clean energy generation through renewable resources. B. The Indian Context: India's energy security and air quality future rely on aggressive adoption of clean ...
Decoding power systems’ integration for clean transportation and decarbonized electric grid Girish (Rish) Ghatikar Chief Research Officer, Greenlots Research Affiliate, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory Honorary Board of Governors Member and Working Group 5 Chair, India Smart Grid Forum San Francisco, CA 94105, United States Abstract— Accelerated electrification of clean transportation, charging infrastructure, and the 21st century electric grid are key contributors to future-proof global energy security, environment, and clean-air objectives. Leapfrogging these contributions is causality for India’s national initiatives – National Electricity Mobility Mission (NEMM) Plan 2020 and National Smart Grid Mission (NSGM), renewable generation, and reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The United States (U.S.) transportation sector is responsible for 28% of the total energy consumption and 27% of the nation’s total GHG emissions. In India, increasing transportation sector growth is also a major contributor to the deteriorating air quality in the urban centers, accounting for 30% of the total fine particulate (PM2.5) emissions. For the diffusion of clean transportation in India, this paper reviews deployments in the U.S. and quantitatively evaluates transformative and cost-effective communication standards for electric vehicle (EV) and electric grid interoperability. The paper recommends strategies for accelerated diffusion of light-, medium-, and heavy-duty EVs and their integration with the 21st century grid to mitigate supply-side variability from renewable generation. Applying these strategies to infrastructure investment can help India leapfrog its clean transportation and energy systems through the NEMM and NSGM initiatives, allowing it to create a resilient and de-carbonized infrastructure. Keywords— Clean Transportation, Smart Grid, Electric Mobility, Internet of Things, Systems Interoperabilty, Power Systems
I. INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND Diffusion of zero-emission electric mobility and the 21st century electric grid with large-scale renewable generation are inextricably linked. While internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles rely on fossil-based fuels (petroleum and diesel) to generate energy, electric vehicles rely on electricity to power the vehicle’s electric motors. This transition from traditional ICE-based vehicles to electric vehicles (EV) requires adequate electricity infrastructure and mechanism to address variability from renewables. Both these objectives are critical to advance clean transportation and decarbonized grid objectives. The United States (U.S) transportation sector uses 28% of the total energy, mostly from petroleum-based sources [1]. In 2012, this sector contributed 28% of the total greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, whereas the electricity generation sector’s share is 31% [2][3]. GHG emissions also deteriorate air quality, impacts human health, and leads to premature deaths [4]. To address the resulting climate-change impacts, the 21st century grid is primarily characterized by transition to clean renewable generation and its integration to decarbonize the electricity infrastructure and to significantly lower the GHG emissions. The 21stcentury electric grid is defined by – integrated and interoperable power systems; distributed generation; twoway power flows, and the network-enabled secure real-time communications and control of the energy resources. The transition to electric mobility and the 21st century electric grid
could future-proof global energy security, reduce the GHG emissions, and advance clean air objectives. Improved air quality and human health are and best promoted by electric mobility powered by renewable generation [5]. When fossil-based fuel is the majority of electricity generation mix, electric transportation provides petroleum and carbon savings through higher miles per gallon of gasoline-equivalent (MPGe).1 Miles per-kilowatt hour (MPkWh) is the new relative metric of electric mobility’s range. The net benefits of clean transportation are similar to the use of alternate fuels (e.g., hydrogen) or improvements in the fuel economy. In a city, electric transportation improves air quality and public health. Innovation in the electric mobility industry provides IoT-based infrastructure management services the benefit of being a gridresource to manage intermittency from renewable generation., similar to other electric loads, it can also enable an arbitrage of peak electricity shortfalls and price volatility [6]. A. Goals and Objectives The goal of this paper is to encourage leapfrogging of clean transportation and decarbonized electric grid by the diffusion of battery-based EVs (BEV), adequate charging infrastructure, and better integration of renewable generation growth through interoperable electric grid power systems and markets. The paper focuses on two key objectives: 1. 2.
Identify complementary relationships between automated BEV infrastructure management and grid connectivity. Propose interoperable and integrated power system fundamentals to leverage the resource flexibility of BEVs.
