Keywords: children adjustment, dysfunctional children after divorce, effects of divorce, coping and divorce, adaptation after divorce, parent separation ...
Declaration I, Unathi Nyangwa, hereby declare that this research report is my own original work. I know that PLAGIARISM is wrong and PLAGIARISM is taking and using the ideas, writing, work or inventions of another as they were one’s own. In the instances where the work of others is used, I have adopted the policy of American Psychological Association (APA) referencing style. Signed: ______________________ Date : ______________________
1
Acknowledgements
This research paper is made possible through assistance and support from my significant others. Please allow me to devote my recognition of thanks toward the following significant contributors: my supervisor, family, lecturers, fellow classmates and friends. First and foremost, my words of appreciation go to Dr. I. Pienaar, my supervisor, for supporting and encouraging me right through the process of this project. She kindly kept me going during tough times by offering me with her invaluable knowledge. Second, I would like to thank my family, in particular, my grandmother and my son, Ntando. Thank you for constantly being a source of strength when it became difficult, persistently reminding me about the bigger picture. The product of this research paper would not be possible without you. Finally, I sincerely thank the psychology staff for the research workshops and classmates for sharing any information they knew about my topic and for making my stress feel manageable.
2
Table of Contents Declaration .......................................................................................................................................... 1 Acknowledgements............................................................................................................................. 2 Abstract ............................................................................................................................................... 5 Chapter 1: Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 6 Statement of the problem .............................................................................................................. 7 Research question........................................................................................................................... 8 Delineation ...................................................................................................................................... 8 Chapter overview ............................................................................................................................ 8 Chapter 2: Literature review ............................................................................................................. 10 Perspectives on divorce and family .............................................................................................. 10 2.1 . The sociological perspective to divorce ..................................................................................... 10 Types of family structures in South Africa .................................................................................... 12 1.1.1.
Unmarried couples living together (Co-habitation) .......................................................... 13
Negative and positive effects of divorce on children ................................................................... 15 Non Custodial parent’s visit .......................................................................................................... 16 Age at divorce ............................................................................................................................... 17 Future relationship difficulties ...................................................................................................... 18 Family functioning......................................................................................................................... 20 Conflict .......................................................................................................................................... 21 Communication and support system ............................................................................................ 22 Financial status.............................................................................................................................. 23 Gender ......................................................................................................................................... 23 Parental style ................................................................................................................................ 24 Chapter 3: Methodology ................................................................................................................... 25 3.1. Research Design: Content Analysis ........................................................................................ 25 3.2. Sampling methods: Database Collection .................................................................................. 26 3.3. Criteria for inclusion and exclusion of data and categories .................................................. 27 3.4. Data collection ....................................................................................................................... 29 3.5. Ethical considerations ................................................................................................................ 29 3.6. Data management..................................................................................................................... 29 3.7. Methods of data analysis ........................................................................................................... 30 3
AUTHOR /PUBLICATIONS’ DETAILS ................................................................................................... 31 3.8. Limitations.................................................................................................................................. 31 Chapter 4: Results ............................................................................................................................. 31 4.1. Frequency table: .................................................................................................................... 32 4.2. Child’s characteristics (85) .................................................................................................... 33 4.4. Family characteristics (93) ..................................................................................................... 38 4.5. Situational characteristics (121)............................................................................................. 40 4.6. Statistical analysis .................................................................................................................. 42 Table.................................................................................................................................................. 43 Table 12. Custodial –parent .............................................................................................................. 48 Chapter 5: Discussions ...................................................................................................................... 48 Chapter 6: Conclusion ....................................................................................................................... 56 Reference list .................................................................................................................................... 58 Appendix 1: Code book ..................................................................................................................... 72 Appendix 2: ....................................................................................................................................... 76 Appendix 3: Categories used for statistical analysis ......................................................................... 78
4
Abstract The focal point of this study is based on a critical exploration of children’s adjustment after their parents’ divorce. The process of enquiry is guided by the use of a content analysis of journal articles which address how children adjust after parental divorce. The study involves existing academic literature involving the timeframe of 2000 2014. 32 existing academic journal articles (n=32), both inside and outside South Africa were used and central arguments are coded through qualitative and quantitative methods. However, out of the 32 sampled journal articles, 14 South African journal articles are used for thematic analysis. In re-examining quantitative as well as qualitative published journal articles, themes and statistical analysis were taken out from research that spoke to children’s adjustment after their parent’s divorce. The results were clustered into four themes: child’s characteristics, emotions, family characteristics and situational characteristics. Meanwhile, the statistical analysis is grouped into the author’s publication details (year of journal publication, type of article and the authors’ attitude towards divorce) and the participant’s details (age, race, province on where the research was conducted and who is regarded as the custodial-parent in the sampled journal articles). Although these themes are shown separately, the author also observes that they are essentially entangled, owing to the complexity associated with children’s adjustment after parental divorce. Keywords: children adjustment, dysfunctional children after divorce, effects of divorce, coping and divorce, adaptation after divorce, parent separation
5
Chapter 1: Introduction A total number of 756 388 divorce cases have been reported between the years 2000 – 2013 in South Africa (news24, 2013 & Statistic SA, 2012). The causes of the escalation in these numbers stem from various family issues that are oftentimes considered to be irreconcilable. Traditionally, the family has been considered to practise the most considerable habits in raising healthy and emotionally well functioning children in the community (Burman, 2008). The family has been seen in the context of child rearing and care giving roles played by the mother and father. This notion of an ideal family has traditionally been associated with security, commitment and unconditional love (a conflict-free environment). Children raised under a normal family structure are reported to be healthy, strong, and emotionally balanced. In cases where there was a disagreement between the family members, matters were discussed within family structures through an elderly mediator. Under these circumstances, divorce was not considered as an option (Whitehead, 1997). During the discussions, the couple was oriented through conciliation to communicate with each other objectively and rationally. The mediator helps parties in the recognisation of needs and rights for all the concerned parties through mutual satisfying agreement (Boniface, 2012).
Threats to the ideal family however emerged which caused the rising of the divorce rates. A divorce is referred to as the legal process that involves termination of marriage through legal action (Magulies, 2007). In other words, the termination process involves ending the marriage before either spouse dies.
Divorce is known
to be a dysfunction of the family and a major loss to children. On that note, literature reports that divorce results in negative effects on the children such as anger, fear and developing maladaptive behaviour (Wallerstein, Lewis & Blakeslee, 2000). Looking upon people’s awareness of divorce and increase in divorce rates, some authors are of the view that the increase is likely to lead to better acceptance of divorce (Peterson & Bush, 2012; Stewart & Brentano, 2006). In spite of this view that divorce is a widely accepted phenomenon in South Africa, traditional and contrary 6
opinions about the impact of divorce and subsequent life in single parent families still exist. This then creates a debate among the different scholars about the outcome of divorce on children’s adjustments. Even though divorce is considered to be the key failure to many children, some children do manage to adjust after the divorce. 1.1.
Statement of the problem
Divorce rates in South Africa from the 2000’s are observed to be higher compared to the 90’s. The 756 388 divorce cases make South African divorce rates to be among the highest cases in the world (Central Intelligence Agency, 2014). During the early 1990’s, divorce was dominated by White Africans (Ziehl, 2001). Statistics SA denote that apart from being the highest divorcing race, White Africans also had the highest number of 17566 minor children affected by parental divorce, while affecting 9852 black children (1996). Presently, the distribution of couples divorcing by population group shows that there are now more divorces among the black Africans population compared to the other groups (Statistic SA, 2011). Currently 37.4% distributions of black children are involved in divorces compared to the 27.8% out of the white children (Statistics SA, 2011). It cannot be ignored that there is a child’s life with emotions who finds him/herself rearranged in a different household due to the increase on divorce cases. Even though there are numerous research articles about children’s adjustment after parental divorce, a critical exploration of how children adjust is still less researched about (Leon, 2003). Some authors are of the view that how a child will adjust to parent divorce is associated with a number of diverse personal or family conditions before and post the divorce (Bojuwoye & Akpan, 2009).
This thesis will make use of existing scientific literature to critically explore children’s adjustment after parental divorce. The current study will explore the main themes reflecting on how children’s adjustment is presented after the divorce of their parents. In addition, there will be an overview produced based on the author’s findings.
7
1.2.
Research question
What are the key themes in existing academic literature regarding the adjustment of children after their parents’ divorce in South Africa? 1.3.
Research aims and objectives
The primary aim is to identify and explore the key themes in existing academic literature based on children’s adjustment after their parents’ divorce.
This content analysis will be of importance to psychologists, parents and family or school counsellors for valuable service delivery who work with children affected by divorce.
1.4.
Delineation
This study only focused on 14 published South African journal articles for thematic analysis. The reason for this delineation is due to the fact that this study is only paying attention on investigating the adjustments of children staying in South Africa. Due to a limited number of South African published articles on the topic, the sampled literature is not sufficient to make general claims. Additionally, the results of this content analysis are not entirely applicable to all South African children. This is owing to the piece of evidence that the illustration of children is not representative of the entire population. There is limited information shown by research articles with regards to race, participant’s socio economic status and age. 1.5. Chapter overview
Following this current chapter, the study will be structured in the following manner: In chapter two, the researcher discusses the literature review in relation to how children adjust after parental divorce. This chapter specifically examines the debates surrounding the different perspectives in detail. Chapter three looks at the methodology which is a reflection of use of the content analysis and the sampling techniques acquired. It also uncovers how the data was 8
managed throughout the study and how data was analysed through quantitative and qualitative methods. Chapter four is the representation of the study’s findings. Obtainable in this section is the discussion of information that explains and defines the various emerging themes. This is achieved through the provision of evidence from the texts and statistical information of the themes and the codes that are attached to each theme through the display of tables. Chapter five forms a discussion followed by chapter 6 which entails the conclusion of the research findings. The chapter ends by a discussion of limitations and recommendations that emanated from the study of the impact parental divorce has on children and how they adjust to the changes.
9
Chapter 2: Literature review This section attempts to present an outline of literature regarding the different adjustments related to children after parental divorce. The reviewed literature shows that there is major debate around the topic of how children adjust, contributing both positive and negative adjustments (Bowden & Greenberg, 2010). The concepts of divorce and family have received different definitions and meanings from different perspectives and some of these perspectives are explored in this chapter. Divorce appears to be a phenomenon which is on the rise internationally, as well as nationally. In South Africa, research has shown an increase in divorce rates (SA statistics, 2012). Behind the increasing rates in divorce, it cannot be ignored that there often is a child whose life is affected by the divorce of the parent and who may find him or herself rearranged in a different household. Supporting the statement, Collins (2003) reports that in South Africa, it is a reality that “one out of every two marriages ends in divorce” (p.2). This information entails that some children are brought up in a single- parent family.
2.1. Perspectives on divorce and family
Literature indicates that differences exist among the sociological perspective and the feminist perspective on the concept of divorce. A shared aim among these perspectives is that divorce is a painful and traumatic experience for all those who are involved, particularly children, and does cause a distraction in family life (Gunsberg & Hymowitz, 2013).
2.1.1 . The sociological perspective to divorce Havemann (1990) describe divorce as “a social process that has consequences both for the families involved and for society” (p. 270). This definition could stem from the
10
sociological perspective’s definition of what constitutes a family. The sociological perspective defines a family in relation to a human body. In order for the human body to function, “various parts such as the brain, lungs and the heart” need to function (Haralambos & Holborn, 2008, p. 8). This is so in the case of a family, the various parts of a family are seen to be interrelated and need to work together for the system’s survival. Covell and Howe (2009) points out that the family does not exist in a vacuum; the environment that it is situated on is of importance. Members of the family need to work jointly to maintain functioning of the family system; at the same time sustain a high-quality relationship with other systems outside that of the family. On that note, within the healthy functioning of the family system, children are born into loving and well-adjusted homes. In a nutshell, the family is made of components that work together to maintain order and stability. Should there be a disruption on any of the sub-systems, the whole family system will be disrupted (Haralambos & Holborn, 2008).
2.1.2. Feminist perspective meaning to divorce
The feminist perspective to divorce is rooted on the unequal distribution of power among men and women in a family structure (Haralambos & Holborn, 2008). Feminists emphasises the harmful effects of family life upon women and disadvantages caused by the family structure (domestic arrangements). Within the family structure, women have three roles to play, namely; that of a wife, mother and daughter. Women have to make sure that their husband’s needs are attended to in order to keep the family structure functioning, be responsible for the child rearing, give children emotional support and love (Cheal, 2008). In addition, men anticipate applying control more than women within families and considering women should provide for their needs (Haralambos & Holborn, 2008).
Furthermore, the family life does little to benefit women in their adult roles as mothers and wives. With more women liberated and visible in the public sphere, women are now becoming less willing to accept such subservience (Cheal, 2008). Domestic chores make it complex for employed women to incorporate a career with motherhood. The fact that women, in general, carry on assuming the primary 11
accountability for childcare and other household responsibilities affects their allocation of effort to household and work activities. This owes to the fact that the mass increase in mothers' public sphere participation has not been corresponding with increase in fathers' domestic assistance (Cheal, 2008). The unequal distribution of responsibility is assumed to lead to correspondence with the increasing divorce rate (Okin, 2008). Under these circumstances, most women do not tolerate the overpowering responsibility for child rearing and other domestic arrangements (Boling, 1996). Hence divorced women on average, enjoy closer emotional ties to their children (Cigoli & Gennari, 2010). On that note, a heterosexual marriage is regarded as the source of the problem that causes few women to bear the overwhelming responsibility for child rearing (Lind & Brzuzy, 2008).
