De-westernization of Media and Journalism ...

China Media Research, 10(2), 2014, Ullah, De-westernization of Media and Journalism Education in South Asia

De-westernization of Media and Journalism Education in South Asia: In Search of a New Strategy Mohammad Sahid Ullah University of Queensland, Australia Abstract: South Asian educators train journalism students with borrowed curricula from the West. Professionals and recruitment authorities often critical to the curricula, as those are not to fit with the local context. Journalism/ media/ mass communication graduates are therefore being undervalued in the local media recruitment process. Along with the ignorance of the native industry requirements and the flaws of the west-centric curricula evident that the South Asian journalism institutions require a different approach to course contents – precisely mean the de-westernization or localization of curricula. This article focuses on the importance of western values in journalism education, failure of conventional west-oriented or readymade curricula, complexity between theory and practices, the necessity for a new approach to form a curricula model and the responsibility of journalism educators in South Asian universities. [China Media Research. 2014; 10(2): 15-23] Keywords: Journalism Education, West-centric Curricula, De-westernisation, South-Asian Nations many journalists in Asia follow development and advocacy journalism and consider them an advocate of social change. Muppidi (2008) comments, “journalists around the world know the model only as hypothetical… this model is not acceptable in all parts of the world.” Servaes (2009) notes, “the manufacturing of information is conditioned generally by the political, economic and cultural conditions, as well as by the actual situation, in which the selection, production, transmission, distribution and consumption of information takes place.” This observation reflects, journalism does not grow in a vacuum - it is a fruit of the interaction between different actors and systems. Such differences in social structure and the contexts hence have to be taken into account when theorizing the model of journalism and for that matter journalism education. Following this line, journalism educators and researchers outside the predominant Anglo-American orbit started challenging the established paradigm of journalism curricula and teaching methods at university classroom. India, for instance, which depends on west-centric blending of journalism curricula, Murthy (2011) called it ‘broad basing of curriculum’ offer the students to build a deeper insight into the complexities of social issues is not accepted by either academics (20%) or professionals (100%). Similarly, Ullah (2013) observes, professionals in Bangladesh traditionally thought, the university-based idealistic journalism education, mostly based on west-centric curricula that they are given inside the classroom is not often what is followed in the practical world. In fact, the Western values in the name of ‘universalism’ have influenced journalism professional practices, curricula and training in different countries. These values, mostly called ‘dominance’ or ‘neo-colonialisation of mind’ has had an enormous

Introduction Journalism education across the South Asian nations has been undergoing dramatic changes with the increasing demand for competent workforce in the booming media business. Intend to keep pace with the progress of the profession and industry; university journalism educators bring a number of changes in their course curricula. More techno-centric, multidisciplinary, and managerial entrepreneurship courses are also being included in the syllabi recently. In spite of such changes and inclusions, journalism educators (e.g., Desai, 2008; Melkote, 2008; Muppidi, 2008; Murthy, 2011; Pant, 2009; Sanjay, 2012; Ullah, 2012, 2013) regret that the tradition-tamed west-centric journalism curricula at university level are yet prepared to take the new challenge. Besides, many trends of journalism and media education systems – vocational, on-job and university-based – have puzzled the traditional ‘professional’ and ‘craft’ models of journalism curricula. Desai (2008) remarks the situation as, “the vehicle of journalism education seems to be halted with punctured wheels” and urges, South Asian media and journalism educators need to look for an appropriate model when they seek acceptance from professionals in accordance to their local context. But it seems that the efforts by South Asian journalism educators are far away from the stipulated milestones in cases of knowledge and research on journalism education. Datta-Ray (2006), Freedman et al., (2009) and Hallin & Mancini (2004) studies in different cultures have found that journalism, which is neutral, objective, and independent from other social powers and which performs a watchdog function is the best model. Journalists in reality however, act in a different way and they follow different model of journalism. For instance,

