Designed Objects

VOLUME 6 ISSUE 4

The International Journal of

Designed Objects __________________________________________________________________________

Sustainable Amphibian Ambulances for Rural People in Specific Context DIPANKA BORUAH AND AMARENDRA KUMAR DAS

designprinciplesandpractices.com

THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF DESIGNED OBJECTS www.designprinciplesandpractices.com First published in 2013 in Champaign, Illinois, USA by Common Ground Publishing LLC www.commongroundpublishing.com ISSN: 2325-1379 © 2013 (individual papers), the author(s) © 2013 (selection and editorial matter) Common Ground All rights reserved. Apart from fair dealing for the purposes of study, research, criticism or review as permitted under the applicable copyright legislation, no part of this work may be reproduced by any process without written permission from the publisher. For permissions and other inquiries, please contact [email protected]. The International Journal of Designed Objects is peer-reviewed, supported by rigorous processes of criterionreferenced article ranking and qualitative commentary, ensuring that only intellectual work of the greatest substance and highest significance is published.

Sustainable Amphibian Ambulances for Rural People in Specific Context Dipanka Boruah, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, India Amarendra Kumar Das, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, India Abstract: Designing for the underprivileged section of the society is one of the basic requirements for inclusive design in a developing country like India. With a spurt in development in the country, the gap between the haves and the haves not are increasing and this disparity is creating social unrest in the country. Designing in this context is being propagated in design schools but may not be always attractive for the young designers to inculcate this value since the remuneration for this type of design is not very attractive. A case in hand is rural health service in rural areas of India; the government has launched National Rural Health Mission (NRHM) to make health services available to the rural population. But many places in North Eastern India are totally inaccessible by road. Thus the issue remained in spite of expanding rural road networks under Pradhan Mantir Gram Swarak Yojana (Prime Minister’ Rural Road Plan). This problem is specifically prominent in Assam, where the remote rural areas have not been linked with convenient transportation for road communication. Despite rapid urbanization vast portions of the population of Assam inhabit the remote rural areas, and out of this population, 2.5 million people live in the riverine island (popularly known as char- chapari areas in the local language). These riverine islands and many other areas are affected by the floods in monsoons created by the river Brahmaputra and its tributaries. As a result, the health services of the people living in these areas are badly affected. Although the government has introduced a boat clinic, people cannot reach these in emergencies, since patients cannot be carried by road to these. The most common practice is that a patient is wrapped up with clothes. The practice followed is wrapping up a patient particularly from the remote rural and in given to be carried by a strong person to the health centres. On several occasions, they are transported in a hand cart. Even in this case, where there are small bodies of water, without a bridge it becomes impossible to cross these and hence patients, in many cases, never reach the health centers in time. In light of this, the present study has been carried out. The scope of the research work is to provide the emergency medical transportation services to marginalized people of the society in rural areas. It is an attempt towards developing the current practice for meeting the local transportation needs of the poor population of a remote area. The solution of this type of problem can lead to a better health care system for the rural area and can stop migration of the rural population to urban and semi urban areas, in search of livelihood and better opportunities. Keywords: Rural Ambulance, Sustainable Development, Medical, Transportation Device

Introduction

T

he sustainable socio-technical development of rural infrastructure, productive sectors, social and economic services, an appropriate techno-economy based framework, and good governance and local ownership, is required for rural poverty alleviation. India has the distinction of having the largest technical and scientific man power in the world. Indian engineering and technology is recognized globally as one of the best. The technological transfer to India from abroad has led to design transfer as well, resulting in low indigenous development in design abilities. Majority of the people of India are very poor. There are 300 million people in India who earn less than INR 80/day. Development and deployment of technologies specifically designed for the approximately 70% rural population can improve their lifestyles and livelihoods. Most of the technological efforts providing basic facility to rural areas have been based on a “jugad” approach, meaning a small adjustment and using low or appropriate technology. In context of Assam, there are 2251 villages in char areas in which there are only 52 Primary Health Centre (PHC) s & 135 Sub Centre (SC) s the numbers not sufficient to cover the entire population (http://www.nrhmassam.in). Due to flood problems it is difficult to construct permanent infrastructure in these areas, and people such areas have to shift their abodes frequently. Presently health care services to the people of the char areas (riverine) and health camps sites are selected, but prior to that a work plan is developed by the C- NES (figure 1). The International Journal of Designed Objects Volume 6, 2013, www.designprinciplesandpractices.com, ISSN 2325-1379 © Common Ground, Dipanka Boruah, Amarendra Kumar Das, All Rights Reserved Permissions: [email protected]