2.2. Types of family structures in South Africa
Family life in South Africa has never been simple to describe or understand. In premodern and modern societies comparable, a family has been seen as an essential unit of socialisation for children. However, before South Africa was colonialised by the British, there were no visible family structures as people lived in collectives (Gordon, 2003). Hunting and gathering was a survival economy, and all societies were based on the socialist mode of production (Haralambos & Holborn, 2008). Men hunted and women collected plant foods and this was shared among the members. With the arrival of capitalists (British), people had to move to the urban areas to sell their labour power. The British emphasised more and more on restrictions on sexual relationships and the production of children. The idea of the nuclear family evolved, decades after other family structures developed (Haralambos & Holborn, 2008).
2.2.1. The nuclear family The nuclear family is composed of a man and a woman plus their biological children. The man is being regarded as the breadwinner who works outside the home with a woman being only responsible for housework, childcare and providing emotional support to her husband (Burman, 2008). According to Van Every, in Burman (2008), 12
a family is often defined in terms of the care giving roles that parents are responsible for while raising their dependent children, to the extent that couples that live together without children, and therefore without care giving roles, are rarely classed as a “family” (p.105). This family arrangement is regarded as the basic component of social life and the fundamental building block of society and has traditionally been associated with security and a conflict-free environment. Therefore, the definition of a nuclear family thought of as being universal and unchanging cannot stand alone, without mention of dependent children relying on their parents to meet their needs. However, in the light of changing gender roles, cultural diversity and socio-economic discrepancies, the nuclear family structure seem to be undergoing redefinition. New family structures, the post-modern families have evolved. The new family structures which comprise of multiple, evolving family cultures and structures and includes the family forms discussed below (Walsh, 2006 & Cheal, 2008).
2.2.2. Working mothers and two-earner households (Dual-earner families)
In the uncertain cost-effective times we are living in, women have been seen entering the workforce. More women are now working full-time, either by choice but mostly because of necessity (Cheal, 2008). This owes to the fact that the need for two salaries is becoming critical to the economic well being of the family. Women’s salaries in most families help to ensure that needs are met and a modest standard of living is maintained. Even though the role of attachment has been questioned under this family type, some scholars are of the view that children are happier as both parents work which leads to financial stability for the family (Walsh, 2012).
2.2.3. Unmarried couples living together (Co-habitation) The number of single adults seems to be increasing, with more and more adults living with their parents or living with their partner but in an unmarried relationship. Some go on to marry and separate within several years, meanwhile others believe that marriages that resulted from unplanned events such as pregnancy are unstable. 13
They rather simple cohabit (Haralambos & Hollborn, 2008). These relationships tend to be associated with instability which is a factor that increases the risk of adjustment problems when children are involved. It is remarkable to note that though cohabition families share similar features with single- parent families, children living in cohabiting families exhibit lesser behavioural problems than those from single – parent households (Hansen, Joshi & Dex, 2010). This is for the reason that children raised under this family structure benefit from having two parents who supervise and monitor them.
2.2.4. Single-parent households Single-parent households are becoming more common in society, and not always as a result of divorce or teenage pregnancy (Walsh, 2006). In some instances older, financially secure single adults choose single parenthood through adoption and a variety of reproductive strategies. Single-parent families have long been blamed of contributing to the “new stratum of society, the underclass” (Haralambos & Hollborn, 2008, p. 487). In addition, single -parent families have been stigmatised and charged for generating children who grow up to be unemployable. These accusations stem from the likelihood of single-parent families relying upon assistance. Most of the time, single parents receive maintenance payments from the non-custodial parent. Based on these accusations, children under this family structure are more likely engage in dangerous behaviours (Bomar, 2004). They become involved in crimes, not do well at school which sometimes leads to dropping out. However, not all single -parent families produce unstable children. Single- parent families are capable of producing healthy children if well managed. The dangerous behaviours adopted by children from this family structure stem from the stigmatisation attached to coming from a single-parent family (Haralambos & Hollborn, 2008).
14
2.2.5. Same-gendered Families One of the family forms that is at the receiving end of pathologisation is the samegendered family. A world-wide social movement for gay and lesbian rights has brought increasing support for people of the same gender to share their lives as domestic partners and raise children within their family environment. Same gendered families “include children who are looked after by two matured females or two matured males” (Haralambos & Hollborn, 2008, p. 462). Similarly to the single parent families, children may be from adoption or be results of earlier heterosexual relationship, or produced using new reproductive technologies. To a certain extent like single- parent families, this family type is seen as not being a proper family. However, literature reveals that adolescents rose by lesbian-mother families since delivery express strong psychological adjustment (Gartrell & Bos, 2010). In addition, these children are as likely to adjust and make normal improvement at school as the children from other family structures and are considerably less involved in social problems. From the above discussion, one can observe that debate in the field concerning how children
adjust
is
endless.
While
most
studies
highlight
some
negative
consequences of divorce for children, others have inspected themes associated with children's positive adjustment and this is further illustrated below.
2.3. Negative and positive effects of divorce on children
The debate on how children adjust after parental divorce is endless. Many previous research studies highlighted that children adjust negatively after parental divorce (Bricklin, 2013). On such instances, divorce is evident through the disturbance in social, affecting, and cognitive growth in children (Bricklin, 2013). Even though there is advancement on how some children adjust after the divorce, the impact of divorce is rather considered harmful on children (Coleman, Ganong & Fine, 2000; Sember, 2009). This is evident in the research findings that divorce affects children negatively (Cummings, Davies & Campbell, 2000; Lizardi, Thompson, Keyes & Hasin, 2009). In addition, Malone, Lansford and Castellina (2004) reports that in conditions of 15
emotional adaptation, children from divorced families are at danger for exhibiting both internalising (depression, anxiety and low self esteem) and externalising problems (misbehaviour and aggression towards others). In spite that some research found that children do not adjust well, some authors report that there are positive attributes associated with divorce. Research asserts that it is definitely possible to have a healthy, strong, and solid relationship with well adjusted children after divorce.
Some children act independently and happy
(Ricciuti, 2004) and emotionally well adjusted (Campana, Henderson, Stolberg & Schum, 2008). This is heightened by evidence that the healthy adjusted custodial parent can shield children from the pressures of divorce (Bricklin, 2013). The non- custodial relationship with the child is reported to be another catalyst to children’s positive adjustments post divorce. Varied results on the importance of the relationship and level of contact by the non-custodial parent are evident and discussed below.
2.4. Non-Custodial parent’s visit There are contradicting findings on the hypothesis that maintaining regular contact through the non-custodial parent as well as close relationships does improve children’s adjustments (Bricklin, 2013). Wallerstein and Kelly (2008) highlight that when visitation from the non-custodial parent are regular, children farewell. Certainly, a non-custodial parent visitation plays a significant role in children’s adjustment after the divorce. A high-quality bond between the child and the non-custodial parent does help children to adjust well. Even so, the quality of the relationship is more essential than the quantity (Dunn, O’Connor, & Bridges 2004). If regular contact occur in unfavourable conditions, the child is possible to have adjustment problems. Furthermore, children exposed to consistent, intense conflict even after the divorce are more likely to adjust undesirably (Hetherington, 1999). This is capable of increasing the likelihood of conflict in their individual relationships as offspring and even as adult, which may complicate the development of stable, satisfying relationships as adults. Therefore, positive adaptation of a child after the divorce of 16
his or her parents depends on the strong functioning of their parents and the quality of relationships with and between parents and after divorce (Wallerstein &Kelly, 2008).
2.5. Age at divorce Research has proven that children of different ages do not react the same way to divorce. Cognitive development has been highlighted as the main factor that shapes adjustment differences. Watts, Cockcroft and Duncan (2009) highlight that the older the child develops, the more his or her thinking matures. This statement is rooted from Jean Piaget’s Theory of cognitive development. According to the theory of Piaget, in order for a child to reach maturity, he or she has to undergo through a series of universal stages of cognitive development and learn to adapt to their environment (Piaget as cited in Watts, et al., 2009). Piaget believed that during the first stage (sensorimotor stage, 0 -2 years), children think with their eyes, ears and hands and realise that their actions can cause things to happen in the world around them. During the end of this stage, children learn that things continue to exist even though out of sight (object permanence). Meanwhile in the second stage children tend to be egocentric and struggle to see things from the perspective of others. While they are getting better with language and thinking, children tend to think about things in very concrete terms (Watts, et al., 2009). On that note, Keenan and Evans (2009) propose that young children are much more likely to be confused by the divorce; also expected to fear rejection by the remaining parent. In addition, they daydream about resolution, show problems in expressing their feelings and often blame themselves. Self blaming places children at risk of encountering more adjustment problems than an older child due to egocentrism (Garton, 2008). Correspondingly, in an observational study by Ebling, Pruett, and Pruett (2009) on children between the ages 3.5 to 7.5 years, where the aim was to clarify the nature of young children’s understanding of divorce and family related transformation, fortyone children were employed from a preventative intervention program for divorcing 17
parents. In the same manner of the cognition associated with this age group, most children in the study gave straightforward but accurate images of divorce processes of their parents. Play themes centered on desires for parental get-together, worry for security, and complications of having two homes. Regardless of the prevalence of fantasy reunion play, most children drew parents as apart in the family drawing, suggesting realistic changes in family schemas. Qualitatively, 10% of children in this study considered divorce as a relief to the stressful marriage experienced by parents (Ebling, et al., 2009). In addition, a lesser amount of than one quarter of children managed to draw their parents jointly in the family illustration which indicates a healthy indication that some children understand parents’ separation. Watts, et al., (2009) highlights that during the third stage of Piaget’s model, the concrete operations (7 - 11 years), children start to recognise the concept of conservation (the quantity of liquid in a short, wide glass is equivalent to that in a tall thin glass). Thinking becomes further rational and organised but still extremely concrete. Meanwhile, in the final stage (formal operations- 12 onwards), abstract thought come into sight. Children begin to reflect more about moral, social matters that need abstract way of thinking due to cognitive maturity. Manifested in research, positive adjustments are identified among adolescents as the ability to think abstractly. Research has developed that adolescents' capability to appreciate and conceptualize their parents’ divorce does improve their adjustment (Cartwright, 2006). This is evident in a study conducted on adults whose parents were divorced in their teens; results highlights that the participants believe it was healthier for them that their parent’s weddings ended and report no negative effects from the divorce instead see the institution of marriage as unreliable (Cartwright, 2006). However, some children tend to articulate feelings of sorrow, fright, and resentment. Unlike children on the preoperational stage, children at this stage are less expected to fault themselves, but more likely to feel alienated allegiances. They are better capable to use additional family support (Cartwright, 2006).
2.6. Future relationship difficulties
Studies highlight that there is a strong relationship between divorce and increased risk of relationship difficulties on off spring of divorce in adulthood (Hetherington, 18
2003; Wallerstein, et al., 2000). With high opinion to family and close relationships, researchers as of multiplicity of disciplines have the same opinion that children with divorced parents hold an increased danger of having a variety of problems in early adulthood, as well as weak ties with parents and relationship insecurity (Sobolewski & Amato, 2007). These findings were highlighted in Wallerstein and Lewis (2004) longitudinal study. Based on the results of their study, there are ongoing adjustment problems in psychological health, feelings of sorrow, or stressful reminiscences related to the divorce, and noticeable problems in developing and satisfying intimate relationships. Wallerstein and Lewis (2004) found the early response to divorce to be poorer for younger children, but in later years they emerge better adjusted compared to their older counterparts. The results of this study sustain Piaget’s theory of cognitive development in that children who are really young at marital breakup may be not be burdened in future than those who are older (Wallerstein & Lewis, 2004). This is due to the fact that children are reported to be vulnerable during the adolescence stage and form close relationships outside their family with their peers (Louw & Louw, 2007). In addition to this, children build up their sense of identity and increase their independence. A disruption in any of this social network is reported to make it difficult for children to form close relationships, even in future. Reviewed literature posits that young women from divorced families are more at risk than males to have closeness and communication complications in their passionate affairs (Mullet & Stolberg, 2002). Notably, not just with intimate relationship problems, but also with a parent and other family members (Cartwright, 2006). Contradicting these findings is Shulman, Scharf, Lumer and Maurer (2001), arguing that young adults whose parents are divorced reported less problems in relationships, especially if the mothers have remarried. Children not being able to form close relationships, is said to be affected by living with a single parent and being inexperienced in intimate relationships, not divorce per se. Hence some research findings shows that the procedure of divorce has no direct negative effect in later years (Gasper, Stolberg, Larry & Williams, 2008).