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Public universities, on the other hand, don’t take the risk to change the existing syllabus structure due to want of any rigorous examination of the suitability of curricula in their local context. These institutions follow the syllabi those as it is, for long with minimal change which indicates an uncritical acceptance of the dominant western notion of journalism courses for higher education. Overall, the existing courses from these universities can be summarized in to five broad categories: (a) communication studies, (b) journalism/ media reporting, writing and production, (c) technocentric, multi-disciplinary managerial entrepreneurship (d) social sciences, and (e) media research tools. This trend, in both ends, seems to be a mere extension of western journalism curricula – a blending of craft and study. This situation specifies, South Asian journalism educators have been facing a serious drawback to make rigorous examination of a suitable strategy for them and consequently, it further boosts the domination of AngloAmerican-Francophone curricula model. Moreover, the globalization has enhanced a ‘Universal Hegemonic’ practice in journalism education. To face the dominance, Asian journalism educators need to search their contextspecific curricula model. This search does not mean the outright rejection of existing western curricula and theories rather, what is at issue - is the uncritical acceptance of western models and neglect of the cumulative wisdom embodied in local socio-political and cultural context. This argument supports the notion of Brazilian pedagogist, Paulo Freire (1972), what, he tried to popularise the view that the objective of education is to be liberated - that the process of education needs to be based on participation and that the content of education is to be built on local knowledge.

impact on higher education systems in formerly colonized countries, resulting often in the exclusion of local knowledge from the higher education curricula. To overcome this kind of knowledge domination, South Asian journalism educators need to have their own curricula model. Lee (2008) however, opined, “the development of one’s own model depends on enough knowledge, experience, conceptual thinking and teaching materials in the field.” In practical, it seems, in every case, be it conceptual thinking, teaching materials or enough expertise, South Asian universities are in legged behind. Trends of Journalism Curricula in South Asia World Journalism Education Council’s data (2010) shows, a total of 159 public (read central and state in context of India) and private university journalism departments/schools (the actual number is more than 200 presently) are providing undergraduate (Bachelor of Arts - BA/ Bachelor of Social Sciences - BSS), and graduate (Masters of Arts - MA/ Masters of Social Sciences - MSS) degrees or Diplomas in journalism/mass communication in six South Asian countries, namely, Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. In addition, a significant number of universities in India and Pakistan are also providing MPhil and PhD degrees. A curricula study (BA/BSS and MA/MSS) of 12 universities from this region (except Bhutan) by this author under the SAGE Tejeshwar Singh Memorial Fellowship has found, syllabi put 70 per cent on communication and media theory (e. g., diffusion of innovation, dependency, Schramm) and 30 per cent on practical journalism courses (e.g., Campbell & Wolseley type journalism when it is bleeds it would be lead, inverted pyramid) in curricula following the western universities, the USA in particular, which has no or very minimal relevance with the Asian context. Public and private university syllabi nevertheless have been found very different in nature. Public universities follow more traditional liberal arts/ social sciences-focused courses while private universities journalism curricula are jammed with techno-centric courses. In fact, the absence of any clear-cut direction or consistency among various journalism courses makes the climate susceptible. For example, private initiatives follow the path of western universities now, which focus on cyborg studies, celebrity studies, multimedia gaming, sports journalism, advertising, and media entrepreneurship courses instead of traditional reporting, editing or communication courses. This inclusion indicates, journalism teaching and learning in private universities is subsequently replaced by more stakeholder-centered overshadowing the public service like traditional notion of university education.


Importance Places of Western Values for South Asians The origins of applied journalism and journalism education, especially for South Asian nations, are rooted in colonial period and, are strongly influenced by colonial histories. Journalism profession began its journey in this region, by the hand of British East-India company people during late 18th century, whereas journalism education by the American scholars and professionals in the last half of 20th century. Eapen et al. (1991) noted that the American media experts and expertise had left an indelible impression on the genesis and the growth of journalism education in the subcontinent. The US thrust has continued into the 1990s, what Eapen said, as quoted in Sanjay (2012), “…there is a fixation with the US model.” In that line, most journalism educators and media scholars think anything from the West (US in particular) is better than what they can come up with. Seneviratne (2011) apprehend, “this