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Figure 1: Medical Service Delivery Boat Clinic under NRHM Source: NRHM, Performance of Boat Clinic, www.nrhmassam.in 2011- 12. In contrast to high-tech innovation and development, it is considered that intermediate (Schumacher, 1973) (or appropriate) technologies may be considered effective. Appropriate technology is small scale, energy efficient, low-cost, radical, environmentally sound, labor intensive, and controlled by the local rural community. As Schumacher described it: Such an intermediate technology would be immensely more productive than the indigenous technology…but it would be immensely cheaper than the sophisticated, highly capital intensive technology of modern industry (Schumacher, 1973). Appropriate technology has been initiated as a solution for rural development; it has also gained support as a direction for sustainable technologies. However, it has often been identified as “cheap” (or “second hand”), which is carried in modernization by technological innovation (Philip J. Vergrapt). In India, around 70% of the population is rural population based on agriculture.

Figure 2: Scenario Shows Man and Vehicles Are Carried on Double Boat (left) & of Road Condition (right) Source: Boruah, 2011. Agriculture based rural economy provides for seasonal employment to the rural worker. Low investment based transportation design and technology is also envisaged a potential area for successful utilization of local skill. Smaller scale appropriate technology and design for the rural sector can help in bringing out product to satisfy and social needs of our population. Needs of the rural population can be well taken care through medical transportation facility which is of utmost

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BORUAH AND DAS: SUSTAINABLE AMPHIBIAN AMBULANCES FOR RURAL PEOPLE

necessity to local needs. Enhancing medical transportation would increase the grass-root innovation of the technology in global level.

Figure 3: Scenario of Flood Situation (left) & Villagers Move in Banana Rafts To Collect Drinking Water (right) in North East India Source: Boruah, 2011.

Analogy of Nature in Terms of Species “Amphibian” and Rural People Ducks have webbed feet, which act like paddles. A duck waddles instead of walking because of its webbed feet. Ducks' feathers are waterproof. There is a special gland that produces oil near the tail that spreads and covers the outer coat of feathers. Why? Because they have evolved to survive in the nature by adaptation.

Figure 4: Basic Concept and Transformation of Duck Forms of the Ambulance Source: Boruah, 2011.

Human Powered Vehicle (HPV): Local Issues Relevance The local issues of meeting transportation needs of vast population that cannot be afforded by a personal vehicle and also due to the fact that many lanes and streets in several part are narrow to accommodate cars and buses, again, it is a fact that all lanes and streets cannot connect directly with public transportation system for which there is always a need for a feeder system for the mass transportation system. Tricycle rickshaw, trick can fulfil this need. As normally thought of tricycle rickshaw and trick are two fundamentally different products; rickshaw is generally pulled 2 wheelers and tricycle rickshaw is with 3 wheels foot pedalling ones. The mode of intermediate transportation evolves rural transport for domestic tasks, including the movement of water, fuel and food, saves time and energy, particularly for women and children (Paul Starkey, 2005). The time and energy saved can improve the productivity and 9


quality of life of rural households. Intermediate means of transport (bicycle, motorcycle, animal drawn carts, pack and riding animals) can help local transport solutions for trade, productive work, connecting health centers and other social and economic facilities. Currently available manually propelled bicycle/ tricycle can be classified based on user and use as: I. Kid’s Tricycle: small tricycles with pedals directly turning the front wheel are used by children who have not learned to balance a bicycle. II. Transportation tricycles: for the passengers and goods like tricycle rickshaw. III. Disabled persons Tricycle: specifically for lower limb disabled. IV. Recumbent Tricycle: for adult. V. Tandem Bicycle: two or more persons put in effort into pedaling the bicycle and can be relatively easier to propel than the normal bicycle. The environmental concerns and HPV i.e. tricycle/ trike/ rickshaw are not given due to importance because of people’s perception about these mode of transport as slow moving, low grade, low tech and associated status of rickshaw as a mode of transport used by poor people (www.johost.eu, September, 2007). In comparison to motorized vehicle development, not much research in this field has been carried out to improve these modes of transportation and always it is seen as transportation system using human power. This leads to a tendency on part of the population in rural areas in developing countries to disband these vehicles. Due to slow moving nature, it is a very good mode of local transportation within residential localities of poor people in case of short distance travel.