19
2.7. Family functioning The importance of family structure and parental participation has been highlighted to encompass a greater effect in a child’s life. The statement supports Lev Vygotsky’s social cognitive theory. The theory places a strong emphasis on the socio- cultural context. For Vygotsky, children could not be understood without reference to the social and cultural background in which the child is rooted (Charlesworth, 2010). In addition, Vygotsky believes that awareness and meanings are keenly and collaboratively built in a social framework judged by recurrent social conversations. Even though personal characteristics of a child, like the age and gender have an influence on how a child will adjust, the family functioning also has an impact. How a family handles divorce affects how he or she will function. How a parent handles divorce has an influence on how the child will adjust (Watson & Greeff, 2004). If the parents of a child have complicatedness coping with stress, the child will be at risk of adjustment and will find him or herself in stressful situations, meanwhile, a good relationship is associated with better psychological and social adjustment where children feel respected. Many researchers highlight the significance of family in a child’s life. Research findings argue that a child from a nuclear family adapts positively to any situation. Normality of the nuclear family is based on the absence of pathology in its members and their relationships being problem free (Walsh, 2006). Supporting this, Haralambos and Holborn (2008) reports that a family is found to be the supportive factor for children where parents have a very positive effect on children’s achievement. For this reason, children in single-parent families are reported to face more obstruction (Wolfinger, et al., 2008). Therefore, the normal family sees divorce as a threat to a family institution and a disruption to a child’s well being. In addition, some studies observe a family as a good environment for child rearing as it is associated with security. Hence research highlights that children whose parents are divorced are still at twice the risk of problems as the non-separated community (McIntosh, 2003). Moreover, reviewed literature argues that children not living with both biological parents give the impression to experience more irregular discipline compared to those who live with their biological parents (Ross & Mc Duff, 2008). 20
Some researchers contend that the nonappearance of whichever parent could result in the children receiving minimum potential support and slow down children’s achievement (Ham, 2008). Such children have proved to perform lower on standardised academic tests than children from married parents (Potter, 2010). However, others criticised the assumption that a relationship exist between intact family and strong academic performance and argues that there is no association between family structure and scholastic accomplishment of children from singleparent families (Cherian & Malehase, 2000). Walsh (2006) implies that anything outside the normal family structure is pathologised, ignoring the problems that are within the normal family. No family is problem free, all families face problems in living (Walsh, 2006). Hence opposing literature highlights that there is no difference between children’s behaviour from divorce or intact families (Mc Veigh & Wolfer, 2004). The behavioural experiences of children from the separate family structures are not anymore different, just that divorced families are at risk of the erroneous belief of dramatisation (Mc Veigh & Wolfer, 2004).
2.8. Conflict Conflict has received substantial consideration in the literature. Research shows that children's adjustment is caused by the quantity of conflict parents has before and after the divorce. In elevated conflict and abusive families, children whose parents are divorced do better than those whose families remain intact (McLanahan, Donahue & Haskins, 2005). This perspective contradicts the idealisation of nuclear family as it highlights that conflict manifests itself even in intact families. Other research studies do emphasise that the level of conflict needs to be noted when dealing with this theme (Richardson & McCabe, 2001). Research highlights that children from divorced families be likely to have adjustment problems when there is ongoing disagreement between their parents. This means that even though marriage conflict and dysfunction is minimised after divorce, a good relationship between the divorced parents does contribute to how well adjusted the
21
child will be (Portes, Brown, Saylor & Sekhon, 2005). The finding proposes that when conflict is minimised, children feel positive about their worth. Unhealthy coparenting and parenting traditions have harmful consequences for young adults from divorced and non-divorced families (Gasper, Stolberg, Larry & Williams, 2008). Children are reported to adjust well in homes where parental conflict is kept low and parents prioritise their children’s wellbeing. Similarly, McIntosh and Chisholm (2008) highlights that the relationship between strong marital conflict and children’s poor adjustment had been repetitively demonstrated, and children are reported to have more emotional problems when their parents are in conflict, either for the duration of marriage or following divorce. Children who reside with hostility between their parents are at risk for emotional and behavioural problems such as low self esteem. These findings prove that in situations where a high level of inter-parental conflict is evident, divorce may be beneficial for children’s well being. The disintegration of parents can keep children from ongoing experience to within-marriage conflict as in most cases children are forced to take sides (McLanahan, et al., 2005).
2.9. Communication and support system
Open communication between family members and positive attitudes is associated with well adjusted children. Communication is essential even if it is with one parent who can act as a shield against the stressful process of divorce than having no parental relationship. Research shows that children of divorce believe that with support of friends and family, they managed to find their feet after divorce (Greeff & Van der Merwe, 2003). Similarly, Hawley (2000) believes that families with a wellbuilt sense of unity adapt more willingly after a crisis and attain the same or an elevated level of recognition after divorce. In addition, research posits that divorced biological parents who uphold a relationship of effective communication and who jointly and helpfully continue their parenting despite the divorce; contribute positively to the emotional security of their adolescent child who has no option but to belong to two micro family systems (Ebersohn & Bouwer, 2013). Hence, ineffective interaction patterns by divorced
22
biological parents contribute significantly to the emotional pain and insecurity of their adolescent child (Dunn, et al., 2004).
2.10. Financial status Economic adversity following parental separation and divorce has been linked with negative result for children. A number of studies have dealt with the importance of money in considering the impact on children of divorce, that demonstrate that the divorce of parents result to a failure of financial resources for children (Wallerstein, et al, 2000). Literature shows that children fare well in financial secure single parent homes with a strong parental functioning, especially when supported by extended kin networks (Davidson, 2003). The financial resources of a family have been established to explain substantial inconsistency in behavioural problems of children whose parents have divorced. Research suggests that other than parental conflict, it is the financial fallout from divorce that causes many of the negative consequences of divorce for children (Smyth & Weston, 2000). Significantly, as with many of the resolution decisions made by parents in the process of divorce, children hardly ever play an active role in financial decisions, although these resolutions clearly affect their lives (Haugen, 2005).
2.11. Gender
Gender differences are highlighted in academic literature as a theme related to children’s adjustment. Some studies point to further adjustment struggle for boys who come from divorced families than for girls (Spruijt & Duindam, 2005). Meanwhile, some researchers have highlighted no differences between boys and girls in the effects of divorce. Kerr (2008) suggests that disturbances in the fatherson relationship are related to a huge number of development interferences in boys. Furthermore, Spruit and Duindam (2005) reports that boys do not perform well on school academic tests after the divorce of their parents. In addition, Short (2002) highlights that males report less anxiety and depression in the divorced parents group than those living with both parents. On the other hand, the emotional loss of 23
father is seen as negative response for girls (Malberg, 2011). On that note, no consensus exists regarding gender differences.
2.12. Parental style Parental style is associated with children’s adjustments. According to Kamphaus and Frick (2005), “parental style is a constellation of attitudes toward the child that are communicated to the child and create an emotional climate in which the parents’ behaviours are expressed” (p. 285). Parenting styles express parent’s overall feelings concerning the child in the course of body language, quality of voice, affecting displays and quality of consideration (Benson & Haith, 2009; Louw, Van Ede & Louw, 1998). Research findings report that children of authoritative parents are reported to have the best emotional adjustment (Campana, Henderson, Stolberg and Schum, 2008). Authoritative parents encompass children who report practicing lower levels of depression, lower hostility, and higher self-esteem than children of other parenting kind. In summary, based on the findings on this literature review, it can be presumed that divorce can be harmful for children, specifically in cases where there is no family support. In cases where there are ongoing arguments / conflict between parents, children find themselves victims of negative adjustment. However a child’s age and gender also have an influence on how a child will adjust. Boys are reported to be the gender that is more affected by divorce. Boys are reported to perform lower on academic tests; meanwhile, their counterparts are less affected. It is important to highlight that the findings about boys are not conclusive. On the other hand, children’s adjustment after the divorce is strongly affected by their age. Younger children often blame themselves about the divorce; meanwhile, cognitively matured children adjust better.
24
Chapter 3: Methodology This section of the study will be focusing on the methods employed and the procedures undertaken during the course of the study in order to address the research topic: “A critical exploration of children’s adjustments after the divorce of their parents - A Content analysis”. The main aim of the present study is to identify and critically explore the key themes in existing academic literature based on children’s adjustment after their parents’ divorce. The relevant information has been collected from academic texts or journal articles for analysis purposes.
3.1. Research Design: Content Analysis
This chapter will be addressing the qualitative and quantitative components of the study in the form of a content analysis. A content analysis was performed to produce findings on the matter that is addressed in existing academic literature of child’s adjustment after parental divorce. The data was selected in support of the theoretical suitability of the study covering the qualitative side of the study and concurrently attend to the quantitative section which involves the selection of the data and the enumeration of the reoccurring themes in the data selected. The articles sampled for the study are drawn from various databases and were in the form of PDF files. According to Krippendorff (2004), a content analysis is a research procedure for making replicable and applicable conclusion from text to the perspective of their use. Content analysis covers a wide range of approaches and techniques ranging from purely qualitative to highly quantitative (Klenke, 2008). Qualitative methods have allowed for the identification of trends and patterns within the existing academic literature, identifies trends or themes that emerge in the selected articles (Grbich, 2007). Meanwhile quantitative methodology has assisted the researcher to code and make frequency tables. Every advantage has its disadvantage. The advantages of a content analysis is that it
condenses
documents
of
large
content 25
into
enumerative
information,
accommodates both the qualitative and the quantitative approaches, provides a sense of objectivity and accommodates emotions, attitudes, intentions whilst addressing power relations (Grbich, 2007). On the other hand, a content analysis is viewed as being too positivist when the enumerative approach is used, thus only concentrating on word counts and leaving no room for interpretation (Grbich, 2007).
3.2. Sampling methods: Database Collection
The sources selected were secondary sources based on previously conducted studies. Data collection was done over a period of six months, from February, to August, 2014. The design of the study has taken a structure of a content analysis which makes use of academic journal articles taken from the University of Fort Hare’s and UNISA databases such as:
Ebcohost
PsychInfo
Sabinet
Jstor
SAGE
Science Direct
The Journals that the author has opted to use include those of:
Journal of social psychology
Health SA Gesondheid
SA Journal of Education
The American Journal of Family Therapy
SA Journal of Psychology
Acta Academia
The Open Family Studies Journals
Social Behaviour and Personality
Journal of Psychology in Africa
AJPHERD
Journal of Child and Adolescent Mental Health 26
In the author’s re-examination of the literature on children’s adjustment after parental divorce, these above are the journals that appeared time and time again and felt that they are the most relevant examples of research to address the question.
This present study draws on a relatively small purposive sample for thematic analysis owing to the restricted number of researched articles conducted in South Africa about the issue of children’s adjustments after parental divorce. Since the present study aims to identify and critically explore the key themes in existing academic literature based on children’s adjustment after their parents’ divorce and add to the body of knowledge; the logic behind the use of non- probability sampling is that; it is impossible for the researcher to identify and explore all the articles in the above mentioned databases. Purposive sampling was suitable for this study since the researcher is interested in researched articles that entail what the best knowledge and information concerning the research topic and due to the relevance to the research problem. However, a shortcoming of purposive sampling is that it can be complicated for the reader to judge the reliability of sampling if full details are not given (Creswell, 2013; Babbie, 2013). It is imperative to maintain that using purposive sampling results in findings that are not representative to a "population of texts; rather, they are to a population of relevant texts" (Krippendorff, 2004, p. 119).
3.3. Criteria for inclusion and exclusion of data and categories The researcher’s criterion for useful articles is straightforward; all that the researcher was requesting is that the article speaks to children’s adjustments after parental divorce. While some of the articles selected also incorporated the adjustments of young adults within their testing sample, there was clear distinction made between the times when the incident of divorce took place (during the participants’ teenage years). The articles used for the thematic analysis are situated in the South African context and fall between the time frames of 2000-2014. 27
Related to children adjustment, a unique grouping of search words was used to make a large sample of articles mentioning children’s adjustment:
children adjustment
dysfunctional children after divorce
effects of divorce
coping and divorce
adaptation after divorce
parent separation
The articles that the researcher ultimately selected were articles that continued to come across repeatedly during the search and found to be informative in addressing the research question. The initial search for coding yielded +500 articles (inside and outside SA). To narrow the results, articles that were not published between the years 2000 and 2014 were excluded. After the exclusion, each of the 123 articles was scanned for relevance. Furthermore, to narrow the results, articles that did not mainly focus on child adjustment after parental divorce were excluded from the study, leaving only 32 articles for coding. It must also be noted that the exclusion criteria was:
Articles that contained less than two pages were excluded from the article search as short article would not offer enough detail on essentials addressing the study (Wade, Wilfond & McBride, 2010)
Some downloaded articles that only had an abstract
Articles not written in English
Articles that mainly mentions children’s adjustment in only one sentence and
Those with children who have disabilities and medical conditions before parental divorce.
Out of the 14 South African articles that were selected for thematic analysis on this research project, seven were rated as strong, five as moderate, and two as weak. The researcher has also quality assessed each of these articles to analyse their strength and validity as pieces of research using a similar method to that of Alguire (2010). It is vital to note that while two of the articles were rated as weak due to the
28
quality assessment, they still remained useful and strong articles for informing the research. The strength of the article is determined through the quality assessment when an article met all of the criteria in answering the research question.
3.4. Data collection
The data selected is mostly that of the 21
st
century (which means that any articles
published from 2000 until 2014 is appropriate for the study). It is of importance to highlight that even though one of the articles sampled in this study is published within the above mentioned time period; the study was conducted in the late 90’s. This involves an article by Cherian and Melahase (2000) / P1.
3.5. Ethical considerations In the present study, there are no direct participants involved; the researcher makes use of existing academic literature. Therefore, the study has adopted the principle of honesty and a special attention has been paid to the use of referencing.