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kind of acceptance is obviously a dangerous practice in scholarly knowledge production.” The reasons of this uncritical acceptance perhaps are: firstly, lack of any comprehensive research evidences including reading materials among local media and journalism educators’ hand; secondly, inadequate facilities or budget constraints in the institutions and thirdly, the conglomeration of globalization, corporatisation and technological intervention in media industry. Gunaratne (2009), Lee (2008), Sanjay (2012) and Ullah (2012), summarised the reasons in five broad categories: (a) epistemological influence - west is the best mindset, (b) want of critical examination about the suitability of curricula in local context (c) bird-eye view to the profession and industry by the faculty members (d) globalization and (e) scarcity of enough budget in support of any forward looking steps in regards to curricula. Epistemological influence: Epistemologies are produced and attain their validity within social relations, which in turn are embedded in political and economic conditions. Journalism educators have found a link between journalism practice and political organisation. Gunaratne (2009), Seneviratne (2011), Papoutsaki (2007), Wang (2011), and Wasswerman & de Beer (2009) noticed that the West’s dominance in the production, organisation, and dissemination of the world knowledge and information contributes to the heavy reliance of developing countries. This predominance of British and American influence on journalism practice and education encourages the acceptance of imported models. Papoutsaki (2007) argues, it “resulting often in the exclusion of local knowledge systems from the higher education curricula and the teaching of inappropriate research methods that fail to be in line with local epistemologies.” Seneviratne (2011) appropriately remarks, “For long Asian intellectuals have been used to going to the West to obtain their PhDs to gain recognition back home, and in return they have been churning out western ideas and theories, especially in humanities, economics and developmental studies, without critically examining it.” In other words, in absence of any better option readily available in hand, educators accept western notion of journalism culture as well as education system.

years back. In absentia of publication opportunity, journalism educators depend on the ideas from developed worlds, which contribute poor knowledge production from this region. Similarly, it is evident that knowledge production and theory building takes place within structural constraints, and these become especially evident when scholarly publication is considered. Native journalism and media educators and even scholars returned from the western countries have a very poor contribution in publishing books with local examples. Only recently, however, leading publishers such as SAGE and Oxford have a few titles that pertain to the region, India, in particular. Bird eye view to the profession: Study evidences from Muppidi (2008), Murthy (2011), Pant (2009) and Ullah (2012) show, despite critical remarks from professionals, journalism educators don’t heed the complaints or consider the industry requirements in curricula design. Universities across the region offer Bachelor and Masters in journalism in different names (Mass Communication and Journalism/ Journalism and Media Studies/ Communication and Journalism/ Journalism and Media Arts ete.) with an imbalanced theory and practical courses (somewhere 70 percent theory courses and 30 percent practical). Public university journalism educators in Bangladesh, India and Nepal even after recognizing that the media industries need high-quality journalism education to cope with their private media boom, new media intervention, and particularly this sector’s job requirements, don’t take any step to update their curricula. Sanjay (2012) records that the University Grants Commission (UGC) of India model popularly known as ‘UGC model curriculum’ for journalism is not implemented in Indian universities. Institutions did not even consider the recommendations by Southern Illinois University Carbondale arise from the Strengthening Journalism Education in South Asia colloquium in Colombo of 1997 till date. In addition, absence of adequate cooperation between professionals and educators, both sides consider university journalism education is merely a distant onlooker of professional updates and their requirements. Educators therefore, face hardship to provide any consultation to the professionals in one hand and practitioners never take educators on board as their colleague on the other. Globalisation: With the increasing internationalization of higher education, South Asian journalism educators are not prepared yet to squarely face the increasing foreign influences. In other words, globalisation has enhanced a ‘universal hegemonic’ practice in journalism education furthermore. For instance, globalization trends lead institutions to adapt business and financial reporting, environment and disaster reporting, etc., with some added importance in their curricula, but countries in South Asia urgently

Want of critical examination: The dominance of American publishing houses and journals has, over the last half century, become so all-encompassing that generation of journalism students across the region to follow the line. The American textbooks on journalism have become the sole published source for journalism students and researchers as well. Though, scholarly journals are the key priorities in the development of critical scholarship, there was a scarcity of journal publication in journalism across South Asia till a few


