Design of Communication: a Review of Theories and Models Carlos J. Costa
Manuela Aparício
ISCTE – IUL, Adetti -IUL Av. Das Forças Armadas Lisboa, Portugal
ISCTE – IUL, , Adetti -IUL Av. Das Forças Armadas Lisboa, Portugal
[email protected]
[email protected]
University of Winnipeg Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
[email protected]
Our purpose here is to identify the main communication theories, and to analyze which they have been employed in the context of the design of communication.
ABSTRACT Design of communication is a multidisciplinary field. Several theories have been proposed in the context of different fields from philosophy, mathematics, and physics to literature, economics and psychology. Those theories may support the design of communication. The purpose of this paper is to identify the main communication theories, and to analyze which of them have been employed in the context of design of communication. The main purpose of the framework presented in this paper is to group communication theories into three theoretical perspectives. Several other theories are also presented, illustrating their applicability in the field of the design of communication, which appeared in some of the research papers presented at the SIGDOC conferences and workshops.
In order to manage this complexity, we present a framework with the main purpose of grouping communication theories into three theoretical perspectives. We then present several theories that may be used to either choose, or to develop information systems. Finally, we provide a summarized document analysis of the papers presented at the SIGDOC conferences and workshops, provide the names of some of the authors who are using those theories in the field of the design of communication.
Categories and Subject Descriptors
2. COMMUNICATION AND THE ROLE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGIES
H. [Information Systems], H.1 [Models and principles], H.1.0 [General]
General Terms Management, Economics, Human Factors, Standardization, Theory.
Communication is often related to rhetoric, dialectic and debate ([26], [3]). Rhetoric is the counterpart of Dialectic, and is a subject that can be treated systematically. The argumentative modes of persuasion are the essence of the art of rhetoric: appeals to the emotions warp judgment [3]. The dialectical method consists of a dialogue between two or more people who hold different points of view on a subject, and who wish to establish the truth of the matter through a dialogue with reasoned arguments. [26].
Keywords Design of Communication, Communication Theories
1.
Andrew Simoes Braga
INTRODUCTION
Communication may be addressed in several fields of research. In the OSI Model for example [39], we can identify several layers, each with their own specific languages. On the other hand, we may find several forms of communication - spoken, written, graphic, etc. - on the same layer. Several theories have been proposed in the contexts of a wide range of fields, from philosophy, mathematics, and physics, to literature, economics and psychology. Those theories play an important role either in the explanation of observed reality or as building blocks in the process of designing communication tools, artifacts or platforms.
Craig [40] proposes seven different traditions related to communication theory:
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Phenomenological
Rhetorical
Semiotic
Socio-psychological
Socio-cultural
Cybernetic
Critical
In the rhetorical tradition, communication is viewed as the practical art of discourse. In the semiotic tradition communication is mediation through signs. From the sociopsychological perspective, communication is the interaction between individuals, Similar, to the phenomenological perspective, where communication is viewed as the experience of dialogue with others. In the socio-cultural tradition, communication is the production and reproduction of the social order, while in the critical tradition, communication is the process in which all assumptions can be challenged. Finally, from the cybernetic point of view, communication is the flow of information. [40]
4. CHOOSING MEDIA AND DESIGNNING COMMUNICATION There are several theories that explain the choice of specific a media or set of media. Those theories may also be useful in the design of communication. Among those theories, we may mention the following:
In these ways, communication may correspond to the transmission of data or information [30], [6], [10],[11] ,[12]. However, as supported by the control cybernetic theory [38], communication consists not only in transmission, but also in exchange. In this situation, we have a sender/receiver that receives a feedback message from another sender/receiver, and so communication may also be defining as a process of building meaning. From this perspective, sender and receiver can no longer be differentiated. They are both equally actors in the same process.
3. THREE THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES ON COMMUNICATION
Within the Shannon-Weaver Model, there are eight key elements that are required for communication, or information transmission, to occur. These elements are: source, encoder, message, channel, decoder, receiver, noise and feedback.
