role in transitions from war to peace. The success or failure of this ... Demobilization can lead to sustained reintegration into civilian life in the long-term if a sound ...
In N. Young (2009) The International Encyclopaedia of Peace. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Demobilisation after War The process of demobilization, conceived as one of the aspects of the broader disarmament, demobilization and reintegration (DDR) of former combatants plays a critical role in transitions from war to peace. The success or failure of this endeavor directly affects the long-term peace-building prospects for any post-conflict society. Demobilization processes contribute to immediate security needs and enable the development of strong political institutions, well-performing economies and the social and economic reintegration of former combatants in order to contribute to good governance, the reconciliation of society, long-term development and sustainable peace. Since 1989, comprehensive political settlements aimed at ending longstanding internal conflicts in Central America, parts of Africa, South-East Asia and the Western Balkans have all included detailed provisions concerning the disarmament and demobilization of rebel and government forces. In this context, the OECD countries agreed on policy guidelines for development assistance and the UN Department of Peacekeeping Operations published principles and guidelines for DDR programs, which have since become a compulsory element in peacekeeping and peace enforcement operations. In addition to UN engagement, the World Bank funds and assists in the operation and evaluation of DDR programs, while the European Union has long supported DDR processes through Community programs, member states’ bilateral funds, and since 2005, through its European Security and Defense Policy (ESDP) missions. Increasingly, local community-based NGOs receive funding to conduct reintegration assistance and provide social services and trainings.
The Process Demobilization refers to a set of interventions in a process of demilitarizing official and unofficial armed groups by disarming and disbanding non-state groups and, possibly, downsizing armed forces. Traditionally, the alternative to disbanding a defeated armed group is to incorporate it, in part, into the victorious armed forces. Political and societal motivations for demobilization include improving the quality and efficiency of armed forces; ensuring the political legitimacy of armed forces, which entails shifting the loyalty of the armed group away from a particular (political) entity; modernizing the military; maintaining accurate minority representation within the armed group; and guaranteeing human security. It should be noted that demobilization is mostly a civilian process, although the military’s input is crucial on decisions of methodology and organization. In practice, demobilization programs help ex-combatants move away from the roles and positions that defined them during the conflict to identify themselves as citizens and members of local communities. It presupposes that disarmament has taken place and that weapons have been collected, stockpiled and/or destroyed. Encampment (also termed ‘assembly) is usually the first step, providing the opportunity to regain control over previously dispersed troops and their weapons. Apart from removing the symbols of a combatant’s military life (e.g., their weapon, uniform and rank), ex-combatants are registered, counted and monitored, and prepared for discharge with identification documents while, at the same time, necessary information for their integration into the community is Page 1 of 3
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gathered. Ex-combatants are offered a medical screening and aid, maintenance supplies and transport to return to their home regions (Knight and Özerdem, 2004). Providing material or monetary assistance to the families of the ex-combatants is also considered critical in this process, as it is considered to facilitate the acceptance of these ‘long lost’ members of society by the communities. When they have moved to their local communities, ex-combatants receive vocational training (to work outside the security field), credit, scholarships, land distribution and sometimes find employment in a new police or security force. For a reinsertion process to be successful, however, the local community in which the ex-combatant and his/her family are being re-introduced needs to be sensitized. In parallel, ex-combatants need to know about their rights and responsibilities according to the laws and customs of their country, and be aware of the political change that has happened or is underway (Colletta, Kostner and Wiederhofer, 1996b). Demobilization can lead to sustained reintegration into civilian life in the long-term if a sound economic prospect, functioning state institutions capable of providing basic services, a legal framework and close coordination with civil society exist to ensure that former fighters find viable livelihoods and a new purpose in life.