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need to stress on development journalism and agriculture reporting, which are still struggling for a place in. Loo (2005) explains the reason of these adaptations in three approaches: First, the modern system of education itself has been adopted from the West. Second, as a discipline of knowledge or as an academic field of study, communication, media, and journalism first gained recognition and evolved in the West, particularly in the United States. Third, and most of all, the triumph of 'globalization' (Westernization/Americanisation as Globalization, and West is the Best psyche) has been the decisive factor in this regard. Explaining the Asian crisis in journalism education, Lee (2008) recognized a need to appreciate the international agenda, but also how essential it is to not ignore points that meet local needs and aspirations. Similarly, Papoutsaki (2007) argues, “keeping education locally relevant with international developments is a big challenge for higher education institutions”. Scarcity of enough focus on curricula: Despite journalism education passed over 70 years of its journey in South Asian sub-continent there two international and two local initiatives are being noticed for examining course curricula. The first one was in Pakistan by Friedrich Ebert Stiftung, Germany in 1995 and the next, by the University of Southern Illinois, Carbondale in 1997. The International Association for Communication and Media Research conducted a survey on reading references in the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (formerly SARC) countries in 1991, but it was not on curricula. Except in India, no record has been even still found in the other countries after Strengthening Journalism Education in South Asia (Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka) initiative in 1997. The UGC, India took the first local initiative for Indian journalism education institutions in 2001 and the rest is by Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU). IGNOU took some steps enhancing quality journalism education in South Asia and brought educators from across the region to find out a suitable solution in regards to journalism education in 2008. The rests have not taken any comprehensive step improving journalism education curricula in their local context, except some isolated research initiatives. Educators often complain for adequate budget for such negligence. For instance, Ullah (2012) shows, Bangladeshi journalism departments have got a gross allocation of six to eight thousand USD annually for their department’s education activities, where research allocation for curricula is almost nil. These constraints automatically infiltrate in the mindset of academics that the knowledge produced in the West is superior. Educators take this penetration as normative and consider the West-enlightenment is a prestige to them. These viewpoints encourage an uncritical acceptance of west’s notion, which is an


impediment in the potentiality of the advancement of local theory, discourse, and curricula. Before soul searching for a local strategy, it is now a need to focus on the flaws of ‘west’ or ‘readymade’ curricula. Failure of West-oriented or Readymade Curricula Servaes (2009) classified the existing world journalism education models into three broad categories. These are: The North Atlantic or Liberal model; Northern European or Democratic Corporatist model; and the Mediterranean or Polarized Pluralist model. He however, incorporates the Eastern European or PostCommunist model after the failure of the implementation of Liberal or Anglo-American model in the central and Eastern European journalism education. Papoutsaki (2007) comments, “After two decades of US failing media and journalism training initiatives in the post-communist countries, it is finally recognised that there is no one-size-fits-all approach to media development.” This is not the example of first failure – the US-based Accrediting Council on Education in Journalism and Mass Communication (ACEJMC) recommended curricula strategy also could not bring any conclusive framework for US journalism education itself. Blom & Davenport study (2012) reveals, around a hundred accredited US journalism schools though follow the recommended curriculum during 2007-8, many prestigious journalism schools (for example Columbia) did not undergo the process and continued their own curricula. Similarly all European journalism schools do not follow the Tartu recommendations, because most of journalism programmes have been experiencing a want of right balance between vocational and university education for journalists. The Model Curricula for Journalism for Developing Countries and Emerging Democracies (popularly known as UNESCO curricula model) asserts relationship between democracy and journalism. Josephi (2009) remarks the model as the “most concerted efforts towards wide-reaching state-of-the-art journalism education curricula till the date.” And Hume (2007) asserts, “The principles and courses of study proposed by the UNESCO model curricula are useful starting points for updating or establishing new journalism programs.” UNESCO model curricula refer some generic terms that mainstream media organs followed, like editorial independence from governments or political parties, have adequate financial resources to sustain that independence, and that display a professional commitment to fairness, balance, accuracy and ethical conduct by their journalist. Based on three axes: (1) comprising the norms, values, tools, standards and practices of journalism; (2) emphasizing the social, cultural, political, economic legal and ethical aspects of journalism practice both within and outside the national borders; and (3) comprising knowledge of the world