3.6. Data management
Content analysis dealt with large quantities of text and was in principal a quantitative analysis. It is an organized coding and categorizing approach to discover large amounts of documented information in order to determine the trends and outline of words used their frequency, their associations, and the arrangement and conversations of communication (Grbich, 2007). However, a mixed-method approach of quantitative and qualitative research in this study was applied to maximize on the prons of both approaches. Firstly, a numeric count and coding system (quantitative method) was applied to create the count of certain repetitive codes. Secondly, a thematic analysis (qualitative method) was done to analyze the meaning of the codes in order to find a deeper meaning and 29
more complete picture of the material. Nvivo was the programme of choice to deal with the above method as it could handle both aspects very well and was suitable for keeping track of large volumes of articles in a complex network-marketing manner and the use of a code book was adopted.
3.7. Methods of data analysis Taking into consideration that this study is a content analysis, a mixed method approach was decided upon in which the analysis is both enumerative and thematic (Grbich, 2007). The use of combining the quantitative and qualitative methods enable for a more introspective approach to the examination of documents and allow contextualisation and the advancement of theoretical understanding which can tie “to the structural organisations producing the events” (Grbich, p. 120). The quantitative method took a direction that was more frequency based and was more useful for the coding procedure. The purpose of this method is to identify and record the occurrence of relevant phenomena which could be established as a theme in the texts collected. Meanwhile the qualitative method of analysis was identified through an inductive and deductive approach. The inductive approach basically meant that themes exist independently from the researcher’s perceptions thus they are a product of the data and linked to the data (Braun & Clark, 2008). Meanwhile the deductive approach means that the themes found are a product of the researcher’s interest. The researcher is then the driving force behind some of the emerging themes which could have pre existed based on previous research, or own perceptions of the research study (Braun & Clark, 2008). A combination of inductive and deductive coding took place. The final codes that were made use of were:
Child’s characteristics
Emotions
Family characteristics 30
Situational characteristics
In addition to the above, the present study has included some deductive codes taken from Macleod and Howell (2013) study. The researcher found the categories appropriate to be included in the present study and give a rich meaning to the results. The categories are as follows: Author /Publication’s details
Authors’ attitude towards divorce Year of journal publication
Type of article (type of methodology used)
Participant’s detail
Age
Race
Province (where the research was conducted)
The custodial-parent
Each one of these final codes, referred to as family codes, is discussed individually and in relation to various sub-codes that were formed. The sub-codes discussed have been listed in a table at the beginning of each family code section. The findings are then summarized in the form of tables which represented the nominal measures and conclusions that are drawn based on these findings.
3.8. Limitations
Content analysis is a merely descriptive process. It illustrates what is there, but may not disclose the fundamental motives for the observed model ('what' but not 'why') (Braun & Clarke, 2008). The examination of this paper is restricted by availability of material (32 articles for coding & 14 for thematic analysis). Observed inclination in literature may not be a precise indication of reality. The issue of divorce is receiving little attention in South Africa as the researcher had to draw from studies outside South Africa for quantitative analysis
31
Chapter 4: Results This section deals with the findings of this study in respect of the research question “What are the key themes in existing academic literature regarding the adjustment of children after their parents’ divorce in South Africa - A content analysis of journal articles”. The frequency with which the various themes appeared is analyzed. Four (n=4) code families were established, including various sub-codes that are explained in the individual sections below. Later in this chapter, statistical analysis of the data incorporated in the study is presented. This is more of a comparison between articles inside and outside South Africa. The frequency table below shows the codes alphabetically and illustrate the number of instances in which the family code appears in the data. 4.1. Frequency table:
Code
Frequency
Child’s characteristics
85
Emotions
79
Family characteristics
93
Situational characteristics
121
Table 1 – Code Frequency Each family code has been discussed individually and in relation to the sub-codes that are formed. Sub-codes that are discussed in detail and have been numbered. Journal articles in the data are referenced as primary documents and references to them appear as P (followed by a number). The primary documents have been listed as Appendix 2 and referenced separately in a chronological order (year of publication) to the sources used for the literature review and methodology chapters. A codebook has also been presented in Appendix 1 for a short description of each code.
32
4.2. Child’s characteristics (85)
This code refers to the distinguishing features that help to identify and classify the participants. The family code child characteristics comprised of the following subcodes and their frequencies:
Sub-theme
Frequency
Child's age
21
Child's gender
21
Child's intrinsic ability
43
Table 2. Children’s characteristics subthemes & frequency 4.2.1. Child’s age (21)
The present study points to the importance of the child’s age at the instance of divorce. Even though early findings recommended that younger children who are separated from a parent at an early age had more negative effects than teenagers, this theme has confirmed to be more multifaceted than was originally thought. Older children reported being more affected by the divorce than younger children (P7). Young teens and teenagers whose parents divorced when they were very young (pre-schoolers) did not report any effects caused by the break up. This is evident in the child’s response that he or she was young at the time when divorce took place, and is unable to remember anything (P2). Meanwhile, a teenage participant whose parents got divorced two years earlier to the time of the study reported being badly affected by the divorce in such a way that s/he still feels dissociated from the self (P7). The finding is in support of the literature that children who are very young when the divorce take place may be less held back in the years to come than those who are older during the time of divorce (Gold, 2009).
33
4.2.2. Child’s gender (21)
The results on gender variation in children’s adjustments after parental divorce have been conflicting. A number of research articles point to more adjustment struggles for boys than for girls (P2 &P7). Other researchers find further negative effects for girls; meanwhile some research has found that both genders find it difficult in their later relationships to express their needs and vulnerabilities to their partners in the future (P2 & P8). Literature reports that boys are more frustrated with their relationships and social networks in cases where the custodial-parent is the mother (P2 & P7). The mother in some cases forces them to conform to her description of what a man should be (loyal, helpful and reliable). Boys then find it not easy to connect with their partners in the future outside this forced rescuing identity and to accept their partners playing the “header role”. This is evident in the child’s response stating he prefers to “play the rescuer”, however at the same time hates himself for playing the position and become irritated at other women for playing into it (P2, p. 81). The sampled literature highlights that boys do not deal with divorce through crying, instead some rely on social support (P8). Unlike this notion which states that boys do not cry, some of the sampled academic literature highlights that in both genders, the expression of emotion enabled them to adjust well (P8). On this note, girls are reported to disclose and even cry in front of their friends about divorce related issues. In a case in which the mother is the custodial-parent and is emotionally dependent on their child, girls experience the reliance in a very negative way. This leads to them resorting affective blunting in order to survive within this relationship (P2). Affective blunting refers to the malfunction in expressing feelings either vocally or non-vocally, particularly when talking about issues that would in general be likely to connect the emotions (Lewis, Haviland-Jones & Barrett, 2008). Overall, both genders find it difficult in their relationships to express their desires and vulnerabilities to their partners in the future. They want to be entirely in control and this in turn makes it difficult to commit to a significant partner. This is evident in a
34
participant’s answer that he or she has always been very cautious of assurance and rather fearful of marriage (P2). 4.2.3. Child’s intrinsic ability (43)
Even though divorce is harmful to almost all children, the findings highlight that some children do manage to fare well after. This is owing to the fact that some children are resilient. Resilience refers to an individual’s capability to appropriately adapt to pressure and hardship (Allen, Murray & Simons, 2005). The resilient adolescents highlight that refocusing their thoughts and self distraction helps them adjust in a positive manner (P2). The resilient children of divorce prefer not to think about divorce and rather focus on other activities that they enjoy and keep them busy. These children try to keep their spare time occupied. Some join sports and clubs while others focus on school work and after school activities. A participant reported, I can run until I am so tired that everything just passes me by. I don’t think about anything. I hear my heart beating in my ears. I get rid of all my frustrations that way ... the jogging gives me perspective and the game takes my mind off everything (P8, p.236). Another participant reported that she prefers to laugh and joke about something that has hurt her than dealing with it in any other way (P8). Although it is highlighted that resilient children have a better chance of coping with divorce, literature does also report that being resilient has some disadvantages. To mention but a few, resilient children of divorce can lack the ability to acknowledge their own needs as they find it easier to nurture and care for others (P2). Even though they report to be coping and functioning well, children are not satisfied with how they feel about themselves. They have a tendency to over work themselves, disregard their bodies when they are sick and have complicatedness in eating properly (P2). One can observe the contrast in self interests as the children are torn between enjoying their childhood and taking care of the custodial-parent. Even though the splitting is sometimes temporary, this, coupled with an unhealthy sense of entitlement often leads to low self esteem which is not a healthy habit to the child (Stahl, 2007).
35
4.3. Emotions (79)
This code refers to children’s feelings, their understanding of divorce and the effects divorce causes. This family code emotion comprised of the following sub-codes and their frequencies: Sub-themes
Frequency
Negative effects
43
Positive impacts
36
Table 3. Emotions sub-codes and frequency 4.3.1. Negative effects (43)
Negative feelings refer to any feeling which causes children to dislike themselves and others and take away their confidence Negative emotions evident in the literature include feelings of:
Shock (P7)
Betrayal (P7)
Disbelief (P7)
Fear (P2)
Frustration(P10)
Pain (P14)
Humiliation (P7)and
Rejection (P2)
43% of children in the sampled academic literature reported negative feelings towards divorce. Children reported being detached from themselves and were left feeling that their world had come to an end after their parents’ divorce, “I was very worried and afraid….. I didn’t know what was going to happen to me” (P2, p. 77). Some children argue that they could have been better kids if their parents had not been divorced. This sometimes leads to confusion and self blame with some children having the hope that their parents will still work matters out and remarry.
36
The mothers’ dependency is another aspect contributing to the negative emotions of children. Dependency in this instance refers to a mother who is dependent on the child for emotional support (P2). The mother’s dependency creates resentment towards a child and children feel entrapped by the situation. However they are forced to tolerate it as they have a fear of being rejected should they decide to leave (P2). This leads to children who then end up suppressing their feelings of frustration, anger or even pain.
4.3.2. Positive impacts (36)
Children have adopted positive impacts to help them cope with the nature of divorce. A number of emotions have been identified from the journal articles. These include:
Relief (P2)
Being happy and (P7;P12)
Acceptance (P2; P4; P 8; P14).
Literature reports the presence of positive emotional response following divorce. Children adjust positively in situations where divorce is a mutual decision between both parents (P4). This is even heightened when children are consulted prior to the decision of separation by both parents. Moreover, some children reported being happy having joyful and separated parents than living with parents who are always fighting. A child reported that he or she was happier when the parents finally decided to divorce. The child prefers having parents who are happier and less involved in fights. (P7). Another contribution to positive adjustment is reframing. Reframing is a technique used by children to change the meaning of divorce and thereby changing minds (P8). Children reported that reframing their parents’ divorce benefits them in having improved home benefits
37
4.4. Family characteristics (93)
The family characteristics experienced by the participants include child rearing (parental style, parent-child relationship, parents’ coping skills, parental absence and communication between biological parents). It also includes the socio economic position of the custodial-parent. Sub-theme
Frequency
Child rearing
64
Socio-economic status
29
Table 4.Family characteristics sub-code and frequency 4.4.1. Child rearing (64)
Parent-child relationship and communication between biological parents is reported to have an influence on how children adjust after parental divorce. Parent’s ability to deal with the loss (custodial parent-mother), diminished parenting capacity, possible parental absence (due to long working hours) and changes in household composition have a degree of pressure on children’s adjustments (P2;P7). Some literature is of the view that in cases where there is a high degree of contact and support between the child and the non-custodial parent (father), such a relationship offers more physical support than emotional support. The finding proposes that mothers should pay full attention to their children after divorce as children who are able to relate to their mothers show better adjustment if the mother is well adjusted (P4). This is in support of the notion that the role of mothers is to give her undivided attention on raising and caring for children and are the ones that are held responsible for the success in promoting the child’s development meanwhile the father provides financial support to the family (Burman, 2008).
The findings also place more emphasis on the father-child relationship. The fatherchild relationship is reported to be a contributor on how children adjust after parental
38
divorce (P7). The absence of the father is believed to have harmful effects on children, especially in boys as mentioned above. This is confirmed by a participant who said, “It would have been good to have a man around and to have a role model. I feel I’m missing a lot” (P7, p. 78). Based on the above finding, boys are more likely to
suppress
their feelings in
order to
appear manly which
leads into
misbehaving. The suppression of feelings can be said to be influenced by the absence of the male figure with whom the child can relate and openly share the struggle of divorce with. P9 denotes that the custodial parents’ parenting style has an impact on how a child will
adjust.
Autonomy–supportive
mothers
provide
children
with
warmth,
competence, acknowledgements of feelings and are concerned about their children (P9). They also provide children with chances to take part in family decision-making. This parenting style is compared to children whose parents are psychologically controlling, leading to children being ineffectual, concerned, depressed and have low self esteem (P9). Overall, good parent-child relationship provides children with advice, emotional support, adequate attention and fair discipline. This leads to the child’s growth and learning to take care of themselves without being too dependent on other people (P8).