A Holistic Approach to Rural Medical Transport A new approach to rural ambulance interventions is emerging. It requires a more holistic understanding of the mobility and access needs of the rural communities than has traditionally been the case in rural roads. It is a demand-led (or people-centered), approach with an emphasis on the needs expressed by affected rural people of riverine areas. In this context, rural medical transport is more broadly seen as an input into successful rural livelihood strategies. The approach acknowledges that intervention may be required in all three categories (figure 5).

Figure 5: Elements of Rural Transport Source: Jerry Lebo, Dieter Schelling, 1998. Considering the prevalence of tricycle rickshaw across India, a small development in this field would serve a large population that users this modes of transportation. With this view, for experimentation in this proposed research work, human powered amphibian tricycle vehicle is advanced for consideration. Rural people’s perception (http://www.johost.eu, Sept, 2006) regarding the existing varieties of human powered vehicle is of poor quality, if seen from aesthetics, ergonomics as well as point 10


of safety of host the passenger and the rider. Experience expressed by people has inspired me to prepare a design for this kind of transportation system. The project aims at improving the sustainable access of poor people in rural areas in regards to health, education, employment and trade opportunities. The Ambulance (it’s made from local materials), is a human gurney designed to carry sick or injured people across rural terrain. Made from cheap, local resources its unique design that provides a lifeline for many people with no direct access to hospitals. I. Poor quality attributed to current practice of assembly of rural ambulance out of the factory made parts along with locally made body in Micro, Small & Medium Enterprises (MSME). II. Ergonomic aspect for patient and for the pullers. III. Tricycle rickshaw and tandem cycle existing form with duck featured boat form. IV. Points of safety associated with existing traditional vehicles in present road of village in remote areas where both the pullers and patient are fully exposed to other vehicles on the road and water.

Transport for Health Services The design has been proposed with the view that it can be viable and socially acceptable as if has been designed through appropriate technology and sustainability: To conclude, to change the rural economic situation, road condition and environmental phenomenon, there is a need to design an amphibian tricycle ambulance to change the people’s perception as well as initiate philosophical change in society’s attribute. The Ambulance has been developed to provide transport to and from local health-centers, providing communities with the means to take advantage of distant and widespread health-care resources. Ability to safely and comfortably carry one patient and an outreach medical worker, plus emergency supplies for on-site treatment, it can greatly reduce the time taken to get essential and urgent medical assistance to remote communities. Every ambulance has a special leading link front suspension system fitted as standard, improving the Ambulance’s already impressive off-road and on-road capability. In addition complete patient protection is ensured with amphibian featured additional “roof” bars and an allweather cover. Patient transfer has been improved with a novel hinged section allowing easy access to the stretchers flat platform. The main feature of the ambulance is the side-mounted stretcher, attached via metal-elastic mounts that, when combined with the sidecar's suspension, considerably makes the ride smooth over rough ground. The stretcher itself has multiple functions. When flat, a prone patient can be carried, protected by an all-weather cover. It then also converts into a suspended chair. In both positions there is storage space at the rear of the sidecar. The chair position is suitable for the walking wounded, sick and expectant mothers. Rural ambulance services are much rare or almost nonexistent in rural area. People travel for health care centres by walking and caring in whatever transport is available including buses, rural taxis, private cars, bicycles, animal-drawn carts and local stretchers (Starkey, 2005). Lack of Medical services, local communities and transporters can work together to plan an appropriate and sustainable health transporting technology. eRanger Production Company designed motorbike ambulance in emergency medical for obstetric care at the district hospital of Masselleh region, Kambia which provided an innovative, cost effective solution to the problem of emergency medical transport in remote areas (http://www.eranger.com). Present reality is that motorcycles increasingly provide affordable rural transport services. This type of transportation is complicated to use in riverine area. Three Canadian students made out of the bambulance stretcher and trailer frame are composed of 2” diameter bamboo poles, connected with uniform triangular gusset joints. Every day in Africa and developing world, thousands of people have

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been suffering from HIV/ AIDS, malaria and other serious illness because they have no access to emergency and general health care services (Boruah, 2011).