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journalism’s intellectual challenges - suggests 23 subject topics for electives, e. g. covering conflicts, social movements, deprivation, diversity etc. Only seven of those are however, related directly to the UN Millennium Development Goals and the others are similar to those in the syllabi from the west. Ullah (2012) claimed, the “exposure to this curriculum would create empathy to the existing West-centric universal understanding of journalism” because, this syllabus demonstrates a strong emphasis on western-style journalism and to a lesser stress on journalism targeted for developing countries like those in South Asia. Freedman et al.,(2009) have also noticed that the model is alien to the principles and accreditation for journalism education set by the ACEJMC. The UNESCO Model curricula, is therefore accused for West-centric focus, because it attempt shades light on the promotion of the normative approach - basing on neo-liberal or AngloAmerican model. Furthermore, it has been noticed that the UNESCO model curricula, regardless of the strengths of its content, would be difficult to bring to fruition and to sustain in many developing countries due to the financial necessity for implementation.

generation faculty members are interested to include more research in curricula, and universityadministrators demand for training students as need of the news industry. Some scholars (e.g., Pant, 2009; Perera, 2009) advocate for inclusion of more liberal arts and social science approach and some other (e.g., Shukla & Johri, 2013) urge to focus more on new technology and craft of newsgathering interviewing and writing skills. To overcome this stereotype trend, Servaes (2009) suggests for taking, “more multicultural and international ‘authentic’ learning experiences, more innovative and critical reflection, more problem solving, social negotiation of information and knowledge, and collaboration” scheme. WJEC divided the overall structure of academic journalism degree program into two main areas of study: (1) arts and science, (2) journalism theory and practice. The traditional division between these two is 75 and 25. Nordenstreng (2010) however, observed journalism schools brought some changes at the expense of general subjects of arts and science. According to him, “Today the reality is probably about 50/50 division between the two main areas, but it is still important to retain at least half of total for studies beyond journalism and media, as advocated by the UNESCO model”. This argument was also supported by Lee (2008) in Asian context when he remarks, “Liberal arts education can provide a broad knowledge base that will enable students to be more adaptive to the rapidly changing world”. Pant (2009), Sanjay (2012) and many others also argue to an assortment of more social sciences subject matter in journalism curricula. For instance, Indian UGC recommends (as Sanjay quotes), “The courses in journalism be restructured to make them relevant to the needs of the developing environment in India. Students should receive not only technical training but also be sensitized to the process of communication and its relevance to social change.” It further recommends, “The courses should be interdisciplinary where the expertise of physical and social scientists is blended with skills and crafts of media professionals”. This standpoint supports Deuze’s (2006) recommendations of three domains for journalism education. In journalism curricula, he argues that the first domain must consist of instrumental skills (such as reporting, writing, and editing), and knowledge about journalism: media economy, law, and history. In the second domain, the student should learn articulation skills: how to present information and news (genres, formulas, conventions, design, and so on) and in third domain, the curriculum may include elective and required courses on a variety of special topics like sociology, political science, financial economy, and also social-scientific research methods.

Theory and Practice (Value) Complexity Typically, two routes are being followed for developing a career in journalism. The first approach is through formal training at the Bachelor or undergraduate level in journalism departments. This route trains and develops journalists academically, and establishes solid foundations in journalism theories, techniques and ethics. The second route is where individuals start off as trainees or apprentices to learn their skills ‘on the job’ with a media organisation. These trainee journalists may not have been to university and if they did, they had gained undergraduate degrees in traditional academic subjects; like sociology, political sciences and even from pure science background, which seemingly far remote from journalism. This traditional route provides substantial skills to the new enterns on newsgathering, writing and editing. But, these skills are not enough for a complete journalism in South Asian context because South Asian nations seek media professionals /journalists should not only be a writer; they must be a social reformer, political analyst and or environment advocate. Considering the pretext of the duel nature in the entry route to profession, in addition to the perennial problems, educators fall in dilemma to choose a clear direction for a suitable curriculum. It is well accepted concept that due to dual nature of providing both academic and professional training in journalism, the curriculum designed both domain always needs to strike a balance between theory and practice. However, the push to transformation journalism education in south Asia is being driven by a number of internal and external change agents - new