4.4.2. Socio-economic status (29)
The findings under this sub-theme points that there are concerns that the children had in relation to the socio-economic status of the custodial-parent that is problematic to them. Many participants reported being directly affected by economic hardship in the sampled academic literature. The socio-economic position of the custodial parent did not only affect children socially, but also academically (P1). Children report that the poor economic status of the parent meant poor quality education for them. For example, one child reported that his or her mother is financially battling to take care of the family because there is no financial contribution from the father (P7). Another participant responded that she felt the mother’s salary 39
on its own is not enough, “she has no helper and my dad does not provide any financial support for our sustenance” (P7, p. 78).
4.5. Situational characteristics (121)
Situational characteristics that directly or indirectly influence children. The subthemes that are explained below. Code
Frequency
Custody and access arrangements
14
Parental conflict
50
Support system
57
Table 5. Situational characteristics sub-code and frequency
4.5.1. Custody and access arrangements (14)
The subject of custody and access engagements on the children of divorcing couples has been the focus of much discussion. In most notable countries like the United States, the United Kingdom and Australia, mothers have conventionally been given protection of the children in the majority of cases (Warhurst & Simms, 2001). Meanwhile, fathers have been allowed visitation. Similarly, this is an evident case on the analysed South Africa journal articles. 50% of children in the sampled academic literature continued to live with their mothers after the divorce. This is reflective of the Western notion that women are typically seen as being the suitable environment for children’s
development
(Burman,
2008).
However,
there
is
considerable
reimbursement for children when the non-custodial parent is active (P10). The quality of such a relationship is reported to be more effective than the quantity. This is evident in an excerpt with a child stating that the divorce did not affect him or her in any negative way. The most important thing to him or her is that the child is able to see both parents, including the non- custodial parent anytime he or she wishes. This 40
is heightened by the financial support that the father (non-custodial parent) contributes towards the child’s life (P7).
4.5.2. Parental conflict (50)
The issue of parental conflict on children’s adjustment after divorce has received substantial consideration in the literature. 40% of authors in the sampled literature concur that high levels of parental conflict provides negative pressure for children’s adjustment to the divorce. For illustration, it has been established that conflict can influence children’s self-esteem, ability to adjust and cope and social capability (P7; P10; P12 &P14). Results highlight that children internalise the negative statements during the parent’s conversations. In addition, parents are also more likely to act in response with negative behaviour when their partner behaves or communicates negatively which in turn affects how a child adjusts. This is evident in a child’s response that: “Even now that my parents are divorced they still fight on the phone over maintenance. They shout and yell at each other. It is affecting me and I wish they could just stop fighting” (P7, p. 79).
4.5.3. Support systems (57)
The findings postulate that both internal and external family support arrangement take on a particular implication throughout times of adjustments for children, particularly the effects of divorce involves the disturbance of the family structure (P3; P5; P6; P7; P8; P 10; P12 & P14). The support can be offered by the child’s parents, extended family associates, peers and teachers. In addition, the majority of children reported a supportive step-parent as a protective factor post divorce. This becomes evident in a child’s response stating that the absence of the biological father does not affect him or her as the step-father is playing the father role in his or her life (P7 & P8). This type of support system, together with often available adults (grandparents, biological parents and teachers) or older siblings is reported to help lessen some of the negative effects linked with divorce. Moreover, schools do contribute to the children’s acceptance of divorce. Some participants were grateful to their schools because they encouraged coping, either by way of supportive 41
educators, or by way of facilitating daily contact with their friends. A child reported that in cases when he or she is sad when at school, all friends are concerned about what is troubling him or her (P8).
4.6. Statistical analysis
This section provides the reader with statistical analysis of the data included in the study. The researcher saw the findings as of importance on how children’s adjustment is represented in literature. Explanation to the categories is discussed under Appendix 1.
4.6.1. Age of the participants
The following table compares the distribution of children’s ages in the sampled academic literature. The comparison is based on articles published inside South Africa and those of countries outside South Africa.
Age
Inside S. A (%)
Outside (Africa & International) (%)
Pre- schoolers
0
5.6
Middle childhood
14.3
22.2
Young teens
14.3
33.3
Teenagers
42.9
22.2
Other
28.6
11.1
Table 6. Age of participants.
Table 6 shows a variation regarding the age of participants in and outside South Africa. Research concerning participants in their pre-school years remains less researched outside SA, with no research conducted at all inside SA. This finding could maintain that children do not have the ability for abstract thinking that 42
differentiates the maturity of later adolescence and thus would fall short to meet the criteria of “good research respondents” (Scott, 2000, p.101). The other interesting category to note is the high percentage of teens in both scenarios. Researchers have paid more attention on teens (young teen & adult teens) as one can observe a high percentage rate of research on teenage participants (42.9% on teenagers – inside SA & 22.2% outside SA).
4.6.2. Provincial data
The table below shows the representation of provinces where the research has been conducted in the sampled academic literature. Province
figure (%)
Gauteng
21.4
Western Cape
28.6
KwaZulu Natal
7.1
Northern Cape
7.1
More than one
7.1
Not mentioned
28.6
Table 7. Provincial data The results indicate that the Western Cape, followed by Gauteng being the highest researched provinces in South Africa supports the findings by Macleod (2004). Researchers in the field of psychology are accused of paying more attention in South Africa’s wealthiest provinces, Gauteng and the Western Cape. This disadvantages and leaves poorer provinces (Free State, Eastern Cape and others) with a high number of poor people living in these provinces unrepresented. However, the domination of the two provinces in research about divorce could be that these two provinces are reported to be the top provinces with the highest number of registered civil unions in South Africa and with the highest divorce rate, followed by Kwazulu-
43
Natal (Statistics SA, 2012). Then researchers could be targeting the provinces in response to the social issue of divorce and due to the formal family structures that are evident in the provinces (Gauteng & Western Cape), against the informal family settings found in provinces like the Eastern Cape. 28.6% in the sampled articles did not mention the provincial data and it was not possible to gather this information based on the information given on the articles.
4.6.3. Race of the participants
The following table highlights the race of the participants in the South African literature. On the right hand side of the table is the number of children involved on the divorce cases per race. Race
figure (%)
no of children (2002-2011) (%)
Whites
50
27.8
Mixed
7.1
0
Blacks
0
37.4
Coloureds
0
20.2
Unspecified
42.9
8
Table 8. Race of participants. During the early 2000’s, a high percentage of divorce rates was dominated by White Africans, followed by Black South Africans. However, from 2008 the pattern started changing as Black Africans still account the highest divorce rates in South Africa. It comes into view that SA researchers are sensitive to the issue of divorce on other races or are failing to produce awareness across the range of races that the offspring of South Africa live in. The under and the non- presentation of other races in research replicates a concern in the topic at hand and calls for future research.
44
4.6.4. Types of articles
Table 9 illustrates the types of articles used in the journals articles. A comparison is made between South African articles and that from the outside. The explanation for each category is defined in the code book, under appendix 1. Type of article
Inside (S.A) (%)
Outside (Africa & international) (%)
Empirical quantitative
42.9
72.2
Empirical qualitative
28.6
22.2
Empirical mixed
7.1
0
Review
21.4
5.6
Table 9. Type of articles. It is clear from table 9 that research on children’s adjustment after parental divorce continues to be dominated by quantitative research, inside (42.9%) and outside (72.2) South Africa . These findings provide evidence that many researchers uncover an existing reality and believe in the use of objective research methods to uncover the truth (Macleod & Howell, 2013). The domination of quantitative research raises suspicions as it neglects the rich fullness of children’s experiences after parental divorce and locates the problem on an individual level (biomedical framework). The small representation of qualitative research shows the exclusion of children’s voices from the social issue of divorce (inside and outside S.A). There is a need for growing understanding that, while quantitative is essential, this type of research cannot alone provide all of the information and insight required to appreciate children’s experiences or to help plan and provide appropriately responsive child services. The present study does not put forward that quantitative research should be abandoned, but suggesting that children’s voices need to be heard. The researcher is proposing that an adjustment is not something that is only situated inside the child but researchers should acknowledge that the context is interwoven with the very fabric of personal identity (Parker, 2007) and call for more qualitative research. However, it is notable that there is progress in the use of qualitative research inside South Africa compared with outside countries (28.6 vs. 22.2). South African researchers are now 45
engaging with the topic of children’s adjustment after parental divorce and progressively acknowledge that the matter of divorce is social in nature.
4.6.5. Year of publication
The table below shows a comparison on the years in which the articles were published. The years have been divided into two epochs. Epoch 1 (2000-2007) represents a scenario of when the divorce rates was high among white Africans; meanwhile in the second epoch (2008-2014) divorce is dominated by black Africans. Year of publication
Inside SA (% )
Outside(Africa & International) (%)
2000-2007
42.9
50.0
2008-2014
57.1
50.0
Table 10. Year of publication The increase in the number of published journal articles inside South Africa is notable, 42.9% against 57.1%. This can be seen as a positive change in the logic of increased divorce rate in South Africa and also with SA being the fourth country in the world with the highest number of divorce cases. The increase also shows that South African researchers are now starting to engage with the challenge of divorce and with empirical qualitative methods slightly being in the increase. In spite of the increase, Black Africans who hold the highest number of divorce cases are not represented in research. This then makes it difficult for the researcher to engage in an argument about the cultural evolutions being the possible cause of the shift as cultural changes does trigger new increases in the tendency to divorce (Hiller & Recoules, 2013). Interestingly, another reason that could have contributed to the increase in the number of divorce cases in 2008 is probably the global financial crisis that started showing its effects in 2008 in South Africa. This did not only affect South Africans economically but also socially. This is evident in Statistics SA (2010) as a total of 3 460 of not economically active divorce cases was reported against the “financially stable” occupations. The figure is almost as double to that of people who hold professional positions (1 734). On the other side, countries outside South Africa 46
show a stable relationship (50/50%) with regards to the two stages; not reflecting the divorce rates.
4.6.6. Authors’ attitude towards divorce
Table 11 illustrates the attitude of the authors towards divorce in the sampled journals articles. A comparison is made between South African articles and that from the outside. The explanation for each category is defined in the code book, under appendix 1. Attitude
Inside South Africa (%)
Outside (Africa & International) (%)
Positive
0
5.6
Negative
35.7
27.8
Intermediate
21.4
44.4
Not mentioned
42.9
22.2
Table 11. Authors’ attitude towards divorce. Table 11 shows a variation regarding the attitude of the authors towards divorce in and outside South Africa. The analysis regarding the attitude of the authors shows that 5.6% of international authors consider that there is no disgrace attached to divorce and that divorce is generally acceptable. Comparably, there is an increase on the intermediate category. The authors acknowledge that divorce is not painless and that it is associated with implication, especially for children. At the same time, such authors are just getting better adjusted to divorce as a part of present society and postulate that divorce does carry with it some benefits for those involved. Negative attitudes towards divorce still remain high inside South Africa compared to outside countries. The increase shows that South African researchers still consider divorce as a taboo and encompassing harmful effects for children.
47
4.6.7. The custodial-parent
The following table shows a representation of who is regarded as the custodialparent in the sampled academic literature, both inside and outside South Africa. Type of article
Inside (S.A) (%)
Outside (Africa & international) (%)
Father
0
0
Mother
50
72.2
Joint
0
5.6
Not mentioned
50
22.2
Table 12. Custodial–parent It is clear from table 12 that research on children’s adjustment after parental divorce continues to be dominated by mothers as the custodial-parent, inside (50%) and outside (72.2) South Africa. These findings provide evidence that literature still reflect a mainly Westernised perspective of patriarchal parental roles. The mother-child relationship is still regarded as being so unique, that fathers have fewer roles in childcare and child rearing. Mothers are still regarded as the key environment for children’s growth and foundation of children’s warmth (Burman, 2008). Meanwhile fathers are still not considered as capable of child rearing after the divorce inside and outside South Africa.
48
Chapter 5: Discussions This content analysis has employed existing academic literature from various data bases with data that has been collected from a rather undersized sample. Even though the results cannot be generalised, the findings undoubtedly provide some insights into the nature of challenges that children affected by divorce may be going through as can be gained from children’s responses. It is therefore essential to highlight that some of the findings in this study are consistent with previous research conducted in other countries. For illustration, those of Coleman, et al., (2000) and Sember (2009) who reported that divorce is a painful experience for children. The impact of divorce on South African children leads to children having negative emotions due to the changes in living conditions and feeling guilty about the divorce among others. Divorce also makes children detached from the rest of the society as they feel that their world has come to an end (P2; P7). The negative feelings do not only traumatise children but also have long- term effects on them. These findings maintain that children with divorced parents are at an increased risk of encountering a variety of problems in early adulthood. Weak ties with parents and relationship instability in the future are some of the long- term effects associated with divorce which have been reported in the study. The results of this study reveal that mothers’ dependency is another aspect contributing to the negative emotions of children. A number of children feel over burdened that they have to play reversal roles due to parental divorce. Children end up being the comforter to the mother while at the same time performing household duties that are expected of the father. This, in most cases, leads to low-self esteem as children feel dissatisfied with themselves and how they connect with their world as their needs are sometimes not met (P2). This finding is in support to the assertion that the childhood phase is a period of dependency. Children depend on their mothers’ for emotional support and generally, mothers are positioned as the foundation of children’s love (Burman, 2008). If this is absent, it comes at the expense of the child as childhood becomes short-lived. Children depend on their mother’s expert nurturing and guidance to train the child in the appropriate direction 49
through education and socialisation (Burman, 2008). In cases where the mother lacks the mentioned guidance over her children, she is referred to as a faulty mother or is inadequately equipped. Therefore, the findings position the mother as the first person of contact who is responsible for the child’s “deeds and misdeeds” (Burman, 2008, p.79).
