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DeciPHering coMPoSitional Patterning in Plainware ceraMicS froM late PreHiStoric Hunter-gatHerer SiteS in tHe PeninSular rangeS, San Diego county, california Patrick S. Quinn, Margie M. Burton, David Broughton, and Sophie Van Heymbeeck
We report on thin section petrographic analysis of plainware ceramic sherds from two Late Prehistoric hunter-gatherer sites in the Peninsular Ranges of San Diego County, California. We describe several distinctive compositional groups and compare these with previously analyzed ceramics and geological field samples to infer probable raw materials and provenance. In addition, taking into account archaeological and ethnohistoric context, we suggest cultural processes that may have contributed to the observed distribution across sites of three dominant compositional groups distinguishable within the general “brownware” category. The study demonstrates the potential of a compositional approach for investigating cultural practices among prehistoric hunter-gatherer populations with plainware ceramic craft traditions. Aquí, reportamos sobre el análisis petrográfico de secciones delgadas de cerámica sin decoración, esto de dos sitios cazadorrecolectores de la época Prehistórica tardía en la Cordillera Peninsular del Condado de San Diego, California. También, describimos varios grupos composicionales y los comparamos con cerámica previamente analizada y muestras geológicas para inferir probables materiales crudos así como su procedencia. Además, considerando el contexto arqueológico y etnohistórico, sugerimos ciertos procesos culturales que pueden haber contribuido a la distribución observada entre sitios de tres grupos composicionales dominantes dentro de la categoría general de pasta color café o, por su denominación en inglés, “brownware.” El estudio demuestra el potencial de una estrategia composicional para investigar prácticas culturales, sobre todo en poblaciones cazador-recolectores prehistóricas con tradiciones de artesanía en cerámica sin decoración.
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etrographic and geochemical analyses have successfully identified differences in clay sources and/or clay preparation methods within and across site assemblages of hunter-gatherer pottery in several parts of the U. S. (e.g., Eerkens et al. 2002; Hildebrand et al. 2002; Josephs 2005). The kinds of interpretations possible are dependent on the geographic scale of analysis and sampling strategy (Day et al. 1999). Here we focus on compositional variation within a small cluster of Late Prehistoric hunter-gatherer sites in the Peninsular Ranges of San Diego County, California. First, we examine likely provenance with reference to other available geological and ceramic data for the southern California region. Second, we con-
sider cultural processes that may account for observed variability based on existing archaeological and ethnohistoric information. A larger set of comparative data is needed to test and further develop our interpretations. Brief Summary of San Diego Peninsular range Hunter-gatherer ceramics
Paddle-and-anvil pottery technology is a diagnostic component of the Late Prehistoric period (ca. 1300–200 B.P.) material culture of Yuman-speaking (Tipai, Ipai: subdivisions of Kumeyaay) and Shoshonean-speaking (Cupeño, Cahuilla, Luiseño) hunter-gatherer groups that inhabited the San
Patrick S. Quinn 䡲 Institute of Archaeology, University College London, 31-34 Gordon Square, London, WC1H 0PY, UK (
[email protected]) Margie M. Burton 䡲 San Diego Archaeological Center, 16666 San Pasqual Valley Road, Escondido, CA 92027-7001 (
[email protected]) David Broughton and Sophie Van Heymbeeck 䡲 Department of Archaeology, University of Sheffield, Northgate House, West Street, Sheffield, S1 4ET, UK American Antiquity 78(4), 2013, pp. 779–789 Copyright © 2013 by the Society for American Archaeology 779
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figure 1. Plain brownware ceramic sherds from late Prehistoric archaeological sites in the Peninsular ranges of San Diego county.
Diego Peninsular Ranges (Figures 1 and 2). The Peninsular Ranges, which include the Laguna and Cuyamaca Mountains, divide the coastal plain and foothill zones to the west from the desert zone to the east. Common utilitarian ceramic forms in this area consist of large round-bottomed jars with restricted necks, bowls, scoops, and plates. Intact
vessels and decorated sherds are rare in archaeological assemblages. However, large quantities of plain reddish-brown body sherds and, less frequently, rim sherds occur within cultural deposits and as surface finds. A broad subdivision between the reddish-brown sherds characteristic of archaeological sites in the
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figure 2. Map of San Diego county and adjacent areas showing traditional ethnolinguistic boundaries and geographic features mentioned in the text. late Prehistoric archaeological sites (all ca-) with thin sections analyzed in this study are indicated by solid circles. Modern towns are provided for reference and are indicated by open circles. generalized distribution of brownware vs. buffware ceramics is indicated by shading (brownware = dark gray; buffware = light gray), following lyneis (1988:figure 2).