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journalism and journalism education. Drok (2012) perfectly remarks, journalism educators are puzzled in “the line between traditional and new media (multiskilling), information and entertainment (infotainment), journalism and the public (user generated content), sources and the public (demediation), journalists and publishers (commercialisation)”. The difficulties involved in defining journalism lead the situation uncertain and volatile. The Tartu Declaration (2006) for Europe, the World Journalism Education Council’s ‘Declaration of Principles’ (2007) and even the principles and accreditation for journalism education set by ACEJMC for the USA have proven its value, but it also has its limitations. Similar argument is true for UNESCO curricula, because this model is not accepted in many journalism schools across the world claiming it ‘more west-centric’. The crucial points for non-acceptance perhaps, encompasses in the system of academic production of knowledge and came from the regressive tendencies of inappropriate generalization and universalization related to Western experiences. The points of departure for criticism are often based on subtly preconceptions of an overarching Western epistemological extension or cultural imperialism which Skjerdal (2012) arguably called ‘reinforce neocolonialism’.Papoutsaki (2007) on the other hand claims, “along with the increasing dissemination of Western education, knowledge and information through globalization and the internalisation of higher education, there is also an increasing awareness that Western approaches, including Western journalism curricula modes, have their limitations.” Journalism research beyond the Anglo-American-Francophone orbit (such as in Asia and Africa and Latin America recently) despite want of enough research evidences and expertise, started challenging those, and consider, journalism educators need to focus on service to the public; not the industry. They advocate to address challenges posed by new economic, technological, cultural and social realities and to make journalism education diverse, inclusive and glocal. Theoretically, ‘de-Westernization’ does not indicate a rejection of Western (the notion from North Europe and the English speaking scholarship) theories and paradigms. According to the explanation by Gunaratne (2009), it is a critical revision and improvement through openness for flexible integration of peripheral paradigms and creative acts of translation and appropriation. De-Westernization, at least for Asian perception, is an interrogation of a prevailing selfcentered epistemological status quo in current media and journalism studies. This standpoint is echoed by Nordenstreng (2010) in the 2nd WJEC Syndicate, where he urged for a need to overcome a Western biasness in journalism studies; these may be in his word,

Searching New Curricula Strategy The recent drawbacks of West’s philosophy for journalism, its practice and curriculum (ACEMJC recommendation, post-soviet period in Eastern Europe, UNESCO model) encourage many Asian scholars to come up with new ideas regarding journalism curricula. Papoutsaki (2007) called this move as ‘de-colonising journalism curricula’. Senerviratne (2011) put a step further and called this move as “the second wave of decolonization in Asia,” some after 50 years of the first wave – the political and geographical decolonization began. Critical cultural communication scholar Wang (2011) observed, “the renewed attention to Eurocentric biases and the new focus on culture-centricity in knowledge production is undoubtedly an important step to a more promising future.” Not only in Asia, African journalism scholars Dube (2010), Shaw (2009) and Skjerdal (2012) believe ‘Ubuntu’ philosophy (communalism, interdependence, humanness, caring, respect, sharing and compassion) is the common threat which runs through beliefs, customs, value-systems and socio-political institutions and practices in African societies might be a force for journalism education. Dube (2010) opined, “Because of this belief, some African journalism scholars argue that ‘Ubuntu’ philosophy should underpin African journalism curricula.” These efforts reflect, the conventional journalism curricula and teaching is facing a constant challenge. Arrangement of the World Journalism Education Congress for three times in recent past also echoes, journalism education is experiencing a more or less state of anxiety and it seems, the force of resisting Anglo-American- Eurocentrism is enhanced and getting stronger day by day from the aspects of Afrocentrism and Asiacentrism. The key cause of this move perhaps is deeply rooted in the want of any clear-cut definition of what actually ‘journalism’ is - is it a part of a broader media field or a distinct field? There is no agreement on the issue among journalism educators and professionals. Neither is there a shared view on whether it is a trade or a profession. Conflicting understandings of the concepts of ‘journalism profession’ and ‘journalism education’ have also been widely debated, worldwide, for decades. The other thing we mistakenly understood that journalism education, journalism practice and perhaps journalism studies are not interlinked to one another. But, in practical, journalism education encompasses in the professional journalism practice. Misunderstanding also arises from the sharp distinction of the mission of university education, the rapid changes of industry climate and a want of acceptable balance between these two. In fact, journalism educators sense unprecedented changes over the last decade in profession and industry climate and feel they cannot make any significant contribution to encounter the challenges in defining