Another remarkable observation evident in this study is the presence of positive emotional response that follows divorce. It has been highlighted in this study that some children adjust positively in situations where divorce is a mutual decision between both parents (P4). This is even heightened when children are consulted prior to the decision of separation by both parents. Some report that the separation of parents who experience conflict is a relief to them. This is because parents after divorce have more time to focus on the children than fighting and yelling at each other every day in the face of their children (P8). Whilst parents are wrapped up in a conflict, they are selfish and just think about themselves (Mooney, Knox & Schacht, 2014). Therefore, the finding maintains that often a separated parent will make an effort to spend quality time with the children and pay attention to their desires. The results of the study also publicized how gender differences exist in children’s adjustment after parental divorce. This may perhaps be the result of the stereo types based on each gender. In the present study, both genders find it difficult in their relationships to express their needs and vulnerabilities to their partners (P2). They want to be entirely in control in order to avoid the past mistakes made by their parents and this in turn makes it difficult to commit to a significant partner. Children from divorced backgrounds run from problems when they arise in their relationships and avoid their partners than to deal with the problems. Although both genders experience negative effects, they find different ways of dealing with the pain that is experienced after divorce. Boys are more frustrated with their relationships and social networks in cases where the custodial parent is the mother (P2 & P7). This leads to boys developing less connections or values with the absence of their fathers as there is no one to model masculinity to them. The findings are supported by literature reflecting the homophobic worry that boys brought up by single mothers might be less masculine
50
through lacking a male role model (Burman, 2008). The mother in some cases forces boys to conform to her description of what a man should be (helpful, caring and faithful). This stems from how the mother was treated by the father of the children (P2). In addition to this, the finding is possibly substantiating the assertion that mothers pay more attention to the needs of girls than boys (Burman, 2008). In addition, boys are believed to be the gender that does not deal with divorce by crying. The suppression of feelings can be said to be influenced by the absence of the male figure with whom the child can relate and openly share the struggle of divorce with.
Girls are reported to be more expressive and able to disclose how they feel. Girls unlike boys cry in front of their friends about divorce related issues. From this, it became clear that girls use a better choice of strategies in responding to burdens made (Burman, 2008). In addition, it is reported that when the mother is the custodial- parent and is emotionally dependent on their child, girls experience the dependency and divorce effects in a very negative way. This leads to some girls resorting to affective blunting in order to cope in this relationship, and at the same time understanding the fathers’ inability to cope with their mother (P2). The finding is in contrast to the assertion made earlier that girls have close relationships with their mothers but at the same time maintaining the use of various strategies that they adopt. The findings also reveal that a child’s personal flexibility also affects the chances of their positive long-term adjustment. Despite the fact that divorce comes as a blow to some children, they still fared well because of inner resources. P2 propose that resilient children adopt coping skills. The resilient adolescents highlight that refocusing their thoughts and self distraction has had a positive effect on how they adjust. In addition, the resilient children of divorce prefer not to think about divorce and rather focus on other activities that they enjoy and keep them busy. The above finding does not propose that divorce is not a painful experience to resilient children. Such children recognize that the other part of loss is freedom to take part in activities they enjoy and do not waste energy trying to amend what they cannot (P2 & P8). This is in support of a study by Pickhardt (2006) that children of
51
divorce maintain a positive attitude to motivate themselves through a negative time. Being resilient helps some children to cope better than others, taking responsibility and supporting the custodial parent through her own burdens (P2). Divorce group intervention programme has also been found useful on adolescents’ adjustment pertaining to divorce (P3). The intervention programme does improve children’s social and the personal self concept. Based on the results of the intervention programme, one can argue that the use of group sessions does have a positive impact on children’s adjustment. The voicing out of negative emotions also helps children to overcome the sense of isolation encountered from parental divorce. The results of the present study maintain the findings on the research conducted by Petr (2003) who highlights that the sharing of painful experiences with an accepting group contributes positively in strengthening one’s self-concept. Even though the group is highlighted to be of assistance in changing children’s negative beliefs about divorce, group interaction does not always work best for all children. Children from different backgrounds may not find it comforting to share and voice out their feelings in a group setting. This could owe to the fact that some topics remains sensitive in some communities (Cai, 2002), such topic could include that of divorce. The distribution of the race of participants could be the supportive factor. In the sampled academic literature, 50% consist of White Africans with no representation at all for Black Africans. This could be because in some cultures, for example, in the black culture, children are not involved in discussions that concern adults (Rist, 2009). Furthermore, divorce affects children of different ages in different ways. However, the finding indicate that research concerning participants in their pre-school years remains less researched outside South Africa, with no research conducted at all inside South Africa. From this, it became clear that young children are seen as inexperienced and thus unable of being taken sincerely in negotiations about their needs (Burman, 1994) in academic literature. More attention has been paid to teens. The finding maintains that the adolescence stage is a period of vulnerability where children experience dramatic changes and are at increased risk of problems as divorce may include insensitive changes for some children (Smetana, 2010).
52
Young teens and teenagers whose parents divorced when they were very young did not report any effects caused by the break up. Meanwhile, a teenage participant whose parents got divorced two years prior to the time of the study reported being badly affected by the divorce in such a way that s/he still feels dissociated with the self (P2). This finding contradicts the assertion that younger children are devastated by divorce than teenagers (Pickhardt, 2006).
From the findings in this content analysis, it is marked that the parent- child relationship does have an influence on how children adjust after the divorce. The findings disclose that even though there is a high degree of contact and support between the child and the non - custodial parent, such a relationship offers more physical support than emotional support (P6 & P14). This type of parent – child relationship does not only cause emotional crisis but also leads to resentment towards the parent. This is true where the father is only supportive financially in comparison to a non- custodial parent who maintains emotional ties (P7). In the same way, the custodial parent (mother) should be in the full capacity to nurture the child after divorce and this includes being emotionally stable for the role (Burman, 2008). P2 reports that in cases where the mother has not resolved the loss of her marriage, children find themselves entangled in the situation. As discussed before, children become over involved and experience reversal roles as they become responsible for taking care of their mother if their age permits.
Effects of divorce are lessened where there is also good communication between the parents and the child (P7). Children demonstrate better communication and social skills than their counterparts. This is further supported by results on a similar study conducted by P12, where the scholars reported that children who have a good relationship with their parents display feelings of happiness, receive more parental support and have reduced chances of conflict. The finding suggests that a child who continues to have involvement with both parents allows for better balanced future relationships as they get to experience a model of good relationships. If children are secure in their relationship with their parents, chances are they will model and adapt well to various life situations which promotes resilient children.
53
Another notable observation made by the findings in this study is that, households led by divorced mothers are still regarded as having less financial income and inadequate access to all the advantages wealth can buy. The non-existence of the fathers’ income is reported to be the main reason for the household’s unhealthy functioning. This is based on the assumption that the role of the father is to provide financial support to his family (Burman, 2008). The finding does not only look upon mothers as financially unstable but also maintains that fathers are still regarded as breadwinners in the literature. Fathers still maintain the traditional status of being a breadwinner for the family, with the mother’s salary not being enough to sustain them. The poor economic status of the custodial –parent (mother) means poor quality education for the children. From this, it became apparent that divorced mothers’ battle financially to take children to better quality schools (P7). This is regardless of the raise of women in remunerated employment. On the other hand, in situations where a custodial- parent is capable of providing enough financial support and maintained warm relationships with children, such children reported having mild negative effects which did not have extremely harsh effects on them (P7&P8).
Literature highlights that, in order to have an adequate understanding of the child’s adjustment process after divorce, multi-person systems of interaction should be examined – not only a single setting but the broader environment as well (Hardman, 2012). Results indicate that a child’s context is interwoven with the personal identity; therefore examining a child in isolation is limited. Relationships between internal and external family networks take on a particular implication during times of disaster for children. The interconnections between these environments can be as influential as events that take place in smaller settings that directly affect the child. On that note, a stable and or a supportive arrangement between the child’s primary and secondary micro family system lessen some of the negative effects connected with divorce.
In the same way, a healthy relation outside the family setting does help the child to establish a relationship of trust post the divorce process. Older children generally have associations with peers on whom they can depend for support. Alternatively, children may come to rely on teachers, psychologists, religion, and the community who provides them with emotional support after divorce. The finding keeps hold of 54
the assertion that the sharing of painful experiences within an accepting and supporting environment contributes positively to children’s well being. In addition, the finding promotes the concept of family integration and supports the notion that children do not function in a vacuum but are interconnected within their families and communities (Watts, et al., 2009). Based on the results shown in this chapter, it is clear that the representation of children’s adjustments in the existing academic literature has made some helpful contributions. While in this content analysis, unlike many previous studies, constructive adjustments to parental divorce are evident. Previously, research paid more attention on the negative adjustments associated with post divorce for children, with little or no emphasis on taking a critical stance. The overall theme identified those variables such as the child’s characteristics, emotions, family characteristics and situational characteristics that play a role on how a child will adjust. This has been illustrated by discussions highlighted in the sampled South African literature.
55
Chapter 6: Conclusion
This study has provided a critical exploration of children’s adjustments after parental divorce using content analysis. The use of a content analysis has allowed the researcher to truly immerse myself in the topic of interest and has been effective in addressing the research question as the researcher had access to a broad range of data which would have been difficult to obtain using research participants. However, one needs to note that a content analysis cannot provide the whole picture of children’s experiences of parental divorce as the findings cannot be generalised for all children. This is because of use of sample data than is just a small representation of the entire population. However, the findings surely provide some insights into the nature of adjustments children of divorce may be experiencing.
From the study, it can be presumed that the occurrence of divorce is personally painful for almost all children. At the same time, it is of importance to note that not all children who experience divorce experience extreme effects. Some children are generally strong and resilient therefore do manage to find better ways of dealing with the damage caused by divorce. This is evident from the finding mentioned earlier that divorce for children can be an escape from a broken and mal-functional family setting. To further support this, children reported having happy separated parents than living with unhappily married parents. Based on the findings in this content analysis, some literature is of the view that even though they find it difficult to adjust, children still do well in single -parent families. Thus, if well managed, single parent families can, on their own, give an even better upbringing to a child than when the family is comprised of unhealthy elements such as physical or verbal abuse. This view is in contrast to the stigma attached to the influence that the single –parent family structure is perceived to have on children. Single- parents have been accused of raising children who are out of order and who engage themselves in delinquent acts. The question however rises whether children who find ways of escaping from divorce effects will not develop worse personalities in the future than those who face their situation as given. These could range from being loners to having psychological effects associated with suppressing one’s feelings.
56
Conclusively, in light of the mentioned research question and objectives, a critical exploration of children’s adjustment after parental divorce is essential to scientific research. Even though the representation of children who are affected by their parent’s divorce has improved in research, the present study can still be maintaining that the impact of divorce is harmful on children. Divorce affects children’s adjustments with regards to their economic, emotional, social and interpersonal aspects of their lives. Moreover, divorce is a shock that leaves children feeling that their world has come to an end and it is believed to lead to weak ties with significant others in the future. Literature further highlights that children who experience consistent conflict among parents are at a high risk in developing lasting expectations of conflict. This leads to an increase in the likelihood of conflict for the rest of their lives even with their peers.
The impact of divorce on children is important for parents to be aware of in order to implement appropriate knowledge and skills in regards to how they handle themselves during divorce while maintaining a positive environment for their children. This knowledge is essential in the reduction of the negative effects divorce has on children. Moreover, it will assist in helping the affected children getting the necessary psychological support that they need.
The present study does however come with a few limitations. One most important limitation is that the author only had access to a very few journal articles for thematic analysis. It is possible that the articles with valuable and relevant information were not accessed due to lack of adequate resources. Therefore, the findings highlighted herein may be an underestimation of how children adjust after parental divorce. Furthermore, although divorce rates in South Africa are highest among the Black population compared to other population groups, the lack of representativeness in the sampled literature restricts the scope to which these findings can be generalised.
Even though this study did not identify the causes of divorce, the author recommends that such a study could provide an affluence of added information on
57
the public's understanding of the shift on divorce rates.
The author also
recommends research within different cultures. At the same time, a larger sample of journal selection of other countries is recommended for the study as the author believes that it would likely result in different findings or varying areas of possible analysis.
58
Reference list Adam, E. K. (2004). Beyond quality: Parental and residential stability and children’s adjustment. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 13, pp. 210–213. Albertini, M. & Garriga, A. (2011). The effects of divorce on parent child contacts. European Societies,13 (2), pp. 257-278. Alguire, C. (2010). A Content Analysis of the Factors, Process, and Context Surrounding a Woman's Decision to Divorce : Master's Thesis. McMaster University, pp. 1-68. Allen, J.,
Murray, M., & Simmons, K. (2005). How to succeed with developing resilience.
Singapore: SC International. Amato, P. R. (2001). Children of divorce in the 1990s: An update of the Amato and Keith (1991) meta-analysis. Journal of Family Psychology, 15, pp. 355–370. Amplified Bible. (1987). USA: Zondevan and the Lockman Foundation. Babbie, E. (2013). The Basics of Social Research: Sixth Edition. USA: Wardsworth. Benson, J. & Haith, M., M. (2009). Social and Emotional Development in Infancy and Early Childhood, First Edition. USA: Academic Press. Boling, P. (1996). Privacy and the Policy of Intimacy life. USA: Library of Congress. Bomar, P., J. (2004). Promoting Health in Families: Applying Family Research and Theory to Nursing Practice. London: Saunders. Boniface, A., E. (2012). A humanistic approach to divorce and family mediation in the South African context: A comparative study of Western-style mediation and African humanistic mediation.