Peninsular Range mountains and Pacific coastal plain of southernmost California, on the one hand, and the lighter-colored buff pottery of the lowland desert area to the east, on the other hand, was first recognized by Rogers (1936). This general distinction reflects large-scale differences in the underlying geology that influence the composition of clay sources and thus the nature of prehistoric pottery. While the analytical value of such broad “ware” groups is recognized as limited, classification schemes employing more subdivided macroscopic ware and type categories have proven difficult for researchers to apply because proposed types have been incompletely or inconsistently described, are often polythetic, and seem to lack replicability (Laylander 1997; Lyneis 1988). Since the 1990s, some studies have examined ceramic composition using geochemical and thin section petrographic techniques (Gallucci 2001, 2004; Griset 1996; Hildebrand et al. 2002; Plymale-Schneeberger 1993; Quinn and Burton 2009; Burton and Quinn 2013). Hildebrand et al. (2002) detected five geochemical groups using instru-
mental neutron activation analysis (INAA) and multivariate statistical analysis at six sites on an east-to-west transect across the Peninsular Ranges. They interpreted their results as reflecting seasonal movements of people between different resource zones. Quinn and Burton (2009) applied a thin section petrographic approach to sherds (n = 70) from seven sites along the western margin of the Colorado Desert at the base of the Peninsular Ranges. They distinguished 18 different fabrics and a high degree of compositional variability at individual sites. The current study builds on this research background. Materials and Methods
We sampled sherd assemblages from two Late Prehistoric hunter-gatherer sites in the Laguna and Cuyamaca Mountains of the Peninsular Ranges of eastern San Diego County (Figure 2): Pine Valley Creek (CA-SDI-12947/H, Carrico et al. 1997) and the Stacked Stone Site (CA-SDI-17666, Schneider 2005).
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figure 3. generalized geological map of San Diego county and adjacent areas showing sampling locations (n = 50) of comparative geological field samples (n = 63) of Quinn and Burton (2009:table 3) (small dots), and previous petrographic studies by other researchers discussed in the text (large dots). Modern towns are provided for reference and are indicated by open circles.
Of the 76 prehistoric ceramic sherds recovered during excavation at CA-SDI-12947/H, six were rim sherds from different vessels, including bowls, cooking pots and storage jars. Carrico et al. (1997) classified all but one of the sherds as brownware based on macroscopic examination. CA-SDI17666 consists of a series of spaces or “rooms” constructed of boulders situated around a small rock outcrop in Cuyamaca Rancho State Park. Schneider (2005) collected a sample of diagnostic artifacts from surfaces within and surrounding the stone features, including 76 ceramic sherds that were analyzed further. Fourteen rim sherds represented fragments of jars, a bowl, a scoop and a pipe. Schneider (2005) macroscopically classified all 76 sherds as brownware. Due to the small size of some sherds from CA-SDI-17666, we selected a subset (n = 52) for thin sectioning. The 128 sherds were consolidated with epoxy resin and prepared as 30 µm petrographic thin sections. These were analyzed under the polarizing light microscope (x25-400) using a modification of the descriptive, semi-quantitative approach pioneered by Whitbread (1989). This methodol-
ogy, which focuses on the nature of the clay matrix and voids, as well as aplastic inclusions, results in groupings that reflect both provenance and technological choices. Thin sections from CA-SDI12947/H and CA-SDI-17666 were combined and then sorted into petrographic compositions or “fabrics” under the microscope, based on their overall composition of inclusions, matrix, and voids (Quinn 2013:71–79). Petrographic fabric groups were then characterized in detail by interpreting raw material types and aspects of manufacturing techniques observable in thin section (e.g., clay preparation, forming method, firing conditions; see Supplemental Materials). thin Section Petrographic fabric classification
Petrographic fabric groups identified at CA-SDI12947/H and CA-SDI-17666 are illustrated in Figures 4–6 and described in the Supplemental Materials. Assemblages of both sites are dominated (> 80 percent) by sherds containing abundant, generally poorly sorted, angular mineral and rock in-
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figure 4. thin section photomicrographs of petrographic fabrics recorded at sites ca-SDi-12947/H (a, c, and e) and caSDi-17666 (b, d, and f). residual granitic fabric (a and b); amphibole-rich residual igneous fabric (c and d); Biotiterich residual fabric (e and f). images taken in crossed polars. image width = 2.9 mm. a color version of this figure and descriptions of the petrographic fabrics are available online.