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“Internationalization, De-Westernization, Asiatization, etc. This is supported by a wave of scholarship and calls for “de-colonizing journalism curricula.” Similarly, colleagues and media professionals from different countries (like Rahman in Bangladesh, Desai, in India, Adiba in Pakistan, Adhikary in Nepal and Perera in Sri Lanka) in various informal discussions and interviews with this author in 2011 made a general hint for a need to change the present curriculum of journalism/ mass communication. For instance, Adhikary in his interview said, “I think localizing (and 'glocalizing') the course contents is essential for both practical and moral reasons. Practically, without the local contents the curriculum would be unrealistic to local realities and inapplicable in the local context.” Any curriculum lacking the national/local/ indigenous insights should be rejected on moral ground too, commenting this, he further continues, “Our society represents old civilization with a known history of thousands of years and having a distinct cultural identity of its own. It is the inheritor of culturally rich civilization rooted to Vedic period. This reality must not be forgotten while designing and developing the curricula.” But everybody realize, a shift from the ‘dominant’ model to the ‘local’ would take time, budget, and research efforts. Most importantly, journalism education across South Asia is yet to attain the ‘rigour’ that can take the subject to the status of a front ranking independent discipline. Like many other countries, it is still difficult to say ‘what is right’ with journalism education in the South Asian countries today. This is because of the failure of journalism professionals and academics who never agree despite the discipline having all the potential of being one of the most sought-after subjects and commanding a very promising market. Journalism educators, therefore, need to consider that the controversy between the professionals and academics would continue, as it does in other countries as well; yet, they need to work together on the vital issue of raising the quality and the status of journalism education in this region. To have a generic model of journalism curricula, South Asian media educators as saying by Lee (2008) must fight hard simultaneously on three fronts - getting adequate quality people for teaching and research, obtaining necessary funding and designing curriculum of local relevance through research of local relevance. Teaching research to journalism students or inclusion of more research courses in curricula is therefore important for a scholarly turn of journalism education. Because, the outcome of this move would empower future journalism educators to produce some original and indepth research which in turn would be a contribution to understand the local conditions from local perspective and perhaps would produce a local curricula model.


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Conclusion

The overall discussion proves that the Western values in the name of ‘universalism’ have enormous influence in professional journalism practices, curricula and training in South Asia. But, the existing inconsistency of Western-style course contents for journalism education, the emergence of ‘Ubuntu’ in Africa, and ‘Development journalism’ in Asia (watchtower/ social change agent) shows that the West notion of journalism education is not only ideal and the rest of the world therefore should not accept that notion without demur. It is also true that a de-westernisation of journalism studies, practice and curricula development has an epistemological as well as a socio-politiceconomic dimension. In my opinion while journalism practice and journalism education are interrelated, we should not disconnect education from practice and the political economy of their domination. To doing so, the existing relationship between the West and East must be reoriented from the tradition-tamed subject-object position to at least subject-subject position and to reverse the existing subject-object situation of journalism curricula, Asian media scholars must fix ultimate objectives of journalism studies through recognizing the incompatibility of Western models and theories. Arrangement of dialogues among the local media professionals, researchers and academia for creating a united force is an urgent sought-after mission right now. Similarly, motivation in taking local issue in sympathetically and the West discourse apathetically is necessary to make the mission success. The other issues is that since the inception of journalism education at university level over a hundred years back in the West, the debate existing is a reflection of the failure of curricula efforts. The recent increasing awareness trend of West-centric biases in methods, theories and constraint of that paradigm reflects among scholars from Asia that there is a necessity of inclusion of cultural context to study journalism and the curriculum. The next aspects is, journalism education is an art - not a science, and there can be no universal formula for preparing students for journalistic careers, just as there can be no universal model of a press or media system. I trust any system of journalism education and its institutions must infuse students with theory and practical skills, must nurture their sense of curiosity, and must enable them to understand the role of the media firstly in their own, and following by the divergent regional and globalised society. Finally, today’s journalists, first and foremost, must be strong critical thinkers who needs to know enough about geography, history and the human condition to understand why events play out as they do. Thus, it is clear that the ultimate objective of the journalism education should be to improve the practice

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