59
Botha, J., C. & Wild, L., G. (2013) Evaluation of a school-based intervention programme for South African children of divorce. Journal of Child & Adolescent Mental Health, 25:1, pp. 81-91, DOI: 10.2989/17280583.2013.768528. Bowden, V., R. & Greenberg, C., S. (2010). Children and their Families, The Continuum of Care: Second Edition. China: Library of Congress. Braun, V. & Clarke, V. (2008). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), pp. 77-101. Burman, E. (1994). Deconstructing Developmental Psychology. London: Routledge. Burman, E. (2008). Deconstructing Developmental Psychology. (2nd Ed.). New York: Routledge. Bricklin, B. (2013). Research- Based Solutions and Applications.USA: Library of Congress. Cai, M, (2002). Multicultural Literature for children and young adults. Reflections on critical issues. USA :Greenwood Publishing Group. Campana, K., L., Henderson, S., Stolberg, A., L., & Schum, L. (2008). Paired Maternal and Paternal Parenting Styles, Child Custody and Children's Emotional Adjustment to Divorce. Joumal of Divorce & Remarriage, Vol. 48(3/4), pp. 1-21. Cartwright, C. (2006). You want to know how it affected me? Young adults’ percep- tions of the impact of parental divorce. Journal of Divorce & Remarriage, 44, pp. 125–143. Central Intelligence Agency. (2014). The World Factbook [with maps] 2013-2014. Pakistan: Claitors Pub Division. Charlesworth, R. (2010). Understanding Child Development: Eighth Edition. United States of America: Wardworth Cengage Learning. 60
Cheal, D. (2008). Families in Today’s World: A comparative Approach. USA: Routledge. Cherian, V.,I. & Malehase, M., C. (2000). The relationship between parental control and scholarship achievement of children from single- and two- parent families. The Journal of Social Psychology, 140(5), pp. 665-667. Cigoli, V. & Gennari, M. (2010). Close relationships and community psychology: An international perspective. Italy: FrancoAngeli. Coleman, M., L. Ganong and M. Fine. 2000. ‘‘Reinvestigating Remarriage: Another Decade of Progress.’’ Journal of Marriage and the Family, 62: pp. 1288–1307. Collins, H. (2003). The law of contract: Fourth Edition. Great Britain: British Library. Covell, K. & Howe, B. (2009). Children, Families and Violence: Challenges for Children’s Rights. USA: Jessica Kingsley Publishers. Creswell J. W. (2013). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Cummings, E., M., Davis, P., T., & Campbell, S., B. (2000). Developmental Psychopathology and Family Process: Theory, Research, and Clinical Implications. New York: The Guilford Press. Darnal, D. (1998). Divorce Casualties: Protecting your children from parental alienation. USA: Library of Congress. Davidson, M., L. (2003). Divorce Book. USA: Library of Congress. Dunn, C,H., O’Connor,T., G., & Bridges, L. (2004). Children’s perspectives on their relationships with their non resident fathers: influences, outcomes and
61
implications. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 45:3, pp. 553–566. Ebersohn, S & Bouwer, S. (2013). An exploratory study on the utilisation of resilience by middle adolescents in reconstituted families following divorce. South African Journal of Education, 33(2), pp. 637-649. Ebling, R., Pruett, K., D & Pruett, K., M. (2009). Get over it: Perspectives on divorce from young children. Family Court Review, Vol. 47 (4), pp. 665–681. Garton, A.F. (2008). Exploring Cognitive Development: The Child as Problem Solver. Australia: Blaclwell Publishing. Gartrell, N. & Bos, H. (2010). US National Longitudinal Lesbian Family Study: Psychological Adjustment of 17-Year-Old Adolescents. American Academy of Pediatrics, 126 (1), pp. 28 -36. DOI: 10.1542/peds.2009-3153. Gasper, J., A., F. , Stolberg, A., L , Macie, K., M & Williams, L., J. (2008) Coparenting in Intact and Divorced Families: Its Impact on Young Adult Adjustment, Journal of Divorce & Remarriage, 49:3-4, pp. 272-290, DOI:10.1080/10502550802231924 Gold, L. (2009). Healthy Divorce: Keys to Ending Your Marriage While Preserving Your Emotional Well- Being. New York: Library of Congress. Gordon, J., E. (2003). Structures: Or Why Things Don’t Fall Down. USA: Da Capo Press. Grbich, C. (2007). Qualitative data analysis: An introduction. London: Sage. Greeff, A., P.
& Van Der Merwe, S. (2003). Variables Associated with Resilience in
divorced families. Social Indicators Research, 68: pp. 59–75. Gunsberg, L. & Hymowitz, P. (2013). A Handbook of Divorce and Custody. Forensic, Developmental, and Clinical Perspectives. Routledge: Analytic Press.
62
Ham, B., D. (2003). The Effects of Divorce on the Academic Achievement of High School Seniors. Journal of Divorce & Remarriage, Vol. 38(3/4), pp. 167-187 DOI: 10.1300J087v38n03_09. Hansen, K., Joshi, H. & Dex, S. (2010). Children of the 21 st Century: The First Five Years. USA: Great Britain. Haralambos, M., & Holborn, M. (2008). Sociology: Themes and Perspectives, Seventh Edition. London: British Library. Hardman, J. (2012). Child and adolescent development: A South African perspective. Cape Town: Oxford University Press. Haugen, G-M. D. (2005). Relations between Money and Love in Postdivorce Families: Children's Perspectives, Childhood, 12, pp.507-26. Havemann, E. (1990). Divorce and new beginnings. USA: John Wiley and Sons. Hawley, D.R. (2000). Clinical implications of family resilience. The American Journal of Family Therapy 28(2), pp. 101–116. Hetherington, E. M. (1999). Coping with Divorce, Single parenting, and Remarriage: A risk and Resiliency Perspective. Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Hetherington, E. M. (2003). Intimate pathways: Change patterns in close personal relationships across time. Family Relations, 52, 318-333. Hiller, V. & Recoules, M. (2013). Changes in divorce patterns: Culture and the law. International Review of Law and Economics, 34, pp. 77– 87.
63
Kamphus, R., W. & Frick, P., J. (2005). Clinical Assessment of Child And Adolescent Personality And Behavior: Second Edition. USA: Library of Congress. Keenan, T. & Evans, S. (2009). An Introduction to Child Development: Second Edition. London: SAGE Publications. Kelly J., B, Emery R., B. (2003). Children’s adjustment following divorce: risk and resilience perspectives. Family Relations, 52: pp. 352–375. Keenan, T. & Evans, S. (2009). An Introduction to Child Development: Second Edition. London: SAGE Publications. Kendig, S. M., & Bianchi, S. M. (2008). Single, cohabitating, and married mothers’ time with children. Journal of Marriage and Family, 70, pp. 1228-1240. Kerr, C., L. (2008). Male adolescents of Divorce: The relationship with non-custodial father. USA: UMI Microform. Klenke, K. (2008). Qualitative Research in the study of leadership. UK: Emerald Group Publishing Limited. Krippendorff, K. (2004). Content analysis: An introduction to its methodology (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Laumann-Billings, I., & Emery, R.E. (2000). Distress among young adults in divorced families. Journal of Family Psychology, 14, pp. 67–687. Leon, K. (2003). Risk and protective factors in young children’s adjustments to parental divorce: A review of the research. Family relations, 52, pp. 258-270. Lewis, M., Haviland- Jones, A., M. & Barrett, L., F. (2008). Handbook of emotions: Third Edition. New York: Guildford Publications. 64
Lind, A. & Brzuzy, S. (2008). Battleground women, gender, and sexuality. USA: Library of Congress. Lizardi, D., Thompson, R. G., Keyes, K., & Hasin, D. (2009). Parental divorce, parental depression, and gender differences in adult offspring suicide attempt. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 197, pp. 899–904. Louw, D., & Louw, A. (2007). Child and adolescent development. Bloemfontein: ABC Printers. Louw, D., A., Van Ede, D., M. & Louw, A., E. (1998). Human Development. Pretoria: ABC Press. Macleod, C. (2004). South African Psychology and ‘relevance’: Continuing challenges. South African Journal of Psychology, 34(4), pp. 613- 629. Macleod, C. & Howell, S. (2013). Reflecting on South African Psychology: Published research, ‘relevance’, and social issues. South African Journal of Psychology, 43 (2), pp. 222-237. DOI: 10.1177/0081246313482630. Malberg, N., T. (2011). The Anna Freud Tradition: Lines of Development- Evolution of Theory and Practice over the Decades. Britain: British Library. Malone P., S, Lansford D., R, Castellino L., J. (2004). Divorce and Child behaviour problems: applying latent change score models to life event data. Structural Equation Modeling, 11, pp. 401–423. Margulies, S. (2007). Working with divorcing spouses: How to help clients navigate the emotional and legal minefield. USA: Library of Congress. Matlin, M. W. (2000). The psychology of women (4th ed). New York: Harcourt. 65
McIntosh, J. (2003). Enduring conflict in parental separation: Pathways of impact on child development. Journal of Family Studies, 9, pp. 63–80. McIntosh, J. E., & Chisholm, R. (2008). Cautionary notes on the shared care of children in conflicted parental separations. Journal of Family Studies, 14(1), pp. 37-52. McLanahan,S., Donahue, E., & Haskins, R. (2005). The Future of Children. Marriage and Child Well-Being, 15(2). Mc Veigh, F., J. & Wolfer, L. (2004). Brief history of social problems: A critical thinking approach. USA: Library of Congress. Mooney, L., A., Knox, D., & Schacht, C. (2014). Understanding Social Problems: Ninth Edition. USA: Library of Congress. Mullett, E., & Stolberg, A. L. (2002). Divorce and its impact on the intimate relation- ships of young adults. Journal of Divorce & Remarriage, 38, pp. 39–59. Okin, S., M. (2008). Justice, Gender, and the Family. USA: Library of Congress. Parker, I. (2007). Critical Psychology: What It Is and What It Is Not. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, pp. 1–15, DOI:10.1111/j.1751-9004.2007.00008.x. Peterson, G., W. & Bush, K., R. (2012). Handbook of marriage and the family: Third edition. New York: Springer. Petr, C., G. (2003). Social Work with Children and their Families: Pragmatic Foundations, Second Edition. New York: Oxford University Press.
66
Pickhardt, C., E. (2006). The everything Parent’s Guide to Children and Divorce: Reassuring Advice to help your family adjust. USA: Library of Congress. Portes, P., Brown, J., H., Saylor, K. & Sekhon, M. (2005). Assessing Children’s Adjustment to Divorce Stress: A Validation of the Divorce Adjustment Inventory Revised Scales Through Family Functioning and Child Adjustment Standard Measures. Journal of Divorce & Remarriage, Vol. 44(1/2), pp. 47-70. doi:10.1300/J087v44n01_03. Potter D. (2010). Psychosocial well-being and the relationship between divorce and children’s academic achievement. Journal of Marriage and Family, 72, pp. 933–946. Ricciuti, H., N. (2004). Single Parenthood, Achievement, and Problem Behavior in White, Black, and Hispanic Children, The Journal of Educational Research, 97:4, pp. 196-207, DOI: 10.3200/JOER.97.4.196-207. Richardson, S, & McCabe, M., P. (2001). Parental Divorce during adolescence and adjustment in early adulthood. Adolescence, 36 (143), pp. 467- 489. Rist, R., C. (2009). Restructuring American Education: Innovations and Alternatives. USA: Library of Congress. Rogers, W., S. (2003). Social Psychology Experimental & Critical Approaches. USA: Library of Congress. Roman, N., V. (2011). Maternal Parenting in Single and two parent families in South Africa from a child’s perspective. Society for Personality Research, 39(5), pp. 577-586. DOI 10.2224/sbp.2011.39.5.577.
67
Ross, L. T., & McDuff, J. (2008). The Retrospective Family Unpredictability Scale: Reliability and validity. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 17, pp. 13–27. Ross, T., L. & Miller, J., R. (2009). Parental Divorce and College Students: The Impact of Family Unpredictability and Perceptions of Divorce. Journal of Divorce & Remarriage, 50, pp. 248–259. DOI: 10.1080/10502550902790746. Scott, J. (2000) ‘Children as Respondents: The Challenge for Qualitative Researchers’,in P. Christensen & A. James, (eds) Research with Children: Perspectives and Practices, pp. 98–119. London: Falmer Press. Sember, B., .M. (2009). The Complete divorce handbook: A Practical Guide. USA: Library of Congress. Short, J., L. (2002). The Effects of Parental Divorce During Childhood on College Students, Journal of Divorce & Remarriage, Vol. 38(1/2), pp. 143-155. Doi: 10.1300/J087v38n01_0. Shulman, S., Scharf, M., Lumer, D., Maurer, O. (2001). Parental divorce and young adult children’s romantic relationships: Resolution of the divorce experience. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 71, pp. 473–478. Smetana, J., G. (2010). Adolescence, Families, & Social Development: How Teens Construct Their Worlds. USA: Wiley-Blackwell. Smyth, B & Weston, R (2000) financial living standards are divorce: a recent snapshot. Australian Institute of Family Studies, 23.