Technology Transfer to Small Enterprise: Present Status Technology transfer to small enterprise is important aspect for the developing country like India. This is also important for globalization of the economy. With increasing competition from countries all over the world, it would be essential to develop appropriate technology. However certain appropriate technology thus developed also needs to be disseminated to the industry. Dr. R. Chidambaram, Principal Scientific Advisor to the Government of India, commented (Kunnumkal and Sant, 2001-2002) in his Forward Part IV of Dictionary of Rural Technology in November 11, 2002: All of us want India to become a developed country in the fullest sense of the term in the shortest possible time. And each of has perhaps a different definition of a ‘developed country’. My definition is: “when the quality of life in our rural areas becomes comparable to that in the non-urban areas of already developed countries”

Technical Attributes for Satisfying the Amphibian Ambulance Design Development in Brief for the Amphibian Ambulance To incorporate the various features in the design, the following product brief and work is initiated to provide an appropriate and aesthetically appealing bio mimicry form with amphibian characteristics that does not make the patient feel about his/ her illness and use the tricycle ambulance with dignity. It is also undertaken to: I. Fulfil the relevant ergonomics aspect. II. Provided easy manoeuvrability, keeping up to the present day transportation needs. III. Protected the user from elements of nature by providing an overhead structure and IV. Provided access so that the patient, attendant and rider can get in and out the ambulance easily. V. Design an ambulance that can be manufactured by using the modern appropriate technologies and materials through small enterprises incorporating various customized feature. The above aim led to the concept that was tested initially for its feasibility with the aspect of buoyancy principle and aerodynamic principle. A small boat with Catamaran type hull supported with 3 wheels added like a tricycle rickshaw is conceived and designed to enable it to travel over land and water. It can travel over the road and through the water with comfort and grace. The driving mechanism from foot pedalling is similar to a common form of tandem tricycle for able bodied user for self-travel and the stretcher placed between rider and attendant. Transitions from land to water and back are accomplished smoothly and seamlessly without leaving the seat. On the road it is stable and secure. On water it is tractable and relaxing. This human powered vehicle appeals to bicycle enthusiasts as well as wooden boat fans fabricated using simple techniques, common tools and readily available materials. Based on the product brief of design of ambulance for rural people, concept was generated to utilize a basic 3D form to provide necessary strength to the structure. The other major constraints considered for design of the ambulance concept was as under: I. Component already available from commercial bicycle industry and timbers are available in rural area is to be used to minimize capital investment required for setting up of a commercial manufacturing facility for the Ambulance and its repairing is easy by local cycle repairing shops.

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II.

Component and subsystem from existing bicycle; tricycle industry will be out sourced also to facilitate easy maintenance and availability of soared parts.

Figure 6: Basic Concept of the Ambulance Source: Boruah, 2011. The initial 3 phases in morphology of design namely feasibility study, preliminary design and detailed design covered particularly in the area of industrial design. Feasibility study conducted in Guwahati and different localities of North-Eastern region of India. This was presuming that the original need does indeed have current existence or strong evidence of latent existence, the first step in the feasibility study demonstrated this need to be valid. In the second step the design problem generated by the established need was explored to identify its various elements such as parameters, constraints, and major design criteria. In the third step, a number of feasibility solutions to the problem were done where needed. In the fourth step, the potentially used solutions were sorted out from the feasibility criteria as resulted in three steps on the basis of physical realisability, economic worthwhileness, seaworthiness and financial feasibility. The completed feasibility study finally indicated that a current and a potential need exist. It also helped to formulate the design problem and possibility that of useful solutions can be found. Thus this study fully investigates the feasibility of the proposed research project for practical implementation. For generating alternative designs from which the best can be selected, computer aided modeling is found to be very useful. The preliminary design of the ambulance was intended to establish an overall concept for the project and served as guideline for detailed design. First step is preliminary design is selection of the design concept. The most promising design concept out of the set of useful solutions developed in the feasibility study was identified on the basis of utility (Gupta and Murthy, 1980). In design the concept of utility is used. A consumer evaluates a product on a number of diverse attributes, such as cost, safety, ease of use, etc. Regarding the concepts, these were evaluated in terms of utility. In addition to basic use of carrying patient with ambulance facilities, these are also used for various other useful work of carrying passenger in rural areas and concepts having better provision to meet these needs were considered to have better utility value.

