table 17 BBI ....................................................................................................................... 58 Table 18 BBI – regional variety ....................................................................................... 59 Table 19 LTP ...................................................................................................................... 62 Table 20 adverbs position ................................................................................................ 63 Table 21 LTP note ............................................................................................................. 63 Table 22 LTP shorter note................................................................................................ 64 Table 23 OCDSE ................................................................................................................ 66 Table 24 MCD ..................................................................................................................... 69

81

List of Figures Figure 1 Handl‟s research ................................................................................................. 34 Figure 2 Collocation web .................................................................................................. 47

82