68
Smyth, B., Weston, R., Moloney, L., Richardson, N. and Temple, J. (2008). Changes in patterns of post-separation parenting over time: Recent Australian data, Journal of Family Studies, 14 (1), pp.23-37. Sobolewski, J. M. & Amato, P. R. (2007). Parents' Discord and Divorce, Parent-Child Relationships and Subjective Well-being, Social Forces, 85, pp. 1105. Spruijt, E. & Duindam, V. (2005). Problem Behaviour of Boys and Young Men after Parental Divorce in the Netherlands. Journal of Divorce & Remarriage, 43(3/4), pp. 141-155. Doi:10.1300 /J087v43n03_08. Stahl, P., M. (2007). Parenting after Divorce: Resolving conflicts and meeting your children’s needs, Second Edition. Carlifonia: Impact Publishers. Statistics SA. (1996). Marriages and divorces 1996, accessed at http://beta2.statssa.gov.za/publications/P0307/P03072011.pdf on 12 Oct 2014 Statistics SA. (2010). Marriages and divorces 2010, accessed at http://beta2.statssa.gov.za/publications/P0307/P03072011.pdf on 08 Sept 2014. Statistics SA. (2011). Marriages and divorces 2011, accessed at http://beta2.statssa.gov.za/publications/P0307/P03072011.pdf on 01 March 2014 Statistics SA. (2011). Marriages and divorces 2011, accessed at http://beta2.statssa.gov.za/publications/P0307/P03072011.pdf on 07 Sept 2014. Statistics SA. (2012). Marriages and divorces 2012, accessed at http://beta2.statssa.gov.za/publications/P0307/P03072011.pdf on 07 Sept 2014. Stewart, A., C. & Brentano, C. (2006). Causes & Consequences. USA: Library of Congress.
69
Unknown.
(2013).
Spike
in
SA
divorce
rate,
accessed
at
http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/News/Spike-in-SA-divorce-rate-20131103 on 22 March 2014. Wade,C., H., Wilfond, B., s. & McBride, M., C. (2010). Effects of genetic risk information on children's psychosocial wellbeing: A systematic review of the literature. Genetics in Medicine, 12, pp. 317–326, Doi:10.1097/GIM.0b013e3181de695c. Wallerstein, J. S. & Kelly, J. B. (2008). Surviving the Breakup. England: Hyperion. Wallerstein, J. & Lewis, M. (2004). The unexpected legacy of divorce: Report of a 25-year study. Psychoanalytic Psychology, 21, pp. 353-370. Wallerstein, J. S., Lewis, J. M., & Blakeslee, S. (2000). The unexpected legacy of divorce: A 25 year landmark study. New York: Hyperion. Walsh, F. (2006). Normal Family Processes: Growing Diversity and Complexity. (3rd ed.). New York: The Guilford Press. Walsh, F. (2012). Normal Family Processes: Growing Diversity and Complexity.
th (4
ed).
New York: The Guilford Press. Warhurst, J. & Simms, M. (2001). The Centenary Election. Australia: University of Technology. Wallerstein, J. & Lewis, M. (2004). The unexpected legacy of divorce: Report of a 25-year study. Psychoanalytic Psychology, 21, pp. 353-370. Watts, J., Cockcroft, K., & Duncan, N. (2009). Developmental Psychology: Second Edition. Cape Town: UCT Press. Whitehead, B., D. (1997). The divorce culture. USA: Vintage Books. 70
Wolfinger, N., H., Kowaleski-Jones, L. & Smith, R., K. (2008). Family structure transitions and child achievement. Sociological Spectrum, 28: pp. 681–704. Ziehl, S. (2001), Divorce Statistics- A case of the wool being pulled over our eyes? SA Journal of Demography, 8(1), pp. 9-22.
71
Appendix 1: Code book
The codes below were listed alphabetically. Age of participants
This code refers to the age of the children who were involved in the studies. An average age representation children has been employed and grouped as follows: 1= pre-schoolers (3-5 years) 2= middle children (9-11 years) 3= young teens (12-14 years) 4= teenagers (15- 19 years) 5=this category represents articles that did not involve or mention their participants age. In addition, participants who’s ages consist of young adults who’s parents got divorced when they were young fall into this category Authors’ attitude towards divorce
This code refers to the attitude that the authors have towards divorce. The category is as follows for both, inside and outside South Africa. 1=positive attitude 2=negative attitude 3=intermediate (this refers to the author who holds the negative & the positive attitude) 4= not mentioned (this refers to articles whereby the attitude was not mentioned or not clear) Child’s characteristics This code refers to the distinguishing features that help to identify and classify the participants. This family code comprises of the following sub-codes, namely; age, gender and child’s intrinsic ability.
72
Custodial- parent This code refers to who is regarded as the custodial- parent in the sampled academic literature. The category is as follows for both, inside and outside South Africa. 1= father 2=mother (this includes cases in which the mother was referred to as the custodialparent and also where the majority of parents who had custody in the studies were mothers.) 3=joint custody 4=not mentioned Emotions This code refers to children’s feelings, their understanding of divorce and the effects divorce causes. The family code emotions comprised of the following sub-codes, namely; Negative and positive emotions. Family characteristics This code refers to the family characteristics experienced by children and include child rearing family dynamics. Situational characteristics This code refers to the situational characteristics that directly or indirectly influence children the sub-themes include custody arrangements, parental conflict and support. Provincial data This code is the representation of provinces where the research has been conducted in the sampled academic literature. The provinces are listed from the richest province. 1= Gauteng Province 2=WesternCape 73
3=Kwazulu-Natal 4= Northern Cape 5= more than one province mentioned 6= there is no mention of the province Race of participants This code represents the race of the participants in the South African literature. 1=Whites (is comprised of white-only speakers and white-Afrikaans speakers) 2=Mixed race 3=Blacks 4=Coloureds 5=Unspecified (there is no mention of race)
Types of articles This code illustrates the types of articles used in the journals articles. 1= Empirical quantitative (this refers to research articles that employed quantitative methodology) 2=Empirical qualitative (refers to researched articles that employed qualitative methodology) 3=Empirical mixed (refers to articles that employed both of the above methods of enquiry) 4=Review (this includes articles that re-examined other research (be it books reviews, theory and many more) Since a comparison was made under this code, following is the categories that represent countries outside South Africa:
74
1= Empirical quantitative 2=Empirical qualitative 3=Empirical mixed 4=Review
Year of publication This code shows a comparison on the years of when the articles were published. The years have been divided into two epochs. 1= 2000-2007 (represents a scenario of when the divorce rates was high among white Africans) 2= 2008-2014 (represents divorce rate dominated by black Africans) Since a comparison was made under this code, following is the categories that represent countries outside South Africa: 1= 2000-2007 2=2008-2014
75
Appendix 2: Data Source: List of journal articles used for data analysis arranged in a chronological order PDoc Journal Article P1
Cherian, V., I. & Malehase, M., C. (2000). The relationship between parental control and scholarstic achievement of children from single -and two- parent families. The Journal of Social Psychology, 140 (5), pp. 665-667.
P2
Spalding, B. & Pretorius, H., G. (2001). Experience of young adults from divorced families. Health South Africa Gesondheid, 6 (3), pp. 75-86.
P3
Johnson, C & Wiechers, E. (2002).
Intra-psychic effects of a group
intervention programme on adolescents of divorce. South African Journal of Education, 22(3), pp. 177 – 183. P4
Watson, N., M & Greeff , A., P. (2004). An Analysis of Schema Theory and Learning Theory as Explanations for Variance in Adolescent Adjustment to Divorce . The American Journal of Family Therapy, 32, pp. 437–448. DOI:10.1080/01926180490455484.
P5
Strous, M. (2007). Post-devorce relocation: In the best interest of a child? South African Journal of Psychology, 37(2), pp. 223–244.
P6
Greeff, A & Aspeling, E. (2007). Resiliency in South African and Belgian single-parent families. Acta Academica, 39(2), 139-157.
P7
Bojuwoye, O. & Akpan, O. (2009). Personal, familial and environmental perspectives in children's reactions to parental divorce in South Africa. Journal of Family Studies, 15: pp. 260-273.
76
P8
Theron, L & Dunn, N. (2010). Enabling white, Afrikaans-speaking adolescents towards post-divorce resilience: implications for educators. South African Journal of Education, 30, pp. 231-244.
P9
Roman, N., V. (2011). Maternal parenting in single and two-parent families in South Africa from a child’s perspective. Social Behaviour and Personality, 39 (5), pp. 577-586. DOI 10.2224/sbp.2011.39.5.577.
P10
Strous, M. (2011). Overnights and overkill: post-divorce contact for infants and toddlers. South African Journal of Psychology, 41(2), pp. 196-206.
P11
Molepo, L., S., Sodi, T & Maunganidze, L. (2012). Behavioural and Emotional Development in Children of Divorce. Journal of Psychology in Africa, 22(2), pp. 251–254.
P12
Gresse, C, Meyer, C., D & Scherk, C. (2012). The role of a leisure-based programme in the relationship of divorced single parents and their children: A review. African Journal for Physical, Health Education, Recreation and Dance, 3, pp. 118-127.
P13
Botha. J., C & Wild, L., G. (2013). Evaluation of a school-based intervention programme for South African children of divorce. Journal of Child & Adolescent Mental Health, 25:1, pp. 81-91, DOI: 10.2989/17280583.2013.768528.
P14
Ebersohn, S & Bouwer, S. (2013). An exploratory study on the utilisation of resilience by middle adolescents in reconstituted families following divorce. South African Journal of Education, 33(2), pp. 637-649.
77
Appendix 3: Categories used for statistical analysis
Author(s)
SA
Type
of Participant
provincial
article
1.Cherian, V., I. & Northern
Empirical
Malehase, M., C
quantitative
Participant
Year of
race
Age
Publication
-
15
2000
Whites
24
2001
Whites
16
2002
-
19
2004
data
2.Spalding,
B.
Cape
& Johannesburg Empirical
Pretorius
qualitative
3. Johnson., C. & Johannesburg Empirical Wiechers, E
quantitative
4.Watson, N.,M. & Western
Empirical
Greeff, A., P
Cape
quantitative
5. Strous, M
-
Review
-
-
2007
Empirical
White
16
2007
quantitative
Afrikaans &
Whites
14
2009
White
16
2010
Mixed
11
2011
6.Greeff,
A.
& Western cape
Aspeling
English 7. Bojuwoye, O. & Durban
Empirical
Akpan, O.
qualitative
8.
Theron,
L.
& Mpumalanga
Dunn, N.
&
Empirical
Vaal mixed
triangle
Afrikaans speaking
9. Roman, N., V. Western
Empirical
Cape
qualitative
-
Review
-
-
2011
11. Molepo, L., S., Gauteng
Empirical
-
9
2012
Sodi,
quantitative
-
-
2012
10. Strous, M
T.
&
Mudhovozi, P. 12.
Greese,
Meyer, C.,
D.
C., -
Review
&
Schreck, C.
78
13. Botha, C., J. & Western
Empirical
Wild, L., G.
quantitative
Cape
English
12
2013
15
2013
of Participant
Participant
Year of
demograph
demograph
Publication
ics race
ics
14. Ebersohn, S. & -
Empirical
White-
Bouwer, C
qualitative
Afrikaans
International Author
Country
Type article
Age Isaacs, A.,R
Australia
Review
-
-
2002
Dong, Q
China
Empirical
-
12
2002
-
17
2002
-
14
2003
Empirical
Caucasians, 13
2003
quantitative
Hispanics
quantitative Maundeni, T
Botswana
Empirical qualitative
Flowerdew, J & Neal, B
UK
Dykeman, B., F
Chicago
Empirical quantitative
and
afro
Americans Moxnes, K
Norway
Empirical
-
13
2003
Mixed
9
2004
-
16
2004
-
19
2007
-
13
2010
Empirical
Whites and 33
2010
qualitative
carribians
Empirical
-
qualitative Wood, J., J; America Rena L. Repetti, R,L & Roesch,S., C Greeff, A., P & Netherlands
Empirical
Van Der Merwe, S
quantitative
Greeff,
A Belgium
quantitative Empirical
Empirical
&Aspeling, E
quantitative
Chung, Y & Robert Korea
Empirical
Emery
quantitative
Kalmijn, M
Netherlands
Sofie, D., J; De Mol, Belgium
79
12
2011
M., J & Buysse, A
qualitative
Sutherland, K., E; USA Altenhofen, S & Biringen, Z Majzub, R., M & Malaysia
Empirical
Mansor, S
quantitative
Uchenna, A
Nigeria
-
4
2012
-
10
2012
-
16
2013
Mixed
5
2014
-
5
2014
-
14
2014
quantitative Empirical
Empirical quantitative
Anthony,
C.,
DiPerna,, J., C
J; USA
Empirical
&
quantitative
Amato, P., R Mandemakers. J., J Netherlands
Empirical quantitative
Al-Zamil,
F.,
Hejjazi,M.,
A; Saudi Arabia Empirical H; & USA
quantitative
AlShargawi,I., N AlMeshaal, M., A & Soliman, H., H
80