Design and Human Factors Considerations I.

Features of the ambulance should go along with relevant ergonomics criteria and strive for meeting various context specific requirements. Easy access is to be provided so that both the puller and the passenger can get in and out of the ambulance easily. During movement, sitting should be comfortable.

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II. III.

It should provide protection to rider, attendant and patient. Keeping the present day rural medical transportation system, it needs the new appropriate technology to take quick turned and amphibian featured ones. IV. It should provide proper space for user to carry fast-aid equipment. The above set objectives were met and following are the features of design for convenience in use aspects of the rural ambulance (with respect to ergonomics for rural ambulance puller and patient). I. The ambulance has easy to access to facilitate the user to get in and out of the ambulance. For the puller this has been achieved by removing the top bar of the regular diamond frame made possible as space structure. The main frame along with chassis itself was designed and fabricated using 25 mm × 50 mm tubular section. For the attendant and rider, the floor level was lowered above 280 mm from the ground level to the chassis level and this coupled with support to hold railing for getting in and out of the ambulance provided ease of access. II. The patient should be made to feel comfortable. The angle the seat and stretcher is maintained at around 100 degrees, which ergonomically is optimum angle for sleeping purpose. The size of stretcher is 1700 mm × 545 mm. III. Proper space for carrying medicine, fast-aid, water bottles and other luggage is provided. Reinforced platform for enabling it to support the structure and carrying of luggage is used. IV. Human dimension for Ergonomics seating arrangement (Chakrabarti, 1997) guided the arrangement. V. It has an aesthetically appealing form which is visually perceived light with contemporary visual identity giving it a feeling of sophistication. VI. Concrete vibrator machine provided in the ambulance to propel it through propeller at the time of water mode operation.

Figure 7: Fishing Boat on the Mekong River (left) and Diesel Fuel Powered Concrete Vibrator (right) Source: Boruah, 2011. A concept for able bodied single user with foot pedaling is developed and initial sketches are shown in figure 8.

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Figure 8: The Sketches of the Ambulance Concept Using Foot Pedal Mechanism and 5th and 95th Percentile Ergonomic Details Source: Boruah, 2011.

Virtual Design of the Ambulance Using CAD Software

Figure 9: CAD Model in Front 3 Quarter View for Functional Components Source: Boruah, 2011. Once the design of ambulance was complete, its manufacturing is to be initiated. This requires a set of new skill different from the design. These new skills are those of tool design and production engineering. Value analysis (Christopher, 1992; Chitale and Gupta, 1999) is preplanned branching strategy for designing of a product to reduce cost by finding the cheapest possible means of performing each essential function. Value analysis is also known as Value engineering. The stages involved in value analysis are: I. Identification of elements, functions, cost and values. II. Search for alternatives at lower cost. III. Selection of functionally acceptable lower cost elements. IV. Preparation of selected design. In terms of varieties and numbers of process involved, value analysis and resultant design permits to increased productivity through reduction in amount of welding required for fabrication compared to interim version since sandwich type platform was no more required and parts orientation was easier compared to circular tubular section when these sections were replaced with rectangular tubular sections. This led to lower cost of production. For the entire ambulance body, it was broken into sub frames. These are main frame and chassis, seat structures for rider

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and attendant, stretcher and three members of cross binding members with tandem cycle system. Once all sub frames are ready, these are welded together using fixtures to fabricate the main shell of ambulance. This ensures accuracy of dimension. After the shell is ready, it is sent for spray painting using automotive paints. This human-powered, tricycle based boat ambulance has been designed, built, tested and developed. The amphibian ambulance should be capable of crossing water bodies. The weight of boat without person is 200 KG and can carry 3 passengers to be entirely buoyant.