clusions that derive from the weathering of medium-coarse-grained, acid-intermediate igneous rocks (Residual Granitic Fabric, Figure 4a and b; Amphibole-Rich Residual Igneous Fabric, Figure 4c and 4d; Grog-Tempered Amphibole-Rich Residual Igneous Fabric, Figure 5f). These related fabrics, which all contain quartz, plagioclase feldspar,
and minor biotite inclusions (< 10 percent of total inclusions), are distinguished by a much higher proportion of the mineral amphibole in the Amphibole-Rich Residual Igneous Fabric and GrogTempered Amphibole-Rich Residual Igneous Fabric (30–60 percent) compared to the Residual Granitic Fabric (< 10 percent), and a relatively
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figure 5. thin section photomicrographs of petrographic fabrics recorded at sites ca-SDi-12947/H (a, c, e, and f) and ca-SDi-17666 (b and d). Muscovite-rich residual fabric (a and b), residual Metamorphic fabric (c and d), Sand tempered Sedimentary fabric (e), grog-tempered amphibole-rich residual igneous fabric (f). images taken in crossed polars, except (f). image width = 2.9 mm, except (c) and (d) = 1.45 mm. a color version of this figure and descriptions of the petrographic fabrics are available online.
higher proportion of quartz and feldspar inclusions (> 80 percent) in the Residual Granitic Fabric. Two other coarse residual fabrics related to those above, but characterized instead by higher abundances of the minerals biotite (40–60 percent) (Biotite-Rich Residual Fabric, Figure 4e and f) and
muscovite (15–25 percent) (Muscovite-Rich Residual Fabric, Figure 5a and b), also occur at CA-SDI12947/H and CA-SDI-17666. Two specimens of the Residual Metamorphic Fabric (Figure 5c and d) and two of the Sand Tempered Sedimentary Fabric (Figure 5e) were also identified.
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figure 6. thin section photomicrographs of matches between petrographic fabrics recorded in this study and previously analyzed thin sections from ca-SDi-4787 of gallucci (2001), and from sites ca-SDi-343 and ca-SDi-10571 in the colorado Desert analyzed by Quinn and Burton (2009). (a) residual granitic fabric at ca-SDi-10571; (b) residual granitic fabric at ca-SDi-4787; (c) amphibole-rich residual igneous fabric at ca-SDi-4787; (d) Biotite-rich residual fabric at ca-SDi-4787; (e) Biotite-rich residual fabric at ca-SDi-343; (f) residual Metamorphic fabric at ca-SDi-343. images taken in crossed polars. image width = 2.9 mm, except (f) = 1.45 mm. a color version of this figure and descriptions of the petrographic fabrics are available online.
Potential Sources and Distribution of Petrographic fabrics
To identify possible sources of raw materials used to manufacture ceramics from CA-SDI-12947/H
and CA-SDI-17666, we compared the fabric groups to geological maps and thin sections of geological field samples (n = 63) collected from the Peninsular Ranges and elsewhere in San Diego County (Quinn and Burton 2009:375). To examine
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Table 1. Relative Frequencies of Petrographic Fabrics Recorded at CA-SDI-12947/H and CA-SDI-17666 in This Study and at Site CA-SDI-4787* Raw material provenance Pine Valley Stacked Stone Wikalokal based on comparison with Sites (CA-) with similar fabric based on Creek Site CA-SDI- geological samples (Burton Petrographic Fabric CA-SDICA-SDI4787 and Quinn 2009; see comparison with previous petrographic studies (see below for citations and Figure 3 for site (see Appendix for 12947/H 17666 Appendix) detailed description) locations) n = 76 n = 52 n = 100 n = 63 Residual Granitic 28 19 16 Cuyamaca and Laguna SDI-308, SDI-682, SDI-860, SDI-2537, SDIMountains, and perhaps 5133, SDI-6014, RIV-1139; SDI-12557, SDImore widely within Eastern 14283, SDI-4609; SDI-343, SDI-955, SDI-956, Peninsular Ranges SDI-963, SDI-10571, SDI-10573, SDI-2336; SDI-10156; SDI-10780 Amphibole-Rich 54 71 49 Cuyamaca and Laguna SDI-308, SDI-682, SDI-860, SDI-2537, SDIResidual Igneous Mountains, and perhaps 5130, SDI-5133, RIV-2769; SDI-5699, SDImore widely within Eastern 10158; RIV-722, RIV-1864, RIV-2229; SDIPeninsular Ranges 10156; SDI-10780; SDI-10882 Grog-Tempered 5 0 0 Cuyamaca and Laguna Grog tempered variety not reported in Amphibole-Rich Mountains, and perhaps comparative petrographic studies more widely within Eastern Residual Igneous Peninsular Ranges Biotite-Rich Residual 8 6 35 No matches. Likely origin SDI-682 (?); SDI-812 (?); SDI-10156 (?); SDIin Peninsular Ranges, e.g. 343 Julian Schist Muscovite-Rich Residual 1 2 0 No matches. Likely origin Not reported in comparative studies in Peninsular Ranges Residual Metamorphic
1
2
0
Collins Valley, Western SDI-343 Colorado Desert Sand Tempered 3 0 0 No matches. Likely Not possible to determine at present Sedimentary Colorado Desert, Cenozoic clay source Griset (1996): SDI-308, SDI-682, SDI-860, SDI-2537, SDI-5130, SDI-5133, SDI-6014, RIV-2769, RIV-1139 Guerrero (2004): SDI-812, SDI-5699, SDI-10158 Hildebrand et al. (2002): SDI-12557, SDI-14283, SDI-4609 Plymale-Schneeberger (1993): RIV-722, RIV-1864, RIV-2229 Quinn and Burton (2009): SDI-343, SDI-955, SDI-956, SDI-963, SDI-10571, SDI-10573, SDI-2336 Wade (1999): SDI-10156 Williams (1989a): SDI-10780 Williams (1989b): SDI-10882 (?) Uncertain assignment * Based on re-examination of thin sections of Gallucci (2001), raw material provenance, and previously studied archaeological sites with compositionally related ceramics.