Communication can also be seen from social perspective, where people engage in a process of building meaning is reached through active interaction and dialogue.
Building meaning
Actor/Actor
Interaction-Structure
Rational
Calculate Optimize
Contract Rational mimicry (Agreement)
Core Problem
channel Coding
Feedback, Action, Meaning, Context, Conventions environment consensus
Communication Genre theory
Superposition theory (“Millefeuille” effect)
Speech acts
Media Synchronicity Theory
Agency Theory
Theory of Games
Network effect
Technology acceptance Model
Managers spend a significant amount of their time in meetings. The use of electronic communication (email, collaborative tools, videoconferencing, etc.) is increasing in many companies. Researchers studied the effects of substitution in relation to electronic communication, especially between face to face meetings and email. Their results suggest that the substitution effect is weak; the superposition theory called millefeuille effect, is the rule [23].
Table 1 – Types of Communication Theories Framework Exchanging
Drawing on rhetorical theory and structuring, Orlikowski and Yates [25] propose genres of organizational communication as a useful concept for studying communication as embedded in social processes rather than as the result of isolated rational actions. Genres (e.g., the memo, the proposal, and the meeting) are typified communicative actions, characterized by similar substance and form, and taken in response to recurrent situations. This theory has already been applied in the studies of a broad range of problems including organizational document management [18], and local government portals [32].
Wiener coined the term "cybernetics" to elaborate on the existing theory on the transmission of messages by incorporating his idea that people send messages within a system in response to their environments [38].
Transmitting
Media richness theory
Media richness theory, sometimes referred to as information richness theory, is a framework used to describe a communication medium in terms of its ability to reproduce the information sent over it. Developed by Daft and Lengel [10],[11], [12], it is used to rank and evaluate the richness of certain communication mediums, such as phone calls, video conferencing, and email.
From this definition we may identify three theoretical perspectives on communication: communication as transmission, as a process of building meaning, and as exchange.
Relationship Sender and receiver
Speech act is a concept that was coined in linguistics and the philosophy of language [29]. This concept is related to illocutionary acts [5]. Searle [29] has set up the following classification of illocutionary speech acts: assertives, directives, commissives, expressives and declarations. Speech acts are commonly taken to include such acts as promising, ordering, greeting, warning, inviting and congratulating [29]. This approach has been especially useful for studying organizational 16
Those approaches were intended to facilitate understanding of the diffusion of technologies (especially software systems) in organizations and society. This is why they are related to diffusion theories [27].
systems [4] and also in the context of workflow analysis and development [21].Those theories may also be useful, not only to choose between several media, but also to support the design process. Media Synchronicity Theory (MST) [15] looks beyond Daft & Lengel’s media richness to media synchronicity as a predictor of communication performance. Synchronicity is defined as a “state in which individuals are working together at the same time with a common focus.” MST focuses on the ability of a media to support synchronicity. It posits that communication will be enhanced when the synchronicity a given medium can support appropriately matches the synchronicity that a communication process requires.
5. BRIEF SURVAY FROM SIDGOC PAPERS In the following table, we show some of the theories presented at SIGDOC conferences and workshops. Theories and Authors/papers
In economics, the principal-agent problem treats the difficulties that arise under conditions of incomplete and asymmetric information when a principal hires an agent. [2] Various mechanisms may be used in order to align the interests of the agent with those of the principal, such as piece rates/commissions, profit sharing, efficiency wages, the agent posting a bond, or fear of firing. The principal-agent problem is found in most employer/employee relationships, for example, when stockholders hire top executives for corporations. [2],[16]
Theory
SIGDOC event
Theory of media synchronicity
SIGDOC 2007 [36]
Speech acts
SIGDOC 2003 [24]
Media richness theory
SIGDOC 2000 [17]
Communication Genre Theory
SIGDOC 2004 [31] SIGDOC 2006 [7] SIGDOC 2007 [32]
The theory of games was created by John Neumann and Oskar Morgenstern [37]. It attempts to determine, mathematically and logically, the actions that “players” should take to secure the best outcomes for themselves in a wide array of “games”. The concept network effect may be called network externality. A network effect is the consequence of a situation where the utility that a user derives from consumption of the good increases with the number of other agents consuming the good. [19] In other words, the utility that a given user derives from a good depends upon the number of other users who are in the same network. [19] Katz and Shapiro, however, draw a distinction between direct and indirect network externalities. Direct network effects are generated "through a direct physical effect of the number of purchasers on the quality of the product," as in the attachment of homes to a telephone network [20]. Indirect network effects, on the other hand, involve instances in which there is no direct physical effect. For example, software may have more functions and may become less expensive as the number of users increases. [20]
Game Theory
OSDOC 2011 [8].