The objectives should guide the regulators, electricity providers, systems operators, and electric mobility users to efficiently and economically leverage clean transportation as an environmentally friendly grid resource and support aggressive clean energy generation through renewable resources. B. The Indian Context: India’s energy security and air quality future rely on aggressive adoption of clean energy and clean transportation, which will also help accelerate economic development. India imports more than 80% of its crude oil, but has one of the lowest vehicle to owner ratios: one vehicle for every 1,000 people.2 Even with low adoption rates, the transportation sector is a major contributor to the deteriorating air quality in India’s urban cities. The particulate matter (PM2.5) levels experienced by daily-commuters have an annual-mean of 15 to 20 times higher (~60 times in winter) than the World Health Organization’s guidelines of 10µg per-m3 for PM2.5 and 20µg 1
The MPGe is a measure of the total distance an EV can travel using the same energy content in a gallon of gasoline (petroleum). 2 World Bank; 2011 Motor Vehicles (per 1000 people) – includes cars, buses, and freight vehicles, but does not include two-wheelers.
Ghatikar G; Decoding Power Systems’ Integration for Clean Transportation and Decarbonized Electric Grid, Submitted to the Proceedings of the India Smart Grid Week, March 2016, New Delhi. India. DOI 10.13140/RG.2.1.3555.4960
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per-m3 for PM10 [7][[8]][9].3 In Delhi, 30% of the total fine particulate (PM2.5) emissions are from transportation [10]. India’s transportation sector is projected to add more than 250 million cars, 185 million two- and three-wheelers, and 30 million trucks and vans by 2040 [11]. These vehicle ownership rates will further strain oil supply and deteriorate air quality. India’s fast-growing urban cities have increased importance on electric transportation. The Government of India’s (GOI) Ministry of Heavy Industry (MoHI) National Electric Mobility Mission (NEMM) 2020 plan has an ambitious target to deploy six to seven million EVs in the next five years, a majority of them in the cities. Within NEMM, GOI has proposed budget for charging infrastructure, technology advancements, incentives, and case studies to accelerate EV adoption. Previous studies have reviewed electricity customers’ role as a resource to the grid using the Ministry of Power’s (MoP) National Smart Grid Mission (NSGM) [12][13]. These studies have also looked at India’s grid modernization and how to better integrate for modern electricity infrastructure to improve reliability [14]. The Ministry of Renewable Energy’s (MNRE) aggressive renewable generation policies will help India transition from two-thirds coal-based generation to key contributor in addressing the climate-change impacts. C. Study Methodology and Paper Structure: This paper reviews the U.S. EV infrastructure deployments to understand the significance between connecting electric vehicles to the grid, and quantitatively evaluates transformative and cost-effective options to manage the BEV infrastructure, power systems integration, and grid interoperability. In particular: Section II describes the links between electric mobility and electric grid, and interoperability and integration framework. Section III provides quantitative analysis and case studies to accelerate the diffusion of light-, medium-, and heavy-duty BEVs and integration with the 21st century grid. Section IV summarizes key conclusions and future research. Each section also summarizes the relevant Indian context, and Section IV provides India-specific recommendations. II.
Fig. 1. High Variability of an EV Charging Demand Profile (1 no., 50 kW fast charger and 8 nos., 7 kW chargers with a high peak demand of 58.4 kW).
The EVs role as grid resources is best understood by evaluating the 21st century electric grid and its unique characteristics. A. The 21st Century Electric Grid In the context of this paper, Smart Grid refers to increased renewable generation, a two-way power flow, and networked communications among distributed energy resources (DER) and Smart Grid domains [18]. The 21st century grid is enabled by networked communications and control, and real time grid analytics. This infrastructure can better balance supply-side variability and electricity demand, playing a key role in integrating renewables for decarbonized generation. Fig. 2 shows electric vehicles within the framework of the 21st century grid. In particular, the charging stations (also referred to as EV supply equipment or EVSE) can be connected to different electric sources within different Smart Grid domains. The most common charging station location is “behind-themeter” at a residence, office/workplace, or public space (e.g., mall, campus).4 With increasing adoption of EVs and longrange driving needs, “front-of-the-meter” locations (e.g., city, highway) are necessary.5 This is a key requirement for interoperability and integration with power systems and electricity markets. The BEV (also referred as Plug-in EV or PEV) charging needs necessitate the deployment of EV charging infrastructure, and interoperability to provide a seamless and convenient charging experience to the drivers.