the wider distribution of the petrographic fabric groups recorded at the two sites, we made comparisons to data from other petrographic studies of Late Prehistoric ceramics from San Diego County and adjacent areas (Gallucci 2001, 2004; Griset 1996; Guerrero 2004; Hildebrand et al. 2002, Plymale-Schneeberger 1993; Quinn and Burton 2009; Wade 1999; Williams 1989a, 1989b). Physical comparisons were performed under the microscope between the material from CA-SDI-12947/H (n = 76) and CA-SDI-17666 (n = 52), ceramic thin sections from Wikalokal (CA-SDI-4787) in the Laguna Mountains previously analyzed by Gallucci (2001) (n = 100), and ceramic thin sections from seven sites along the western margin of the Colorado Desert at the base of the Peninsular Ranges analyzed by Quinn and Burton (2009) (n = 70). Results are summarized in Table 1.
interpretation of compositional Patterning
The vast majority (> 95 percent) of sherds analyzed from both CA-SDI-12947/H and CA-SDI-17666 could have been produced in the Laguna and Cuyamaca Mountains area. The same or very similar fabrics are widely distributed across Peninsular Range sites. Only four probable non-local artifacts occur at CA-SDI-12947/H and CA-SDI-17666. These are two sherds of Sand Tempered Sedimentary Fabric (at CA-SDI-12947/H), which were almost certainly produced in the Colorado Desert to the east, and two sherds of Residual Metamorphic Fabric (one each at CA-SDI-12947/H and CASDI-17666) that may have been produced in Collins Valley on the western desert margin, or possibly in other places not represented in our raw material database.
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As previously suggested by others, mechanisms that could be responsible for movement of non-local ceramics include seasonal migration between different environmental zones (Hildebrand et al. 2002), trade between social groups with different geographical territories (Guerrero 2004), or longer-term shifts in settlement patterns (Arnold et al. 2004). While the small number of non-local ceramics in the present dataset and lack of precise chronological control at the study sites mean that we can only speculate on the likelihood of these different explanations, the possible occurrence of pottery from Collins Valley is noteworthy. Collins Valley is located within the traditional territory of the Cahuilla and along an important travel route in use since at least Late Prehistoric times. These study data suggest that pottery may have crossed a major ethnolinguistic boundary between Shoshonean- and Yuman-speaking tribes through this corridor. This study further reveals significant compositional variability in thin sections among locally manufactured, macroscopically homogeneous brownware sherds at CA-SDI-12947/H and CASDI-17666. Geological heterogeneity in this area produces compositional variation in clayey raw materials that is confirmed by analysis of geological field samples. Ethnohistoric accounts indicate that Kumeyaay pottery-making was a part-time activity, with small numbers of vessels made as needed (Cline 1979:43; Rogers 1936:4). With this in mind, it is possible that individual potters utilized more than one residual clay source (Van Camp 1979:48), especially if they needed to produce pottery during excursions away from their main village (Gallucci 2004). However, the relatively clear-cut nature of the three most common fabrics recorded, combined with their occurrence in major proportions at CASDI-12947/H, CA-SDI-17666, and CA-SDI-4787, implies that the observed inter-site patterning is not simply the result of arbitrary raw material procurement within a geologically heterogeneous area. This would be expected to give rise to a continuum of petrographic compositions, rather than discrete fabrics. Instead, it is likely that potters had preferred clay sources that they used repeatedly (e.g., Rogers 1936:5), and that the three most common petrographic fabrics distributed across the three site assemblages reflect the presence at each site of
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pottery produced using particular natural clay sources that occur in the Laguna and Cuyamaca Mountains. We suggest that this pottery could have made its way to the sites via cultural processes. Assuming that individual potters within a band made most of their pots using a single preferred nearby clay source, these processes might have included: (1) Shared use of sites/cohabitation. All three sites are located within traditional territory of the Tipai group of Kumeyaay Indians. Tipai bands such as the Kwaaymii lived in semi-permanent villages in the Laguna and Cuyamaca Mountains (Cline 1979). From here, they travelled to other locations to hunt, collect food