Buoyancy Calculation The sizes of hull dimensions (as per design) is 2420 mm × 560 mm × 450 mm Buoyant force (F.B) = V × v × SP of H2O Where V = volume of the hull v= % of the object submerged in water. SP of H2O= 62.4 For two hulls For 100% = 0.481m3 × c2= 0.962 m3 For 80% = (0.962/100) × 80 = 0.7696 FB = 0.7696× 0.80× 62.4= 38418.432 N

Prototyping of the Ambulance

Figure 10: Catamaran Type Hull (bottom & front view) of the Ambulance Source: Site picture of IIT Guwahati campus, 2011. Full scale tape drawing made is shown figure 11. This helped in better visualization of the design. The major constraint considered at this stage is to initially tape drawing. A functional model was carried out to experiment various factors such as form, height, width and proportion for an able bodied person. This model would be foot pedal one operated so that before putting the concept model to actual use by patient, rider, attendant and spaces for medical fast-aid equipment. This can be tested by able bodied person for various factors like appropriateness of the design, stability of Ambulance during operation of road and water in riverine area. The other constraints considered for prototyping was the selection of part from, existing tandem bicycletricycle rickshaw and stretcher of rural health care centre.

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Figure 11: Tape Drawing Using Actual Height of the Ambulance Source: Boruah, 2011.

Figure 12: Scaled Model of the Ambulance Source: Boruah, 2011. Prior to making of full type functional prototype a scaled model 1:10 was made to simulate its three dimensional form. After that a full scale functional model of the hull was initially prototype. Once the functional prototype was ready, it was extensive tested for its performance, stability, convenience, comfort etc. (figure 13).

Figure 13: Functional Prototype of the Ambulance Source: Site picture of IIT Guwahati campus, 2010. A catamaran type hull that provides stability in water is desirable due to the fact that it is not too wide or long.

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Figure 14: Hull of the Functional Prototype Being Tested for Buoyancy and Water Worthiness Source: Site picture of IIT Guwahati campus, 2010.

Conclusion: Implementing Policy and Sustainability Design development of rural ambulance if viewed from above perspective, fulfills the requirements of sustainable development. Advantage of rural ambulance is: I. It is non-polluting (air, noise pollution) mode of transportation during operation. II. Generates less pollution during its manufacture and disposal compared to fully motorized mode of transportation. III. Provides for income generation for vast unemployed youths of the country. IV. It can easily move on muddy road due to its low weight. V. It uses better transportation between remote area and hospital instead of boat and thela (hand gurney). VI. This ambulance is manufactured using fiber reinforcement glass to decrease weight. VII. It is easy to repair, maintain, easy availability of material and manpower (experts’ supervision); it makes this product appropriate to the context and sustainable. However rural ambulance and its derivatives can be the most appropriate means for local transportation in a developing country. The Institute of Transportation and Development Policy (ITDP) is one of the few organizations all over the world associated with the tricycle rickshaw development specifically in the developing world (www.itdp.com, July, 2006). In view of it the universal access to public health care services Govt. of Assam of North East India under National Rural Health Mission (NRHM, 2011-12) joined hands with an NGO named Center for North East Studies and Policy Research (C- NES) under Public Private Partnership (PPP) as it is presently providing preventive and primitive services in the riverine areas. Having identified Rural Assam as a suitable location for the project, the intent of the Department of Design, IIT Guwahati intends to work to set up a small facility for manufacture of the ambulances.