Challenges International experience illustrates the challenges of implementing demobilization, and its political and fragile nature. This process largely focuses on ‘former combatants’ and is limited to a relatively short timeframe after the war period. Yet, the reintegration process must be seen as a long-term task that requires the willingness of international actors to keep the political momentum for the process. Depending on the nature of the war, communities can vehemently oppose the return of fighters. It may be years before some combatants return home, as in Rwanda, where dramatic legal and political changes occurred while fighters were in neighboring states. Furthermore, in order to deal with spoilers and those who do not have confidence in the success of the political process or feel marginalized by it, demobilization is conducted in conjunction with other security sector reform activities. Additionally, most of the time, it is unclear how many combatants need to be demobilized: the numbers derived from commander’s lists are often overestimated and consequently need to be verified by other means. Furthermore, ex-combatants are often restless during the assembly phase and may not wish to surrender all of their weapons. If weapons are not effectively collected, however, a rise in small arms violence and crime can ensue. In some cases, former fighters are anxious to return to their homes, or may fear disapproval or rejection and thus attempt to stall the process. There is also great difficulty in identifying who is an ex-combatant and who should qualify for demobilization support. Defining “combatant” as someone carrying a weapon has often resulted in women and girls being excluded from demobilization processes. However, women and girls associated with fighting forces also face particular difficulties in reintegrating back into societies where they subject to traditional views of their role in society. They may suffer from psychological and physical health problems, as result of having been abducted and raped and ended up with children as a result. Demobilization can be viewed as a new social contract between former combatants and their post-conflict environment. The effectiveness of demobilization and the subsequent ability of former combatants to support themselves and their families through non-violent activities directly affect the level of violence prevalent within a post-conflict society and the possibility for development.
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References Berdal, Mats R. Disarmament and Demobilisation after Civil Wars, Adelphi Paper 303. Oxford: Oxford University Press for the IISS, 1996. Barth, Elise Fredrikke. Peace as Disappointment—The Reintegration of Female Soldiers in Post-Conflict Societies: A Comparative Study from Africa. Oslo, Norway: PRIO, 2003. Clark, Kimberly Mahling. Fostering a Farewell to Arms: Preliminary Lessons Learned in the Demobilization and Reintegration of Combatants. Washington DC: United States Agency for International Development, 1996. Colletta, Nat, Markus Kostner, and Ingo Wiederhofer. The Transition from War to Peace in Sub-Saharan Africa. Washington, DC: World Bank, 1996a. Colletta, Nat, Marcus Kostner, and Ingo Wiederhofer. Case Studies in War-to-Peace Transition: The Demobilization and Reintegration of Ex-combatants in Ethiopia, Namibia, and Uganda, World Bank Discussion Paper 331. Washington, DC: The World Bank, 1996b. Department of Peacekeeping Operations. Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration of Ex-Combatants in a Peacekeeping Environment: Principles and Guidelines. New York: Lessons Learned Unit, Department of Peacekeeping Operations, 1999. Kingma, Kees. Demobilization and Reintegration of Ex-Combatants in Post-War and Transition Countries. Eschborn, Germany: GTZ, 2001. Kingma, Kees (ed). Demobilisation in sub-Saharan Africa. London: Macmillan Press, 2000. Kingma, Kees. ‘Demobilization of Combatants after Civil Wars in Africa and Their Reintegration into Civilian Life’, Policy Science 30(3), 1997: 151–165. Kingma, Kees and Kiflemariam Grebrewold. Demilitarization, Reintegration and Conflict Prevention in the Horn of Africa. Bonn: Bonn International Center for Conversion, 1998. Knight, Mark and Alpaslan Özerdem. “Guns, Camps and Cash: Disarmament, Demobilization and Reinsertion of Former Combatants in Transitions from War to Peace”, Journal of Peace Research 41(4), 2004: 499–516. Özerdem, Alpaslan, “Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration of Former Combatants in Afghanistan: Lessons Learned from a Cross-Cultural Perspective”, Third World Quarterly 23(5), 2002: 961–975. The World Bank. Demobilization and Reintegration Programming in the World Bank. Washington, DC: Conflict Prevention and Reconstruction Unit, The World Bank, 2003.
Isabelle Ioannides Institute for European Studies, Free University of Brussels (ULB)
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