ELECTRIC MOBILITY AND GRID INTEGRATION
There are many technical requirements for transforming the 21st century electric grid to meet electric vehicle driver’s needs. IoT technologies must enable interoperable data communications with electric grid infrastructure. Previous studies have reviewed how demand side management can address challenges in renewable generation variability. [15][16]. While zero-emission vehicles improve air quality, they also present system wide challenges with increased energy use and demand-side variability. To reduce stress on the grid, smart or managed EV charging enables BEVs to charge batteries under varying energy supply conditions [17]. Fig. 1 shows an example of a highly variable EV charging demand profile at a location in the U.S. Fig. 2. Behind-the-Meter Plug-in Electric Vehicle and Charging Station Infrastructure within the Distributed Energy Paradigm
4 3
Mass concentrations of airborne particles with aerodynamic diameters less than 2.5 and 10 mm, respectively.
The term “behind-the-meter” references electricity customer as an energy services boundary with the electric grid distribution systems. 5 The term “front-of-the-meter” references T&D domains of a Smart Grid.
Ghatikar G; Decoding Power Systems’ Integration for Clean Transportation and Decarbonized Electric Grid, Submitted to the Proceedings of the India Smart Grid Week, March 2016, New Delhi. India. DOI 10.13140/RG.2.1.3555.4960
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B. Electric Mobility Infrastructure and the Electric Grid Understanding the unique characteristics of electric vehicles and how drivers and electricity-customers use BEVs within the distribution domain or the “grid edge,” is important. The key unique characteristics for electric mobility are: • BEV integration, as a “roaming” DER, occurs at all Smart Grid power-flow domains and behind-the-meter [19]. • The distinct relationship between BEVs and charging stations. Different ownership and operation models, and technologies provide “charging-as-a-service” to drivers. • Advanced power electronics and communication systems are capable of automated smart charging and vehicle-to-* (V2X) services to grid or local resources.6 These characteristics define interoperability and integration for EV management and grid services. Grid services are in reference to the use of electric mobility as a grid resource. Other DERs (e.g., solar, storage) are stationary within a specified domain. Studies have shown that the flexibility value of energy storage increases from T&D domain to behind-themeter siting [20]. Connected-BEV characteristics are similar to stationary storage at all spatial and temporal points of time. The four features for BEV, as a grid-resource are: (1) availability, (2) grid location, (3) response speed, and (4) response duration. Fig. 3 proposes a framework with three layers that constitute electric mobility infrastructure: (1) EV network management (roaming), (2) charging systems (stationary), and (3) electric grid domains. Two behind-the-meter resources campuses and buildings are distinctive. A building has a one-to-one meter and service agreement with a utility, and a typical campus has a one-to-many meter(s) service agreement(s) and feeder(s). The fourth layer that the smart grid leverage describes service needs and value. There is an increased need for integration and interoperation of power systems and markets, as a BEV roams between T&D and behind-the-meter domains. In this instance, a Smart Grid enhances BEV’s value as a grid resource.
Fig. 3. Framework for Electric Mobility Infrastructure Integration and Interoperability with Electric Grid Domains, as Grid Resource (green shade).
Electric vehicle infrastructure is comprised of network management and grid-connected charging systems that support power, communications, and control functions within all smart grid domains to provide roaming charging services. A Smart Grid leverages existing power systems and markets interfaces so that EV infrastructure has seamless interoperation. 6
V2X services such as V2-Grid (V2G) or V2-Home (V2H) face inherent problems such as battery degradation and voided manufacturer’s warranty when a BEV is used for functions external to driving needs.