Technology acceptance model
SIGDOC 2009 [9] OSDOC 2011 [28]
A general review allowed us to identify some of the communication theories that are widely used in the context of design of communication field. This is the case for Communication Genre Theory. TAM is also widely used. User acceptance of technology is an important field of study. In the design of communication field, this is no exception. Although many models have been proposed to explain and predict the use of a system, the TAM has been the one which has captured the most attention in the Information Systems community. Other authors support their research in specific areas, for example, learning theory [22].
The Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) is a model that explains and predicts system usage according to perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use. TAM is an adaptation of the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) [1]. to fit the needs of the field of information systems. It can have several versions (TAM1[13],[14], TAM2 [34] and TAM3 [33]) and can derive many theories and models (e.g. UTAUT [35]). UTAUT (Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology) is a theory that was developed through a review and consolidation of constructs derived from eight models that have been employed to explain information systems usage behavior: theory of reasoned action, technology acceptance model, motivational model, theory of planned behavior, a combined theory of planned behavior/technology acceptance model, model of PC utilization, innovation diffusion theory, and social cognitive theory
On the other hand, we found that some theories may still play an important role in helping to analyze and create tools, artifacts, and platforms for communication.
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6.
[10] Daft, R. L., & Lengel, R. H.(1984) “Information Richness: A New Approach to Managerial Behavior and Organizational Design,” in Research in Organizational Behavior, L. L. Cummings and B. M. Staw (eds.), JAI Press, Homewood, IL, 1984, pp. 191-233.
CONCLUSIONS
The main purpose of the work presented in this paper is to identify the main communication theories and to analyze which have been employed in the context of the design of communication. We started by grouping communication theories into three theoretical perspectives. We then presented several theories, also identifying several of their applications in the field of information technologies. We have also listed some of the authors that are using those theories in the context of the design of communication. In order to perform this task, we preformed a summarized document analysis of the papers presented at the SIGDOC conferences and workshops. A general review allowed us to identify some of the communication theories that are widely used in the design of communication field. At the same time, we found that some theories may still play an important role in helping to analyze and create tools, artifacts and platforms for communication.
7.
[11] Daft, R. L., & Lengel, R. H. (1986) “Organizational Information Requirements, Media Richness and Structural Design,” Management Science (32:5), 1986, pp. 554-571. [12] Daft, R. L., Lengel, R. H., & Trevino, L. K. (1987) “Message Equivocality, Media Selection, and Manager Performance: Implications for Information Systems,” MIS Quarterly (11:3), 1987, pp. 355-366. [13] Davis, F. (1989) "Perceived Usefulness, Perceived Ease of Use, and User Acceptance of Information Technology," MIS Quarterly, vol. 13, no. 3, pp. 319--340, 1989. [14] Davis, F. D., Bagozzi, R. P., and Warshaw, P. R. (1989)"User Acceptance of Computer Technology: A Comparison of Two Theoretical Models," Management Science, 35,pp. 982-1003. [15] Dennis, A. R., & Valacich, J. S. (1999) “Rethinking Media Richness: Towards a Theory of Media Synchronicity,” in Proceedings of the 32nd Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, Los Alamitos, CA: IEEE Computer Society Press, Volume 1.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This study was partially supported by FCT.
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