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REFERENCES Boruah, Dipanka. Dola: Concept Rural Ambulance- M. Des thesis, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati: Department of Design, 2011. Print. Cardoso de Matos, Ana, Maria Luísa F.N. dos Santos and Maria Ana Bernardo. “Transport, tourism and technology in Portugal between the late 19th and early 20th centuries.” www.johost.eu. web. Sept, 2006. Chakrabarti, D. Indian Anthropometric Dimensions for Ergonomic Design Practice, Ahmedabad: National Institute of Design, 1997. Print. Chidambaram, R. Directory of Rural Technologies, Hyderabad: National Institute of Rural Development, 2002. Print. Chitale, A.K. and Gupta R. C. Product Design and Manufacturing, New Delhi: Prentice- Hall of India, 1999. Christopher J.J. Design Methods, New York: John Wiley & Sons Inc, Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1992. Print Crossley, C. P. Rural Road Characteristics and Vehicle Operating Costs in Developing Countries, Journal of Terramechanics, Vol. 18, No. 4, pp. 209-228, 1981. Das, A.K. Design Development of an Indigenous Tricycle Rickshaw- PhD thesis, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati: Department of Design, 2007. Print. Delicado, Ana. “Journal of History Science and Technology”. University of Lisbon: Institute of Social Science(ISC), www.johost.eu. web. Sept, 2007. eRanger. “Motorcycle Ambulances in Malawi Reduce Maternal Mortality”. http://www.eranger.com. web. January, 2008 Gupta, V, and Murthy P. N. An Introduction to Engineering Design Method, New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Company, 1980. Print. Institute of Transportation and Development policy (ITDP) “Rickshaws in The Millennium.” www.itdp.com. web. July, 2006. Jerry, Lebo and Schelling, Dieter. Design and Appraisal of Rural Transport Infrastructure: Ensuring Basic Access for Rural Communities, World bank technical paper no. 496, pp. 6, 1998. Kunnumkal M. C., and Sant B. R., Directory of Rural Technologies, Hyderabad: National Institute of Rural Development, Vol. 1-4, 2001-2002. Print. Mille, Clark, Sarewitz, Daniel and Andrew. Light, Science, Technology, and Sustainability: Building a Research Agenda, National Science Foundation Supported Workshop, Sept. 8-9, 2008. NRHM: National Rural Health Mission. “Performance of Boat Clinic.” www.nrhmassam.in. web. 2011-12 Vergrapt. Philip J., Hos Technology Could Contribute to a Sustainable World, GTI paper series, Tell us Institute, Arlagton Street, Boston, 2005. Schumacher, E. F. Small is beautiful: Economics as if people mattered. New York: Harper &Row, 1973 Starkey, Paul. Towards safe, clean and affordable rural transport: present realities and recent trends, Consultant in Rural Transport, Animal Traction Development and University of reading, ITC, 2005

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ABOUT THE AUTHORS Dipanka Boruah: I received a degree in Architecture from MIET Gondia, Maharashtra in 2008 and my Masters in Design from the Department of Design, at IIT Guwahati in 2011. I am now a research scholar and teaching assistant in the Department of Design, at IIT Guwahati. My PhD research topic is Concept to Market of Innovator’s Product: Contextual Design Transfer through Appropriate Technology. I am interested in turning innovations into marketable products. Dr. Amarendra Kumar Das: He is currently working as a Professor in the Department of Design, IIT Guwahati. During his teaching and professional life, he produced designers, engineers and entrepreneurs. ‘Dipbahan’ is an indigenous tricycle rickshaw designed and developed by him for low-income groups. It is undergoing mass production and marketing in Bangladesh, Bhutan and Germany as well. Cow dung gas energy, a handloom- weaving machine, and an energy-efficient fish production tank are innovations created by professor A. K. Das. He is interested in appropriating design and technology through contextual design to Small, Medium sized Enterprises (SMEs). Industrial Design, Rapid Prototyping and Tooling, Space Design, Facility Design, Environmental Graphics, and Design for Disabled.

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The International Journal of Designed Objects is one of six thematically focused journals in the collection of journals that support the Design Principles and Practices knowledge community—its journals, book series, conference and online community. The journal examines the nature and form of the objects of design, including industrial design, fashion, interior design, and other design practices. As well as papers of a traditional scholarly type, this journal invites presentations of practice—including documentation of designed objects together with exegeses analyzing design purposes, purposes and effects. The International Journal of Designed Objects is a peerreviewed scholarly journal.

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