C. Open and Interoperable Platforms Standards are key enablers for open interoperable platforms and encourage innovation because; it enables new business models and services. The benefits of interoperability standards for customer-side transactions are well studied [21]. BEV interoperability, as a DER, requires integration among all three power-flow domains: systems operators, electricity service providers, and customers. Fig. 4 describes these interfaces and interoperability standards that are adopted by the industry. Common communication standards for electric mobility are: Open Charge Point Protocol (OCPP), Open Automated Demand Response (OpenADR), and Smart Energy Profile 2.0 (SEP 2.0). This list does not include power-flow and inverter interconnection standards. While these standards support a distribution network that electricity providers need for information exchange with users, the International Electotechnical Commission (IEC) standards, common information models (CIM) and 61850 play a dominant role for power-systems’ interfaces within and with transmission network system operators. Secure Internet-based protocols (IP) and automated metering infrastructure (AMI) are widely used as transport mechanisms between customer and distribution networks. Due to the perceived risk from IP-based communications, distributed network protocol 3 (DNP3) and inter-control center communication protocol (ICCP) support the cyber-security requirements for communications among the traditional operation and power generation networks.
Fig. 4. Electric Mobility Interoperability with Power Systems and Markets
Technology innovation, electric vehicle and charger adoption is still nascent. Relative to the 21st century grid transformation, there is a need for significant advancements. On-board EV telematics and standards-based networked charging stations can be used for V2X services, including third party, cloudbased EV charging network management, which already support key V2X services. Power-flow connectors from “level 1” and “level 2” charging ports, which use low-voltage alternating current (AC), to BEVs support the Society of Automotive Engineers’ (SAE) J1772 standard. The situation is complicated with direct current fast chargers (DCFC), because they use medium- and high-voltage to connect to BEVs. There are three connector standards widely used today – SAE combo-coupler standard (CCS) in the U.S. and Europe, CHAdeMO in some Asian countries, and automotive original equipment manufacturer (OEM), Tesla Motors’, Supercharger. However, there is ongoing consensus to standardize communications between BEV and charging stations using the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) 15118 and SEP 2.0. The characteristics of different charging levels and supported standards is summarized in TABLE I. TABLE I. CHARGING LEVEL CHARACTERISTICS AND BEV CONNECTIVITY Charge Volt/Current Power Charging Station-to-BEV Connection Levels (V/A) (kW) Power Communication Level 1 108-120/15-20 ~1.4 NEMA 5.15 N/A Level 2 208-240//≥30 ~7.2 J1772 ISO 15118 (BEV) CCS/CHAdeMO/ OCPP (Grid) DCFC 400-800/≥120 ≥50 Supercharger
Ghatikar G; Decoding Power Systems’ Integration for Clean Transportation and Decarbonized Electric Grid, Submitted to the Proceedings of the India Smart Grid Week, March 2016, New Delhi. India. DOI 10.13140/RG.2.1.3555.4960
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The Indian Context: Aggressive electric mobility adoption has potential for grid services, using the framework for electric mobility infrastructure and electric power systems integration. To best integrate BEVs, regulators should mandate smart grid interoperability using open standards that have been adopted by the electric grid participants and technology providers. This will address industry issues with vendor lock-in, and costeffectively connect BEVs with all charging network types, metering, and Smart Grid domains, to encourage innovation and advance the industry/customer experience. III.
QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS AND RESULTS
B. Types of BEVs, Battery Sizes, and Ranges The all-electric drive distance of a BEV and high cost, relative to ICE vehicles, were key adoption barriers.7 In recent times, the costs of Li-ion have fallen largely from technological innovations and increased adoption. For each-category of BEVs – 2-wheelers, light-, medium-, and heavy-duty – battery sizes and drive ranges of top-selling and popular OEM models in the U.S. were analyzed. While it is obvious that the battery capacity is proportional to the size of the vehicle, hybrid-BEV has smaller battery capacity, as the ICE extends its range. This analysis is summarized in TABLE IV.
Due to size, weight, and range priorities, BEVs use a lithiumion (Li-ion) battery for energy storage. Albeit the chemical compositions of Li-ion technologies vary, their characteristics, as a proxy for a grid resource, are negligible. TABLE II. The fit for Li-ion in the 21st century grid is shown in TABLE II. Electric mobility infrastructure requires a tighter association amongst BEV drivers, charging station owner/operators, revenue meters, and markets. The BEV value for off-grid applications (e.g., V2H, PV integration) is not considered.