or other resources, and conduct social or ritual activities. CA-SDI12947/H and CA-SDI-17666 may have served such purposes. It has also been documented that as many as four different Kumeyaay bands camped in certain favored locations in Late Prehistoric times (Hildebrand and Hagstrum 1995), perhaps to take advantage of abundant and/or restricted plant or animal resources. Kumeyaay social organization, particularly the kinship structure of “sibs,” which crosscut tribes and bands (Shipek 1982), may have promoted cohabitation at sites or temporary residence of one group with another, particularly during ceremonies or other occasions (Schneider 2005). With this in mind, it is possible that the occurrence of three common local petrographic fabrics at CA-SDI-12947/H, CA-SDI-17666, and CASDI-4787 might be explained by the activities of several social groups camping at the same locations for resource collection and/or ceremonial purposes and using their own pottery. Vessels belonging to each group may have been cached in these locations in anticipation of return visits. (2) Patterns of patrilocality. Kumeyaay traditions of exogamous marriage in which a woman moves into her husband’s village and becomes a part of his social group may have contributed to the observed variability in brownware fabrics within this cluster of mountain sites. Ethnohistoric accounts suggest that after marriage Kumeyaay women may have continued to exploit familiar clay sources in their natal area (Van Camp 1979:49). This practice is likely to have been responsible for small-scale movement of pottery and/or raw materials. (3) Trade and/or exchange. Trade and/or exchange are often invoked to explain movement of
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archaeological pottery. Late Prehistoric peoples of southern California were well connected with one another (Cline 1979:20; Van Camp 1979:20), and foodstuffs and other materials were shared or exchanged among groups living in different environmental zones (Cline 1984:12–18; Davis 1961; Luomala 1978; Shipek 1982:299). The presence at mountain sites of exotic items such as shell beads from the Pacific coastline and obsidian from distant geological sources (Carrico et al. 1997; Schneider 2005) may be evidence for trade/exchange, though whether pottery was also involved in this process is not known. However, the main brownware fabrics detected in this study all seem to have originated within the same Peninsular Range environment, and therefore trade/exchange seems to be an unlikely mechanism for the observed inter-site distribution of petrographic fabric groups. This is because inhabitants of the mountain sites of CASDI-12947/H, CA-SDI-17666, and CA-SDI-4787 presumably would all have had local access to similar plant and animal resources. The compositional patterning revealed in this study might have resulted from a combination of the processes considered above, as well as from changes through time in the exploitation of clay sources and manufacturing micro-traditions. Distinguishing among these contributing factors will require more refined chronology, along with sampling and analysis of more ceramics from additional sites. Application of thin section petrography and geochemistry to archaeological ceramics in other world regions (e.g., Glowacki and Neff 2002; Quinn 2009) indicates that the value of these techniques increases with the size and coverage of the database. By making color thin section photomicrographs and petrographic descriptions available online, we hope to encourage others to help build this database for southern California and to evaluate our interpretations.
Acknowledgments. Funding for portions of this work was provided by the Begole Archaeological Research Grant program administered by the Anza-Borrego Foundation. Kwaaymii Elder Carmen Lucas, Native American Monitor, granted permission for collection of ceramic materials at CASDI-17666. Joan Schneider and Sue Wade provided access to these materials. The San Diego Archaeological Center provided access to ceramics from CA-SDI-12947/H. John Hildebrand allowed us to study thin sections from CA-SDI-4787. Michelle Graham kindly translated the abstract into Spanish. We would like to thank the two anonymous reviewers for sug-
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gestions that improved the final version of this report. All errors of fact or interpretation remain our own.
Supplemental Materials. Supplemental materials are linked to the online version of the paper, which is accessible via the SAA member login at http://www.saa.org.
references cited
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Submitted September 20, 2012; Revised May 17, 2013; Accepted May 21, 2013.