TABLE IV. BEV CLASS, MODELS, BATTERY SIZES, AND DRIVE RANGES Rated Battery Range BEV-Class and OEM Models Capacity (kWh) (Miles)
TABLE II. U.S. ELECTRICITY MARKETS AND LITHIUM-ION BATTERY FIT Electricity Benefits of BEV Li-ion Battery System/Markets • Resource aggregation to improve performance of the transmission grid by better integrating variable renewable generation. • Resource aggregation for flexibility products to Transmission System charge/discharge from large-scale un-forecasted & renewable generation ramps (up/down). Peak Generation • Support contingency reserves for fast response to any change in supply-side conditions. • Support capacity, as a cost-effective alternate to or replacement of peak generation plants. • Smart charging to manage power-constrained local distribution transformer from increased BEV load. Distribution System • Provisioning of flexible peaking capacity and grid& stability improvements at the substation-level. Demand Response • Fast responding demand responsive resources for peak-load reduction, emergency load curtailment, dynamic pricing, and reduce/shift energy use. • Suited for high-frequency data exchange for load Reserves – forecasting and better supply-side planning. Spinning & • Resource capability for smart charging and fastNon-Spinning response with short notification and response times. • Ability to respond with rapid charge/discharge in response to random deviations of the net load (forecasted demand – scheduled supply). Regulation • Aggregation and rapid dispatch for smart charging, as a resource to balance grid and maintain frequency tolerance boundaries (up/down).
* Hybrid BEVs with ICE for extended range following full battery discharge.
A. Charging Station Ownership Models and Locations BEV charging infrastructure ownership models relative to their Smart Grid domains are used to understand their network management needs of electric mobility infrastructure and spatial and temporal availability of BEVs, as a grid resource. The three evolving own and operate models of BEV charging infrastructure is shown in TABLE III. TABLE III. BEV CHARGING STATION OWNERSHIP MODELS Most widely used model for level 1 with any available 108Customer 120 V outlets and, partially, for level 2 charging by the owners of home, building, and campus Increasingly popular model for level 2 and DCFCs, where a Third-Party charging station OEM, or a city/county deploys charging infrastructure in public-spaces for BEV adoption. Evolving business model to deploy level 2 and DCFCs in public spaces, along highway corridors, and disadvantaged Utility communities to support aggressive national- and state-level BEV adoption and zero-emission vehicle mandates.
2-Wheelers
Zero S/SR/DS
9.4–15.3
87–125
Light-Duty
Nissan LEAF Chevy Volt* Tesla (Model S)
25 18.5 60–85
80 55 180–250
Medium-Duty
Enova ZE Van
40-120
50–150
Heavy-Duty
Proterra Bus
257
255
C. Electric Mobility for Grid Services – Case Studies Numerous studies by U.S. federal and state agencies have shown the impacts of electric mobility for grid services [22][23][17]. The results of five relevant case studies are summarized in TABLE V. TABLE V. CASE STUDY RESULTS FROM ELECTRIC MOBILITY GRID SERVICES One of the largest workplace DR charging study project leverages the networked-BEV charging station management Southern services to extend it for DR. Using OpenADR and OCPP, the California project successfully demonstrated the value of standards for Edison utility power system interoperability and DR with successful network management and smart charging of level 2 stations. The project by Sacramento Municipal Utility District (SMUD) Sacramento focused on residential level 1 and 2 charging infrastructure, and Municipal evaluation of technical performance and grid impacts using Utility time-of-use and dynamic rate. The project results showed highDistrict customer satisfaction and problems with driver behavior and meter-to-charging station interoperability. One of the first projects for V2G services has led to commercialization of V2G technology with industry partners. University The project enabled aggregated market participation of the of Delaware BEVs to show driver and grid operator benefits for grid-stability resources. The 15 BEVs are capable of providing a total connected power of 180 kW and economical value of $5/day. Study focused on V2G and microgrid simulation has identified signification potential for EVs (both smart charging V2G). The Ft. Carson project captured 45% of the total connected power capability of two EVs, and demonstrated the potential of and improvements in the system and BEVs to follow regulation signals. The project is collaboration among automotive OEMs, utilities, Open research institutes, and technology providers to develop Vehicle standards-based communication platform to support BEVs for Grid grid integration. The project demonstrated cloud-based platform Integration for interoperable interfaces using OpenADR, SEP, and AMI. Platform The next phase of the project is considering on-board vehicle telematics option for direct business-to-BEV driver interactions.
The Indian Context: Public charging stations such as gas stations, malls, populated highway corridors, etc., will encourage BEV adoption. Charging station manufacturers can leverage economies of scale and grid-integrated systems to lower costs. Fixed routes and flexible schedules allow targeted charging infrastructure for the public and city transportation system. Batteries are the most expensive component of a BEV, so a smaller battery capacity supports shorter commute 7
The “usable” capacity of a battery is accurate metric for driving distance, as opposed to the “nominal” rated capacity, which is typically 15% higher.
Ghatikar G; Decoding Power Systems’ Integration for Clean Transportation and Decarbonized Electric Grid, Submitted to the Proceedings of the India Smart Grid Week, March 2016, New Delhi. India. DOI 10.13140/RG.2.1.3555.4960
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distances, and regenerative braking can extend the electricdrive range, thus lowering the total ownership costs. India can evaluate BEV-specific battery sizes and voltages to further lower costs. Quantitative analysis suggests that BEV drivers also save money on maintenance and fueling. BEVs can also be of value to the grid and can support India’s grid reliability, unlocking additional revenue streams for the BEV owners. IV.
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Smart Grid technology infrastructure and network – sensing, communication, and control – must be enhanced and extended to every level of power systems to provide ubiquitous grid resources and mitigate BEVs “new load” impact on the grid, and to address variability from renewable generation. BEV technologies, when integrated with electricity markets, enable BEVs to become a dispatchable resource. Decoupled driver and charging station ownership models, proprietary technologies, and distinct charging station and automotive OEMs relations must offer interoperable systems for the diffusion electric mobility and to enable them as a resource to the grid. Open standards and power systems integration prevent charging assets from being stranded, and provide drivers with access to technological innovation with improved experience and upstream integration to the 21st century electric grid. Inclusion of standards for communications and controls interoperability at the Smart Grid interface-edge will futureproof electric mobility infrastructure-as-a-grid resource. Early studies from nascent industry have shown technological and regulatory dependence to derive value to-and-from the grid. Widespread global electrification of transportation, potentially 100%, and its adoption is vital for us to address climate change and provide sustainable energy security and air quality for all. To accelerate and scale electric mobility, future technological advancements must address the technical and regulatory challenges through case studies, and use the findings to design policies that incentivize EV ownership. Open standards will also be critical to scale EVs and integrate them onto the grid. A. Specific Recommendations for India Electric mobility adoption and grid integration lessons can be learned from developed-nations and can serve as a model for India to accelerate zero-emission vehicles and a decarbonized electric grid. The road motor vehicle adoption rate per capita is still one of the lowest in the world and with India’s history in leapfrogging innovation cycles (e.g., telecom and the Internet), electric mobility policies can support sustainable growth and new economy. India will face unique challenges for EV acceleration and adoption and will require regulatory interventions to address concerns from traditional practices. Urban cities with deteriorating air quality can be at the frontline for 2-, 3-, and 4-wheeler EV adoption, including electrification of public transportation. Learning from the United States’ smart grid and electric mobility successes and failures can de-risk India’s clean transportation and energy investments. A reliable, resilient, and decarbonized electric infrastructure is attainable with renewable generation, NEMM and NSGM initiatives. This, however, both inter- and intra-ministry coordination between the MoHI, MoP, and MNRE, is necessary to execute the integrated clean energy and clean transportation goals.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author acknowledges MissionCTRL Communications for review-comments and the India Smart Grid Forum for support. REFERENCES [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6]
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BIOGRAPHY Girish (Rish) Ghatikar is the Chief Research Officer at Greenlots, an electric mobility and network management leader, and Research Affiliate at the U.S. Department of Energy’s Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory with focus on advancing global clean energy and clean transportation innovations. Ghatikar is an honorary Board of Governors member for the India Smart Grid Forum and holds Master of Science degrees in Infrastructure Planning, and Telecommunication Systems (Computer Technologies Specialization).
Ghatikar G; Decoding Power Systems’ Integration for Clean Transportation and Decarbonized Electric Grid, Submitted to the Proceedings of the India Smart Grid Week, March 2016, New Delhi. India. DOI 10.13140/RG.2.1.3555.4960
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